oe = A.60.
REPORT
|
|. SIXTY-FIRST MEETING
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
CARDIFF IN AUGUST 1891.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1892.
OFFICE OF THE ASSOCIATION: BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, w.
=
_
wRtSHD fe
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON
a seen ee :
~~
-
CONTENTS.
ee
Page
Ossxors and Rules of the Association ........ Fipkan deans bsunsevitaaaiiaenned XXIV
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............065 XXXIV
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
ABENCOMONE vis..cs-0.veeuss dest ccna ennned Res cahe sinc tusanmanietdeieaaacteauatitoams xliii
List of Evening Lectures...........0..0..005 Dac aiNhcarmwiiesamternt Shon sesnono se. Ix
Lectures to the Operative Olasses ........... Rey snetenecaninenmceree eancecctaeitee Ixiii
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Cardiff Meeting............... Lxiv
MEBASUEL'S A CCOUME ).csesscecseccovsenenesveues Seu eRaet snisdiate ac meaemals dusts Nery ee eke
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ....... Ixviii
Officers and Council, 1891-92 seveceeeeeeneeteetes wera cree padteamds vet eree wey li
Report of the Council to the General Committee ..... 3 sate ioe ta tasusslawueie dy lxxi
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Cardiff Meeting
PASM LOOT dies buess rah. ooeinans tnkertssasceattoinusweetaws dpe ian ccmaten ‘torte Ixxvi
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee ...........c. cece Ixxxiv
Resolutions referred to the Council ‘for consideration, and action if
© Mesirable .....ceseeseceseeeeessesseseeseeenstenseeseseesneesseseeeesees ehwoucentebioaied Ixxxiv
; Synopsis of Grants of Money ...........0.000. SECC ODt EEE DOHC AR Ce ce ee ont icone Ixxxv
Y Places of Meoting in L802 ‘and 1808) v..cvsclsccacaseavenses checsdsestecceasseussees Ixxxyi
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
Pe cleniaiie PBT POROSis. Ui sacs desedsewodesverccevevedsasceestedeodess tisaivet Ixxxvii
General Meetings ..... ntaees ic soo See Fegeneirenns Rat ocrnant Rdeeuecagavarcensccs c
Address by the President, Witt1am Hvueatns, Esa,, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D.,
MMC Mtl. Oy, FAOTAE, Baty liip iC), ssrnonsrssnonesossinnnonn nana en eee 3
A2
iv CONTENTS.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Page
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr, FRaNcIs
Gatton (Chairman), Professor A. W. Witttamson, Sir Dovetas GaLTon,
Professor Boyp Dawxrns, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
Joun Evans, Mr. J. Hopxrnson, Professor R. Mutpora (Secretary), Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W. Wauitaxer, Mr.G. J. Symons, General Prrt-
IRERVMRS WAN GM MGT VV MROPIEN ccc cinvocscesscaisnpiecccusveseseueeave iisseso rea eae
Report of a Committee, consisting of Messrs. J. Larmor and G. H. Bryan,
appointed to draw up a Report on the present state of our knowledge of
Thermodynamics, specially with regard to the Second Law ...........2000+ :
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors FirzeERALp (Chair-
man), ARMsTRoNG, and UO. J. Lonen (Secretaries), Sir WILLIAM THomsON,
Lord Raytricu, J. J. Tomson, Scuustser, Poyntine, Crum Brown,
Ramsay, FRANKLAND, Titpen, Harriey, 8. P. THompson, McLexop,
Rozgerts-Avsten, Rtcker, Rerno~p, Carny Foster, and H. B, Drxon,
Captain Anpyery, Drs. Grapstonn, Hopxrnson, and Fiemine, and Messrs.
Crooxrs, SuetrorD Brpwe tt, W. N. Suaw, J. Larmor, J. T. Borromnery,
R. T. Grazesrook, J. Brown, and Joan M. Tuomson, appointed for the
ee of considering the subject of Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical
BHO A Me avterencasseesnincinm bre savessssaivsseaeecseceseuga'eants noe ananad anette PPL IO
Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Wintram THomson, Mr.
R. Ernerines, Professor Joun Prrry, Dr. Henry Woopwarp, Professor
THomAs Gray, and Professor Joun Mitne (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan. (Drawn up by the Secretary)........ aisle cino'e/ain'a eleie da O00 a
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord Rayizuren, Sir WimLIAM
THomson, Professor Caytny, Professor B. Price, Dr, J. W. L. GuaisHEr
Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor W. M: Hicks, and Professor A.
Loner (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of calculating Tables of cer-
tain Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, of taking steps to carry out
the Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairm
Professor R. Mztpota, Mr. J. Hopxryson, and Mr. A, wv Ore
( Secretary), appointed to consider the application of Photography to the
Elucidation of Meteorological Phenomena. (Drawn up by the Secretary)
ae eo of the fore oes of Professor O. J, Lonex, Professor CAREY
ostmR, and Mr. A. P. CHarrock (Secretary), appointed to i i
Discharge of Electricity from Points ee ee
CoO e ener eee etecrecesnnesreeeessces teen wncoee
Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord McLaren (Chair an), Prof
Crum Brown (Secretary), Mr. Mitnz-Homr, Dr. ae es
Bucuan, and the Hon. Rapa ABERcromBy, appointed for the purpose of
co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society j i =
logical Observations on Ben Nevis Se
eee
Third (Interim) Report of the Committee, consisti
5 sting of Professor F1rz@BRALD,
Dr. Joun Hopkinson, Mr. R. A. Haprietp, Mr. Trovron, Professor
Sie Cane Mr. H. F, aE Niece and Professor Barrerr (Secretary),
rious Phenomena connected with the R ints i
i Metis. ecalescent Points in [ron
POOP Peete eee eeeeenene
4]
85
122
123
130
139
140
CONTENTS.
Second (Interim) Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Jonn Kure, Sir
Wituiam Txomson, Professor Ricker, and Mr. R. T. GrazeBroox (Secre-
tary), appointed to co-operate with Dr. Kerr in his researches on Electro-
PEED 60... 0.5 escecenscnscennnasnsserennemerecersensernsnransssccaeaesesscecateeenetenecnns
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Liveine, Dr. C. Prazzt
Smyru (Secretary), and Professors Dewar and ScuusTER, appointed to
co-operate with Dr. C. Prazzt Smyru in his researches on the Ultra-violet
Rays of the Solar Spectrum ........:ssecsseseneeeteeensneese esse esse teraeneneersaeeces
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Gryitrs ADAMS (Chair-
man and Secretary), Sir Witt1am THomson, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Curysra, Professor A. ScHusTER, Professor Ricker, Mr. C. H.
CarpMAEL, Commander Creax, the Astronomer Royan, Mr. WILLIAM
Ettis, and Mr. G. M. Wureete, appointed for the purpose of considering
the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations............
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Carry Foster, Sir
Wim THomson, Professor AYRTON, Professor J. Perry, Professor W.
G. Apams, Lord Rayneten, Dr. O. J. Lopar, Dr. Jonn Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Murruead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. Hersert Tayior, Professor EVERETT,
Professor ScuusteR, Dr. J. A. Fremrine, Professor G. F. Frrzanrarp,
Mr. R. T. Grazesroox (Secretary), Professor Curysrat, Mr. H. Tomuin-
son, Professor W. Garner, Professor J. J. Toomson, Mr. W. N. Saaw,
Mr. J. T. Borromtry, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the purpose of
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measure-
TCDS) aioe ence ct can dicccecccccecsscccerscsaterenscccrssscsesevacacess eeatibccasetaediesnes
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayiuy, Professor
Syrvester, Mr. A. R. Forsyru, and Professor A. Lopex (Secretary), ap-
pointed for the purpose of carrying on the Tables connected with the Pellian'
Equation from the point where the work was left by Degen in 1817 ......
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. Sroxns (Chairman),
Professor ScuusrEr, Mr. G. Jounsrone Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoxr, Captain
Asnery, Mr. Wuippte, Professor McLxop, and Mr. G. J. Symons (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of considering the best methods of recording
the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation .........:..cseeseseeeeececeneeeece reese eens
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscon, Mr. J. N. Lockyer,
Professors Drwar, Wotcorr Gisss, Liveine, Scuuster, and W. N.
Harriey, Captain Asney, and Dr. Marswarn Warts (Secretary),
appointed to prepare a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements and Compounds ..............csececececnteeeeeeceercecnceeeeeesseeenes
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor THorrn, Professor
' Hvumuet (Secretary), Dr. PerKrn, Professor RussELt, Captain ABNEY, and
Professor SrRovp, on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours. (Drawn up
Dy the Secretary) ...........cccsecesseceneecateceseeeeecseessesseeeeseaeesaeseauscgenees
Report (provisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors McLxop and
W. Ramsay and Mr. W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary), appointed to investigate
the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other
Gage Ao euintacys s Se cccea duce csevnieGnetdees et coc cehine seman Ra- lehiesh Weges « aNe tetis ah aN
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors H. McLrop (Chair-
man), Roperts-AvusTEN (Secretary), and Rervotp and Mr. H. G. Manay,
appointed for the Continuation of the Bibliography of Spectroscopy .........
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor TrtpENn and Professor
ArmstrRone (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating Isomeric
Naphthalene Derivatives. (Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG)............
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors T1tpen, McLrop,
Pickerinc, Ramsay, and Youne and Drs, A. R. Lxeeps and NicoL
147
149
162
160
160
161
263
264
264
265
vi CONTENTS.
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting on the Bibliography of
Solution Sov... 0i.2.0...... “boncbaae Scdbddhaddtome beets vontusseees soutedeanepedemnamscRauey ed
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TrnpEN and Ramsay
and Dr. Nrcot (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Properties Of Solutions .......ssscecceeeeeeesneeceeseeseceeeeeeeeeneseeseccupeseneesaees
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Roperts-AUSTEN
(Chairman), Sir F. ABEL, Messrs. E. RivEy and J. Sprinter, Professor J. W.
Lanetey, Mr. G. J. Syetus, Professor TiLpEen, and Mr. Toomas TURNER
(Secretary), appointed to consider the best method of establishing an Inter-
national Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by the
Secretary) ..... sdoscpbocenenognoQ ao, AereAEoooe “Jeeciagantod. nesde oes S7euaaueen ee aaa ies
Report (provisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors H. E, ArM-
strona and W. R. Dunstan and Messrs. C. H. BorHamiry and W. A.
SHENstonn (Secretary), appointed to investigate the direct formation of
Haloid Compounds from pure materials ...... obs dekcioatinge easieeetts tease
Provisional Report of the Committee, consisting of General Frstine, Captain
Apyey, and Professor H. E, Armsrrone (Secretary), on the Absorption
RECUR ECS COLIDDUNGS «0, ..c.5 scree saeacspasaseuadsesiansetsoedanaveneaemabamana
Nineteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Pruesrwicn, Dr.
H. W. Crossxery, Professors W. Boyp Dawxins, T. McKrnny Hveuns,
and T. G. Bonney, and Messrs. C. E. Dr Rance, W. Pencerty, J. PLant,
and Rk. H. TrppEeMAn, appointed for the purpose of recording the Position,
Height above the Sea, Lithological Characters, Size, and Orizin of the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest
connected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation.
(Drawn up by Dr, Crossxxy, Secretary)
TPO emer e ere re eer ses essere eases seeesseeesss
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chair-
man), Rey. G. F. Wurpzornz, Messrs. R. Erxerrtper, R. Krpsron, J. EB.
Marr, C. D. Sumrzorn, and A. S. Woopwarp (Secretary), for the Regis-
tration of all the Type Specimens of British Fossils ........... wees
Seventeenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. FE.
H. W. Crosskey, Sir Doveras Garton, Eee Gab ae ar
Messrs. JAMES GLAISHER, E. B. Marren, G. H. Morton, J. PARKER W.
PENGELLY, JAMES Punt, J. Presrwicu, I. Roserrs, C. Fox-SrraNGEWAYS
T. 8. Srooxn, G. J. Symons, W. Toptery, TyYLpEN-Wricut, BE. Werner.
RED, W. Wauiraker, and C. E. Dr Rance (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Circulation of Underground Waters in the
Permeable Formationsof England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character
of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Forma-
tions. (Drawn up by C, E. Dz Rance, Reporter)
Report of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. H. B
g . H. BAUERMAN, F. W. Rupimr
and J. J. H. Tratt and Dr, Jounston-Lavis, appointed for the investigation
of the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood (Drawn
up by Dr. Jonnsron-Lavis) : : ;
or nn
teeter e rece ee enseseessessesecy
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ja i
man), Dr. Temprst ANDERSON, Dr, ee Batu Me J ap ee
FORD, Professor T. G. Bonnzy, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr Jaaces WwW
Davis, Mz, WititAm Gray, Mr. Roper Kipsroy, Mr, Arruur $ Rem,
Mr. R. H. Tipppman, Mr. W. W. Watts, Mr. Horace B. Woopwarp and
Mr. Osmunn W. J EFFS (Secretary), to arrange for the collection reserva
tion, and systematic registration of Photographs of Geological a ti
the United Kingdom. (Drawn up by the Secretary) : ee
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Sywoxe Me ne, pee
(Secretary), Sir F. J. Brawwert, Mr. E. A. Cour ES Eee W Daw
win, Professor Ewine, Mr. Isaac Roserts, Mr, THoMAs Gray Dr. JOHN
7 De
299
3800
312
CONTENTS.
Vill
Page
Evans, Professors PrestwicH, Hurt, Lesour, Mpipora, and Jupp, Mr. M.
Watton Brown, and Mr. J. GLAIsHER, appointed to consider the advisa-
bility and possibility of establishing in other parts of the country Observa-
tions upon the Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar to those now being
made in Durham in connection with coal-mine explosions ............04. prone :
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chairman),
Messrs. W. D. Crick, T. G. Grorer, Wm. Hun, E. A. Watrorp, E.
Wixson, H. B. Woopwarp, and Brssy TuHompson (Secretary), to work
the very Fossiliferous Transition Bed between the Middle and Upper Lias
in Northamptonshire, in order to obtain a more clear idea of its fauna, and
to fix the position of certain species of fossil fish, and more fully investigate
the horizon on which they occur. (Drawn up:by the Secretary) ............
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. W. Davis (Chairman), Rev. E.
Jonzs (Secretary), Drs. J. Evans and J, G. Garson, and Messrs. W. PEn-
GELLY, R, H. Trppemay, and J. J. Wrrxrnson, to complete the investiga~
tion of the Cavé at Elbolton, near Skipton, in order to ascertain whether
Remains of Paleolithic Man occur in the Lower Cave Earth ...... HOO EE
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joun Evans (Chairman), Mr. B.
Harrison (Secretary), and Professors J. PResrwicH and H. G. Susiey,
appointed to carry on excavations at Oldbury Hill, near Ightham, in order
to ascertain the existence or otherwise of Rock-shelters at this spot.
Panama by. Nurs Ig ETABRINON))¢ varceceehenpe sine tgs rte gs) aj aacees <Fouqenas dense
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLowrnr (Chairman),
Mr. D. Morris (Secretary), Mr. Carruruers, Dr. Sctater, Mr. THIsELron-
Dyer, Dr. Smarr, Mr. F. Du Cann Gopman, Professor Newron, Dr.
GitntueErR, and Colonel FEILpEN, appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies
inithe(/Fauna and Flora... .....cc.eccessscecseee ALTAR TRIOS <td ed GATE at MN da SEN é
Draft of Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Frowrr (Chair-
man), Mr. D. Smarr (Secretary), Dr. Buanrorp, Dr. Hickson, Professor
NeEwron, Professor Rizey, Mr. O, Satvry, and Dr. Sctarrr, appointed to
report on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology of the Sand-
“ea Islands, and to take steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the
AUNA». 620,06. Le Uihgd saat le MO. doit see Bea tmek cast Staa Jett pacenbenoce thane ia
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Fostmr, Professor
Bayxty Batrour, Mr. Taiserron-Dysr, Dr. Trrwen, Professor MarsHsLL
Warp, Mr. Carrutuers, Professor Hartoe, Mr. WALTER GARDINER, and
Professor Bowrr (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of taking steps for
the establishment of a Botanical Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon .........
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. W. Writs (Chairman),
Mr. E. W. Banerr, Mr. G. CLraripen Drucs, and Professor HiILLHovsn,
for the purpose of collecting information as to the Disappearance of Native
Plants from their Local Habitats. (Drawn up by Professor Hi1i~Hovss,
RIGELCUARY)) \'ssalesict ita Seicee 20s Misecee te BOs Reeves Anat ahd etiods sok dae dalclupde a nsebe 8 '
Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor Newton, Mr. JoHn CorpEAuxX
(Secretary), Messrs. Jounw A. Harvizr-Brown, R. M. Barrineron, W..
EAGLE CrarkE, and the Rey. E, P. Kyusrey, appointed at Leeds to make
a digest of the observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
Light-vessels, which have been carried on by the Migration Committee of
the British Association, and to report on the same at Cardiff ...........-...66
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FirowmR (Chairman), Pro-
fessor M. Fostrr, Professor Ray LANKESTER, Professor VINES, and Mv. S. F.
Harmer (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupa-
304
oe
3
dL.
7
358
co
Qe
‘wiii CONTENTS.
: _ Page
tion of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
MAITEENG IIL ettis < sfiste eeie 04 sais as vs'e sohciswsse.e /cuiiw es wecocle s ob ase pines oWeuRNe Nes emeR aM ERaReRe 364
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scrarer, Professor Ray
LanxkesteR, Professor Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Fosrpr, Mr. A.
Srpewick, Professor A. M. Marswatt, and Mr. Percy Stapen (Secre-
tary), nominated for the purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table
aiahesZoolomical tation dt INAples .......cc0..csnesseesevsscendeccanctanspinssetenees 365
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Happon, Professor
W. A. Hurpman, and Mr. W. E. Horre (Secretary), appointed for im-
proving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net, for opening and
RL RIM a AG OL EW ALOT MRO rc dares ccncsl says) swiec'sooe uss sie vented» dom saencQaaeneeeeeeReeee 382
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapstons (Chairman),
Professor H. E. Armstrone (Secretary), Mr. S. Bourne, Dr. Crosskpy,
Mr. G. Guapstonn, Mr. J. Huywoop, Sir Joun Luzzock, Sir Puinip
Maenvs, Professor N. Srory Masketyns, Sir H. E. Roscon, Sir R. Tempe,
and Professor S. P. THompson, appointed for the purpose of continuing the
inquiries relating to the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ......... 383°
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. N. Dovenass, Professor
OsBoRNE Rernotps, Professor W. C. Unwin, and Messrs. W. Torxpy,
E. LEADER Witttams, W. Suetrorp, G. F. Deacon, A. R. Hunt, W. H.
Wueecer, W. Anperson, and H. Bamrorp, appointed to investigate the
Action of Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by
Pate massa OE RTI rMTOTOIS Seco. cls 6's sa ssieds év-nss onles vonseice ses cek ene 386
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLowER (Chairman), Dr.
Garson (Secretary), Dr. Brppox, General Prrt-Rrvers, Mr. Francts
+aLToN, and Dr. K. B. Tyror, appointed for the purpose of editing a new
Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ ..............esscesessececeseeee 404
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FrowEr (Chairman), Dr.
Garson (Secretary), Mr. Broxam, and Dr. WriBErroRce Suir, for the
purpose of carrying on the work of the Anthropometric Laboratory ......... 405
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tyzor, Mr. G. W.
Broxam, Sir Danret Wrison, Dr. G. M. Dawson, and Mr. R. G.
HALIBURTON, appointed to investigate the physical characters, languages,
and industrial and social condition of the North-Western Tribes of the
Dominion of Canada ......... dlv aise s 8aseie\c\sna'ddjo nuis¢s''detpa sane ooeicha segs te eae 407
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Jonn Luznock, Dr. Joun
Hivans, Professor W. Born Dawxrs, Dr. R. Munro, Mr. W. Pencutty, Dr.
Henry Hicks, Professor Menpora, Dr. MorrueapD, and Mr. James W.
Davis, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining and recording the localities
in the British Islands in which evidences of the existence ‘of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found. (Drawn up by Mr. Jamus W, Davis) 449
Fourth and Final Report of the Committee, consisting of the Hon. RALPH
ABERCROMBY, Dr. A. Buowan, Mr. J. Y. Bucuanan, Mr. J. Writs Bunp
Professor Curystat, Mr. D, CUNNINGHAM, Professor Firz@Eratp, Dr. H. R.
Mitt (Secretary), Dr. Jomn Murray (Chairman), Mr, Isaac Roperts
r. H. O. Sory, and the Rey. ©. J. STEWARD, appointed to arrange an in-
vestigation of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and
Estuaries in various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operation with the
local societies represented on the Association, (Drawn up by Dr. H.R
Tih gba lho Sa Sa De
On_the Capture of Comets by Planets, especiall ir © i
Pc A Sa especially their Capture by Jupiter.
The Recent Progress of Agriculture in India. By C. L. Turrmr ....... eivveinde 532
Le)
CONTENTS. ix
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section AA—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
. Page
Address by Professor Ot1vER J. Lona, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the
SP GHI | codoceec on cocpbbragsendecuouec cdadegtocbssocseeubdepehdenuagn ceickogd caceCuBsCeCe 547
1. Interim Report of the Committee on Phenomena connected with
Peep CBO CREO han cated aval Gviencs na8 case vocn -aceestgseesoctecs 1atens cess ss Est smeciadienicr « 557
2. On the Action of a Planet upon small Bodies passing near the Planet,
with special reference to the Action of Jupiter upon such Bodies. By
ESTES SOM ET, TAG NG WVLON cee betebeatotdi-ns doesuhhite sev olen -Rewieeiesen deageasrbie.uae= 587
. On the Absorption of Heat in the Solar Atmosphere. By W. EH. Witson,
MIE AS WAS che Muasl f. sodas acts pated dancieucnessushiv cess 557
The Ultra-Violet Spectrum of the Solar Prominences. By Professor
Grorer E. Hatz, Director of the Kenwood Physical Observatory,
LING EO. _canasndepboos ede sdao secs ene no sand Sobbocborecnnbics «des coe BenS scp 7OSRctREH enc 557
. Report on Researches relative to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
eyelrrdl) ARMOR NG Gr bl ORVANGcccasreseucces sicandetnsescteesssenastoscnses 558
. Note on a Simple Mechanical Representation of Carnot’s Reversible
Cycle. By G. H. Bryan ............ Soo ach casactniogdé co aepee a noace Dac UGH cea Osan 558
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
. Interim Report of the Committee on Researches in Electro-optics ......... 508
. Note on the Electromagnetic Theory of the Rotation of the Plane of
Polarised Light. By Professor A. Gray, M.A., F.R.S.E. ......e 558
. On an Experiment on the Velocity of Light in the neighbourhood of
rapidly-moving Matter. By Professor OLiver J. Lopes, F.R.S. ......... 560
. The Action of Electrical Radiators, with a Mechanical Analogy. By
BBE NCES NE Ree ote oa a arene dots vc weaned tee meee saeco red ncoatreatiaces 560
. On the Measurement of Stationary Hertzian Oscillations along Wires, and
the Damping of Electric Waves. By Professor D. E. Jonus, B.Sc. ...... 561
. On the Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Wires. By WALTER
Bie ies ree ek ed valdide Hod two cu ce doi sam ene me MeLe eae es ae awe sts tiovlen cvmeulaiee 562
. On Reflection near the Polarising Angle from the Clean Surfaces of
Liquids. By LoRD RAYLEIGH, Sec.R.S. ...ccseseceescessscereesecseeeeeressens 563
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
DEPARTMENT I.—Puysics.
. Sixth Report of the Committee on Electrolysis .............c0.ceeceeceeeeeeeees 564
. Interim Report on the present state of our Knowledge in Electrolysis
and Electro-Chemistry .........ssessecsees Sac Ray CaN aa aSK Uh demeh chen oxwalepats 564
x
3
vu.
4,
5.
6.
CONTENTS.
Electrolytic Problems. By RoBERT L, MOND o.s-sesereseesseeesteeeeceeeenense 564
On Clausius’ Theory of Electrolytic Conduction, and on some Secret _
Evidence for the Dissociation Theory of Electrolysis. By J. Brown ... 564
Report of the Committee on the Phenomena accompanying the Discharge
of Electricity from Points .............ccescsecsseesecseceeceseeesessnceseeescsees 565
On the Electrification of Needle Points in Air. By A. P. CHArTocK...... 565
. On the Measurement of Liquid Resistances. By J. SWINBURNE ......... 565
. The Surface-Tension of Ether and Alcohol at Different Temperatures.
By Professor WibtiAM RAMSAY, Ph.D:, PIR Seccseccs.c0+.ccercesenstaeeaaatts 565
DEPARTMENT JJ.—MAatTHEMATICS.
. Interim Report of the Committee on Mathematical Functions............... 566
. Interim Report of the Committee on the Pellian Equation Tables ......... 566
. On Periodic Motion of a Finite Conservative System. By Sir Witr1am
IPETO MSDN SBE OS SEO: catalog sane ss ries odels snide «choline cloud wo eitertlhia Sale Eee amma 566
. On a Geometrical Illustration of a Dynamical Theorem. By Sir Roprrr
PR PMIGEE CLUS,” Weeden dstden shan scents doddeetséupeosvnbec ses dosbente anne aaanE 566
. On the Transformation of a Differential Resolvent. By the Rey. Roperr
URAASFBE TGs NIAC ET ALUsScisscvascsicaitesnascececvessces cos devs sede las cudoeeeaee eae eRe 566
. On the Transformations used in connection with the Duality of Differential
Equations. By E. B. Extiort, F.R.S. .......... ois evoesessss ate tas eeeae eee 568
. Note on a Method of Research for Invariants. By E. B. Exxiorr, F.R.S. 568
8. On Liquid Jets under Gravity. By Rev. H. J. SHarpp, M.A. ........0+ 568
9. The Geometry of Confocal Conics, By Professor T, C. LEWIS .......s+0+s 570
10, Some Tangential Transformations, including Laguerre’s Semi-Droites
Réciproques. By Professor R. W. GENESE, M.A. ......cccccseeeececeesceees 571
11. Note on the Normal to a Conic. By R. H. PINKERTON ......cccccceseeeeees 572
12. On the Importance of the Conception of Direction in Natural Philosophy.
BOD Es DERON feces ace. sandiens-y+2+sseicsegsssasoeiensivaiehgece 572
MONDAY, AUGUST 24,
1. Report of the Committee on Researches on the Ultra-Violet Rays of the
ORAS MS RONDE SS 550 5004 5 Av caad ca aaasveat sarse. dia atanncanl ea . 573
2, Comparison of Eye and Hand Registration of Lines in the Violet and
Ultra-Violet of the Solar Spectrum, against Photographie Records of
the same, with the same Instrument, after a lapse of several years. By
O. Prazza SmyrH, LL.D, FLRS.B. oo. ccccscsseseesssessseeee eo ee 573
3. Note on Observing the Rotation of the Sun with th :
G. JounstonE Sronzy, M.A., D.8c., F.R.S. sf Rod Sees : Mie 573
4. On the Cause of Double Lines in Spectra. B Yi
TET OTE RO Se mala iii 574
5. Seventh Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation .....c.ccgeeeeenne 575
6
» Report of the Committee on Meteorological Photography............+.. sidln 575
CONTENTS. x1
Page
7. Report of the Committee on the Meteorological Observations on Ben
Ro seta isis vias ol]s cteplaaaia ae et aced Selec cacn Cen aMMResTaicavacctacsizcassecesesaces 575
8. Report of the Committee on the Reduction of Magnetic Observations...... 575
9. Report of the Committee on the Seasonal Variations in the Temperature
of Lakes, Rivers, and Histuaries ...........ccecescecscecscneneasceereesescecesons 57
10. On the probable Nature of the Bright Streaks on the Moon. By Dr.
2.
POMPEO OPHEAND, ER cAcs:, BekusS.be, ccacsnacsccssiceersssesctssesseetcanceeuss 576
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards ..............-s0seeesseeeeees 576
The Causes of Variation of Clark Standard Cells. By J. SwinpurnE ... 576
3. Joint Discussion with Section G on Units and their Nomenclature,
_
.
to
>
opened by Professor OriveR J. Lover, F.R.S., followed by W. H. Prexce,
TF [oS occbedStERB: Ss tOSERSEe bee samoote ToRATnDUe a gco..cnccnorBae bacdender ocsedde semceds 577
Some Revolutionary Suggestions on the Nomenclature of Electrical
and Mechanical Units. By Professor W. STROUD ...........:..:0000+ 577
On a Table to facilitate the Conversion of Electrostatic and Electro-
magnetic Measures into one another. By G. JoHNSTONE STONEY,
IACI) SC EM EUs Georess-cescentnesscnaece! teescersec-tacesaatassssernicnes sce 57
Absolute Units of Measurement. By W. MOON ...........:eeeseceeese eens 580
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 26,
On the Measurement of Lenses. By Professor SirvAnus P. THompson,
EN a belle ech BIN ah ow did clan asicde cay «deels<bltle qabtleae ps sebeni'es -bidieebe'ssapare 580
. On a new Polariser. By Professor Srrvanus P. Tuompson, F.R.S. ...... 580
. Some Experiments on a new Method for the Determination of ‘v.’ By
Ae Ge WEBSTER J.....'..<. 06 A ope BOSBR SOBER EDUCA ODE HOCEEC CULAR CEE aeRO Ree RO re 580
On the Magnetic Field in the neighbourhood of the South London Elec-
trical Railway: By Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., and Professor
_UCTSISORE TOGIRAS écCesenle cocsoc bl cern eRe Capper Ree BoC rac eric oenio ce BrReL ect ee riacechocd 581
On the Periodic Time of Tuning-Forks maintained in Vibration Electric-
ally. By Professor J. Vrr1amu Jonzs and T. HARRISON ..........++---44 581
. Magnetic Experiments made in connection with the Determination of the
Rate of Propagation of Magnetisation in Iron. By F. T. Trovutown...... 581
. On the Connection between the Crystal Form and the Chemical Compo-
_ sition of Bodies. The Symmetry of Crystals accounted for by the Appli-
cation of Boscovich’s Theory of Atoms to the Atoms of the Chemist.
Baye VV TLETAM) BARTOW; EGS. i iccececess seo Mecstecdeddesean! au teves¥ecesasaeelen’ 581
. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
BEE os veapccscnsenassecscocssenacecvcasessa:essssaesaseseso0saviassneciscnincessecesas 585
On Phenomena which might be Observable if the Hypothesis that Earth-
quakes are connected with Electrical Phenomena be entertained. By
PPOLESSOT) COLON MINE NE, FVEUSe cccccessmasecccssevevaredrcneteesecaeedtoscceieces tines 583
4 Experimental Study of a Curious Movement of Ovoids and Ellipsoids.
By Professor LECONTE .....ciccccscsscssescarsecesseceves Bett a eee Ce eae 585
xii CONTENTS.
Page
11. On Vowel Sounds. By Dr. R. J. LLOYD .i..ccccsseesscseescsevecssoevevccssoes 583
12. A Latent Characteristic of Aluminium. By Dr. A. SPRINGER ... ........ 533
Section B—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Address by Professor W. C. Roserts-Avstan, C.B., F.R.S., President of
DH SRSECH OM prentactiiiecrpasessiess st esecescacsscoeecseseredscecened veces: tee aa 584
1, Report of the Committee on International Standards for the Analysis of
UrGTMRAMOSTCO Sacer nc sccevck eon cicheccsscessvcssecectessvcvecusesebosld eee 601
2. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours .........:sscseseeeeecee ees 601
3. Report on the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen
AMO MOUN OCA TASER I ke feos ccc seecaseesdaGsoolecsscoovenesdoaicotecssestaeeeeeeeeene een 601
4, Report on the Bibliography of Solution ............s:s.ssseesssecseenecessenseses 602
5. Keport on the Properties of Solutions. ...........sssessessscsssssecsensanessasieuaps 602
6. Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy .........sscssecseeceeeessceeeseeeee 602
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
1. Report of the Committee on the Formation of Haloids ..........se....0000e G02 |
2. The Spontaneous Ignition of Coal. By Professor Vivian B, LEwss...... 602
3. On Nickel Carbon Oxide and its application in Arts and Manufactures,
yeti WWD, BRS. .....3..5s00c0scanes<6%ceadiess oan e¢Rbaes ate 602
4, On the Electrical Evaporation of Metals and ‘Alloys. By W. CRooKEs,
FEE ieee eee inepines ss5\iva vse.) vals gp eniaeceasesseeucSl Vveesiltnesep cen 607
5. On the Cause of Imperfections in the Surface of Rolled Copper Alloys.
HEayge re WRENS. ML sas. .xs.00s0issce0s cee cape seers con ce Reine 607
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
J, Certain Pyrometric Measurements and Methods of Recording them. By
Professor W. C. Roserts-Avsten, 0.B., F.R.S. 607
2. On the Existence of a Compound in Alloys of Gold and Tin. By ASP:
[Pun Se 607
3. On the Relation between the Composition of a Double Salt and the Com-
position and Temperature of the Solution in which it is formed. By
A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., and F. W. HUMPHERY ..........06...666... 608
4, Some Experiments on the Molecular Refraction of Dissolved Electrolytes.
By Dr. J. H. Guapstong, F.R.S., and W. Hippert......................0... 609
5. The Action of Heat on Alkaline Hypochlorites, By Professor H. McLxop
EE oe MRR
6. A simple Apparatus for Storing Dry Gases. By W. Symons, F.C,S....... 609
CONTENTS. xili
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1, Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ........0ccscceccsseeeeeceeneeeeeees Fil
2. Report on Wavye-leneth Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ............ 610
8. Report on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds .............:.:00008 610
4, On the Specific Heat of Basalt. By W.C. Roperts-AvstEn, O.B., F.R.S.,
REE MNCS LUD OK pH RAS anaecassaunsessnnsscasuauydaaasee ake te os seca dteaddertss 610
6, An Apparatus for Testing Safety Lamps. By Professor F, Ctowes, F.C.S. 611
6. On Didymium from different Sources. By Professor C. M. THompson,
reece nan al pugian DEBT AR s/o Lact oda dete sevwagseesebashitne 4) ee asb Ans ce 611
7. On the Nature of Solution. By Professor W. Ramsay, F.R.S. ............ 612
8. The Interpretation of certain Chemical Reactions. By C.H. Bornamtey,
Rem a aniccwe das fate ceter ce oheisith< + sietisientas «kldatianvstacahatehigisise nslos 'deaiwes sense 612
9, Action of Nitrosyl Chloride on Unsaturated Carbon Compounds. By J.
SUD BOROUGH, SCr, AWI.G. EOiS 5. .cic ds scecanscecwsliesoeauaaevnaaiecneacten 612
10. On the Formation of Peaty Colouring Matters in Sewage by the Action
_ of Micro-organisms. By W. E. Aprnzy, F.I.C., Assoc.R.C.Se.1. ......... 612
1, On a new Method of Disposal of Sewage, with some references to Schemes
ie aetTIMSO ne resy: ©.) Gia QOH NECA «sce .uletsaiah detasbicat el eresssadcssatiense ase 612
12. The Reaction of Glycerides with Alcoholic Potash. By A. H. Aten,
BME eee can ete R eae MDcaceaness cannes ecerscrecdcercaseneseesstateoacsss euch 613
13, Note on the Electrolysis of Alloys. By Hxrnry C. Jenkins, Assoc.M.
EE Sc cece ele nhowe tect eivraaiecciy das vtsanaacevenvaasageverdnecetgenousss 613
Srction C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
ddress by Professor T. Ruprrt Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the
REGUIOM cs), dvabuscesieves cs Baas scant PNA als ase lene aaa hs sake adele cloe 614
1. Discovery of the Olened/us-zone in the North-west Highlands. By Sir
_ ARCHIBALD Gerxis, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey... 633
2. On some recent Work of the Geological Survey in the Archean Gneiss of
_ the North-west Highlands. By Sir AncH1Batp GerKkis, F.R.S., Director-
RE INCE MEV EV oy .c55<0 an diniedatenssos daesessaveecuetaeiedsieesacseseue eros 634
8. Report of the Committee on the Registration of Type Specimens ......... 634
4, Remarks on the Lower Tertiary Fish Fauna of Sardinia. By A. Suir
BM MOOD GARD Bc Set vasa deasissratlaiqeee's ques ccesasedownesasdacd Sad tines anaalyharlax dacciens 634
6, Evidence of the Occurrence of Pterosaurian and Plesiosaurian Reptiles in
the Cretaceous Strata of Brazil. By A. SurrH Woopwart, F.G.S....... 635
6. The Cause of Monoclinal Flexure. By A. J. Juxus-Browne, F.G.8. ... 635
7. Note on an Undescribed Area of Lower Greensand, or Vectian, in Dorset~
mee enire, By A. J. JUKBS-BROWNE, F.G.S.. .....ssccccsssccesscsoetonsqencesconses 635
CONTENTS.
Page
. On the Continuity of the Kellaways Beds over extended areas near Bed-
ford, and on the Extension of the Fuller’s Earth Works at Woburn.
By A. C. G. CAMERON .......:sccesecsssececetennestecesnesseaensetsneeeeesenne ee ..-- 636
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
On the Discovery of the South-Eastern Coal-field. By Professor W.
Borp Dawrtns, F.R.S............ roparaavebuue ascccgrosds chaste ss sae skeen . 687
. The Geology of Petroleum and Natural Gas. By W. Torrey, F.R.S.,
PESP OC APIRECIS I WGK uns pandesnevensnves snes i secu Speen, neetaaessseeqo ese aeaa onse Com
» The Origin of Petroloum. By O. C.D. Ross .....0s0..cseonceceenssopssessesans 639
A Comparison between the Rocks of South Pembrokeshire and those of
North Devon. By Hunry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., Sec. Geol. Soe. ......... 641
. Vuleanicity in Lower Devonian Rocks. The Prawle Problem. By W.
PaCS M SET el EGS) | reas 2a:c ss <be'caenccoscess vss osepeaenssceqeeadee denen aeas dean 642
. On the Occurrence of Detrital Tourmaline in a Quartz-schist west of Start
Point, Sonth Deyon. By A. R. Hunt, M.A., F.G.S, ......sssccsesssescsenve 643
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. Report of the Committee on the Circulation of Underground Waters ... 644
. Note on the Discovery of Estheria Minuta (var. Brodieana) in the New
Red Sandstone. By C. E. Dm Rance, F.G.S. ........cccsceosscscecsoeerccecse 644
3, Report of the Committee on Geological Photographs ..........ce.cccseeeeees 644
Notes upon Colobodus, a Genus of Mesozoic Fossil Fishes. By Montagu
LL AS Uf 6 tS ear 644
. Report of the Committee on Earth Tremors .............cecccccecceceese otesse 645
Report of the Committee on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius......... 645
MONDAY, AUGUST 24,
- The Cause of an Ice Age. By Sir Ropert Banh, FRG. ceccccccccececeee 645
- Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks ....0.....ccccsssssccesecseecsecesses 647
Notes on the Glacial Geology of Norway. By H. W. Crossxry, LL.D
Ripe Ce OP thoy ota vee a
Recent Discoveries concerning the Relation of the Glacial Period in North
America to the Antiquity of Man. By Professor G. F Berek Wares
Talis Diy FIG BEAL bcvccoser Eats ES: IRR” . 647
. On the Evidences of Glacial Action in Pembrokeshi d the Directi |
of Ice-flow. By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., See. Geol, Soe. — ae 649
T,
tere nhiadhenn tt Debye eae 650
B Secti ; :
; Ee a : cas ies ee enshulme, Manchester. By Prncy F.
CONTENTS.
tiquity of Man. By Professor G. Freperick Wrieut, LL.D., F.G.S.A.
_ 9, Report of the Committee on Excavations at Oldbury Pi rratard. Lavine des
10. Preliminary Notes on the Excavations at Oldbury Hill. By Josrrn
SLT IUINSS Cis is SA Or ore eer ere Pee eee ee
11. Report of the Committee on Elbolton Cave, near Skipton...............2000+
TUESDAY, AUGUST 235.
F 1. On the Occurrence of Pachytheca anda Species of Nematophycus in the
xv
: Page
8. The Lava Beds of California and Idaho, and their relation to the An-
651
651
Silurian Beds at Tymawr Quarry, Rumney. By J. Srorrim............... 652
2. Report of the Committee on the Lias of Northamptonshire ................. .
8. The Mastodon and Mammoth in Ontario, Canada. By Professor J. Horses
RPO DEA SoH (SF otcneeenisa ees ocr de aadaas teen aanasstictees ia dtas Senta sagen
4, Note on the occurrence of Ammonites jurensis in the Ironstone of the
Northampton Sands, in the neighbourhood of Northampton. By E. T.
NEwrmon, F.GS., F.Z.S. o......esceee icucascsdeaemaes Ma coaetaorercdanatacce sede dara
5. On certain Ammonite-zones of Dorset and Somerset. . By S. S. Buckman,
655
F.G.S., Hon. Memb. Yorks. Phil. Soe......... Oe con Pane ep e eee 655
6. Notes on the Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of the Zones of the Upper Chalk. By
Gores Ropyrt VIND..... SccACE En Oeccer AE CMOCACOUE COU ELC PeECREL EL OCLC
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
_ Address by Francis Darwrs, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., President of the Sec-
OT. 2... cess bocecccccccccesceses sesedaee bbedsbetatacees bseddedecace bbe dbestecscecsves tbeeee
1, Fourth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of reporting
i oti the present state of out knowledge of the Zoology atid Botany of the
West India Islands, and taliing steps to investigate ascertained deficien-
cies in the Flota and Fauna ...i....css..cccteesesetteeees Di Th aad Ate badaneniange ac
2. Report of the Committee appointed to report on the present state of our
knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, and to take steps to
in¥estigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna .........s6.sseese ee aieunssie
8. Fifth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of taking steps
_ for the establishment of a Botanical Laboratory at Paradeniya, Ceylon...
4, Report of a Committee appointed to make a digest of the observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightevessels which have been
catried on by the Migration Committee of the British Association.........
6, Fourth Report of the Committee for the purpose of collecting information
_ as to the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local Habitats......
6. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of arranging for the
occupation of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Associa-
MOH AE PlYMOUGH .......,c0scsserescaccsscetesevsecnerserssacsens eet ee smahtiee nese es
656
660
678
678
678
678
678
xvi
10.
ll.
. Report of the Committee appointed for Improving and Experimenting
CONTENTS.
: Page
with a Deep-Sea Tow-Net......csecssseeceeccteeesesesereeeesesenneeseaeues es Roma 678
. Non-sexual Formation of Spores in the Desmidiacee. By A. W. Bnnnzrr 678
. Ona simple Apparatus for the Cultivation of small organisms in Hang-
ing Drops, and in various Gases, under the Microscope. By Professor
MARAE ATE VV ARDS Ey EO sicccscsesecnessceces ose anesescssensneeee¥eee' spanneeeainia 678
On some simple Models illustrating the Vascular System of Vertebrates.
By Professor W.N. PARKER .......ccsssccseeessnccnseeeseeneseueepeceeesenesesees 679
On the Progress of the Investigation of the Natural History of the
Friendly Islands. By J. J. LiIsTir..........c.ccccecsecsecevscesesoeseveateoene .. 679
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
. Report of the Committee nominated for the purpose of arranging for the
occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ...........se++0 680
. On some Species of Diatoms with Pseudopodia. By J. G. Grenrert,
PMP MS Vo. a sscsesascsccessselbnrsesegus Se sevseve 680
. On Nuclear Structure in the Bacteria. By Haronp WAGER ........0.s000 681
. Discussion on the Systematic Position of certain Organisms that are re-
garded by some Naturalists as Animals, and by others as Plants ......... 682
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22,
1. On Anatomical Nomenclature. By Professor W. KRAUSE .......cceeece oss (O82
ho
. On Fertilisation and Conjugation Processes as allied Modes of Protoplas-
mic Rejuvenescence. By Professor Marcus Harrog,M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. 683
. A Preliminary Classification of Sexual and allied Modes of Protoplasmie
Rejuvenescence, &c. By Professor Marcus Harroa, M.A., D.Se., F.L.S. 683
. On recent Investigations of the Marine Biological Association (Fishery
and Physical). By W. L. CaLpERWooD, Director......cc....-cecccececssseen 685
- On the Growth of Food-fishes and their Distribution at different ages,
Psy ronmMMMGCUNNUNGHANE MIAN 5, .ccccccresescescece: Bhs aavveanteoe ee 685
6. The Reproduction of the Pilchard. By J. T. Cunninawam, M.A......... 686
. Observations on the Larve of Palinurus vulgaris. By J.T. CunNINGHAM
,
BEB vesainrwesensnt sev ernras sensesicncossedrsessisasecouséececaces es cs ves 687
» Distribution of Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Gill. By J. T. Cunninenam
= ?
ee
oS SO ct SESS Fe ne hb 687
MONDAY, AUGUST 24,
» Pacts regarding Prothalli and the Propagation of Ferns, By E. J. Lows
val, ;
1 TRILL Se I het na been BO 687
. On Ferns and their Multiple Parents, By E. J. Lows, F.R.S., F.L.S 688
, F.R.S,, Eee
3. The Ciliated Organs of the Leeches, By Professor Girson , 690
——
4,
CONTENTS. XVil
Page
Some Points in the Early Development of Mus musculus and Mus decu-
manus: the Relation of the Yolk Sac to the Decidua and the Placenta.
epee aC ENOES ELOBENSON,. MUD), coistunet scassicde ofc cee ebues secUsaboeddedsilésetsoscesse 690
. Observations upon the Development of the Spinal Cord in Mus musculus
and Mus decumanus: the Formation of the Septa and the Fissures. By
PMMMELET ENO BENSON NED) cece dos piiasiesaxcnseatectescnscevevercdeterackeséwevess 691
. On the Innervation of the Epipodial Processes of some Nudibranchiate
Mollusca. By Professor W. A. HERpMAN, D.Sc., and J, A. Cruse ...... 692
. Exhibition of a new Apparatus for opening and closing a Tow-Net by
Electricity. By W. E. Hoyrn and L. F. Massey .........cce.ccceesee cee ees 693
. Exhibition of, and Remarks upon, some Young Specimens of Echidna
aculeata, By Professor W. N. PaRKeh, Ph.D. .......ce.cc cee ceceee eee eseeeeeee 693
. Experiments on Respiration in Tadpoles of the Common Frog (Rana tem-
woraria). By. Professor W..N. Parkin, PRD. )..005..52..00-basancesescdtne 694
10. On the Arrangement of the Living Fishes, as based upon the Study of
their Reproductive System. By Professor G. B. Howss, F.L.S., F.Z.S. ... 694
11. On the Recent Visitation of Plutella Crucifera. By W. FRmAm............ 696
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1. On the Artificial Production of Rhythm in Plants. By Francis Darwin
eee tema DEANE IME PREM r isis Nassvdshoeedeetisiis daees ase sh cov evlen fees atae 695
2. On Floating Leaves. By Professor Matt, F.L.S. oo... cee ecceecce ese eee eee 695
3. Notes on Internal Phloém in the Dicotyledons. By D. H. Scorr, M.A.,
MPP IGES. «cise ciniotee odemenetoess vdsiectic cs cave Mens SMS Meas sass ouside soeeste ss 696
4. On the Occurrence of Diastase in Pollen. By Professor J. R. Green,
RE a ss on cts Tak a chides 944 j1 aao ota hae Seu Seate Gaetan vaasacabneae sessated see ns « 696
5. The Presence of a Diastatic Ferment in Green Leaves. By Professor
MeN EN ES, Mic Ais Ei Es Si pea Seaud les. dgntdcanc seeped esd+Faatherenienfvonnnnpiciespd 697
6. On the Nuclei of the Hymenomycetes. By Haro~p WAGER ............... 700
~
. New Form of Appendicularian ‘ Haus.’ By Geo, Swainson, F.L.S. ...... 701
8. On the Customary Methods of describing the Gills of Fishes. By
eoessor Gr. 5, Howes, F.0L.S.. IZ.S. c.csssseesccctsccscosccessotcecacoscssooes 702
. Exhibition of a very small Parrot ftom the Solomon Islands. By Canon
RR BARS PM inh 28 bs ase Sag 8 np.) ae Re ME Anee MO Rote an dwakh dhs s4nendvon 702
Section f.—_GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20,
Address by E. G, Ravensrern, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., President of the Section ... 703
1. The Art of Observing. By Joun Cos, F.R.A.S. ....ceccccceseeeeesseee wast 214
ras
Recent Geographical Progress in Great Britain. By J. Scorr Kenrie ... 714
.8. Trees and Prairies, By Miter Curisry ...... iiss Rebs eA eta 2 Fee ter 715
91, ; a
xvili CONTENTS.
re
. The Homology of Continents. By Dr. Hucu R. Mr, BS. Dee aeeecacrs 715
5. On the Comparative Value of African Lands. By ARTHUR Sirva WHITE,
F.R.S.E., See.R.Scot.G.S......0ccossceceeereoscesoecceeeneceeeoscccssereecaassncsenss 715
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
1. On Acclimatisation. By Ropert W. FErxin, M.D........0:2:seeeseeeeeeneees 715
2, Changes in Coast Lines. By Dr. J. S. PHEND .....-.-2-::ssseeeeeeteeeeeeteees 716
8. Morocco as a Field for Geographers. By J. E. Bupcnrt MEAKIN ......... 716,
4. On the Aborigines of Western Australia. By Miss E. M. Crmrkg......... 716
5. The Application of Indian Geographical Survey Methods to Africa. By
ieut.Colonel T. Hi. HoLbicn, R.B. 0 .........0006..c0beedeoesecvcnsecsetumesneee AWE
6. Bar-Subtense Survey. By Colonel HENRY TANNER .........0:ssseeeeaeeereoes 718
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. Suggestions for the Revision and Improvement of the Large Scale Maps
of the Ordnance Survey. By Henry T. Crook, C.E, ...........cceeeeeeceeee 718
. Mr. RayenstErn explained a Series of Maps illustrating his Presidential
PMOUTPABIEO BNE SSCCLION.ccces<ci soca caso csc socecsceemenarcessehe shy get eeeeaemememens 718
. A Local Collection of Maps was described by the Librarian of the Public
HOT OM TVs eceee cn Scone aescoe'nicy ovis recscausdaciat,+0edvssdta« depee7 ena 718
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
1, Antarctic Exploration. By E. DebMaR MORGAN ...........0..ceceeseeeeeseees 719
2. Photography applied to Exploration, By Jamus THOMSON ............00e00 719
3. Journeys to the Lake Ngami Region. By Harry D. Bucxtm............... 719
4, A Visit to Kilimanjaro and Lake Chala. By Mrs. Frencn Suetpon ... 719
5. The Geography of South-West Africa. By Dr. Henry ScHricnrer...... 719
on
oe
. The Siam Border. By Lord Lawryeton
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
PONG, hy DOE SES RAEN <0 sens <cictvusarescoesceeseicendvscsdecy. eae 720
- The Physical and Industrial Geography of Florida. By ARTHUR
Monvreriorg, F.G.S., F.R.G.S
Rese cnslesaapaetnnietenve'esnseoss+soeceatsiieeh nee eames 720
the Volta River. ‘By 'G. Dowson ....0.......:..--.-ceccecesesceccs oe 722
. The Bakhtiari Country and the Karun River. By Mrs, BisHor ......... 722
6. Physical Aspects of the Himalayas, and Notes on the Inhabitants. By
“J
POMEL ENR DARI 00600 mp assess tsasen-asseesecteccs a ea , 722
- On the proposed Formation of a Topographical Society in Cardiff. By
i, G. Ravenstrry, F.R.G.S, ae
Pee ee wenees
OMe ee reeeeeneceerecceresereseesesesserssstosee
CONTENTS. xix
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Page
Address by Professor W. Cunnineuam, D.D., D.Sc., F.S.S., President of
BSC Ee cle sates dae duesnoea sins aaecie csi eisiins pitas oveisciteind sane te dalek asp sh ora 723
J. Labour and Capital: their Differences and how to reconcile them. By
RU MREDUN SO i. 0, tn 2 ch Os aat dam ohgs oaunste cs sea neediness we reece eseacweni tocwetnn 735
2. On the Coal Question. By T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E. ............... 736
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21,
1. ‘ Miners’ Thrift and Employers’ Liability : a Remarkable Experience.’
ESCHER GIs. CA MPBIEE cles. ctsoncasienaascsqaeeuadadsqnogayedaassdoqasedase qoaceh ot 737
2. State Provision against Sickness and Old Age, and the German Inva-
lidity and Superannuation Law. By Louis TYLOR..................:00ceeeee 739
38. On some Economic Aspects of Life Assurance. By Joun M. McCannrisu,
Bi eon arp ee inne intheud BGS eh sll nig ceases Roman c hIcb oper ncgede ee fio’ hE ccabh 739
4. The Survival of Domestic Industries. By Professor GONNER............... 740
5. Free Travel. By S. M. BuRROUGHS..............0.:00008 ga Ne thps comeseaestuees 740
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. The alleced Differences in the Wages paid to Men and to Women for
Similar Work. By StpNEY WEBB, LIL.B................cccceeeesneeeeeeeeeeeees 742
. The Taxation of Inventors. By Lewis Epmunps, D.Sc................00045 743
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
On recent Progress in Indian Agriculture. By C. L. Tuppzr, Chie
Secretary to the Punjaub Government.............:.cecseeccsesnceeseesseeeens 7414
. Railway Communications of India. By W.C. Furnivaun, M.Inst.C.E. 744
. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.................. 745
. On the Upbringing of Destitute and Pauper Children, By the Rey. J. O.
iMac MivAralee’. A. 9 akd..x csbhawsndeas! bcp ueenacl suemoed ich pasenasacheseesenat 745
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
: 1. On the Data available for determining the best Limit (physically) for
Q lod
Bours of. Labour, . By. J. TARLIDen, M.D..scccse0l.condecdeeessciaasescveses 746
2. The Cure of Corsumption in its Economic Aspect. By G. W. Hamsieron 747
8. The Increase of Food and Population: By’ W. oa DROW. races cent se 747
_ 4. Le Play’s method of Systematic Observation. By F. AvBURTIN......... 747
5. Recent Changes in the Distribution of Population in England and Wales.
Mbp brawny Cana hen LS. sho Rave scceccs en thccnspedaseticacblteduad MbutAd 747
te
CONTENTS,
xx
Section G.AmMECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Page
Address by T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section ......... 749
1. Report of the Estuaries Committee .......-.-.-seeeees seessctesnseveratene= yan 757
2. The Ystradyfodwg and Pontypridd Main Sewerage. By G. CHaTTERTON 757
3. The River Usk, and the Harbour of Newport. By L. F. Vernon-Har-
court, M.A., M.Inst.U.E., Engineer to the Newport Harbour Commission 757
4, On Mechanical Ventilation and Heating of Buildings. By W. Key...... 758
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
. On the Channel Tubular Railway. By Sir Epwarp Reep, K.C.B., M.P.,
HAAS ANE ee Reet ie cr cctaoird’= ioe saescaire=-asneveanesvenas tose certseus aaa cen a 758
. Petroleum Oil-engines. By Professor Witt1am Rosrnson, M.E., Assoc.
MME HAC A De cemaddecaccsiistcer: oes stdoin.usseseusddsecaesttteba sted settee ae tam 759
. On the Revolving Purifier for the Treatment of Water by Metallie Iron.
By W. Anverson, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. ........ssesseececeee eee oeees 762
. A Steady Platform for Guns, &c., at Sea. By Beauvcaamp Towser ...... 763
. Description of Lewis and Hunter’s System of Coaling Ships. By C.
ETIUGIRINVIS ER BOR OE Cate oro ine ccc snes acadieeSc oces odeueuicewececveees dedSet oer Oran 768
. On some of the Peculiarities to be observed in Portland Cements, and on
the most advanced methods for determining their Constructive Value.
by ei awes, PATA, Mi Unct.C.E..... .062..+2.ccceesencsosssesneves sess seen 764
. On the Compound Principle in the Transmission of Power by Compressed
Air by Professor A. ©. Hiiiors, D!Se.(Edin.)"-\....),:2.ces. -seeseneeeeate . 765
. Sinking Wells and Shafts. By Henry Davey, M.Inst.C.E. ...........00.. 766
MONDAY, AUGUST 24,
. The London-Paris Telephone. By W. H. Presce, F.R.S. ............. ie ee
. On the Telephoning of Great Cities. By A. R. Bennert, M.LE.E. ...... 769
. Recent Progress in the Use of Electric Motors. By Professor G. Forsxzs,
Bixee taerer ne eg Ouearwin eos Top Somclatsd 6c .bie couphiiswes aes :ndaddeasas Oh, cau.
. On Electric Firedamp Indicators. By N. Warts ..........0...02.. sadecmedacee 773
. The Lighting of Railway Trains Electrically. By I. A. Trneais............ 773
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
. An Electrical Parcel Exchange System. By A. R. Bennert, M.LE.E.... 774
. The Bénier Hot-Air Engine. By M. B&nrer..............ccccccsccoseececcoece 775
- On the Internal and External Work of Evaporation. By W. Worsy
TSEAU MONT, MENG. Bins0 3:3 0.s0isss¢se0n-sie4.. cctv <inssessdec sian 777
. On a new System of Screw Propulsion with non-reversible Engines. By
W. Worsy Breavmont, M.Inst.C.E.
6.
CONTENTS. xxi
On the Comparative Values of various Substances used as Non-conduct-
ing Coverings for Steam Boilers and Pipes. By W.Hepworrn Cottins,
ee LE Ie goo a icra cigeeec ceasing aga eMMseneseeecionsieseccescsgesces 780
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20,
Address by Professor F. Max Mitre, M.A., Foreign Member of the French
di.
2.
3.
Institute, President of the Section ...........c.ccecseceecsesescesceccuscecetcnsces 782
The Social and Religious Ideas of the Chinese, as illustrated in the Ideo-
graphic Characters of the Language. By Professor R. K. Dovenas ...... 796
On recent Progress in the Analysis of Vowel-sounds. By R. J. Luoyn,
a tiege MA gn 5350550585254 808s48003 daerossa cE Ohl es URGeIL Wal ee UREN 796
Family Life of the Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands), By the Rev.
DE PeEPSUEUATINON, °55).1 egos pesca da oj</<sMMMMMeMGS ed ouubisdévaesvacdewostesleaees 797
Report of the North-Western Tribes of Canada Committee .................. 798
. On the Work of Major J. W. Powell, Director of the U.S. Ethnological
Bureau. By Professor Max MULLER, M.A. .........cccssseeecccnsubucecececese 798
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
. On the Ancient Language of the Natives of Tenerife. By the Marqurss
BRMBESUTN KG Dy... cence acca neseneec voaecn Jk onocdsoase duet eece eth ee a: 799
. On the Limits of Savage Religion, By Epwarp B. Tytor, D.C.L., F.R.S. 800
Bement s BY EE LING ROTH «5601. scdss cosaccorthsnscasegeiaccauscssens eeeee 800
4. On the ‘Morong’ and other Customs of the Natives of Assam. By S. E.
Pe er se Dana de soos ce SE sano Sein ths wv! cid adden snae navn audi setsealese 801
5. Burial Customs of New Britain. By the Rev. B. DANWKS ..........s00cee0000+ 802
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
i. Barbaric Elements in Ancient Greece and Italy. By Professor G.
ReMANO NIA 625 Soh rate cp avitas alcaee cas aasettams'viavasaeacatoassevelasesied 803
| 2. The Morocco Berbers. By J. E. BupGETT MEAKIN ............cccceeeeeeeeees 804
8. On the Worship of Meteorites. By Professor H. A. NEWTON............... 805
4. On Human Remains from the Duggleby ‘ Howe,’ Yorkshire. By J. G.
“SuAIBSIOE AN ED eae are AEA ea ile ee Re bao a 9a eer en ste eceue: 806
_ . On Comparison of Ancient Welsh Customs, Devices, and Commerce with
those of Contemporary Nations. By Dr. PHENS, F.S.A.........0...sce0eee0s 807
6. The First Sea-Wanderings of the English Race. By W. M. ADAms...... 808
7. Points of Contact between Old-world Myths and Customs and the
Navajo Myth entitled ‘The Mountain Chant.’ By Miss A. W. Bucxianp 808
8. East Central African Customs. By the Rev. James MacpDoNALp ......... 809
9. Report of the Prehistoric Inhabitants Committee .........c0e.ceccceeeeeeeeu ees 81L
10. Report of the Elbolton Cave Committee ...........c.cccccssssesesseceesseeeeceecs 811
xxii CONTENTS.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
Page
1. The Formation of a Record of the Prehistoric and Ancient Remains of
Glamorganshire. By EDWIN SEWARD ........cecceeeceerecneeeetsseeeseseesenee 811
2. Instinctive Criminality: its true Character and National Treatment. By
PAT PROUSERALAN MUG, taser coc eccne re sce coc ansdcedsesscenenmsinan ane nasa he ne mantas 811
3. The Anthropometric Method of Identifying Criminals. By J. G.
COMTR(OR Ty RUAID Esse eee cesta aoe Se Sae eee Ean aaee terre aA RSEEMREReEMAM ESTs sno05o02¢ 813
4. Recent Hittite Discoveries. By Dr. PHENH, F.S.A. ..........ceeeeeeeeeeeee 814
5. Account of the Similkameen Indians of British Columbia. By Mrs. S. 8.
JMIETEISCIN) pp adiScgcocoo od ebe SodHG Sat O SBE das aDE SRR das CREEE aS eEgB ce Da 200846r ocuococ 815
ee teguareouratye clsy fy. El. MAN... 0... <0 004..00ssieenseqayenae et Ce Re CaNeeeREe 815
7. Report of the Anthropometric Laboratory Committee .............cs.seseuee 816
8. Report of the ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries Committee ’............ 816
Pye report of the Indian Committee .........cccccecsacccecsevsconvenesuabasbtpeeeeea’ 816
ENDER) 22. onddox- ame emenee ili velsadasle ddnveieledt shideees 30 okie evacd evioeswetacaMace teeEe eee 817
Xxill
Lisl toOr : PLATES,
PLATE I,
Illustrating the Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Volcanic
N Phenomena of Vesuvius and its Neighbourheod.
PLATES II.—XIV.
Illustrating the Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of
Working Models,
PLATE XV.
Hlustrating the Fourth and Final Report of the Committee appointed to investigate
_ the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in
__- various parts of the United Kingdom in cc-operation with the local Societies
_ represented on the Association.
oi
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
—+—
OEIC Ts.
Tur AssociaTION contemplates no interference with the ground oeeupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, wpon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association,
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Memenrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive graiwitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
ANNUAL Sugscripers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
a
aly
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XxXV
gratuctously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription, By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. ]
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitied their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. |
__ 3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!
Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set,
xXXV1 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
Crass A. Permanent MEMBERS.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Associa-
tion. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Associa-
tion to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Cuass B. Temporary Mempers.!
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims wnder this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organising Sectional Vommittees.?
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,? and of preparing Reports
’ Revised by the General Committee, 1884.
? Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
% Notice to Contributors of Memoirs—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections befure the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxVii
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.!
An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.?
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.3
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.u., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday,‘ Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 A.M., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below. [The arrangements for sectional meetings, adopted at
the Cardiff meeting, will be continued at Edinburgh in 1892, see p. Ixxxiv. |
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
_ of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
ROME a Soctsic cu sindesbeas tiv one , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... ” Ifit should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
_MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
_ abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Secretary, before
__ the conclusion of the Meeting.
g 1 Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. $ Edinburgh, 1871.
* The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883.
XXVIil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly. ,
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.'
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.” The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxvi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions whi
be offered by their Members for the tdvrerkeora bine of ‘biensis ihe ee
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches : and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association by application to
oe ore ke reeunicnl Institutions, or Local Authorities
_ _In case of appointment of Committees for special obj ; i
it is expedient that all Members of the Gnwiitee ieee peo
! These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877
2 This and the followi ; ; :
smegh, 1871, € following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxix
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of recewing and dishursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.
That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.
That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Comnvittee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.!
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Secretary for presentation
to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recom-
mendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.
The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.?
Notices regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Chairman of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must
forward to the General Officers, before July 1, a statement of the sums
which have been expended, with vouchers, and the balance which
remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire on June 3U following; nor is the Treasurer authorised, after that
date, to allow any claims on account of such grants, unless they be
renewed in the original or a modified form by the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices
of the British Association without special permission from the General
1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
2 Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879,
xXx RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Chairman is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., Burlington
House, London, W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from
time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, when not
employed in carrying on scientific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken,! and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during’ the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.
3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. l.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which the i
y are appointed dar-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except rhe omineae on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
' The sectional meetings on Saturday and on Wedn i 1
- } dnesday may be t
which may be fixed by the Committee, not earlier than 10 pene then! }1 ‘i Pa
the General Committee at Bath, 1888, =" "
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxi
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
; which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
- Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
_ they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.! .
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.
All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.”
If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
_ of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.’
Corresponding Societies.4
1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
_ Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Conncil and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
4, Every Corresponding Societyshall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled
up, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Association, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
P 5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a
1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
2 Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
* Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.
* Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
Xxxil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION,
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ew officio members.
9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.
11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the parport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
7 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXili
Council.
; In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
_ be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
: Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
: (1) The Council shall consist of }
:
. The Trustees.
. The past Presidents.
. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
. (3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
. as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
: Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
| be ineligible for nomination :—1lst, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
| 2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of General Com-
mittee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
for) Or OS DOr
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
_ appointed by the General Committee.
Ne
.
1 Passed by the General Committee, Belfast, 1874.
1891. b
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‘SLNACISAdd
1848
1849
1850
1851
- 1852
1832.
1833.
1834,
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
1839.
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
xiii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin
Bristol......
Liverpool...
Newcastle
Birmingham
Glasgow ...
Plymouth
Manchester
Cambridge
Southamp-
seeeee
: Swansea...
. Birmingham
. Hdinburgh
. Ipswich ...
. Belfast......
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
see eeeesesee
Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.RB.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....
Prof. Horbes, HiB:Ss..:.-.0.5 v0
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A.
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S8.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.
Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S........
William Hopkins, F.R.S.......
M.A.,
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
D.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
E.R.S. L. & E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Das Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
...|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
...|Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
xliv
REPORT—1891.
Date and Pl
1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
ace Presidents
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
1857. Dublin...... Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.
1858. Leeds ...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.
1859, Aberdeen...|/The Earlof Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
1860. Oxford...... Rey. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
1861. Manchester/G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.RB.S.
1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
1863. Newcastle |Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.RB.S.
1864. Bath......... Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1865, Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1866. Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.B.S.
1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.8.
1868. Norwich .../Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
1869. Exeter...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
E.R.S.
1870. Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh |Prof. P. G. Tait, F\R.S.E. ...
1872. Brighton...
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1873. Bradford ...| Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S.
1874, Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.
1875. Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1876. Glasgow ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
1877. Plymouth...| Prof, G.C. Foster, B.A., E.RB.S.,
’ Pres. Physical Soc.
1878. Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
1879. Sheffield ...|Georze Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
CO. Brooke, Rev. T, A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. 8S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R: B.. Clifton} Prot, ee sees
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H.J.8.Smith,
Rey. 8. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rey. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Prof. A. 8. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell. .
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon,
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlv
_ Date and Place
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
Presidents
. | Prof. Si Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.R
Prof. us W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R. S.
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.B.S.
Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. Chrystal,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball, M.A.,
LL_D., F.R.S.
M.A.,
1888. Bath
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1889.
1890. Leeds
1891. Cardiff
(1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
seeeee
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
- Plymouth...
. Manchester
eee eeeeee
. Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.B.S.
J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.R.S., V.P.B.A.S.
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Sc.D.,
CHEMICAL
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. Hope
Sees e eee es seen sees eoereseee
Secretaries
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister,
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richard-
son.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A.
Johnson, Prof. O. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
R. HE. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, Prof. H.
Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
.R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.
SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, Il.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ....
Rev. Prof. Cumming
see eeeaes
Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .........
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof, Apjohn, M.R.I.A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. .
Rev. Prof, Cumming
see eeesee
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
E.RB.S.
Rev, William Whewell,F.R.S.
.|Dr. Apjohn, Prof, Johnston.
|Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
| Reynolds.
|Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
......| Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
.| Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
xlvi
REPORT—1891.
Date and Place
1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853.
1854. Liverpool
1855.
1856.
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
1857.
1858.
teweee
1859.
1860.
Manchester
Cambridge
1861.
1862.
1863. Newcastle
1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
seneee
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873. Bradford...
1874.
1875.
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878,
1879. Sheffield ...
sen ELOR.
oes | Wi. Perkin, BRS. ..
Presidents
Secretaries
\Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
INSHSY,
Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
John Percy, M.D., F'.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.B.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.A. Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.,
F.C.S8.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
AWolQiiensh
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.,
F.C.S.
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.
M.D.,
Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
eeeetes
HW. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...
Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.B.S., F.C.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt; H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A, Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.
J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlvii
Date and Place
1880.
1890.
1891.
Swansea ...
. Southamp-
ton.
. Southport
. Montreal ...
. Aberdeen...
. Birmingham
. Manchester
see eneeee
. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Presidents
Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
W. Crookes, F.R.8., V.P.C.S.
Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. T. EH. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S
| Prof. H.
Secretaries
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. Gough,
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
B. Dixon, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, R. E. Moyle, Dr. W. W
J. Nicol.
Dr. H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel,
Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattin-
son, jun.
C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.
C. H, Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, Dr.
G. 8. Turpin.
GEOLOGICAL (ann, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IJI.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY,
. Oxford .
se eeee
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...
. Cambridge./G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......
i Edinburgh . Prof, Jameson
. Dublin
. Bristol
. Liverpool...
. Newcastle. .
Pere eee eeresesssss
.|John Taylor.
W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates,
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
Fecal s GTUEL UE Jtass «odo faat des wens
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geography, R. 1. Murchison,
F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geography,G.B.Greenough,
F.R.S.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.
Rey. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Gecgraphy, G.B. Greenough,
F.R.S
: Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
..|H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—Geo-
grephy, Captain H. M. Denham
R.N
W.C. “Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. HE. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D,,
R. Hutton.
xviii
REPORT—1 89
1.
Date and Place
1842,
1843.
1844,
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
Manchester
Cambridge
Southamp-
tor.
Oxford
soeeee
Swansea...
Presidents
Secretaries
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S8.
......|H. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,|Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
M.R.LA.
land.
Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.| Prof. Ansted, EH. H. Bunbury.
Geol. Soc.
F.R.S.
.|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,| Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Leonard Horner,F.R.S.—Geo-| Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
E.R.S.
Prof. Oldham.— Greography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.| Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,)Starling Benson,
F.R.S.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Trof. Oldham,
Prof. Ramsay.
1849.Birmingham|Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,|J. Beete Jukes, Prof, Oldham, Prof,
1850. Edinburgh? |Sir Roderick I. Murchison,|A.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
Ipswich ...
Belfast
Je hed eo escrer
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
seeeee
Aberdeen...
Oxford......
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
1865. Birmingham
B.G.S
F.R.S.
SECTION C (continued).
WilliamHopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col.
F.R.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.
Portlock, R.E.,
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J, Phillips, LL.D.,
E.RB.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
1866. Nottingham] Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
A. C. Ramsay,
Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.
— GEOLOGY.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood,
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rey. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C,
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
1 At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ‘ That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the “Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,”’ for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page liv.
i)
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
7 Date and Place
i
1867. Dundee ...|Archibald Geikie,
Norwich ...
Exeter ......
. Liverpool...
Edinburgh
. Brighton...
Bradford ...
. Belfast......
. Bristol......
. Glasgow ..
Plymouth...
Dublin......
. Sheffield ...
. Swansea ...
. Southamp-
ton.
. Southport
. Montreal ...
. Aberdeen...
. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
. Leeds ©......
| Prof.
Cardiff ;.....
Presidents
E.RB.S.,
F.G.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
E.G.S.
Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S
.| Prof. John Young, M.D. ......
W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.
John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof, P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
FE.R.S., F.G.S.
H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S
R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.
W. OC. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.5.
W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.
8
G.8.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof.W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
xlix
Secretaries
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward,
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.
L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.
J. Armstrong, F',W.Rudler, W.Topley.
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
EH. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. H. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.
F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.
W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
J. H. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. H. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
KE. Marr, W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr,
Reid, W. W. Watts.
‘ement
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
4 COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
2. Oxford...... |Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...; Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
. Cambridge!| Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S. C. C. Babington, D. Don.
4, Edinburgh,
TOL MOAN AM sels cect ave sincene voces
|W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. liii.
Pegi.
c
Date and Place
REPORT—1891.
Presidents
Secretaries
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
1835. Dublin...... NDP PAUNIMEM sss sasccceassasedssesss
1836. Bristol...... Rey. Prof. Henslow ..........+.
1837. Liverpool...|W. 8. MacLeay...........ssss0+
1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart. .........
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. .........++
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
1841. Plymouth...|John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
1842. Manchester | Hon, and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
1843. Cork......... William Thompson, F.L.S8. ...
1844, York......... Very Rey. the Dean of Man-
chester.
1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.§S....
1846. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
ton. F.R.S.
1847. Oxford...... H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Curtis, Dr. Litton,
'J. Curtis, Prof, Don, Dr. Riley, §.
Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rey. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson,
J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.
Prof, Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
Wooldridge,
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
| Wollaston,
SECTION D (continued).—zOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
'~ [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. liii.]
1848.
Swansea ...|L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........
1849. Birmingham | William Spence, F.R.S. ......
1850.
1851..
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863,
Edinburgh | Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.
Ipswich ...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Belfast...... WVEMOPUD Vier ree sasasecsweteee cons
Eg paves ..|C, C, Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Liverpool...| Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Glasgow ...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Cheltenham | Thomas Bell, F.R.S8., Pres.L.S.
Dublin...... Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Leeds ...... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Aberdeen... | Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Oxiordiie.nss Rey, Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S,
Cambridge
Brot. Huxley, FLR:S., secs.
Newcastle
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr, Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. H. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
rof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T, Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr, HE. P. Wright.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
—- ——_ -_
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. li
Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries
1864, Bath......... Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S. ...|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. EH. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
1865. Birmingham a
| H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
a Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. .
SECTION D (continued),—BIOLOGY.}
{ 1866. Nottingham|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
—Physiological Dep., Prof.| .B. Tristram, W. Turner, HE. B.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
; R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
_ 1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S./C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
; —Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.| H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
1868. Norwich ...|Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.| Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
. —Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
H. Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
1869. Exeter...... George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,| EH. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—| H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
Dep. of Hthno., EH. B. Tylor.| tram. :
1870. Liverpool...|Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A.,M.D.,| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.8.—Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
Anat. and Physiol.,Prof.M.| T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.| OC. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
of Hthno., J. Evans, F.R.S. kester.
1871. Edinburgh .|Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,| Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and| EH. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King.
1872. Brighton ...|SirJ. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,} Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, EH. Ray
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Col, A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
1873. Bradford ...|Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Ru-| R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
therford, M.D.—Dep.of An-| Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
; thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.| HH. Lamprey.
1874. Belfast ...... Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of| W. T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,| ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep.ofAn-| Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
throp.,Sir W.R.Wilde,M.D.| Rudler.
1875, Bristol ...... P, L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of| E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
/ Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-| W.R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
land, M.D., F.R.8.—Dep.of| Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,) W. Spencer.
M.D., F.R.S.
1 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:—‘That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ;’ and ‘That for the word “Subsection,”
_ inthe rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “Department”
_ be substituted.’
c 2
li
Date and Place
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878, Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport !
1884. Montreal?...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
REPORT— 1891.
Presidents
Secretaries
A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJefireys, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol., R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
KE. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep.of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,
F.L.8.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
rof. W. C. McIntosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.
W. Carruthers,
F.R.S., F.G.S8.
Pres, IG:8.,
Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.RB.S.,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.
E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr,
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.
E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer. oF
G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam’ Sede-
wick.
G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. H. Spencer.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
W. Heape, J. MeGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. MarshaJl Ward.
Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward. :
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
' By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments
of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated.
* By authority of the General Committee, Anthropology was made a separate
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lix.
EE ———— oe a ee
EE
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
liii
Date and Place
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle -
upon-Tyne
1890, Leeds
1891. Cardiff
Presidents
Secretaries
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.
Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
M.A., M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
E.RB.S., F.L.S.
F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
8. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, Prof. F. W.
Oliver, H. Wager, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
F. E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,
Dr. §. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1833. Cambridge | Dr. Haviland..............:.0.008, Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834. Edinburgh |Dr. Abercrombie ......,........ ‘Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin ...... Drs pepiiehard 0. e4ad0 ceade lee Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
1836. Bristol ...... Dr Roper. BMRS. issue vace foe oe Dr. Symonds.
1837. Liverpool...| Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. .........|T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....|/Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
1840. Glasgow ...|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
1841. Plymouth...|P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8.
Sargent.
1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent,
1843. Cork ......... Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...)/Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1844. York......... J.C. Pritchard, M.D........... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
41845. Cambridge |Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
sro} ton. gent. }
1847. Oxford! ...|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......)Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
doo: Glasgow ...|Prof, Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof, R. Harrison, M.D. ...... Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
1858. Leeds ...... Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,|C. G. Wheelhouse.
F.R.S.
..) By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
_ siology’ (see p. 1.).
Geography.
Section EK, being then
vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
liv
Date and Place
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard
1847.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861,
1862.
1863.
1864,
1865. Birmingham
REPORT—1891.
Presidents
Secretaries
Aberdeen...
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Birming-
ham.'
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.
Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& H,
G. E. Paget, M.D
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.8.
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
ween eee wneeene
|Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. f
Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith,
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEHOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C
p. xlvii.]
Oxford
Ipswich
Belfast
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin
seeeee
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
see ee ween
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTION
Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.
Hee | meme mene ene eens sen aereneseesseeeeese
S OF SECTION D,
Dr. King.
Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
SECTION £,—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
-|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,
Pres. R.G.S.
Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Sir J.
F.R.S.
ir H. C. Rawlinson,
K.C.B.
Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.I.A.
Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8.,
F.RB.S.
Richardson, M.D.,
Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.J.., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.B.S.
Major-General Sir H, Raw-
R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
| Shaw.
R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr,
Norton Shaw.
Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
| TIhne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr,
| Norton Shaw.
‘R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw. :
‘R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
‘Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor
ton Shaw. ‘
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
J.W.Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt,.
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. S. Watson.
H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T, Wright.
H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet,.
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
1 Vide note on page li.
z
‘
J
;
y
4
1 —-
a
4
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
—— OO eFeFS
Date and Place
Presidents
” 1866. Nottingham| Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
“
“
1890.
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869.
1870.
1871.
Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...
1873.
1874.
1875.
Bradford ...
1876.
1877.
1878. Dublin
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
1891. Cardiff......
LL.D.
.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
F.R.S.
lv
Secretaries
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, CyrilGraham, Clements
R. Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.
'T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continued).—GHOGRAPHY.
Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R.I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D.,D.C.L., F.B.S., F.G.8.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.5S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.
Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.S.L,F.B.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.
Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......
Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D., F.R.S. L.&H
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L.,
C.B., F.R.S.
Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.
Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,V.P.2.G.8.
Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S8.1., C.B., F.R.G.S.
Col.
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.B.G.S.
Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.MG., C.B., F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
EB. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,
E.S.8.
Sir ©. Warren, R.E.,’
H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.
H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.
A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,.
Clements R. Markham.
E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
H. W. Bates, F. EH. Fox, HE. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Rye.
Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
BE. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
J.S. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
F. T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
E. G. Ravenstein.
Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.
J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.
J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.
A. Barker, John Coles, J. S. Keltie,
A, Silva White.
John Coles, J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.
lvi REPORT—1891.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........{J. E. Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......| W. Greg, Prof. Longfield. ‘
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. H. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood. vod
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler. :
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........|W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham | Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........| F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. OC.
Tayler.
1840. Glasgow .../ Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,|C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
F.R.S. Rawson.
1841. Plymouth...|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
SASS COLk recess. Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...| Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,|J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
F.L.S. cock.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam|J. Fletcher, Dr. W, Cooke Tayler,
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F, G.
P. Neison.
1848. Swansea ... |J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849. Birmingham Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
1850. Edinburgh
1851
. Ipswich
1852. Belfast......
1853
1854
1855
BEL Te cape
. Liverpool...
. Glasgow ...
Neison.
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
V.P.RB.S.E. Stark.
... Sir John P, Boileau, Bart. ...|J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
Dublin. MacAdam, jun.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.|Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
Thomas Tooke, F-.R.S. .........|E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...|J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continwed).—BCONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856, Cheltenham) Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. | Rev. C. H. Bromby, EH. Cheshire, Dr.
1857
1858.
- Dublin
Leeds
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
f M. Tartt. ae Bie
His Grace the Archbishop of Prof, Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Dublin, M.R.LA. | Newmarch. ras
Edward Baines......... Peete |T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr, J. Strang.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lvii
Date and Place
1859. Aberdeen...
aeons
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862, Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich..
1869. Exeter
eeeeee
1870. Liverpool..
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ..
1874. Belfast......
1875. Bristol......
1876. Glasgow
4877. Plymouth...
feeeee
.|William Tite, M.P., F.R.S..
Presidents
Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ..
Nassau W. Senior, MAN caress
William Newmarch, F.R.S...
Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers
see eeeresene
M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .
...\Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
.|Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves........
.|Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
.|.Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O’Hagan
eee w ete eeeeeeeees
Pres. 8.8.
...|Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L.,
M.P.
Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
1878, Dublin
1879.
1880.
881.
1882.
Sheffield
Swansea
York...
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
1884, Montreal ...
ee eeeeeee
889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.
....G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.5.
...(@. W. Hastings, M.P...........
....(Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
M.P., F.B.S.
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.
G.C.8.1., C.LE., F.R.G.S.
...Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.8.
Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.8.8,
.|T. Doubleday,
James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
Secretaries
. Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
.| David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. KE. T.
Rogers
H. D, Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E
Macrory.
..|Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
.|J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M‘Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
Rey. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Prof. H.s. Foxwell, J.S8. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof, H. 8.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R.
Price.
‘Rey. Dr. Cunninghan, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.
lviii REPORT—1891.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. A. Marshall, M.A.,F.S.S.|W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,.
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. EH. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.
1891. Cardiff...... Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,|Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
D.Sc., E.8.8. E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof. W. R. Sorley.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
1836. Bristol...... Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.|T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
1837. Liverpool...|Rev. Dr. Robinson ............ Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
1838. Newcastle | Charles Babbage, F.R.5....... nee mh C. Vignoles, T..
Jebster.
1839. Birmingham] Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.|W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T..
Stephenson. Webster.
1840. Glasgow ....|Sir John Robinson ............. J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tody.
C. Vignoles.
1841. Plymouth |John Taylor, F.R.S. ............ Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
1842. Manchester] Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......|J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
1843. Cork......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....|James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
1844. York......... John Taylor, HRS. csdecs+ossse Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster..
1845. Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S.......... Rey. W. T. Kingsley.
1846.Southampton | Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby..
1847. Oxford...... Rey. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
1848. Swansea ...| Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A..F.R.S.|R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
1849. Birmingham | Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S.}Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
1850. Edinburgh | Rev. R. Robinson ............... Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
1851. Ipswich .....| William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Head, Charles Manby.
1852. Belfast...... John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,|John EF. Bateman, C. B. Hancock, —
E.RB.S. Charles Manby, James Thomson.
1st oe § fr eee William Fairbairn, C.E.,]James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
E.R.S. Sykes Ward.
1854. Liverpool.../John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...JJohn Grantham, J. Oldham, J..
Thomson.
1855. Glasgow ...;}W. J. Macquorn Rankine,}L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J
C.E., F.RB.S. Thomson.
1856. Cheltenham |George Rennie, F.R.S. .........]C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
Jeffery.
1857. Dublin...... Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse, | Prof. Downing W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,.
F.R.S. James Thomson, Henry Wright.
1858. Leeds ...... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...|J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
1859, Aberdeen...| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|R. Abernethy, P, Le Neve Foster, H,
Wright.
1860. Oxford ...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, | P. Le Neva Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
LL.D., F.R.S. Henry Wright.
1861. Manchester | J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....]P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,.
H. Wright.
1862. Cambridge | Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.]W. M. Temoste P. Le Neve Foster.
1863, Newcastle | Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.|P. Le Neve Foster, P, Westmacott,.
J. F. Spencer.
1864. Bath eomgneee J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .........|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
1865. Birmingham] Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,|P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Leay,.
| F.R.S. W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
1866. Nottingham|Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
C.E., F.G.S. O. Tarbotton.
1867. Dundee...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,|P, Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith
LL.D., F.R.8. W. W. Urquhart. ;
av
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES
OF THE SECTIONS. lix
Date and Place Presidents
G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
869. Exeter C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.
Prof, Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E. ..
a| We HH. Barlow, RURISS <.01...<
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S. |
te eeee
...|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
Edward Woods, C.E. .........
Edward Easton, C.K. .........
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.
880. Swansea. ... James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.R.S.E.
Be YOLK... casses Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...
James Brunlees, F.R.S.E.,
Pres.Inst.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........
Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
O.E.
887. Manchester | Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
See bath .......<. W..» H. Preece, . E.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
W. Anderson, M.Inst.0.E. ...
Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,
q F.R.A.S. 2
891. Cardiff...,,.|T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.
885. Aberdeen...
1886. Beinchan
| M.P., D.C.L., F.B.G.S.
Secretaries
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie,
J. P. Smith.
.|H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood. .
A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J, F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
A. i’. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
C, W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.
C, W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.
EH. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
...|E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S....]G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. |G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W
.
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.
Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.I.,/G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.
lx
Date and Place
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
: REPORT—1891.
Presidents
Secretaries
Manchester | Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......
1B aii oleeens a Lieut.-General. __Pitt- Rivers,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Newcastle- |Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
upon-Tyne} LL.D., F.R.S.
Leeds ...... Dr, J. Evans, Treas.R.S ,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Cardiff ...... Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.
G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.
LIST OF EVENING
LECTURES.
Date and Place
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
1842. Manchester
1845. Cambridge
1846.
1847.
1848. Swansea ...|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
1849. Birmingham | Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ..........
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.
1850. Edinburgh |Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Dre MiaMbew ee RSs, scccecssceue
1851. Ipswich ...
1852.
Sir M. T. Brunel
Southamp- |Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ..
ton. Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Dita GLOVG, (EL Osicsseccsces ss
Oxford.....: Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......
Ree We rODiGOn. 25 <o-ca¢a<e-.-e-
1843. Cork ......... Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
Prof. EH. Forbes, F.R.S..........
DEO PINSON eet asees. sc ecianeuees
1844. York......... Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Drs Palconer; WARIS: ..0.c.a00css
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R:S. ......
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G,S....
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Geology of Russia.
...| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Properties of the Explosivesubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Shooting Stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.
Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal| Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Belfast...... Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,| Recent Discoveries in the properties
F.R.S.
of Light.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.|Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological an
practical considerations connecte
with it.
Date and Place
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Lecturer
1853. Hull.........
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865, Birmingham
1871. Edinburgh
|W. B. Grove, F.B.S..
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Robert Hunt, F.B.S.............
-|Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F'.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
se receeee
Prof. W. Thomson, ERS.
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D .C.L.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
.|Sir R. I. Murchison, TGs
.| Electrical Discharges
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ..
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ..
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, E.RB:S...........+.
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......
James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
IPrOfeRGSCOG, HHS: sccco<sss5c
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S.........
William Huggins, F.R.S.
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.....
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
...|J. Fergusson, F.RB.S..........-..
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S. .
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D. FB. R. 8.
J. Norman Lockyer F. R. 8.
...| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F'.R.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.
HEPA PAD CL PMI: Ss. s.eseutircer ase
H. B: Tylor, EUR.S. ... ....
lxi
Subject of Discourse
Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the
present time.
...| Correlation of Physical Forces.
...|The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
in highly
rarefied Media.
.| Physical Constitution of the Sun,
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
Recent Travels in Africa.
.|Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
.|The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
..|Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
.|Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
-|The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some recent Investigations and Ap-
~ plications of Explosive Agents.
.|The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
hxii
Date and Place
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
REPORT—1891.
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford
Brighton ...
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Bradford ...
ee eeeeeee
Bristol ......| W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
Glasgow ...|Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...........
Sir Wyville Thomson, F.R.8.
Plymouth...|W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
Prof. Odling, EVR.S. .......c0.0.
Dublin ..... G. J. Romanes, F.L.S..........
TEDL DE Wars Hiss cocecretcasd
Sheffield ...)W. Crookes, F.R.S. ..........0.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Swansea ...|Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
OTe adeccess Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S. ......
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S.
Southamp- | Prof.Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.
ton. Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Southport | Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.R.S. ......
Prof. J. G. McKendrick,
F.R.S.E.
Montreal ...|Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. .....
Rey. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.
Aberdeen...| Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S. ...
John Murray, F.R.S.E..........
Birmingham | A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S,
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D. ...
Manchester | Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ..
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G.
Batheaets.c Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ...
Brom. eh.) Ge Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.R.S.
Newcastle- | Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
upon-Tyne| F.R.S.
Walter Gardiner, M.A.........
Leeds ...... E. B, Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
; Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Cardiff ...... Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.B.S.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarised Light.
Railway Safety Appliances.
.| Force.
The Challenger Expedition.
The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
The new Element, Gallium.
Animal Intelligence.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
Radiant Matter.
Degeneration.
Primeval Man.
Mental Imagery.
The Rise and Progress of Palzon-
tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Tides.
Pelagic Life.
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Galvanic and Animal Electricity.
.| Dust.
The
Modern Microscope in Re:
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
The Great Ocean Basins.
Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.
.| The Rate of Explosions in Gases.
Explorations in Central Africa.
The Electrical
Power.
The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.
The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel. .
How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.
Mimicry.
Quartz Fibres and their Applications.
Some Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.
Electrical Stress.
Transmission of
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
lxiii
Lecturer
867. Dundee...... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,F.R.S
1868. Norwich ...| Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., F. ReS sere
1870. Liverpool... |Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.
Prof..Odling, H-R:S.;......00.
1872. Brighton ..,
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......
8.
)
1875. Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
1876. Glasgow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,
RN.
1877. Plymouth...|W. H. Preece.........cecseeeeeees
Beno. soeield ...)]W. H. Ayrton ..srecececscsees
1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............
msl. York......... Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
F.RB.S.
1882. Southamp- | John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.
' ton.
1883. Southport |Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.B.S. ...
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. R. S. Ball, F-R.S..........
1885. Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M. A redte dade teens
1886. Birmingham Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.
1887, Manchester | Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ......
888. Bath......... Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.S.
1889. Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E.. .........
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.B.S.
891. Cardiff ...... Prof. §. P. Thompson, F.R.8.
Subject of Discourse
.|Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.
...|Experimental Illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
.| Fuel.
The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.
A Journey through Africa.
Telegraphy and the Telephone,
Electricity as a Motive Power.
The North-East Passage.
Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.
Unwritten History, and how to
read it.
Talking by Electricity—Telephones.
Comets. ,
The Nature of Explosions.
The Colours of Metals and _ their
Alloys.
Electric Lighting.
The Customs of Savage Races.
The Forth Bridge.
Spinning Tops.»
Electricity in Mining.
lxiv REPORT—1891.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
CARDIFF MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Professor Oliver J. Lodge, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir Robert Ball, F.R.S.; W. Crookes, F.R.S.; Professor
G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.; Rev. Robert Harley, F.R.S.; Professor
J. Viriamu Jones, M.A.; Professor H. Lamb, F.R.S.; Professor H.
A. Newton; Professor A. W. Riicker, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—R. HE. Baynes, M.A. (Recorder) ; J. Larmor, M.A. ; Professor
A. Lodge, M.A.; Professor A. L. Selby, M.A.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
President.—Professor W. Chandler Roberts-Austen, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir F. A. Abel, K.C.B., F.R.S.; W. Crookes, F.R.S. ;
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.; Professor G. D. Liveing, F.R.S.; Pro-
fessor H. McLeod, F.R.S.; Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S.; Ludwig
Mond, F.R.S.; Professor C. M. Thompson, M.A.
Secretaries—C. H. Bothamley, F.C.S.; H. Forster Morley, D.Sc.
(Recorder) ; W. W. J. Nicol, M.A.; G.S. Turpin, M.A.
f
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir Archibald Geikie, For.Sec.R.S.; Dr. H. Hicks,
F.R.S; Professor C. Lapworth, F.R.S.; Professor W. J. Sollas,
F.R.S.; Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A.; Professor G. Frederick
Wright; Professor F. Zirkel, Ph.D.
Secretaries.—W. Galloway; J. E. Marr, F.R.S.; Clement Reid; W. W.
Watts, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Vice-Presidents.—D. H. Scott, M.A.; Professor W. Stirling, M.D.;
Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.; Professor H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
Secretaries—F, EH. Beddard, M.A.; Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc. ;
Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc. (Recorder); George Murray, F.L.S.; Pro-
fessor W. Newton Parker, Ph.D.; Harold Wager.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. lxv
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—¥. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., F.R.8.G.S.
Vice-Presidents—Colonel Sir Francis de Winton, K.C.M.G., C.B.; H.
Seebohm, Hon. Sec. R.G.S.
Secretaries—John Coles, F.R.G.S.; J. Scott Keltie, F.R.G.S. (Re-
_ corder); A. Silva White, F.R.S.E.; Dr. Yeats.
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Professor Cunningham, D.D., D.Sc., F.8.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor ©. F. Bastable, F.S.S.; Professor F. Y.
Edgeworth, F.S.S.; Hon. Sir Charles W. Fremantle, K.C.B.; J. B.
Martin, F.8.S.
Secretaries —Professor J. Brough, LL.D.; Professor EK. C. K. Gonner,
F.S.S. (Recorder) ; Professor W. R. Sorley, M.A.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—T. Foster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.
Vice-Presidents—James Abernethy, M.Inst.C.E.; Sir Benjamin Baker,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.; J. Wolfe Barry, M.Inst.C.E.; G. Chatterton,
M.Inst.C.E. ; Professor Osborne Reynolds, F.R.S.; T. Hurry Riches,
. M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries.—Conrad W. Cooke ; Professor A. C. Elliott, D.Sc.; W. Bayley
Marshall, M.Inst.C.E.; E. Rigg, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President.— Professor F. Max Miiller, M.A.
Vice-Presidents—The Marquess of Bute, K.T.; E. W. Brabrook, F.S.A.;
J. G. Garson, M.D.; Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S.
Secretaries—G. W. Bloxam, M.A. (Recorder); H. Ling Roth; Edwin
Seward.
Ixvi REPORT—1891
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR™
Dr. THE GENERAL
From the commencement of the Leeds Meeting, 1890, and not
1890-91. RECEIPTS. b 3
s. I.
By Balance bronght forward .........:seseseceseeeee reer eeseeeenecnesenes 298 16 0
,, New Life Compositions at Leeds Meeting and since............ 250 0 0
, New Annual Members a yO pea 194 0 0
,, Annual Subscriptions . ea ecaleteatateat 598 0 0
,, Associates’ Tickets at Leeds Meeting .........:scsseeerseerees weed 010 0 0mm
,, Ladies’ Tickets 5 5) '(‘é‘éN Sain nd gs Selo we aetna 334 0 0
PP SALCTORPEURILCADIONS © ..s..c+aeesercsetireseosecvcenseasieo nese seaaneaeeee ey elle)
,, Rent received from Mathematical Society, for year ended
MEPteM Pe 20 L890. ssesaraedv ns ancacensocbnececassen ses eke eReeeeeae 1215 OF
PamateresnonlHxchequer Bills: ..........s.seccrssseoesenssseceneeeemaene 16 98
Pe iyadends On Consols... (225222. +0.0esecdo~soacsusoed sseideb as een eiee 227 18 49
Peupidencds on) India, Sper Cents: <sis.....00s.000sesseeaesaeeneenenets 105 6 OF
,, Amount received from Mr. Sclater on account of Grant ;
‘Zoology and Botany of West India Islands’ .............+. 100, 0 O@
,, Amount received from Dr. H. Woodward, being unexpended
balance of Grant for ‘ Lias Beds in Northamptonshire’... 1612 0
,, Amount received from Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, being un-
expended balance of Grant made for ‘ Electrolysis’......... 2 2 69
», Amount received from Professor M. Foster, being the unex-
pended balance of Grant made for ‘ Botanical Station at
BECTACL OMIA a cu acicires rs'osssd weudles¥sincn vv ¢ewnsueeeapeeeenee ACC sco0 20 0
£2883 16 5
Investments Account: July 31, 1891.
d
IN GW COMSOSirchnevenipesesesesiscaesev'casassbnscsicadwsececotittaaeomn 8500 6 0
LNG EDS) TSE? GEIL | -OnoeONnCUORE Ree OP CRE ee rr Game ede esol isn, 8600 0 0
Bixchequer Big viicsis.ssccssscsssesassasssccrsesuveesdioreseverentsct 2 OO
BALANCE SHEET, 1890-91.
J. H. GLADSTONE, ;
HERBERT Monsey Auditors.
July 31, 1891.
Ixvii
PAYMENTS.
‘ . f ok Freee
To Expenses of Leeds Meeting, including Printing and Adver-
tising, purchase of Banners, and payments in respect of
MWWGW: OUICES oc. cacccseccartassccces Sort Sate ee aia eee on Seed ~ S62) £03
pSMlarion ONE VEAL ULEGO—OU)....csccadeutecascccceesearce mokono hrm 60)
», Rent of Office, 22 Albemarle Street, W. (1890-91) certo Gaby
GRANTS.
eo sia Ge
Anthropometric Comamittee ........ se ce eecscecceesecseees 10 0 0
Improving Deep-sea Tow-net ..........+5 sia so, 40 0° 0
Discharge of Electricity from Points .... Acc 16 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ..... Sel aiqrejataiahaans cae nhc aD! na O
Botanical Station at Peradeniya ...........ccececcsccccnee 0 0
Variaticns of Temperature in Lakes ....... wale 00
Photographs of Meteorelogical Phenomena . 0 0
Corresponding Societies ..............05. Spyelatenaniaald 9 0 @
Investigatien of Caves at Elbolton ............-.0000- 00
North-Western Tribes of Canada ..... a iewniwle 0 @
Lias Beds of Northamptonshire.............. 00
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis Te 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of Japan.............- e020 06
MRCOG PICANRECORG | ceva siesta <i =n ctslcintasicie vis iv oo wie 0 6
Anthropological N, otes and Queries 00
HIER ENOLVEIS ea cic vais e'sicis.-'sve cise c wincie wee aw UNididaistehionis soos 00
Action of Light on “Dyes cma sie aeRe 0 0
Analysis of Iron and Steel ............-+- winislateiesioce,s%"s 0 0
Ultra-violet Rays of Solar Spectrum. Siviuiele oleic 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents in Estuaries | ta 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ...... Sioveteiseraiets 0 0
Photozraphs of Geological ‘Tuterest - iG ea laeoe 5 0
Formation of Haloid Salts ........ 0 0
Disappearance of Native Plants 00
Voleanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 0 6
Registration of Type-specimens of British Fossils ......... See 82)'G
Electrical Standards .......eseesseeevees wished GU «On.
Marine Biological Association at Plymouth . scecenservesescs. L2 10’ "0
1029 10 0
By Balance at Bank of England, Western Branch, 900 13 11
Less Cheques issued, but not presented to date 57 15 O
842 18 11
In hands of Assistant to General Treasurer ... 3° 2 3
846 1 2
£2883 16 5
d2
Table showing the Attendance and Receipt
Date of Meeting Where held Presidents
USS. Sepbe 27 «.+| MOLK ...cencuseseeseres The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
1832, ane Sen ROTO tease cen tecelase The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.5.
1833, June
1834, Sept.
1835, Aug.
1836, Aug.
1837, Sept.
1838, Aug.
1839, Aug.
1840, Sept.
1841, July
1842, June
1843, Aug.
1844, Sept.
1845, June
1846, Sept.
1847, June
1848, Aug.
1849, Sept.
1850, July
1851, July
1852, Sept.
1853, Sept.
1854, Sept.
1855, Sept.
1856, Aug.
1857, Aug.
1858, Sept.
1859, Sept.
1860, June
1861, Sept.
1862, Oct.
1863, Aug.
1864, Sept.
1865, Sept.
1866, Aug.
1867, Sept.
1868, Aug.
1869, Aug.
1870, Sept.
1871, Aug.
1872, Aug.
1873, Sept. |
1874, Aug.
1875, Aug.
1876, Sept.
1877, Aug.
1878, Aug.
1879, Aug.
1880, Aug.
1881, Aug.
1882, Aug.
1883, Sept.
1884, Aug.
1885, Sept.
1886, Sept.
1887, Aug.
1888, Sept.
1889, Sept.
1890, Sept.
1891, Aug.
27 ..
9
1
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Beit
ree,
3
..| Cambridge
...| Edinburgh
..| Dublin
.| Bristol
..| Liverpool
...| Newcastle-on-Tyne
..-| Birmingham.........
..| Glasgow
.| Plymouth
.--| Manchester
.-| Cork
ne] MOTI
...| Cambridge
..| Southampton
.| Oxford
...| Swansea
...| Birmingham.........
..| Edinburgh
sec]| Warsioialcleleppneceacqasec
...| Belfast
.| Hull
.| Liverpool
-| Glasgow
; Oxford
...| Manchester
.| Cambridge
ey Bah
...| Southampton
19...| Southport
.| Montreal
.| Aberdeen
.| Birmingham..
.| Manchester
...| Leeds
UG heese
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we eeeeeee
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.| Norwich
.| Exeter
..| Liverpool
...| Edinburgh
..| Brighton
...| Bradford
...| Belfast
..| Bristol
..-| Glasgow
..| Plymouth
4s) Dwiloilinay Sa seapaaees ‘:
.| Sheffield
.| Swansea
Pee OT ke
eee ew eeee
sent e eee eeeeres
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Bath \heemsesececstcees
Newcastle-on-Tyne
The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L.......
The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne .
The Earl of Burlington, F.R. S.
The Duke of Northumberland
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
The Marquis of Breadalbane..
The Rev. W. Whewell, F RS.
The Lord Francis Egerton......
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.......
The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart.......
The Marquis of Northampton
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
Sir David Brewster, K.H.......
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S8.
William Hopkins, F.R.S. ......
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.
The Rev.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
H.R.H. the Prince Consort .
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...
The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.5.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.......
Prof. T. i atoxley, bee eecs
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. .
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S
Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R. aa F
Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., F. R. s.
Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F R.S.
Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B. os
Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G.,F os
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,F
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.
Prof. W.H. Flower, ee B.,
Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.
Dr. W. Huggins, 1 R. Sas
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S.
SirJohn Hawkshaw,C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.RB.S.
Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S....
Old Life
Members
New Life
Members )
"z
Mid Annual| New Annual
Members
Attended by
Asso-
ciates
Ladies
1100*
60*
331*
160
260
172
196
203
197
237
273
141
292
236
524
543
346
569
509
821
463
791
242
1004
1058
508
771
771
682
600
910
754
912
601
630
672
712
283
674
349
147
514
189
841
74
447
429
493
509
579
334
107
it Annual Meetings of the Association.
Foreigners
Amount
received
Sums paid on
Account of
Cn Pee
SDOUAME wasvcaccs Ul Uleneceunteves 1831
see LAP cenaaoeridetllt. = aesticscwscs 1832
SOKO UME Rescnconerm dl hilecsordocearss 1833
WPASES |) Bopanccod £20 0 O| 1834
dade< ||| 9 eefigabecta 167 O O |} 1835
VS) os enero 435 0 O | 1836
MSEOF || seeciee aa 922 12 6 | 1837
ZOO) |) vevatesinncie 932 2 21] 1838
Vela oteretccee 1595 11 O | 1839
Sern lt lreaiatict eis 1546 16 4 | 1840
GOMES cerncccaes 1235 10 11 | 1841
UB UESYIE emenenada. 1449 17 8 | 1842
Batt |Pececeits ote 1565 10 2 | 1843
Scan We aeeeneaae 98112 8 | 1844
110743 | eee 831 9 9 | 1845
SDT deses av dee 685 16 0 |} 1846
PEZOR IM Mescnnnany 208 5 4 | 1847
819 | £707 0 0 275 1 8 | 1848
1071 963 0 0 159 19 6] 1849
1241 | 1085 0 0 345 18 O | 1850
710 620 0 0 391 9 7 | 185k
1108 | 1085 0 0 304 6 7 | 1852
876 903 0 0 205 0 0} 1853
1802 | 1882 0 0 380 19 7 | 1854
2133 | 2311 0 0 480 16 4 | 1855
1115 | 1098 0 0 734 13 9 | 1856
2022 | 2015 0 0 507 15 4 | 1857
1698 | 19381 0 0 618 18 2 | 1858
2564 | 2782 0 0 684 11 1 | 1859
1689 | 1604 0 0 766 19 6 | 1860
3188 | 39440 0/1111 5 10} 1861
1161 | 1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6 | 1862
3335 | 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 | 1863
2802 | 2965 0 0 | 1289 15 8 | 1864
1997 | 2227001 1591 7 10 | 1865
2303 | 2469 0 0 | 1750 13 4 | 1866
2444 | 2613 00] 1739 4 O | 1867
2004 | 2042 0 0} 1940 O OO] 1868
1856 | 1931 0 0 | 1622 O O | 1869
2878 | 3096 0 0] 1572 O 0} 1870
2463 | 2575 0 0 | 1472 2 6) 1871
2533 | 264900] 1285 O 0 | 1872
1983 | 2120 0 0} 1685 O 0O | 1873
1951 | 1979 0 0] 1151 16 O |} 1874
2248 | 2397 0 0 960 0 O| 1875
2774. | 3023 0 0 | 1092 4 2 | 1876
1229 | 1268001] 1128 9 7 | 1877
2578 | 2615 0 0 725 16 6 | 1878
1404 | 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11 | 1879
915 899 0 0 731 7 7 | 1880
2557 | 2689 0 0 476 3 1 | 1881
1253 | 1286 0 0 | 1126 1 11 | 1882
2714 | 2369001} 1083 3 3 | 1883
1777 | 1538 0 0|1173 4 O| 1884
2203 | 2256 00/1385 O O | 1885
2453 | 2532 0 0 995 0 6 | 1886
3838 | 4336 0 0 | 1186 18 0O | 1887
1984 | 2107 00} 1511 O 5) 1888
2437 | 2441 0 0] 1417 O11 | 1889
1775 | 17760 0 789 16 8 | 1890
1497 | 1664 0 0 | 1029 10 O |} 1891
§ Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1892.
PRESIDENT.
WILLIAM HUGGINS, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. FR.S.E,, F.R.A.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hon. Lord Winpson, Lord-Lientenant | Six J.T. D. LLewEyn, Bart., F.ZS.
of Glamorganshire. Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D., D.Sce., For. See.
The Most Hon. the Marquess or Burn, K.T. RS., ¥.R.S.E., Pres. G.S, Director-General of
The Right Hon. Lorp RayLeren, M.A., D.C.L., the Geological Survey of the United King-
LL.D., Sec. B.S., F.R.A.S., F.B.G.S. dom.
The Right Hon. Lorp TREDEGAR. Sir Roperr BauL, F.B.S., Royal Astronomer of
The Right Hon. Lond ARERDARE, G.C.B., F.R.S., Ireland.
F.R.G.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
Sm ARCHIBALD GBIKIE, LL.D., D.Sc., For. Suc. B.S., F.R.S.E., Pres. G.S., Director-General of
the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon, the Lorp Provosr ov Epiv- | Principal Sir Witt1aM Murr, K.CS.I.
BURGH. Professor Sir DoUGLAS MACLAGAN, M.D., Pres.R.S.E.
The Most Hon, the Marquess oF Lornian, K.T. Professor Sir WiLL1AM TURNER, F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
The Right Hon. the EARL oF RosEpery, LL.D., Professor P. G. Tarr, M.A., F.R.S.E,
F.R.S., F.R.S,E. Professor A. CRUM BROWN, M_D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E,,
The Right Hon. Lorp KinessurGH, C.B., LL.D., Pres, C.S.
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Doucias Garon, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, 8. W.
A. G. Virnon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. Grirritu, Esq., M.A., F.C.S., Harrow.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR W- Ricker, M.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURGH,
Professor G. F. ARMSTRONG, M.A., C.E., F. Grant OcILvin, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.8.E.
F.R.S.E., F.G.S-, JOHN HARRISON, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURGH.
ADAM GILLIES SMiTH, Esq., C.A.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
ANDERSON, Dr, W., F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
AYkTON, Professor W. E., F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor W., F.R.S.
BakuER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. RgINOLD, Professor A. W., F.B.S.
Bares, H. W., Esq., F.RS. ROBERTS-AUSTEN, Professor W.C.,C.B.,F.R.S.
DARWIN, Professor G. H., F.R.S. ScHAFeErR, Professor E. A., F.R.S.
DouG ass, Sir J. N., F.R.S. Scuousver, Professor A., F.B.S,
EDGEWORTH, Professor F. Y., M.A, SIpGWIck, Professor H., M.A.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq. F.R.S.
FITZGERALD, Professor G. F., F.R.S. THORPE, Professor T. E., F.R.8.
GLAZEBROOK, R. T., Esq., F.R.S. Wand, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S.
JUDD, Professor J. W., F.R.S. WuHivakep, W., Esq., F.RS.
LivEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S. Woopwarp, Dr. H. F.R.S.
Lopes, Professor OLIVER J., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and forrner years, and the Local Treasurers and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT),
The Right Hon. Sir Joun Luepocs, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., P.L.S.
The Right Hon. LorD RaYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. B.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon Piayrarr, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
Sir G. B. Airy, K.0.B., F.R.S. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec. R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. | Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, Pres.R.8.! Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S,
HS
F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. | Sir Win. Dawson, C.M.G.
L.
Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B , F.R.S,
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir H. &. Roscoe, D.C.L., P.R.S.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. | Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S.
sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir Frederick Abel, K.C,B., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
¥. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Prof. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Dr.T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.0.8. Prof, Bonney, Dake, F.R.S.
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S. | Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S. | J. B. Martin, Esq., M.A., F.S.8,
lxx?
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Council for the year 1890-91, presented to the General
Committee at Cardiff, on Wednesday, August 19, 1891.
. The Council have received the usual Financial Reports from the
General Treasurer, during the past year, and his account for the year
1890-91, which was audited on the 31st July will be presented to the
General Committee a
The Council were informed by Dr. Williamson in the early part of the
year that he would be unable to allow himself to be nominated to the
office of General Treasurer at the present meeting of the Association, and
that, as he would not be able to attend the meeting at Cardiff, he
wished to continue in office only until the commeneement of that
meeting.
_ Dr. Williamson was appointed to succeed Mr. Spottiswoode in the
year 1874, and during this long period of seventeen years his wise and
calm judgment has afforded the Council, on all occasions of difficulty,
most valuable assistance.
_ The Council recommend that, in accordance with the wish expressed
by Dr. Williamson, a successor to his office be appointed at this meeting,
and they have much pleasure in recommending to the General Committce
that Professor Arthur W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S., be elected General
Treasurer, and that he be requested to enter at once upon the duties of
the office.
Lord Rayleigh, one of the Vice-Presidents elect, will not be able to
attend the meeting. The Council recommend that Sir Robert Ball, Royal
Astronomer of Ireland, be elected Vice-President.
_ The Council received a letter from the Board of Trade requesting
hem to appoint one or two members of a committee about to be formed
or considering the standards for the measurement of the ohm, the
mpere, and the volt. The Council appointed Professor G. Carey Foster
nd Mr. R. T. Glazebrook members of this committee.
_ The Council have elected the following Foreign Men of Science, who
ttended the last Meeting of the Association, Corresponding Members :—
Prof. Brentano, Munich. Dr. Otto Pettersson, Stockholm.
Prof. V. Dwelshauvers-Dery, Liége. Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, Readyville,
Prof. Mascart, Paris. Mass., U.S.A.
Prof. W. Ostwald, Leipzig. Prof. J. H. van’t Hoff, Amsterdam.
Signor Maffeo Pantaleoni, Bari.
__ An invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association at Not-
tingham inthe year 1893 has been received, and will be presented to
_ the General Committee on Monday.
xxii REPORT—1891.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if :
desirable :—
(A) ‘ That the Council consider and report whether grants should be made from
the funds of the Association for other than specific researches by specified
individuals.’ :
The Council consider that grants should not be made to any single
institution, or in support of a single object, for many years 1n succession.
It must be distinctly understood that the aid given by the Association to
any particular scientific institution or investigator must necessarily be
limited and intermittent. :
The Council are of opinion that grants in aid of research should not
be made, except for specified subjects, and under such circumstances that
satisfactory assurances can be given to the General Committee as to the
person or persons by whom the research is to be carried out.
(B) ‘That it is desirable that the question of publishing the papers more fully
and expeditiously, and of adding reports of discussions, be considered by the
Council.’
The Council are informed that steps have been taken to insure a more
expeditious publication of the Annual Report.
They do not recommend that papers should be published more fully ;
nor do they recommend that discussions should be published, excepting —
in special cases when this is strongly advocated by Sectional Committees,
and approved of by the General Committee. They recommend that, in
every such case, an arrangement be made by the General Officers for the
proper editing of the discussion.
(C) ‘That in the arrangement of the Journal it is desirable, in the interests of
clearness and of ease of reference, to return to the old practice of printing first the
papers to be read in the various Sections, then the papers read on the previous day
in those Sections, and lastly the list of Sectional Ofticers and of the Committees.’
The Council recommend that the papers to be read in the various
Sections be printed first, then the lists of the Committees, and lastly the
papers read on the previous day, and that each page should have a suit-
able heading.
(D) ‘That the Council be requested, if possible, to fix the date of each meeting
two years before it is held, and to bear in mind that the middle or latter part of
September is the time most convenient to many members of the Association.
The Council considered that it is not practicable to fix the date of the
Annual Meeting two years before it is held. They recommend that infor-
mation be obtained at as early a date as possible as to the times which
are convenient to the town where a meeting is to be held, and that the
authorities in such town be informed that the last fortnight in September
is most generally convenient to academical and other important Sections
of the members of the Association.
(Z) ‘ That the hours at which the Sections and i i S
sidered by the Council.’ mn
The Council have requested the Organising Committees to propose to
the Council times for the meetings of their respective Committees and
Sections, and recommend that these proposals be adopted for the Cardiff
Meeting as an experimental measure.
j
.
Fr
|
y
t
q
’
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxili
_ (®) ‘That a general Index to the Reports of the Committees of the Association,
and of all papers ordered to be printed in extenso, be published, and that the Council
be authorised to spend such sums as may be necessary for the purpose.’
The Council resolved that the Index to the Annual Reports of the
Association be continued from the year 186} to 1890 inclusive, and that
it consist of one part only. References to Abstracts of Papers will be
printed in italics.
(G) ‘That the Council urge upon the Government to take steps to hasten the
completion of the Ordnance Survey, and to afford greater facilities for the purchase
of the Survey Maps.’
The Council having ascertained that the maps of the Ordnance Survey
are neither known to nor used by the public nearly to the extent they
should be, considering their value and the vast sums of money which
have been expended on their production, and that this neglect arises from
various causes, chief among which are the very defective arrangements
made for the sale of the maps to the public, the obsolete topography of a
large portion of the Survey, and the want of legal authority for the
boundaries shown by the maps, resolved to make to the Government the
following suggestions, with a view to the removal of the present obstacles
to the usefulness of the maps :—
(1) That some modification be made in the present character of
arrangements for the sale of the maps of the Ordnance Survey, whereby
the maps may become more accessible to the public.
(2) That such additions be made to the Parliamentary grant for the
Ordnance Survey as will enable the revision to be made more complete,
and the arrears to be brought up to date within a reasonable time.
(3) That the boundaries and areas of the Ordnance Survey maps be
made legal boundaries and areas in England and Scotland, as they
already are in Ireland, so that they may form a basis for all valuation for
local or imperial assessments.
This memorandum was communicated to the President of the Board
of Agriculture, together with the following letter from the President of
the Association :—
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.,
March 11, 1891.
_ Sir,—I have the honour to invite your consideration of the accompanying memo-
randum, conveying the conclusions of the Council of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, on the subject of representations made to them in the form
of a resolution passed at the last Annual Meeting of the British Association, held at
Leeds in 1890, relating to some points of importance connected with the Ordnance
‘Survey and its value to Her Majesty’s dominions generally.
Ihave to express the hope that you will feel disposed to invite the favourable
consideration of Her Majesty’s Government to the recommendations included in the
Memorandum in question, and to state that, should you desire any further informa-
tion upon the subjects to which these recommendations relate, the Council of the
British Association will be happy to arrange for a deputation to wait upon you for
the purpose of affording you such additional information.
I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant,
(Signed) F. A. ABEL, President.
The Right Hon. HENRY CHAPLIN, M.P.,
President of the Board of Agriculture.
lxxiv REPORT—1891.
The following reply from the Board of Agriculture has been
received :—
Board of Agriculture, March 14, 1891.
Sir,—I am directed by Mr. Chaplin to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the llth inst., forwarding a memorandum on the Ordnance Survey, and to say that
the subject will have due consideration. :
I am, yours faithfully,
To Sir F. ABEL, C.B., F.R.S., &c., &c. (Signed) P. H. BAGENAL.
(H) ‘That the Council be requested to consider the question of watching the
operation of Acts relating to Scientific and Technical Education, and to take such
steps as may seem desirable for furthering the objects of those Acts.’
The Council considered this Resolution, and are of opinion that there
is no necessity at the present time for them to take any action.
(1) ‘That the Council be requested to consider whether it is not desirable to
make special provision for the comprehensive consideration by the Association of
questions relating to Scientific and Technical Education.’
With regard to this Resolution, the Council understand that the chief
object of the Sectional Committee which originated it was to have
general discussions on scientific and technical questions organised, in
which members of the various Sections who have a special knowledge of
these questions should take part.
The Council consider that the Sectional Committees have sufficient
powers to deal with this proposal severally and jointly.
(J) ‘That the paper by Mr. J. F. Green on “Steam Life-boats” be printed in
extenso, with the necessary drawings.’
The Council decided that an abstract only of this paper should be
rinted.
‘ The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee has been re-
ceived, and will be presented to the General Committee.
The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Professor A. W. William-
son, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson
Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, and
Professor T. G. Bonney, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the
General Committee, together with Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.
The Council nominate Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., Chairman, Dr. J. G.
Garson, F.Z.S., Vice-Chairman, and Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S., Secre-
tary to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to be
held during the Meeting at Cardiff.
In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the Council,
exclusive of Professor Riicker (who is recommended for the office of
Treasurer), will be :—
Mr. Blanford. Mr. J. B. Martin.
Mr. Crookes, | Capt. Wharton.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are distin-
guished by an asterisk in the following list :—
lerson, Dr. W,, F.R.S.
4 on, Prof. W. E., F.R.S.
Baker, Sir B., K.0.M.G., F.R.S,
*Bates, 18 Ww. Esq,, F. R, §,
Warwin, Prof. G. H., F.B.S.
‘Douglass, Sir J. N., F.R,S.
f M
ia Prof. i) , W.
c
fo)
oy
iio)
As
fd
oe]
(2)
frre
Co)
bare,
=
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aed
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Preece, W. H., Esq.,
*Ramsay, Prof. W,,
Reinold, Prof. A, W
Lb]
Roberts-Austen, Aer
Schafer, Prof. E. A.,
Schuster, Prof, A,,
Sidgwick, Prof. H., M.A.
*Symons, G, J., Esq.,
Thorpe, Prof. T. E., F.
Ward, Prof. Marshall,
Whitaker, Wes al F.
Woodward, Dr, H
anes
Ixxvi
REPORT—1891.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Carpirk Merrtine 1n August 1891.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.
[This grant includes 171. 4s. 6d.,
the unexpended balance of last
year’s grant. |
Co-operating with the Scottish Me-
teorological Society in making
Meteorological Observations on
Ben Nevis.
The Application of Photography
to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.
For Calculating Tables of certain
Mathematical Functions, and,
if necessary, for taking steps to
carry out the Calculations, and
to publish the results in an
accessible form.
Carrying on the Tables connected
with the Pellian Equation from
the point where the work was
left by Degen in 1817.
[This grant includes 5/., the un-
expended balance of a previous
grant. |
Chairman. — Professor Carey
Foster.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir William Thomson, Professors
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Lord Rayleigh, Drs. O. J.
Lodge, John Hopkinson, and A.
Muirhead, Messrs. W. H. Preece
and Herbert Taylor, Professors
Everett and Schuster, Dr. J. A.
Fleming, Professors G. F. Fitz-
gerald, Chrystal, and J. J. Thom-
son, Messrs. W. N. Shaw, J. T.
Bottomley,and T. C. Fitzpatrick,
Professor J. Viriamu Jones, Dr.
G. Johnstone Stoney, and Pro-
fessor S. P. Thompson.
Chairman.—Lord McLaren.
Secretary.— Professor Crum Brown.
Messrs. John Murray and Buchan,
Professor R. Copeland, and Hon.
R, Abercromby.
Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Secretary.—Mr. Clayden.
Professor Meldola and Mr, John
Hopkinson.
Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.
Secretary.—Professor A. Lodge.
Sir William Thomson, Professor
Cayley, Professor B. Price, and
Messrs. J. W. L. Glaisher, A. G.
Greenhill, and W. M. Hicks.
Chairman.—Professor Cayley.
Seeretary.—Professor A. Lodge.
Professor Sylvester and Mr. A. R.
Forsyth.
Grants
ES |
27 46
J
50 00}
15 00
15 00
15 1070
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Po
Considering the subject of Elec-
trolysis in its Physical and
Chemical Bearings.
To investigate the Phenomena ac-
compenying the Discharge of
Electricity from Points.
The Volcanic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan.
To consider the best Method of
establishing an International
Standard for the Analysis of
Tron and Steel.
[This grant is the unexpended
balance of last year’s grant. ]
| The Investigation of the direct
Formation of MHaloids from
| pure Materials.
| [This grant includes 57. 6s., the
| unexpended balance of last
_ year’s grant. ]
| The Action of Light upon Dyed
| Colours.
nnn EEE
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Ixxvili
Members of the Committee
Grants
Chairman.—Professor Fitzgerald.
Secretaries. — Professors H. E.
Armstrong and O. J. Lodge.
Professors Sir William Thomson,
Lord Rayleigh, J. J. Thomson,
Schuster, Poynting, Crum
Brown, Ramsay, Frankland,
Tilden, Hartley, 8. P. Thomp-
son, Roberts-Austen, Riicker,
Reinold, Carey Foster, and H. B.
Dixon, Captain Abney, Drs.
Gladstone, Hopkinson, and
Fleming, and Messrs. Crookes,
Shelford Bidwell, W. N. Shaw,
J. Larmor, J. T. Bottomley,
R. T. Glazebrook, J. Brown,
E. J. Love, and John M. Thom-
son.
Chairman.—Professor O. J. Lodge.
Secretary.—Mr. A. P. Chattock.
Professor Carey Foster.
Chairman.—Sir Wm. Thomson.
Secretary.—FProfessor J. Milne.
Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. J. T.
Bottomley, and Professor A. H.
Green.
Chairman. — Professor Roberts-
Austen.
Secretary.—Mr. Thomas Turner.
Sir F. Abel, Messrs. E. Riley and
J. Spiller, Professor J. W. Lang-
ley, Mr. G. J. Snelus, and Pro-
fessor Tilden.
Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr.
C. H. Bothamley.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Til-
den.
Seeretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor Ramsay.
Chairman.— Professor Thorpe.
Secretary.—Professor J. J. Hum-
mel.
Dr. Perkin, Professor Russell,
Captain Abney, and Professor
Stroud.
oth
50
10
10
10
o?
i
00
00
16 0
5 0
00
00
Ixxvili
1. Recewing Grants of Money
REPORT—1891,
continued.
nn
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Cha-
racters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest con-
nected with the same, and tak-
ing measures for their preserva-
tion.
[This grant includes 102. granted
last year but not drawn. |
The Description and Illustration
of the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Paleozoic Rocks.
[This grant was drawn last year,
but was not spent. |
The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological in-
terest.
To consider the best Methods for
the Registration of all Type
Specimens of Fossils in the
British Isles, and to report on
the same.
The Circulation of the Under-
ground Waters in the Permeable
Formations of England, and
the Quality and Quantity of
the Waters supplied to various
Towns and Districts from these
Formations.
To complete the Investigation of
the Cave at Elbolton, near Skip-
ton, in order to ascertain whether
the remains of Paleolithic Man
occur in the Lower Cave Earth.
To investigate the Extent and the
Faunal Contents of the Sowerbyi
Zone, and its Relationship to the
concavum and Sauzei Zones.
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor J. Prest-
wich.
Secretary.—Dr. H. W. Crosskey.
Professors W. Boyd Dawkins, T.
McK. Hughes, and T. G. Bonney
and Messrs. C. E. De Rance,
P. F. Kendall, W. Pengelly, J.
Plant, and R. H. Tiddeman.
Chairman.—Rev. Prof. T. Wilt-
shire.
Secretary —Yrofessor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.
Secretary.—Mr. O. W. Jeffs.
Professors Bonney and Boyd Daw-
kins, Drs. V. Ball and T. Ander-
son, and Messrs. A. 8. Reid, E. J.
Garwood, W. Gray, H. B. Wood-
ward, J. E. Bedford, R. Kidston,
W. W. Watts, J. W. Davis, and
Rk. H. Tiddeman.
Chairman,—Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary —Mr, A. Smith Wood-
ward.
Rey. G. F. Whidborne and Messrs.
R. Kidston and J. E. Marr,
Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.
Secretary.—Mr. C, E. De Rance.
Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Sir D. Gal-
ton, Professor J. Prestwich, and
Messrs. J. Glaisher, P. Kendall,
E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, W.
Pengelly, J. Plant, I. Roberts,
T. 8S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W.
Topley, Tylden - Wright, E.
Wethered, and W. Whitaker.
Chairman.—My. J. W. Davis.
Secretary.—Rev. BE. Jones,
Drs. J. Evans and J. G. Garson
and Messrs. W. Pengelly, R. H.
Tiddeman, and J. J. Wilkinson.
Chairman.—Professor T, Rupert
Jones.
Secretary.—Mr. 8. 8. Buckman.
Rey. Professor T, Wiltshire.
Grants
ef. tsidds
15 00
10 00
20 00
5 Ow
10 00
25 00
10 00
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To carry on Excavations at Old-
bury Hill,near Ightham, in order
to ascertain the existence or
otherwise of Rock Shelters at
that spot.
Completion of a Report on the
Cretaceous Polyzoa.
To appoint Mr. Willey to investi-
gate the Morphology of the
Ascidians at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples, or, failing this,
to appoint some other competent
investigator to carry on a defi-
nite piece of work at the Zoolo-
gical Station at Naples approved
by the Council.
To arrange for the Occupation of
a Table at the Laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association,
Plymouth.
For improving and experimenting
with a Deep-sea Tow-net for
opening and closing under water.
[This includes 27/. 14s. 6d. granted
last year but not drawn. |
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the Fauna,
with power to co-operate with
the Committee appointed for
the purpose by the Royal Society,
and to avail themselves of such
assistance in their investiga-
tions as may be offered by the
Hawaiian Government.
‘[100/. granted last year but not
drawn. |
To report on the present state of
| our Knowledge of the Zoology
and Botany of the West India
Islands, and to take steps to in-
vestigate ascertained deficien-
Secretary.—Mr. G. Murray.
Mr. Carruthers, Drs. Giinther and
Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
Professor Newton, and Dr, D. H.
Scott.
xxix
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Members of the Committee Grants
£ 3..d.
Chairman.—Dr. J. Evans. 25 00
Secretary.—Mzr. B. Harrison.
Professors Prestwich and H. G.
Seeley.
Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward. 10 00
Secretary.—Mr. G. R. Vine.
Professor T. Rupert Jones and Dr.
H. C. Sorby.
Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater. 100 00
Secretary.—Mr. Percy Sladen.
Professors Ray Lankester, Cossar
Ewart, M. Foster,and A. Milnes
Marshall and Mr. Sedgwick.
Chairman. — Professor E. Ray | 17 10 0
Lankester.
Secretary.—Mr. 8. F. Harmer.
Professors M. Foster and S. H.
Vines.
Chairman.—Professor A. C. Had- 40 00
don.
Secretary.—Mr. W. B. Hoyle.
Professor W. A. Herdman,
Chairman.—Professor Newton. 100 00
Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.
Dr. Blanford, Dr. Hickson, Pro-
fessor Riley, Mr. Salvin, Dr.
Sclater, and Mr. Edgar A.
Smith,
Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater. 100 00
lxxx
REPORT—1891.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject of Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Climatological and Hydrographi-
cal Conditions of Tropical
Africa,
For carrying on the Work of the
Anthropometric Laboratory.
Exploration of Prehistoric Remains
in Mashonaland.
The Physical Characters, Lan-
guages, and Industrial and So-
cial Condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada.
The Habits, Customs, Physical
Characteristics, and Religions
of the Natives of India.
Editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthro-
pological Notes and Queries.’
Corresponding Societies’ Com-
mittee.
Chairman.—Myr. E. G. Ravenstein.
Secretary.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Mr. Baldwin Latham.
Chairman.—Professor Flower.
Secretary.—Dr. Garson.
Mr. Bloxam and Dr. Wilberforce
Smith.
Chairman.—Dr. J. G. Garson.
Seeretary.—Mr. J. Theodore Bent.
Mr. Rudler, Mr. Brabrook, and
Mr. Bloxam.
Chairman.—Dr. E. B. Tylor.
Secretary.—Mr. Bloxam.
Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr. G. M. Daw-
son, Mr. R. G. Haliburton, and
Mr. H. Hale.
Chairman.—Sir William Turner.
Secretary.—Mr. Bloxam.
Professor Flower, Drs. Garson
and E. B. Tylor, and Mr. H. H.
Risley.
Chairman.—Professor Flower.
. Seeretary.—Dr. Garson,
Dr, Beddoe, General Pitt-Rivers,
Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. E. B.
Tylor, and Mr. Brabrook.
Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Secretary.—Professor R. Meldola.
Mr. Francis Galton, Professor A.
W. Williamson, Sir Douglas
Galton, Professor Boyd Daw-
kins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Dr. John Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
Bonney, Mr. W. Whitaker,
General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W.
Topley, and Mr. T. V. Holmes.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To co-operate with Dr. Piazzi Smyth in
his Researches on the Ultra Violet
Rays of the Solar Spectrum.
100
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Professor Liveing.
Secretary.—Dr. Piazzi Smyth.
Professors Dewar and Schuster.
00
00
00
00
00
00
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
-
lxxxi
, 2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Meteoric Dust.
Water.
servations.
| Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation.
| To co-operate with Dr. Kerr in his
researches on Hiectro-optics.
The various Phenomena connected with
the recalescent Points in Iron and
other Metals.
| To consider the establishment of a
National Physical Laboratory for the
more accurate determination of Phy-
sical Constants, and for other Quanti-
tative Research, and to confer with
the Council of the Association.
Modes of measuring the Optical Con-
| stants of Microscopic, Photographic,
and other Lenses, and of specifying
and enumerating the Properties of
their Combinations.
1891.
The Collection and Identification of
The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Mr. John Murray.
Secretary.—Mr. John Murray.
Professor Schuster, Sir William Thom-
son, the Abbé Renard, Mr. A. Buchan,
the Hon. R. Abercromby, and Dr. M.
Grabham.
Chairman.—Professor Everett.
Secretary.—Professor Everett.
Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr. G.
J. Symons, Sir A. C. Ramsay, Sir A.
Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly,
Professor Edward Hull, Professor
Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Pro-
fessor A. S. Herschel, Professor G. A.
Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Gallo-
way, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, Mr. A. Stra-
han, and Professor Michie Smith.
Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Secretary.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Sir W. Thomson, Professors G. H. Dar-
win and G. Chrystal, Mr. C. H. Carp-
mael, Professor Schuster, Mr. G. M.
Whipple, Captain Creak, the Astro-
nomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis, and
Professor A. W. Riicker.
Chairman.—Sir G. G. Stokes.
Secretary.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Professor Schuster, Mr. G. Johnstone
Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain
Abney, Mr. Whipple, and Professor
M‘Leod.
Chairman.— Dr. John Kerr.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir W. Thomson and Professor Riicker.
Chairman.—Frofessor Fitzgerald.
Secretary.—Professor Barrett.
Dr. John Hopkinson, Mr. R. A. Hadfield,
Mr. Trouton, Professor Roberts-Austen,
and Mr. H. F. Newall. by
Chairman.— Professor Oliver J. Lodge.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir William Thomson, Lord Rayleigh,
Professors J. J. Thomson, Riicker,
Clifton, Fitzgerald, Carey Foster, and
J. Viriamu Jones.
Chairman.—Professor G. C. Foster.
Secretary.—Professor S. P. Thompson.
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, J. Walker, Sir
Howard Grubb, Mr. Whipple, and
Captain Abney.
e
Ixxxii
REPORT—1891.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To examine and report how greater
uniformity may be introduced into
the Record of Spectroscopic Work.
Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.
To report on recent Inquiries into the
History of Chemistry.
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
Preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectraof the Elements.
The Influence of the Silent Discharge
of Electricity on Oxygen and other
Gases.
The Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of
Oxygen.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives
Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds.
To inquire into the Proximate Chemical
Constituents of the various kinds of
Coals
The Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of
England and Wales, and the Influence
of the Artificial Abstraction of
Shingle or other material in that
action,
Chairman.—Dr. Johnstone Stoney,
Secretary.—Dr. Johnstone Stoney.
Dr. Huggins and Professor Liveing.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professors M‘Leod, Pickering, Ramsay,
and Young and Dr. A. R. Leeds.
Chairman.—Professor H. EH. Armstrong.
Secretary.—Professor John Ferguson.
Chairman.—Professor H. M‘Leod.
Secretary.—Professor Roberts-Austen.
Professor Reinold and Mr. H. G. Madan.
Chairman.—Sir H. EH. Roscoe.
Seeretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.
Mr. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, Liveing,
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott
Gibbs, and Captain Abney.
Chairman.—Professor H. M‘Leod.
Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor Ramsay and Mr. J. T. Cundall.
Chairman.—Dr. Russell.
Secretary.—Dr. A. Richardson,
Captain Abney and Professors Noel
Hartley and W. Ramsay.
Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Chairman.—General Festing.
Secretary.—Dr. H. E. Armstrong.
Captain Abney.
Chairman.—Sir I. Lowthian Bell.
Secretary.—Professor P. Phillips Bedson.
Mr. Ludwig Mond, Professors Vivian B. |
Lewes and E. Hull, and Messrs. J. W.
Thomas and H. Bauerman.
Chairman.—Mr. R. B. Grantham.
Secretaries.—Messrs. C. E. De Rance and
W. Topley.
Messrs. J. B. Redman, W. Whitaker, and
J. W. Woodall, Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Clarke,
Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Sir J. N.
Douglass, Capt. Sir G. Nares, Capt.
J. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton,
Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. E.
Easton, J. 8. Valentine, and L. F.
Vernon Harcourt.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITIER,
2. Not recewing Grants of Money—continued.
4
”
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
| To undertake the Investigation of the
| Sources of the River Aire, and also to
test the value of Uranin and other
Dyes in investigating the Courses of
Underground Streams.
| The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius
| and its neighbourhood.
_ | Considering the advisability and possi-
| bility of establishing in other parts
of the country Observations upon the
Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar
to those now being made in Durham
in connection with coal-mine explo-
sions.
| To consider a project for investigating
the Structure of a Coral Reef by
Boring and Sounding.
Disappearance of Native Plants from
their Local Habitats.
To make a Digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Light-vessels.
_ For taking steps to establish a Botanical
Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon.
| To consider proposals for the Legislative
| Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs.
| The Teaching of Science in Elementary
| Schools.
Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.
Secretary.—Professor Silvanus P. Thomp-
son.
Mr. J. Birbeck, Mr. Walter Morrison,
M.P., Rev. G. Style, and Mr. Thomas
Tate.
Chairman.—Mr. H. Bauerman.
Secretary.—Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis.
Messrs. F. W. Rudler and J. J. H. Teall.
Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Seerctary.—Mr. C. Davison.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Mr. E. A. Cowper,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor
Ewing, Mr. Isaac Roberts, Mr. Thomas
Gray, Dr. John Evans, Professors Prest-
wich, Hull, Lebour, Meldola, and Judd,
Mr. M. Walton Brown, and Mr. J.
Glaisher,
Chairman.—Professor T. G. Bonney.
Secretary.—Professor W. J. Sollas.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Professors A. H.
Green, J. W. Judd, and C. Lapworth,
Captain Wharton, Drs. H. Hicks and J.
Murray, and Mr. F. Darwin.
Chairman.—Mr. A. W. Wills.
Secretary.—Professor W. Hillhouse.
Messrs. E. W. Badger and George Cla-
ridge Druce.
Chairman.—Professor Newton.
Seeretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.
Messrs. John A. Harvie-Brown, R. M.
Barrington, and W. H. Clarke and the
Rev. E. P. Knubley.
Chairman.—PFrofessor M. Foster.
Secretary.—Professor F', O. Bower.
Professor Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thiselton-
Dyer, Dr. Trimen, Professor Marshall
Ward, Mr. Carruthers, Professor Har-
tog, and Mr. W. Gardiner.
Chairman.—Mr. Thomas Henry Thomas.
Secretary.—Dr. C. T. Vachell.
Professors W. N. Parker, Newton, and
Leipner, Mr. Poulton,
Tristram.
Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.
Secretary.—Professor H. HE. Armstrong.
Mr. 8. Bourne, Dr. Crosskey, Mr. George
Gladstone, Mr. J. Heywood, Sir J.
Lubbock, Sir Philip Magnus, Professor
N. Story Maskelyne, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Sir R. Temple, and Professor Silvanus P.
Thompson.
e2
]xxxiil
and Canon
Ixxxiv
REPORT—1891.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Intermarriage between widely dis-
similar Peoples inhabiting the same
Country.
The Prehistoric and Ancient Remains
of Glamorganshire.
Chairman.—Professor F. Max Miiller.
Secretary.—Mr. H. Ling Roth.
Dr. E. B. Tylor.
Chairman.—Lord Aberdare.
Secretary.—Mx. E. Seward.
Lord Bute, Messrs. G. T. Clark, R. W.
Atkinson, Franklen G. Evans, C. Tan-
field Vachell, James Bell, and T. H.
Thomas, and Dr. Garson.
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee.
That Mr. W. N. Shaw be requested to continue his Report on the present state of
our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.
That the Report on Thermodynamics presented by Dr. J. Larmor and Mr. G. H..
Bryan be printed among the Reports.
That Dr. J. Larmor and Mr. G. H. Bryan be requested to continue their Report
on the present state of our knowledge in Thermodynamics, specially with regard to -
the Second Law.
That Professor H. A. Newton’s paper on ‘The Action of a Planet upon Small’
Bodies passing near the Planet, with special reference to the Action of Jupiter upon
such Bodies,’ be printed in ewtenso in the Report of the Association.
That the Report presented by the Committee appointed to arrange for the occupa- -
tion of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples be printed in full in the Reports.
That the arrangements for Sectional Meetings adopted at the present Annual |
Meeting be continued next year at Edinburgh.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
¢f desirable.
A Resolution relating to the Times of Meeting of the General Committee and the -
Committee of Recommendations.
Resolutions referring to the Ordnance Survey, viz. :
_ (1) That the publication of the one-inch and six-inch Ordnance Survey Maps is,
in the interests of Science, urgently required at the earliest possible date, no less .
than in the interests of Industry, Manufacture, and Technical Education.
(2) That steps be taken and provislon made for keeping the Ordnance Maps up -
to date.
(8) That the Maps should be made more accessible to the public, and should be -
sold at a lower price, as is the case in nearl
Admiralty Charts, Blue Books, &c.
That the following papers be printed in full:
y all other official publications, such as
‘Recent Progress in Indian Agricul- -
ture,’ by C. L. Tupper; ‘ Recent Progress in Indian Railways,’ by W. C. Furnivall.
ine fie
un
lxxxv
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur-
poses by the General Committee at the Cardiff Meeting, m
; August 1891. The Names of the Members entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
; fy 8 i
_-*Foster, Professor Carey —HElectrical Standards (partly re-
: Ee cat oa 80ers SMU NN ch nn ena saW GRRL ABTA Se Ego Fae Yo 27 4 6
_-*McLaren, Lord.—Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis 50 0 0
_ Symons, Mr. G. J.—Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena 15 0 0
_ *Cayley, Professor.—Pellian Equation Tables (partlyrenewed) 15 0 0
_ *Rayleigh, Lord—Tables of Mathematical Functions ......... Lo 0 0
Fitzgerald, Professor.—Hlectrolysis .............scceseeeeessesees 5 0 0
*Lodge, Professcr O. J.—Discharge of Electricity from Points 50 0 0
*Thomson, Sir W.—Seismological Phenomena of Japan ...... 10 0 0
Chemistry and Mineralogy.
*Roberts-Austen, Professor.—Analysis of Iron and Steel (re-
MNS oo c8 int sanave ohm yees a sondage apidvaivawiamenaWadentecdzociew hes 816 0
Armstrong, Professor H. E.—Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials (partly renewed) ..........cc.00-ecsee eee seeeee 25 5 0
*Tilden, Professor W. A.—Properties of Solutions ............ L0.70',0
*Thorpe, Professor—Action of Light upon Dyed Colours
PML RTE PEM OWCO ot. diales cundéceda cymsebusmmneadeieetardddeads Stes LOS 209-6
Geology.
*Prestwich, Professor.—Erratic Blocks (partly renewed) ... 15 0 0
*Wiltshire, Rev. T.—Fossil Phyllopoda (renewed) ............ LOMO 0
*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest ... 20 0 0
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Registration of Type Specimens of
British Wossils’ (renewed) 72. !..2..... 02. .ceceescscee ses cesesenes immed Ds A,
*Haull, Professor E.—Underground Waters........ ...s.sseeeee ee 10-+0--0
*Davis, Mr. J. W.—Investigation of Elbolton Cave............ 25 0 0
Jones, Professor T. R.—Faunal contents of Sowerbyi Zone... 10 0 0
*Hvans, Dr. J.—Excavations at Oldbury Hill..................64. 25 0 0
*Woodward, Dr. H.—Cretaceous Polyzoa .........s00.seeecee eee 10 0 0
¥ Paeriod LoORWard)..5iscaeteeies.ocsvdetuammetotiwnenne wack bo 6
cs * Reappointed.
Ixxxvi REPORT—-1 891.
£:. 8°
ISPOpeNt TOPWALO 0.0.00. 230-0 -.0a5s--- ser eoncoe.++ens envees som ae
Biology.
*Sclater, Dr. P. I.—Table at the Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
*Lankester, Professor E. R.—Table at Plymouth Biological
PURIORREGE I PERORVOR) oy cna (2s coenceso+ee0a> omen ceebneaeeee AO Se
*Haddon, Professor A. C.—Improving a Deep-sea Tow-net
CDBEDIy_TCUOWVED) iin... c nts senses veccee eens stan se alse 9s spol anata 40 0 0
*Newton, Professor—Fauna of Sandwich Islands (renewed) 100 0 0
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.—Zoology and Botany of the West India
LISTS (@@27172\ 7200) reer rrr S| 100 0 0
Geography.
Ravenstein, Mr. E. G.— Se and ) Hydroeanas of
Tropical J. (Cre 0 O
Anthropology.
*Flower, Professor.—Anthropometric Laboratory .....6.-- sss) 10) 0,90
*Garson, Dr. J. G.—Prehistoric Remains in Mashonaland ... 50 0 0.
*Tylor, Dr. E. B.—North- Western Tribes of Canada............ ~ 100 0 0
*Turner, Sir W.—Habits, Customs, &c., of Natives of India
PE SURIMET) Po tren Guy tities sa1. aidan sétnen nes ome o0'eaeeacreap a 10. 0; G
*Flower, Professor.—New Edition of Anthropological Notes
EO OTION oes HON bona! oeic's Soin Se sis Sk'wes ar ves obs ve ee 20 0 O
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Corresponding Societies Committee ... 25 0 0-
£1,013 15 6
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1892.
The Meeting at Edinburgh will commence on Wednesday, August 3:
Place of Meeting in 1893.
The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Nottingham..
hy
Ixxxvli
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on accownt of
£ os. d.
1834.
Tide Discussions ......se+..++. 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions ..........+0+++ 62 0 0
_ British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
£167 O O
1836.
Tide Discussions .........+e+0++ 163 0 0
_ British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
_ Thermometric Observations,
fi POG sescttsisvinceuseneseWrseseave 50 0 0
_ Experiments on _long-con-
Mm) tinued Heat .........c00..200 7 tO
; Rain-2auges ....ccsessceereeneees 913 0
_ Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
~ Lunar Nutation..............066 60 0 0
E Thermometers .....,ceessceeners 15 6 0
| £435 0 0
1837.
Tide Discussions ...........+06. 284 1 O
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation..............000. 70 0 O
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol ...............66 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
ISATOMICLCTS ......0.00-02-csecerees 1118 6
£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions .............4. 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
V1.0 UE)). Seggtoricpoaddee paabecBedecen 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
Bristol Tides .............sssseees 50 0 0
Growth of Plants ............... 75 0 0
Mud in Rivers ..........ecseseee 3.6 6
_ Education Committee ......... 50 0 0
Heart Experiments ....... ASCH ey gow
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8 7
| Steam-vessels...............00006 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee 31 9 5
£932 2 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c. ............ 63 10 0O
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£ 8. d.
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides ......ceccocscssssese 35 18 6
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature........+..+ 2111 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 0
Railway Constants ............ 28 7 2
Land and Sea Level.......+...- 274 1 4
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 6
Stars in Lacaille ............0+ LTO -O
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 6
Animal Secretions............. . 1010 0
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ..........0008- 16 1 0
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22) 0° 0
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
Kimgussie .....scsecseeesessees 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles ......sscseeeeeeee piso
Mining Statistics ............6 50 0 0
£1595 11 O
———
1840.
Bristol Tides ......seesseeeeseeres 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 1313 6
Heart Experiments .........+0+ 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions .........ses0+ 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level....... Bett Og LNs ok
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaille) ........:.sseeeee 415 0
Stars (Catalogue) .....sseeeeeee 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air .......epeeeees 1515 0
Water on Iron ww... eee eee eens 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ...........+ 100 0 O
School Statistics ........s00+ 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels .........c20++« 184 7 0
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOMEN A sbececacsneecedeeaherase 40 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .........ieseseeee 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature........- Seon
Actinometers .........seeeeerseeee 10 0 O
Earthquake Shocks .........+++ Vii O
Acrid POISONS..........scse0ese00s 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3 0 0
Mud in Rivers .....cssseseeeeeee 5 0 0
REPORT—1891.
lxxxviii
£ 8. a.
Marine Zoology .....see- 1512 8
Skeleton Maps .......-sseeeeeees 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ..... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille).............s+0 oa Dine O
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... 17 SG
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0 0
Water on Tron .......eeeeeee eee 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
PLM VETNESS! ceca sdccsesedvres 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations
(eductioniob)y y..-t.+n...... 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles .........ee0ceeeee 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ...........+..- 62 0 6
Railway Sections .............+. 38 1 0
Forms of Vessels ...........005+ 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations
BiPELy MOULD secseses-ceoesscs BD 0.0
Magnetical Observations...:.. 61 18 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
HONE baeietes cers eeeiee eae snsee'> 100 0 0
Midesiat Weith <ci.nssececdses0ss 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... Oi Gine 3
IBACES OMMCH yc, cccckaccsscessssss 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ............ 2 0.9
£1235 10 11
1842,
Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
GES at BIISHO! oc i. ..ccceess0s> 53) teh)
Gases on Light ................0. 30 14 7
KCHTONOMELETS. ss. 0000c0ccs-00006 peo AN, OG
Marine Zoology................+ bs 0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-
CETLAG SS) isaaarnodpeotngensaasppseces 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O
Fossil Reptiles (publication
Oise WON) secesesec sen scses se ect 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............... 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on
ROCKS overanaeersrersscecsesccsces Gloatsl me’
Meteorological Experiments
BipeLYMMNONUN! teseccsccesesnceas 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments ...... 909 0 0
IGT CE\OM WANG. 5. cccecorcnsse vec 100-0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 O
Vital Statistics ............... DONO 20
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 178
(ee ee
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
DIMSUAYS fetvecsssassecutossandate 20 0
£ 8. d.
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
HOLES ccvessarccctesteeaenaeeeeats 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
UVEINESS ...vocc.-cecsssecsacen Ut dae
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ..csc.qessceaeetee 55 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
INOUbD)..<cos-cesseces cone eee 20.0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations <2.-.s«ssseeretas a BO Onc
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ...... posses 39 6 O
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness! %..-nd.cessenmeeee 56.12 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... i0 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ........... PAS Via. he
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
TOONS), ccs. ossc essen aneeaeeeae Si) Sao
Oxidation of the Rails | of
RailwgySs.......cs-ssserseeeseame 20 0 O
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles .........s000++ 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way Sections) ...--ssseeaeeeeeee 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks.........+0ssve suseeeeeeee 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
Clabure. .....s.»s0csssaetveneseee 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoolopy ¢.0.- .ssssvensens 10.050
Marine Zoology ...........:00«+ 214 11
Preparation of Report on Brit-
ish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0
Vital Statistics ..........ccsssem 36 5 8
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on
the forms of Vessels ......... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength :
ot Materials Sc.cievancemeee 60 0 0
£1565 10 2
-
— GENERAL
‘ £ 8s. d.
. 1844,
Meteorological Observations
_ at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at
BENVINOUEN ..4.....scc0sceseeee: 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological
Reson peese heck 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
MUPRO MEE cc Scdecccicccescccccscestes 35 0 0
“Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0O
_ Revision of the Nomenclature
BEMUAES seorccscccescsnaes 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
BEY ana. - 6s cfecesecscesssesoee see LPT 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-
MRABUSeactinccscwreccscocesteccdss 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature
Bett relanid. ...: 26... ..c.+sc0000e 50% 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
AVE DECLIONS: ...3sissceceresens 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
of the Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 O
Registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
4igean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
eographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 O
Marine Zoology of Devon and
MME ccicaccosco+ecesecteaes 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... LOBO™O
Experiments on the Vitality
BES te facnin ccs sc cities sroass D050
Hxperiments on the Vitality
eet Seeds .................. LSBs Sete
Exotic Anoplura ............... Lio O 70
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on
_ the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0 0
investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 0
sonstant Indicator and Mo-
rin’s Instrument ......1842 10 0 0
, £981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
fleteorological Observations
Wah Inverness ............00.... 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation .........0c00.0 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments
agosto eset eee 1811 9
| Reduction of Anemometrical
| Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
STATEMENT. lxxxix
& 8 de
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 14915 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ............+0- 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of
SLIGIIES Sh cacepardccudcee re pucreose 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CINE (ds srateasysscusteeesaek orcs 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 15 14 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OL SbAES BE csecestsencses sea 1844 211 15
Fossil Fishes of the London
Claiyaeerecmescaeccsetecetstaccsoec 100 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 5 60
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146 16
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 6 16
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 215
Vitality of Seeds .........1845 7 12
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0
Expenses attending Anemo-
MISRENTS Ba apoanpcace er uociueponed 75> Ha 7,
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 3
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3 3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 8 19
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0
£685 16
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829............ 50 0
Habits of Marine Animals ... 10 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CINES!) <-cs(gaesteeeteeeeaedansened 20 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0
Atmospheric Waves ............ 6 9
Vitality of Seeds ............... 4 7
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107 8
5
£208
i
olo os DwWan ooowoonwon i=) i=) o
RIA NwWwoo co
xc
£ 3. d.
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
3
Atmospheric Waves ...........- 10 9
Vitality of Seeds ............... 3) 2s ty)
Completion of Catalogue of
UAT iawemsciddtcrsdbicestcsmenicss TOMOMO
On Colouring Matters ......... ye Ua)
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0
£275 1 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ............ 50 6 0
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at ditto..........0...060- Gm ao
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 fey Ib
On Growth of Plants ......... oe O10
Registration of Periodical
IPHONOMIEN AB recat scccsecesssaese 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... ish 4) 0)
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena......... Loer0), 0
Meteorological Instruments,
PRNZOT ES neeascine siege seecaess cs seee 25 0 0
£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
GUO ecerereressiscsmechisctesss 309 2 2
Theory of Heat .................. 20 Fees 1
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants............... 50) 10
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... We Oe
Researches on Annelida ...... LOTR 0:
£391 9) 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
POTMGD0)Psvasvessssvectsresterss 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-
tion Of Heat! 1.5.2... .csscsceeee iy 2A)
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-
LCI ccseseosehssccscssandececes 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0
£304 6 7
REPORT—1891.
£ 8. a.
1853.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British
Anmelida,......:.0+0cesserss0a—n 10 0 0
Dredging on the Hast Coast
of Scotland..........s.s+se0nes 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
£205 0 ©
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former grant)... ---secnsseecees 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11.0) {05
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron.........ssessceee 10 0 O
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena. .......s.eessceseens 10 0 O
British Annelida ....:....sssse. 10 0 Q
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5. 2 8
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... LO 0r 3G
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 &
Vitality of Seeds .........c..00s 10) 7
Map of the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0
£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
184. .sceeece £75 0 0
1855.........£500. 0 Wf eee
Strickland’s Ornithological
SyNONYIMS. s.-ksceseneeuMeneeees 100 0 90
Dredging and Dredging
FOTMS |... .sisvu-cbeeee heeeeneee 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
Phenomenal ..,...s.>ssseeieeren 10 0 0
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-
MENS) -.0oeeemconaee even 40 0 &
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast I
of Scotland!.....0.i....sesseeee 10 0 0
, £ 3. d.
. "Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California ......... 10 0 0
‘Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Natural History of Mada-
a eee 20 0 0
Researches on British Anne-
UMS aeg dee sade occ secciesveees 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
SEER occas ss roessccotcsscseses 10 0 O
Temperature of Mines......... Ge
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations...........- 5.7 4
MALC-DOATS ..........secsesessoeees 5 0 0
£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-
PUISEIR aate nals aiscaeise he atcraceaale 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
DDSCOLANA ........sceccssseeees 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 5 O
_ Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-
MEEEEMEEE oeiceanae Jeeves. teseesateu 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in ~
BOUBACS asciesscavccsncdescsoace des 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
PUM eden ss sciessaaccssewedsones 10 0 0
£618 18 2
4 1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0
By ipo teeactaes rare 5 0 0
Manure [ae Sagsaotee 20 0 0
LOSE) raetaesme ae caaes 5 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
team-vessels’ Performance 5 0 0
Marine Fauna of South and
ieee enecuies: 10 0 0
hotographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
anarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 1
SBconpcledee Cee on 39 11 0
£684 11 1
1 1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 0
P edging in Dublin Bay...... 145 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den 20 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT,
xck
£ 8. d.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 &
Researches on the Growth of
PADS) Feros acot i eeeseecsavs awe 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility
Of Ais PA... s <<asscocet «ccdneces 30 0 0
Researcheson theConstituents
Of Mantres” 22iseregens scones 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon
AGCOUNUS: 5. 5s..-ss0esdaceiersenns 113 6
£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—
1860...... £50 0 0
Tact re: eae: ine’ ont aN een
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts. ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 0»
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys .......0......+ 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-
BCDIOUS oe cae dcsiee sree sameness 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and
1D einen poncdeBeodnoncancenerorcne 5 0 0
DipACincle er cccscaecensehensaness 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-
GHOHS\ esteem nee eacsicuntonsa haces 50 0 O
PTAISON WOICU reece -cnslensenceesnects 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............++ 10 0 0
Alpine Ascents ........ ...cc.0ee 6 5 10+
Constituents of Manures ...... 25 0 0
£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Patentlaws? /.cs.csscccssecceses 21 6 0
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0 0
Natural History by Mercantile
Marines sisveassscsescdaseccaves 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the
SUP ioiciccaes papain sqaanenentnes 150 0 O
Rocks of Donegal............... 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland) -; ceeeepesentre see 25 0 O&
Connection of Storms ......... 20 0 O
Dredging North-east Coast
of Scotland yyer-cseseacesenon. 6 9
Ravages of Teredo ............ 3 11
Standards of Electrical Re-
SIStANCE) \F. -eseceecanaspsceteseed 50 0
Railway Accidents ............. 10 0
Balloon Committee ....... ..... 200 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0
xcll
£ 8. d.
Dredging the Mersey ..... ese ib 030
iehvis(oial OME Bae séce Qooceoesn p20 OF 0
Gauging of Water..............- 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
‘Thermo-electric Currents .. 5 0 0
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
penses) ..... rie seabbdenzoo—ARonS 25 0 0
FEIGG AO Amines saeecnesicesenk cwaaes >i 25 0 0
ROOAISHOSSUINM toresrcsccecesvocccs. 20,7 OL 50
Herrings...... asdsnocuianno Bancheee 20 0 0
‘Granites of Donegal............ 5 OW
PTISOUMMICL cer setsccescassoscss- 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
DATONG Mensoasieccersrtensiasncss<s 18 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast of
COM MN Glsseiae-daedcccrenes cs. <« 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland
AUC) Durham 9. cs.sescs0.5.<ss 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-
ENOCH CEM ycttesrsnedssso-s- TOOT 0
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ......... TORO 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 O
Bromide of Ammonium ...... Sere 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Electrical Construction and
IDISGMIDUULONN +. .ccescecesss acc 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ iis 20
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph ............ 100 0 0
Thermo-electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 8 0 0
MAY GTOIGA oc omes tence szes seas esse eo 10)4,0), 10
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
‘Coal Fossils ...<0.0s-.see00 eee 20) OPO
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
HTCTUUS Wem cetecccese de cdup eter eccss 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ id) "0" 0
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure . 1OVOF 0
Standards of Electric Re-
SISUATICON tcpacrne. soeeetearaacs. « 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks. ............ 10 0 O
VOTO a aeecascsdaccosvess sors NO) WO) {0)
FASih amis Gikie cvesoecteneece sock 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle ....... SeeRRes 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
Rain-gauges .......ccceescecesees 19°15. °8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0 |
REPORT—1891.
£8. d.
Tidal Observations in the
FPRIM DCL - ..ccnccclrescesease eee 50 0 O
Spectral Rays.....scessesseereeees 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ....... steed 20, SOME
£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 0
Fy Groida.........sseceeeeeeceesenees 13 0 0
Rain-GauGes ...sceceeeeereveeeee 50> One
Tidal Observations in the
FLUMpbeY: scedecves coco tenseeeens 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ..........+.... 20 0 0
TrishoWlotaccscces.s0tscanee nese 25 0 0
American Mollusca ............ Sy!)
Organic ACIDS ......s..ssseeesee 20 0 0
Ling ula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0
Burypterus ....is.60s.<.idenese 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Researches ...... 300mg
Oyster Breeding ..........+ ane 250 OG
Gibraltar Caves Researches. . 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 0
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0
Marine Wauna ‘<...ccrsscesseuset 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoologital Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
In. Water.s.tsscceassehtheesestens 100 0 O
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ............ 40 0 0
£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50
Metrical Committee............ 50
British Rainfall. ....22228emee 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitution of
Cast ‘Iron.. .2..dt:aaeeeeeeeeee 50
Amyl Compounds ............... 25
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall <.v.iss.ecseeeseee
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50
Dredging the Mersey
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in’ Water i; ¢zcscssac-are eee
Rous of ia Radi-
cals ..
PROC e a eee one eens weer eeeeee,
oo eoocooo coooeoce cooocecoe
o o sooo coecoeoo eooescoooro
mo GENERAL STATEMENT. xcill
-
£ 3. da. onsen
Pabissasadvuccoasecass 10 0 O |} Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30 0 0
cadsoncecocerndc 15 0 O British Marine Invertebrate
2 Biogas 0 of Crania.. 50 0 0 HUN (aie. ses cesedcnccvcscooos’ 100 0 0
D idine Birds of Mascarene £1940 0 O
MATATIOS OR ccicncsecccnes.caccesceas 50 0 0
Typical Crania Researches... 30 0 0 b> 1869.
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0 0 Maintaining the Establish-
£1750 13 4 ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
SS Lunar Committee.............2000 50 0 0
1867. Metrical Committee............... 25 0 0
Maintaining the Establish- Zoological Record .............+ 100 0 0
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 Committee on Gases in Deep-
Meteorological Instruments, WEUIWidilGl wennden-beeaxer scene 25 0 0
“AB coge oa. COE Gee Cea Iaoe 50 0 0 British Rainfall...............00« 50 0 0
Lunar Committee ............... 120 0 0 Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
fetrical Committee............ 30 0 0 REG anaetaceadentacsierct aceseane ces 30 0 0
ent’s Hole Explorations 100 0 O Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 0 0
alestine Explorations......... 50 0 O | Steamship Performances ...... 30 0 0
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0 0 | Chemical Constitution of
Mebritish Rainfall..............00 50 0 0 Cast ION. frsacretccessacestranss 80 0 0
_ Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0 0 Tron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0 0 Methyl Series..............cscea0e 30 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 0 Organic Remains in Lime-
_ Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30 0 0 Shome ROGKStansoetossnesccetacn 10 0 0
edging Shetland aneEROGNE De 75 0 O | Harthquakes in Scotland...... 10 0 0
Steamship Reports Condensa- British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 0
Bese f es ch che rchnessscsusaceds 100 0 0 Bagshot Leaf-beds ............. 30 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0 Hogsill Wlora iio cstcasacecesmeos's 25 0 0
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25 0 0 Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ............... 25 0 0 Underground Temperature... 30 0 0
Sound under Water ............ 24 4 0 | Spectroscopic Investigations
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75 0 0 of Animal Substances ...... 5 0 0
Plant Beds 100 0 O | Organic Acids ..............0.08 12 0 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25 0 0 Kiltorcan Fossils .............. 20 0 0
ndCoSCHOOR: oon oa C Le 30 0 0 Chemical Constitution and
£1739 4 0 Physiological Action Rela-
TLODS) o ac nedeOaad tioence scatters oe 1 0 0
1868. Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0:
Maintaining the Establish- Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0 O
‘ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0
Lunar Committee ............... 120 0 0 | £1622 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 50 0 0 |
Zoological Record............... 100 0 O 1870.
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0 Maintaining the Establish-
Steamship Performances ...... 100 0 O ment at Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Bepish Rainfall ...........s.c-se 50 0 0 Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
juaminous Meteors.............45 50 0 O | Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
10S | Romawwhsnwies da cae 60 0 0 | Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 0
fossil Crustacea.................. 25 0 0 Hars in Fishes ...... ......... 10 0 0
LGN tase cbetas azasetes 25 0 0 | Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 0
lercury and Bile ............... 25 0 0 Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
ganic Remains in Lime- Heat in the Blood............... 1 0 0
sidoccHhmaceen a 25 0 0 British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0
cottish Harthquakes ......... 20.0 0 Thermal Conductivity of
una, Devon and Cornwall 30 0 0 Tron, &C. secasdsseceeeeeee dade. 20 0 0
Titish Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 0 British Fossil Corals,........... 50 0 O
shot Leaf-beds ............ 50 0 0 Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
eenland Explorations ...... 100 0 O Scottish Harthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Racwacaa dance week hecs 25 0 0 Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 15 0 0
1 Observations ............ 100 0 0 Wossil Hlora@insceu.csdeoesseetate 25 0 0
nderground Temperature 50 0 0 Tidal Observations .......... + 100 0 0
Spectroscopic Investigations Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
of Animal Substances ...... 5 0 0 Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 0 0
‘xciV
£
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50
‘Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment ......... 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
1871.
‘Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Monthly Reports of Progress
TAU OHGMVISULY ..vcisececssecsess 100 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
‘Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine ......... LO)
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 O
HHO SSH HOTA Pavecciiesssscscers ese AO
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 25 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... CPI
. British Rainfall.................- 50 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ............005 25 0 0
Methyl Compounds ............ 25 0 0
Errine ODJECES: (osc...+esesssesess 20 0 0
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing ..............- 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 20 0 0
Moab Explorations ............ 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .........++- 40 0 0
£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 6 TO 30)
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
‘Tidal Committee ..... pansdecoae 200 0 0
‘Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
‘Terato-embryological Inqui-
IMIS)! ood Oce CPR EEEOEREEE-CPERCREE 10% 076
Kent’s Cavern Exploration.. 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .............0. 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25 0 0
Ammar OPJECts. ..ccss-c0sesccsee 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0
Poisonous Substances Antago-
MLISIUASS s gelsasmcewescace tesa ncte 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
stitution, &c. ........ a cdecvess 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
tetlitkweessccaerseesse eas 2D! OO
£1285 0 0
REPORT— 1891.
Mauritius Meteorological Re-
SCarch.....cs.1.ccaesesserseeraee 100
Magnetisation of Iron .,..... fee)
Marine Organisms....... sdaeeree 30
| Fossils, North-West of Scot-
- io
Oonrn SOoS0S9 SSO SoOSOoOSoCCO oo oooce
£8. da.
1873.
Zoological Record........... --- 100 0 0
Chemistry Record...........+.+. 200 0 0
Tidal Committee ..........00.:- 400 0 0
Sewage Committee .......... = LOD ROG
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25°0 0
Fossil Elephants ..........+..-. 25 0 0
Wave-lengths ......sseseeeeees 150 0 0
British Rainfall y.s2-2-e..ceen 3) LOO) 0: 10
Essential O1ls. 0.0. .cc.0sessseeens 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ......... sae OUTRO
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
| Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-
fall. cccccesceeaeeeere Rr ae 20 0 0
' Luminous Meteors............0++ 30 0 0
£1685 0 0
1874.
Zoological Record....... Sreneees 100
Chemistry Record............ --» 100
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Elliptic Functions............... 100
Lightning Conductors .,........ 10
Thermal Conductivity of
Rocks’ <.....2:essseasmverteceeene 10
Anthropological Instructions,
GC. cot saccecct acres seeeeeteeeeae 50
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150
Iuminous Meteors ............ 30
Intestinal Secretions .,....... 15
British Rainfall.......... Aneto 100
Essential Oils............. ieoneaee 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
colo o9foSOo SSeoSSS SCSOSOD SoSsSOoCOeoOCoOCO co oooco
Tang ..:sc.ssccascsseseeeteeeeeeee 2
Physiological Action of Light 20
Trades Unions 4....:.cseecseeee 25
Mountain Limestone-corals 25
Erratic Blocks .......:.ses.sssve 10
Dredging, Durham and York-
shire Coasts: ..:.:ec.ueenneee 28
High Temperature of Bodies 30
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
MECASUTES...css.scecesese eee 7
£1151
1875.
Elliptic Functions ............ 100
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20
British Rainfall ................. 120
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
Chemistry Record......... ..... 100
osooo
y=
‘i GENERAL
£ 8. da.
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.............4 10 0 0
Tsometric Cresols ............... 20 0 0
$ub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
arthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Re tround Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid
RMMISEHE, conde ice<cscciccscsoseanes 20 0 0
ical Record............0+ 100 0 0
nstructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Aancbiace® 20 0 0
Paton 100 0 0
£960 0 0
1876.
Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
Brmish Rainfall .........s.cccsses 100 0 0
BERIUSU LAW. .5.000s00seececsssoseeres 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
someric Cresols ...........0.05 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
Bate tia sca aniesaniitees Ses OO
Resse ce carana 0 0
“or BCE OC EE EROROECCREET EE 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
10 0
Pectneaseniiests 0 0
EPIC orice cis ceo acpsissise'nines 0 0
Physiological Actionof Sound 25 0 0
Zoological Station......... HCraee 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 1315 0
M easuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
iifect of Propeller on turning
of Steam-vessels ............ 5 0 0
: £1092 4 2
1877.
i in
RoaexangnAdscacdseee dive 20 0 0
See COCEEE 250 0 0
of
Beene ase asinassieteesette « By al 7/
iaiatoteeteniiee 100 0 0
BUS CAVEIN ......cccccecceces 100 0 O
oological Station at Naples 75 0 0
uminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
“east Sporcs - 100 0 0
erocarpx, Report on 20 0 0
STATEMENT. XCV
ee Salas
Mechanical Equivalent of
LCA 4: AMM sanciee se steoencpceas 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and) NICKGM, sc t-assec<-cnee.'s 80,50
Underground Temperatures 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ............++- 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACCEALE! « ocwedcccnecacsdesccaewa 10 0 0
British Earthworks ..........+. 25 0 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in
bate Wy See scecaceecchoccceeBes ocr 145 0 0
Development of Light from
Coal-pas, ..vesiecsectemtenees 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid............00 118 0
Geological Record............00« 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
phonic Acid; &¢..2esci22.ss<c05 15 0 0
£1128 9 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
RECOLGEY yo. ccccesescsetseestaes LOO 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
IWALETS Merecs cs ccccuesccecies coe 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
SUOCHATES tisk cee een eccvee 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million . 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee.. 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less-known
AVKAOIASs. awesenesay cove seeeass 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record ..........2.00 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
IROCKS eavaccsscrsecscenceonaeceas 416 6
Luminous Meteors............+0+ 10 0 0
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ 17 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
WORE 5. visa ncpoctnascsnsececeudeey 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 O
xXcVl
of Caves in
Exploration
Borneo
Kent’s Cavern Exploration ..
Record of the Progress of
Geology
Fermanagh Caves Exploration
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts........+.++++
Anthropometric Committee..
Natural History of Socotra ..
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions .
Cireulation of Underground
eee eee weet en esewne eee
Steering of Screw Steamers...
Improvements in Astrono-
mical Clocks .........+2+.++++-
Zoology of South
Marine
Devon
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum.........
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
ESC LOUUUS toemeiina cies wists se ers a
Datum Level of the Ordnance
BULVCY -<.cnccscsncsecseserscesees
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships
Tidal Observations
English Channel
in the
REPORT—1 891.
£ 8. ad.
50 0 0
100 0 0
100 0 0
be O70
iss UY)
50 0 0
- 100 0 0
150) 10); 10
10 0 0
10 0 0
30, 0! 0
20 0 0
12 15 6
40 0 0
30) 10,50
10 0 O
36 14 9
Asie e008)
22 0 0
la 8
10 0 O
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
Key
Under ground Temperature ..
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
Heat
Elasticity of Wires
Luminous Meteors
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity
Fundamental Invariants ......
Laws of Water Friction
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum.........
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines .........
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines
Report on Carboniferous
POLY ZOA sevseesseeeecesveveeeree
reer errr
eee eee ee eens
see eeeeeenee
a eeeee
see ewe ewes nceee
10 0
10 0
8 5
50 0
30 0
30 0
8 5
20 0
20 0
50 0
10 0
417
10. 0
oo
£ 8. aq
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 ©
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
SAULUS ...scccecevecserees serssoee 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern ‘Exploration... 50 0 ©
Geological Record...........+++ 100 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ 15 0 .@
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations ........... , 6 08
Record of Zoological Litera-
GUNG sbes 5 qc ena eae sndaeees LOO) JOC
Table at Zoological Station
at Naples, seccecssasmee= sosvasre ofD2 10) 30s
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0
Anthropometry .........0200.... 50 0 0
Patent Laws .......sssseeee atico, 10m ORIG
£731 7 FF
ee
1881.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0
Electrical Standards........ ... 25 0 0
High Insulation Key........... - 5b OG
Tidal Observations ..........6 10 0 0
Specific RefractionS <....:s..0. 7 oh
Fossil Polyzoa ........006 sane 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0
Tertiary Flora <.cccwesesseeesees 20 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 75 0 @
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and
Queries: Ys...dessseeennne tegen 90" "Gi
Zoological Record..........s060+ 100 0 0
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings) iiiicecsscssss 30 0 0
£476 3 1
ite ys
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ...... “ao,
Standards for Electrical
Measurements <.....<cehsaree 100
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
MONMOCLETS) \J.c.sekce vclceneeeeee 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements........... sane eo)
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra... ceases 25
Geological Record........+...++- 100
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN ....0c.. vce ss saseeneeeennes 25
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Meta ad
ROCKS! |... ..a0stsiaae sce araatreele 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground
Wiaters. ans .csnesiee hoenamD)
111
So ooo
GENERAL STATEMENT.
: £ 3. da.
- Tertiary Flora of North of
PPE SATCL oe de vcsecccscccesescsces 200) 0
Bisritish PolyZ0a ..........s-.e000s 10 9 0
Exploration of Caves of South
PEM ICI AEC necaveve.ccvcecsesey 10 0 0
Exploration of Raygill Fis-
BPRCEMOMGe nin dederssacsccsseesccses 20 0 O
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 U0 0
Albuminoid Substances of
BMPRVCTUIN . 6... 0secccsccccentasserees 10 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
) Bodily Exercise............... 50 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
atural History of Timor-laut 100 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
SEEM a dictser sss ivesdesasaseeve 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
£1126 1 11
1883.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis .........seeeeeees 50 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
IUAUIVES was... 2ce0esccesecesce-se 15 0 0
Phenomena of
So CABS LEC DOCE EEE DGG 50 0 0
ossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 0
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
BOIC ROCKS J. ccsccccessecetnseee 25 0 0
Hrosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
' land and Wales .......+.....0. 10 0 0
irculation of Underground
Bumped ceceaceseecscedere 15 0 0
Geological Record............... 50 0 0
Exploration of Caves in South
BGEOITCLANG 1. <....0cscsceersnese 10 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 20 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............+06 58 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
BEAMA-THALO,....2cccccecesssacass 500 0 0
Investigation of Loughton
_ D0 “Coepdeaceben paid Baaseeeseag 10 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
BELEW GAULES.........ccccece wore OF O40
£1083 3 3
1884.
fleteorological Observations
Fon Ben Nevis ..............0006 50 0 0
Ollecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust.............0000 20 0 0
Meteorolcgical Observatory at
j Benepstow Rech evenesdesbaddces - 2 0 0
OWS twenscnesesee ss 10 0 0
4 0
Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra .. 8
1891.
xevil
Sade
Earthquake Phenomena of
AAPA «MN. as ds'aceSacmceu saves 7 0 0
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 5 0 0
Hossil Poly Z@eh... 0s. .<sceseccsees 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0O
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeo-
ZOICHROCKS ie <n csh«snexcns essen 15 0 0
Circulation of Underground
IWiaIGEES, fis ens'eaene socecsietenscsace 5 0 0
International Geological Map 20 0 0
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata %.:....cesssscosess 50 0 O
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0 O
Migration of Birds............... 20 0 0
Coagulation of Blood............ 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 10 0 0
£1173 4 0
1885.
Synoptic Chart of Indian
(OEE tnt VSS coeranconcnecnstioc Gabd. 50
10
LOIS | ecgncbpon adseoSadcocorasn see
Calculating Tables in Theory
OG NIM DELS. sensenaccsssmereteds 100
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis ............--+0» «50
Meteoric Dust ................0. 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
S\OUMGIONS weeanectscceusneeacecsne 25
Physical Constants “of Solu-
ELGNS een sdopetesacose arse arene ences 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu
J RITISS, ne A genonoonethocbhanpropanne: 25
Raygill Fissure ......ccsess..c0se 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic
Rocks
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50
Geological Record .............4. 50
Circulation of Underground
A cut eee ageedhs adondeaobciocnes:
Naples Zoological Station 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration Of Birds eessscsssns 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
TUS O Nem eeleneaeetstiecete sneer 25
Recent Polyzoa ...........seecees 10
Marine Biological Station at
Granton
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100
£1385
Nae home om SCOOmO SIS HS HOO .o So So ion oS
islicicion Cl Scie ™Mompioe: sco so ko -cio Yor o cote oes
xevili
# (3. d.
1886.
Electrical Standards.......... ne 400), 0
Solar Radiation..........s..s0+e0. 910 6
Tidal Observations .........66+ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 0
Meteorological Observations
Onpben NCW iescrccscsseeces ee 100 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 O
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Exploration of Caves in North
VRAIS Qo scocore joaccooniedsanenon: 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
VDE SSeenicisieatvesrs ise chaise slaseletai: =a 30 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic
TROCS Mew cantecties sAvsevcsesceree 15) tO) (0)
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Marine Biological Station at
Graal eeaeetaniensscsscecs-ose io, 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 O}
Researches in Food-Fishes and
InvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine.............6+ 10 0 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
DIGI GY SCALES Cieecneniraceee 10D) 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek
SAAS orchedsscdecscscecsasivs vac 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
AIAG demas eeloeea thie estiole'e we woule ales 50 0 0 |
£995 0 6
1887.
Dolar Radiation ....5.......ses+0. 1810 0
SOUR OUYS Stanlastisescnascse scones 30 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... Tia COPE Ue)
Standards of Light (1886
GAT AN) ag nesceepaccoson 000g eae 20 Oe 0
Standards of Light (1887
fesyzhaNn)) Gponnonedoaotecc ocr OSS See LOL Oy 0
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations ....<s.5:..00.... LowOmO
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
Electrical Standards............ 50 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20 0 0
Absorption Spectra ...........+ 40 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ AO (0) (0)
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
ALIS aah. ote aicsenceectesscaeeescce 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan |
CUS86) crant))irmseecse-contdenee 50 0 0
Velcanic Phenomena of Japan
C1887 tami) ioe cesesss eet aa 50 0 O
Exploration of Cae Gwyn
Cave, North Wales ......... ZOE. 0
WuirALIC UBIOCK Sig x. on cvesmncse cans 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax......... a Oy 1)
rerort—1891.
£ s. d.
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey...........+ 10 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0
Circulation of Underground
Waters! :<cs\ss0sspeeceagrsaeeeee 5 0 0
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
Provincial Museum Reports 5 O 0
Investigation of Lymphatic
SYSCGM.< wicisc nnn eeceee eee 25,00) '@
| Naples Biological Station ... 100 0 0
Plymouth Biological Station 50 O O
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
| Zoological Record .........s0+++ 100 0 O
| Flora of Chima. <isssessses. ene 97314010
Flora and Fauna of the
G@aMETOONUS ..snc 1s acecenesenee 75 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 9
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles <.-cesseeseeeeeeee T1620
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North-Western ‘Tribes of
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West Indian Explorations ... 100
BlOra OF China .....0..s0ee.ceees 25
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SCH OOOSEIDABEgCOOOONOSSe 25
Natural History of Friendly
MIEIADGS......0....5 Rewesbis nied sais 100
Geology and Geography of
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Working M Models .......... .. 100
wh-Western Tribes of Ca-
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tine Biological Association 200
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Electrical Standards............ 75
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Silent Discharge of Electricity
BRBORV ON) 5.5. .ccc0ceeseseone 6
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Hlectro-optics.....:...ccrcesncese
Calculating Mathematical
SRAIDIGST seassten se scuneatatedtcees
Volcanic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan ......
Pellian Equation Tables ......
Properties of Solutions ......
International Standard for
the Analysis of Iron and
RHCOM! «cicecdessccasasaneeasier ass
Influence of the Silent Dis-
charge of Electricity on
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Jeeozoic Rocks..........0ss0000
Circulation of Underground
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Cretaceous Polyzoa ............
Geological Photographs ......
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Experiments with a Tow-net
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Zoology and Botany of the
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Marine Biological Association
Action of Waves and Currents
Wd) AHISGMAMICS os segedsnonds eee
Graphic Methods in Mechani-
CAIMSCIEMCCN tenaaescuccosentees
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Ben Nevis Observatory........ a
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Formation of Haloids ......... 25 0 0 | Disappearance of Native
Action of Light on Dyes ...... i MOY Plants ......sscuscovscccessoreses 5 O
Geological Record...........+++ 100 O O | Action of Waves and Currents
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- in Hstuaries .....scc.<cssenes 125 0
SVMS Pe eEeE ee aser secreaen esses scence 10 0 0 | Anthropometric Calculations 10 Q
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 10 0 O | New Edition of ‘ Anthropo- r
Photographs of Geological logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0
WTTLETES tecacetacesseecrseecs ese. 9 5 0 | North-Western Tribes of
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General Meetings.
On Wednesday, August 19, at 8 pm., in the Park Hall, Sir
Frederick Abel, C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.8., resigned the
office of President to Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S.,
who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 1.
On Thursday, August 20, at 8 p.m, a Soirée took place in the
Park Hall.
On Friday, August 21, at 8.30 p.m., in the Park Hall, Professor L. C.
Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S., delivered a discourse on ‘Some difficulties in the
life of Aquatic Insects.’
On Monday, August 24, at 8.30 p.m., in the Park Hall, Professor A.
W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Electrical Stress.’
“ oe Tuesday, August 25,at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Park
all.
On Wednesday, August 26, at 2.30 p.u., in the Dumfries Proprietary
School, the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings
of the General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes
were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Edinburgh. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, August 3, 1892. ]
i: PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.
ADDRESS
BY
WILLIAM HUGGINS, ESQ.
D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (Cantab., Edin., et Dubl.), Pa.D. (Lugd. Bat.),
F.R.S,, F.R.A.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., &c., Correspondant
de l'Institut de France,
PRESIDENT.
Ir is now many years since this Association has done honour to the
_ science of Astronomy in the selection of its President.
Since Sir George Airy occupied the chair in 1851, and the late Lord
_ Wrottesley nine years later in 1860, other sciences have been represented
_ by the distinguished men who have presided over your meetings.
The very remarkable discoveries in our knowledge of the heavens
which have taken place during this period of thirty years—one of amazing
and ever-increasing activity in all branches of science—have not passed
unnoticed in the addresses of your successive Presidents ; still it seems to
me fitting that I should speak to you to-night chiefly of those newer
methods of astronomical research which have led to those discoveries,’and
which have become possible by the introduction since 1860 into? the
observatory of the spectroscope and the modern photographic plate.
In 1866 I had the honour of bringing before this Association, at one
‘of the evening lectures, an account of the first-fruits of the novel and
unexpected advances in our knowledge of the celestial bodies which fol-
lowed rapidly upon Kirchhoff’s original work on the solar spectrum and
he interpretation of its lines.
Since that time a great harvest has been gathered in the same field
‘by many reapers. Spectroscopic astronomy has become. a distinct and
acknowledged branch of the science, possessing a large literature of its
own and observatories specially devoted to it. The more recent discovery
of the gelatine dry plate has given a further great impetus to this modern
B2
4 REPORT—1891.
In no science, perhaps, does the sober statement of the results which
have been achieved appeal so strongly to the imagination, and make so
evident the almost boundless powers of the mind of man. By means of
its light alone to analyse the chemical nature of a far distant body; to be
able to reason about its present state in relation to the past and future;
to measure within an English mile or less per second the otherwise in-
visible motion which it may have towards or from us; to do more, to
make even that which is darkness to our eyes light, and from vibrations
which our organs of sight are powerless to perceive to evolve a revelation
in which we see mirrored some of the stages through which the stars
may pass in their slow evolutional progress—surely the record of such
achievements, however poor the form of words in which they may be
described, is worthy to be regarded as the scientific epic of the present
century.
I do not purpose to attempt a survey of the progress of spectroscopic
astronomy from its birth at Heidelberg in 1859, but to point out what we
do know at present, as distinguished from what we do not know, of a few
only of its more important problems, giving a prominent place, in
accordance with the traditions of this chair, to the work of the last
year or two.
In the spectroscope itself advances have been made by Lord Rayleigh
by his discussion of the theory of the instrument, and by Professor Row-
land in the construction of concave gratings.
Lord Rayleigh has shown that there is not the necessary connection,
sometimes supposed, between dispersion and resolving power, as besides
the prism or grating other details of construction and of adjustment of a
spectroscope must be taken into account.
The resolving power of the prismatic spectroscope is proportional to
the length of path in the dispersive medium. For the heavy flint glass used
in Lord Rayleigh’s experiments the thickness necessary to resolve the
sodium lines came out 1:02 cm. If this be taken as a unit, the resolving
power of a prism of similar glass will be in the neighbourhood of the sodium
lines equal to the number of centimétres of its thickness. In other parts
of the spectrum the resolving power will vary inversely as the third
power of the wave-length, so that it will be eight times as great in the
violet as in the red. The resolving power of a spectroscope is therefore
proportional to the total thickness of the dispersive material in use,
irrespective of the number, the angles, or the setting of the separate
prisms into which, for the sake of convenience, it may be distributed.
The resolving power of a grating depends upon the total number of
lines on its surface, and the order of spectrum in use; about 1,000 lines
being necessary to resolve the sodium lines in the first spectrum.
As it is often of importance in the record of observations to state the
efficiency of the spectroscope with which they were made, Professor
~
ADDRESS. o
Schuster has proposed the use of a unit of purity as well as of resolving
power, for the full resolving power of a spectroscope is realised in practice
only when a sufficiently narrow slit is used. The unit of purity also is
to stand for the separation of two lines differing by one-thousandth of their
own wave-length ; about the separation of the sodium pair at D.
A farther limitation may come in from the physiological fact that, as
Lord Rayleigh has pointed out, the eye when its full aperture is used is
_ not a perfect instrument. If we wish to realise the full resolving power
of a spectroscope, therefore, the emergent beam must not be larger than
_ about one-third of the opening of the pupil.
Up to the present time the standard of reference for nearly all spec-
troscopic work continues to be Angstrém’s map of the solar spectrum,
and his scale based upon his original determinations of absolute wave-
length. It is well known, as was pointed out by Thalén in his work on
_ the spectrum of iron in 1884, that Angstrom’ s figures are slightly too
_ small, in consequence of an error existing in a stantial métre used by
him. The corrections for this have been introduced into the tables of
_ the wave-lengths of terrestrial spectra collected. and revised by a Com-
mittee of this Association from 1885 to 1887. Last year the Committee
added a table of corrections to Rowland’s scale.
The inconvenience caused by a change of standard scale is, for a time
at least, considerable ; but there is little doubt that in the near future
- Rowland’s photographic map of the solar spectrum, and his scale based
on the determinations of absolute wave-length by Pierce and Bell, or
the Potsdam scale based on original determinations by Miiller and
Kempf, which differs very slightly from it, will come to be exclusively
adopted.
The great accuracy of Rowland’s photographic map is due chiefly to
the introduction by him of concave gratings, and of a method for their
use, by which the problem of the determination of relative wave-lengths
is simplified to measures of near coincidences of the lines in different
spectra by a micrometer.
The concave grating and its peculiar mounting, in which no lenses or
telescope are needed, and in which all the spectra are in focus together,
formed a new departure of great importance in the measurement of
spectral lines. The valuable method of photographic sensitizers for
different parts of the spectrum has enabled Professor Rowland to include
in his map the whole visible solar spectrum, as well as the ultra-violet
portion as far as it can get through our atmosphere. Some recent photo-
phs of the solar spectrum, which include A, by Mr. George Higgs,
of great technical beauty.
During the past year the results of three independent researches have
b ‘appeared, in which the special object of the observers has been to distin-
-guish the lines which are due to our atmosphere from those which are
truly solar—the maps of M. Thollon, which, owing to his lamented death
= ae
6 REPORT—1891.
just before their final completion, have assumed the character of a memo-
rial of him; maps by Dr. Becker; and sets of photographs of a high and
« low sun by Mr. McClean.
At the meeting of this Association in Bath, M. Janssen gave an
account of his own researches on the terrestrial lines of the solar spec-
trum, which owe their origin to the oxygen of our atmosphere. He
discovered the remarkable fact that while the intensity of one class of
bands varies as the density of the gas, other diffuse bands vary as the
square of the density. These observations are in accordance with the
work of Egoroff and of Olszewski, and of Liveing and Dewar on condensed
oxygen. In some recent experiments Olszewski, with a layer of liquid
oxygen thirty millimétres thick, saw, as well as four other bands, the
band coincident with Fraunhofer’s A; a remarkable instance of the
persistence of absorption through a great range of temperature. The
light which passed through the liquid oxygen had a light blue colour
resembling that of the sky. ,
Of not less interest are the experiments of Knut Angstrém, which
show that the carbonic acid and aqueous vapour of the atmosphere reveal
their presence by dark bands in the invisible infra-red region, at the
positions of bands of emission of these substances.
It is now some thirty years since the spectroscope gave us for the
first time certain knowledge of the nature of the heavenly bodies, and
revealed the fundamental fact that terrestrial matter is not peculiar to
the solar system, but is common to all the stars which are visible
to us.
In the case of a star such as Capella, which has a spectrum almost
identical with that of the sun, we feel justified in concluding that the
matter of which it is built up is similar, and that its temperature is also
high, and not very different from the solar temperature. The task of
analysing the stars and nebule becomes, however, one of very great diffi-
culty when we have to do with spectra differing from the solar type.
We are thrown back upon the laboratory for the information necessary
to enable us to interpret the indications of the spectroscope as to the
chemical nature, the density and pressure, and the temperature of the
celestial masses.
What the spectroscope immediately reveals to us are the waves which
were set up in the ether filling all interstellar space, years or hundreds
of years ago, by the motions of the molecules of the celestial substances.
As a rule it is only when a body is gaseous and sufficiently hot that the
motions within its molecules can produce bright lines and a corresponding
absorption. The spectra of the heavenly bodies are indeed to a great
extent absorption spectra, but we have usually to study them through
the corresponding emission spectra of bodies brought into the gaseous
form and rendered luminous by means of flames or of electric dis-
H ADDRESS. Zi
charges. In both cases, unfortunately, as has been shown recently by
_ Professors Liveing and Dewar, Wiillner, E. Wiedemann, and others,
there appears to be no certain direct relation between the luminous
_ radiation as shown in the spectroscope and the temperature of the
_ flame, or of the gaseous contents of the vacuum tube, that is, in the
_ msual sense of the term as applied to the mean motion of all the
- molecules. In both cases, the vibratory motions within the molecules
to which their luminosity is due are almost always much greater than
would be produced by encounters of molecules having motions of transla-
_ tion no greater than the average motions which characterise the tempera-
ture of the gases as a whole. The temperature of a vacuum tube through
which an electric discharge is taking place may be low, as shown thermo-
metrically, quite apart from the consideration of the extreme smallness
of the mass of gas, but the vibrations of the luminous molecules must be
violent in whatever way we suppose them to be set up by the discharge ;
if we take Schuster’s view that comparatively few molecules are carrying
the discharge, and that it is to the fierce encounters of these alone that
_the luminosity is due, then if all the molecules had similar motions, the
temperature of the gas would be very high.
So in flames where chemical changes are in progress, the vibratory
motions of the molecules which are luminous may be, in connection with
the energy set free in these changes, very different from those correspond-
ing to the mean temperature of the flame.
Under the ordinary conditions of terrestrial experiments, therefore,
the temperature or the mean vis viva of the molecules may have no direct
‘relation to the total radiation, which, on the other hand, is the sum of the
‘radiation due to each luminous molecule.
These phenomena have recently been discussed by Ebert from the
standpoint of the electro-magnetic theory of light.
__ Very great caution is therefore called for when we attempt to reason
by the aid of laboratory experiments to the temperature of the heavenly
bodies from their radiation, especially on the reasonable assumption that
in them the luminosity is not ordinarily associated with chemical changes
or with electrical discharges, but is due to a simple glowing from the
ultimate conversion into molecular motion of the gravitational energy of
shrinkage.
_ Inarecent paper Stas maintains that electric spectra are to be re-
‘garded as distinct from flame spectra, and, from researches of his own,
that the pairs of lines of the sodium spectrum other than D are produced
only by disruptive electric discharges. As these pairs of lines are found
reversed in the solar spectrum, he concludes that the sun’s radiation is
due mainly to electric discharges. But Wolf and Diacon, and later, Watts,
observed the other pairs of lines of the sodium spectrum when the vapour
_ Was raised above the ordinary temperature of the Bunsen flame. Recently,
_Liiveing and Dewar saw easily, besides D the citron and green pairs and
8 REPORT—1891.
sometimes the blue pair and the orange pair, when hydrogen charged
with sodium vapour was burning at different pressures in oxygen. In
the case of sodium vapour, therefore, and presumably in all other vapours _
and gases, it is a matter of indifference whether the necessary vibratory
motion of the molecules is produced by electric discharges or by flames,
The presence of lines in the solar spectrum which we can only produce
electrically is an indication, however, as Stas points out, of the high
temperature of the sun,
We must not forget that the light from the heavenly bodies may
consist of the combined radiations of different layers of gas at different
temperatures, and possibly be further complicated to an unknown extent
by the absorption of cooler portions of gas outside.
Not less caution is needed if we endeavour to argue from the
broadening of lines and the coming in of a continuous spectrum as
to the relative pressure of the gas in the celestial atmospheres. On
the one hand, it cannot be gainsaid that in the laboratory the widening
of the lines in a Pliicker’s tube follows upon increasing the density of the
residue of hydrogen in the tube, when the vibrations are more frequently
disturbed by fresh encounters; and that a broadening of the sodium lines
in a flame at ordinary pressure is produced by an increase of the quantity
of sodium in the flame; but it is doubtful if pressure, as distinguished
from quantity, does produce an increase of the breadth of the lines. An
individual molecule of sodium will be sensibly in the same condition,
considering the relatively enormous number of the molecules of the other
gases, whether the flame is scantily or copiously fed with the sodium salt.
With a small quantity of sodium vapour the intensity will be feeble
except near the maximum of the lines; when, however, the quantity is
increased the comparative transparency on the sides of the maximum
will allow the light from the additional molecules met with in the path
of the visual ray to strengthen the radiation of the molecules farther
back, and so increase the breadth of the lines.
In a gaseous mixture it is found, as a rule, that at the same pressure
or temperature, as the encounters with similar molecules become fewer,
the spectral lines will be affected as if the body were observed under
conditions of reduced quantity or temperature.
In their recent investigation of the spectroscopic behaviour of flames
under various pressures up to forty atmospheres, Professors Liveing and
Dewar have come to the conclusion that though the prominent feature of
the light emitted by flames at high pressure appears to be a strong con-
tinuous spectrum, there is not the slightest indication that this continu-
ous spectrum is produced by the broadening of the lines of the same
gases at low pressure. On the contrary, photometric observations of the
brightness of the continuous spectrum, as the pressure is varied, show
that it is mainly produced by the mutual action of the molecules of a gas.
Experiments on the sodium spectrum were carried up to a pressure of
ADDRESS. 9
forty atmospheres without producing any definite effect on the width of
the lines which could be ascribed to the pressure. In a similar way the
lines of the spectrum of water showed no signs of expansion up to twelve
atmospheres; though more intense than at ordinary pressure, they
remained narrow and clearly defined.
It follows, therefore, that a continuous spectrum cannot be considered,
when taken alone, as a sure indication of matter in the liquid or the solid
state. Not only, as in the experiments already mentioned, such a
spectrum may be due to gas when under pressure, but, as Maxwell
pointed out, if the thickness of a medium, such as sodium vapour, which
radiates and absorbs different kinds of light, be very great, and the
_ temperature high, the light emitted will be of exactly the same composi-
tion as that emitted by lamp-black at the same temperature, for the
radiations which are feebly emitted will be also feebly absorbed, and can
reach the surface from immense depths. Schuster has shown that
oxygen, even in a partially exhausted tube, can give a continuous spec-
trum when excited by a feeble electric discharge.
Compound bodies are usually distinguished by a banded spectrum ;
but on the other hand such a spectrum does not necessarily show the
presence of compounds, that is, of molecules containing different kinds
of atoms, but simply of a more complex molecule, which may be made
up of similar atoms, and be therefore an allotropic condition of the same
body. In some cases, for example, in the diffuse bands of the absorption
_ spectrum of oxygen, the bands may have an intensity proportional to the
_ square of the density of the gas, and may be due either to the formation
of more complex molecules of the gas with increase of pressure, or it may
be to the constraint to which the molecules are subject daring their
encounters with one another.
It may be thought that at least in the coincidences of bright lines we
are on the solid ground of certainty, since the length of the waves set up:
in the ether by a molecule, say of hydroven, is the most fixed and abso-
Iutely permanent quantity in nature, and is so of physical necessity, for
with any alteration the molecule would cease to be hydrogen.
Such would be the case if the coincidence were certain; but an
absolute coincidence can be only a matter of greater or less probability,
depending on the resolving power employed, on the number of the lines
which correspond and on their characters. When the coincidences are
very numerous, as in the case of iron and the solar spectrum, or the lines.
are characteristically grouped, as in the case of hydrogen and the solar
Spectrum, we may regard the coincidence as certain; but the progress of
Science bas been greatly retarded by resting important conclusions upon
the apparent coincidence of single lines, in spectroscopes of very small
resolving power. In such cases, unless other reasons supporting the
coincidence are present, the probability of a real coincidence is almost
too small to be of any importance, especially in the case of a heavenly
10 REPORT—1891.
body which may have a motion of approach or of recession of unknown
amount.
But even here we are met by the confusion introduced by multiple
spectra, corresponding to different molecular groupings of the same
substance; and, further, to the influence of substances in vapour upon
each other ; for when several gases are present together, the phenomena
of radiation and reversal by absorption are by no means the same as if
the gases were free from each other’s influence, and especially is this the
case when they are illuminated by an electric discharge.
I have said as much as time will permit, and I think indeed sufficient,
to show that it is only by the laborious and slow process of most
cautious observation that the foundations of the science of celestial
physics can be surely laid. We are at present ina time of transition
when the earlier, and, in the nature of things, less precise observations
are giving place to work of an order of accuracy much greater than was
formerly considered attainable with objects of such small brightness as
the stars.
The accuracy of the earlier determinations of the spectra of the
terrestrial elements is in most cases insufficient for modern work on the
stars as well as on the sun. They fall much below the scale adopted in
Rowland’s map of the sun, as wellas below the degree of accuracy attained
at Potsdam by photography in a part of the spectrum for the brighter stars.
Increase of resolving power very frequently breaks up into groups, in the
spectra of the sun and stars, the lines which had been regarded as single,
and their supposed coincidences with terrestrial lines fall to the ground.
For this reason many of the early conclusions, based on observations as
good as it was possible to make at the time with the less powerful spec-
troscopes then in use, may not be found to be maintained under the
much greater resolving power of modern instruments.
The spectroscope has failed as yet to interpret for us the remarkable
spectrum of the Aurora Borealis. Undoubtedly in this phenomenon
portions of our atmosphere are lighted up by electric discharges ; we
should expect, therefore, to recognise the spectra of the gases known to
be present in it. As yet we have not been able to obtain similar spectra
from these gases artificially, and especially we do not know the origin of
the principal line in the green, which often appears alone, and may have
therefore an origin independent of that of the other lines. Recently the
suggestion has been made that the Aurora is a phenomenon produced by
the dust of meteors and falling stars, and that near positions of certain
aurcral lines to lines or flutings of manganese, lead, barium, thallium, iron,
&c., are sufficient to justify us in regarding meteoric dust in the atmosphere
as the origin of the auroral spectrum. Liveing and Dewar have made a
conclusive research on this point, by availing themselves of the dust of
excessive minuteness thrown off from the surface of electrodes of various
-
ADDRESS. 1)
‘metals and meteorites by a disruptive discharge, and carried forward into
the tube of observation by a more or less rapid current of air or other gas.
These experiments prove that metallic dust, however fine, suspended in a
gas will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its cha-
acteristic spectrum in an electric discharge, similar to that of the Aurora.
Professor Schuster has suggested that the principal line may be due to
‘some very light gas which is present in too small a proportion to be
detected by chemical analysis or even by the spectroscope in the presence
of the other gases near the earth, but which at the height of the auroral
discharges is in a sufficiently greater relative proportion to give a spectrum.
Lemstrém, indeed, states that he saw this line in the silent discharge of
a Holtz machine on a mountain in Lapland. The lines may not have
fe
been obtained in our laboratories from the atmospheric gases, on account
of the difficulty of reproducing in tubes with sufficient nearness the
conditions under which the auroral discharges take place.
In the spectra of comets the spectroscope has shown the presence of
carbon presumably in combination with hydrogen, and also sometimes
with nitrogen ; and in the case of comets approaching very near the sun,
the lines of sodium, and other lines which have been supposed to belong
to iron. Though the researches of Professor H. A. Newton and of
Professor Schiaparelli leave no doubt of the close connection of comets
with corresponding periodic meteor swarms, and therefore of the probable
identity of cometary matter with that of meteorites, with which the
spectroscopic evidence agrees, it would be perhaps unwise at present to
attempt to define too precisely the exact condition of the matter which
forms the nucleus of the comet. In any case the part of the light of
the comet which is not reflected solar light can scarcely be attributed
to a high temperature produced by the clashing of separate meteoric
stones set up within the nucleus by the sun’s disturbing force. We must
look rather to disruptive electric discharges produced probably by pro-
cesses of evaporation due to increased solar heat, which would be amply
sufficient to set free portions of the occluded gases into the vacuum of
space. May it be that these discharges are assisted, and indeed possibly
increased, by the recently discovered action of the ultra-violet part of the
‘sun’s light? Hertz has shown that ultra-violet light can produce a dis-
charge from a negatively electrified piece of metal, while Hallwachs and
Righi have shown further that ultra-violet light can even charge posi-
tively an unelectrified piece of metal; phenomena which Lenard and
Wolf associate with the disengagement from the metallic surfaces of very
‘minute particles. Similar actions on cometary matter, unscreened as it is
‘by an absorptive atmosphere, at least of any noticeable extent, may well
be powerful when a comet approaches the sun, and help to explain an
electrified condition of the evaporated matter which would possibly bring
it under the sun’s repulsive action. We shal) have to return to this
_ point in speaking of the solar corona.
12 REPORT—1891.
A very great advance has been made in our knowledge of the consti-
tution of the sun by the recent work at the Johns Hopkins University
- by means of photography and concave gratings, in comparing the solar
spectrum, under great resolving power, directly with the spectra of
the terrestrial elements. Professor Rowland has shown that the lines
of thirty-six terrestrial elements at least are certainly present in the solar
spectrum, while eight others are doubtful. Fifteen elements, including
nitrogen as it shows itself under an electric discharge in a vacuum tube,
have not been found in the solar spectrum. Some ten other elements,
inclusive of oxygen, have not yet been compared with the sun’s spectrum.
Rowland remarks that of the fifteen elements named as not found in
the sun, many are so classed because they have few strong lines, or none
at all, in the limit of the solar spectrum as compared by him with the arc.
Boron has only two strong lines. The lines of bismuth are compound
and too diffuse. Therefore even in the case of these fifteen elements
there is little evidence that they are really absent from the sun.
It follows that if the whole earth were heated to the temperature of
the sun, its spectrum would resemble very closely the solar spectrum.
Rowland has not found any lines common to several elements, and in
the case of some accidental coincidences, more accurate investigation
reveals some slight difference of wave-length or a common impurity.
Further, the relative strength of the lines in the solar spectrum is gene-.
rally, with a few exceptions, the same as that in the electric are, so that
Rowland considers that his experiments show ‘ very little evidence’ of
the breaking up of the terrestrial elements in the sun.
Stas in a recent paper gives the final results of eleven years of research
on the chemical elements in a state of purity, and on the possibility of
decomposing them by the physical and chemical forces at our disposal.
His experiments on calcium, strontium, lithium, magnesium, silver, sodium
and thallium, show that these substances retain their individuality under
all conditions, and are unalterable by any forces that we can bring to bear
upon them.
Professor Rowland looks to the solar lines which are unaccounted
for as a means of enabling him to discover such new terrestrial ele-
ments as still lurk in rare minerals and earths, by confronting their
spectra directly with that of the sun. He has already resolved yttrium
spectroscopically into three components, and actually into two. The
comparison of the results of this independent analytical method with the
remarkable but different conclusions to which M. Lecog de Boisbaudran
and Mr: Crookes have been led respectively, from spectroscopic observa-
tion of these bodies when glowing under molecular bombardment in a
vacuum tube, will be awaited with much interest. Itis worthy of remark
that as our knowledge of the spectrum of hydrogen in its complete form
came to us from the stars, it is now from the sun that chemistry is pro-
bably about to be enriched by the discovery of new elements.
ADDRESS. 13
Tn a discussion in the Bakerian lecture for 1885 of what we knew up
to that time of the sun’s corona, I was led to the conclusion that the
corona is essentially a phenomenon similar in the cause of its formation
__ to the tails of comets, namely, that it consists for the most part probably
4 of matter going from the sun under the action of a force, possibly electrical,
which varies as the surface, and can therefore in the case of Tashi
attenuated matter easily master the force of gravity even near the sun.
- Though many of the coronal particles may return to the sun, those which
form the long rays or streamers do not return; they separate and soon
become too diffused to be any longer visible, and may well go to furnish
* the matter of the zodiacal light, which otherwise has not received a satis-
_ factory explanation. And further, if such a force exist at the sun, the
% changes of terrestrial magnetism may be due to direct electric action,
_ as the earth moves through lines of inductive force.
These conclusions appear to be in accordance broadly with the lines
along which thought has been directed by the results of subsequent
eclipses. Professor Schuster takes an essentially similar view, and
suggests that there may be a direct electric connection between the sun
and the planets. He asks further whether the sun may not act like a
magnet in consequence of its revolution about its axis. Professor Bigelow
has recently treated the coronal forms by the theory of spherical har-
monics, on the supposition that we see phenomena similar to those of free
electricity, the rays being lines of force, and the coronal matter discharged
from the sun, or at least arranged or controlled by these forces. At the
extremities of the streams for some reasons the repulsive power may be
lost, and gravitation set in, bringing the matter back to the sun. The
matter which does leave the sun is persistently transported to the equa-
torial plane of the corona; in fact, the zodiacal light may be the accumu-
lation at great distances from the sun along this equator of such like
material. Photographs on a larger scale will be desirable for the full
development of the conclusions which may follow from this study of the
curved forms of the coronal structure. Professor Schaeberle, however,
considers that the coronal phenomena may be satisfactorily accounted for
on the:supposition that the corona is formed of streams of matter ejected
mainly from the spot zones with great initial velocities, but smaller than
382 miles a second. Further that the different types of the corona are
due to the effects of perspective on the streams from the earth’s place at
the time relatively to the plane of the solar equator.
Of the physical and the chemical nature of the coronal matter we know
very little. Schuster concludes, from an examination of the eclipses of
1882, 1883, and 1886, that the continuous spectrum of the corona has the
maximum of actinic intensity displaced considerably towards the red when
compared with the spectrum of the sun, which shows that it can only be
due in small part to solar light scattered by small particles. The lines of
_ ¢alcium and of hydrogen donot appear to form part of the normal spectrum
14 REPORT—1891.
of the corona. The green coronal line has no known representative in
terrestrial substances, nor has Schuster been able to recognise any of our
elements in the other lines of the corona.
The spectra of the stars are almost infinitely diversified, yet they can
be arranged with some exceptions in a series in which the adjacent
spectra, especially in the photographic region, are scarcely distinguish-.
able, passing from the bluish-white stars like Sirius, through stars more
or less solar in character, to stars with banded spectra, which divide
themselves into two apparently independent groups, according as the
stronger edge of the bands is towards the red or the blue. In such an
arrangement the sun’s place is towards the middle of the series.
At present a difference of opinion exists as to the direction in the series
in which evolution is proceeding, whether by further condensation white
stars pass into the orange and red stages, or whether these more coloured
stars are younger and will become white by increasing age. The latter
view was suggested by Johnstone Stoney in 1867.
About ten years ago Ritter, in a series of papers, discussed the behaviour
of gaseous masses during condensation, and the probable resulting con-
stitution of the heavenly bodies. According to him, a star passes through
the orange and red stages twice, first during a comparatively short
period of increasing temperature which culminates in the white stage, and
a second time during a more prolonged stage of gradual cooling. He
suggested that the two groups of banded stars may correspond to these
different periods: the young stars being those in which the stronger
edge of the dark band is towards the blue, the other banded stars, which
are relatively less Juminous and few in number, being those which are
approaching extinction through age.
Recently a similar evolutional order has been suggested, which is based
upon the hypothesis that the nebule and stars consist of colliding meteoric
stones in different stages of condensation.
More recently the view has been put forward that the diversified
spectra of the stars do not represent the stages of an evolutional progress,
but are due for the most part to differences of original constitution.
The few minutes which can be given to this part of the address are
insufficient for a discussion of these different views. I purpose, therefore,
to state briefly, and with reserve as the subject is obscure, some of the
considerations from the characters of their spectra which appeared to me to
be in favour of the evolutional order in which I arranged the stars from
their photographic spectra in 1879. This order is essentially the same
as Vogel had previously proposed in his classification of the stars in
1874, in which the white stars, which are most numerous, represent the
early adult and most persistent stage of stellar life, the solar condition
that of full maturity and of commencing age; while in the orange and red
stars with banded spectra we see the setting in and advance of old age.
+
ADDRESS. 15:
But this statement must be taken broadly, and not as asserting that all
stars, however different in mass and possibly to some small extent in
original constitution, exhibit one invariable succession of spectra.
In the spectra of the white stars the dark metallic lines are relatively
inconspicuous, and occasionally absent, at the same time that the dark
lines of hydrogen are usually strong, and more or less broad, upon a con-
tinuous spectrum, which is remarkable for its brilliancy at the blue end.
In some of these stars the hydrogen and some other lines are bright,
and sometimes variable.
As the greater or less prominence of the hydrogen lines, dark or
bright, is characteristic of the white stars as a class, and diminishes.
gradually with the incoming and increase in strength of the other lines,
we are probably justified in regarding it as due to some conditions
which occur naturally during the progress of stellar life, and not to
_ a peculiarity of original constitution.
To produce a strong absorption-spectrum a substance must be at the
particular temperature at which it is notably absorptive; and, further,
this temperature must be sufficiently below that of the region behind
from which the light comes for the gas to appear, so far as its special
rays are concerned, as darkness upon it. Considering the high tem-
perature to which hydrogen must be raised before it can show its.
characteristic emission and absorption, we shall probably be right in
attributing the relative feebleness or absence of the other lines, not to the
paucity of the metallic vapours, but rather to their being so hot relatively
to the substances behind them as to show feebly, if at all, by reversion.
Such a state of things would more probably be found, it seems to me, in
conditions anterior to the solar stage. A considerable cooling of the sun
would probably give rise to banded spectra due to compounds, or to more
complex molecules; which might form near the condensing points of the
vapours.
The sun and stars are generally regarded as consisting of glowing
vapours surrounded by a photosphere where condensation is taking place,
the temperature of the photospheric layer from which the greater part of the
radiation comes being constantly renewed from the hotter matter within.
At the surface the convection currents would be strong, producing
a considerable commotion, by which the different gases would be mixed
and not allowed to retain the inequality of proportions at different levels
due to their vapour densities.
Now the conditions of the radiating photosphere and those of the
gases above it, on which the character of the spectrum of a star depends,
will be determined, not alone by temperature, but also by the force of
gravity in these regions; this force will be fixed by the star’s mass and
its stage of condensation, and will become greater as the star continues
to condense.
In the case of the sun the force of gravity has already become so
16 REPORT—1891.
great at the surface that the decrease of the density of the gases must be
extremely rapid passing in the space of a few miles, from atmospheric
pressure to a density infinitesimally small; consequently the temperature-
gradient at the surface, if determined solely by expansion, must be ex-
tremely rapid. The gases here, however, are exposed to the fierce
radiation of the sun, and unless wholly transparent would take up heat,
especially if any solid or liquid particles were present from condensation
or convection currents.
From these causes, within a very small extent of space at the surface
of the sun, all bodies with which we are acquainted should fall to a con-
dition in which the extremely tenuous gas could no longer give a visible
spectrum. The insignificance of the angle subtended by this space as
seen from the earth should cause the boundary of the solar atmosphere to
appear defined. Ifthe boundary which we see be that of the sun proper,
the matter above it will have to be regarded as in an essentially dynamical
condition—an assemblage, so to speak, of gaseous projectiles for the most
part falling back upon the sun after a greater or less range of flight.
But in any case it is within a space of relatively small extent in the sun
and probably in the other solar stars, that the reversion which is mani-
fested by dark lines is to be regarded as taking place.
Passing backward in the star’s life, we should find a gradual weak:
ening of gravity at the surface, a reduction of the temperature-gradient
so far as it was determined by expansion, and convection currents of less
violence producing less interference with the proportional quantities of
gases due to their vapour densities, while the effects of eruptions would
be more extensive.
At last we might come to a state of things in which, if the star were
hot enough, only hydrogen might be sufficiently cool relatively to the
radiation behind to produce a strong absorption. The lower vapours’
would be protected, and might continue to be relatively too hot for their
lines to appear very dark upon the continuous spectrum; besides, their
lines might be possibly to some extent effaced by the coming in under
such conditions in the vapours themselves of a continuous spectrum.
In such a star the light radiated towards the upper part of the atmo-
sphere may have come from portions lower down of the atmosphere itself,
or at least from parts not greatly hotter. There may be no such great
difference of temperature of the low and less low portions of the star’s
atmosphere as to make the darkening effect of absorption of the protected
metallic vapours to prevail over the illuminating effect of their emission.
It is only by a vibratory motion corresponding to a very high tem-
perature that the bright lines of the first spectrum of hydrogen can be
brought out, and by the equivalence of absorbing and emitting power
that the corresponding spectrum of absorption should be produced ; yet for
a strong absorption to show itself, the hydrogen must be cool relatively
to the source of radiation behind it, whether this be condensed particles
1 at
ADDRESS. 17
orgas. Such conditions, it seems to me, should occur in the earlier rather
than in the more advanced stages of condensation.
The subject is obscure, and we may go wrong in our mode of conceiv-
ing of the probable progress of events, but there can be no doubt that in
one remarkable instance the white-star spectrum is associated with an
early stage of condensation.
Sirius is one of the most conspicuous examples of one type of this
lass of stars. Photometric observations combined with its ascertained
parallax show that this star emits from forty to sixty times the light of
our sun, even to the eye, whichisinsensible to ultra-violet light, in which
Sirius is very rich, while we learn from the motion of its companion
that its mass is not much more than double that of our sun. It follows
that unless we attribute to this star an improbably great emissive power,
it must be of immense size, and in a much more diffuse and therefore
an earlier condition than our sun; though probably at a later stage
than those white stars in which the hydrogen lines are bright.
A direct determination of the relative temperature of the photospberes
of the stars might possibly be obtained in some cases from the relative
position of maximum radiation of their continuous spectra. Langley
has shown that through the whole range of temperature on which we can
experiment, and presumably at temperatures beyond, the maximum of
radiation-power in solid bodies gradually shifts upwards in the spectrum
from the infra-red through the red and orange, and that in the sun it has
reached the blue.
The defined character as a rule of the stellar lines of absorption sug-
gests that the vapours producing them do not at the same time exert any
strong power of general absorption. Consequently we should probably
not go far wrong, when the photosphere consists of liquid or solid parti-
eles, if we could compare select parts of the continuous spectrum between
the stronger lines or where they are fewest. Itis obvious that if extended
gortions of different stellar spectra were compared, their true relation
vould be obscured by the line-absorption.
The increase of temperature, as shown by the rise in the spectrum of
he maximum of radiation, may not always be accompanied by a corre-
ponding greater brightness of a star as estimated by the eye, whichisan
emely imperfect photometric instrument. Noi only is the eye blind
0 large regions of radiation, but even for the small range of light that
e can see the visual effect varies enormously with its colour. According
) Professor Langley, the same amount of energy which just enables us to
erceive light in the crimson at A would in the green produce a visual
tect 100,000 times greater. In the violet the proportional effect would
e 1,600, in the blue 62,000, in the yellow,28,000, in the orange 14,000,
and in the red 1,200. Captain Abney’s recent experiments make the
sensitiveness of the eye for the green near F to be 750 times greater than
for rea about C. It is for this reason, at least in part, that I suggested
— Cc
18 REPORT—1891.
in 1864, and have since shown by direct observation, that the spectrum
of the nebula in Andromeda, and presumably of similar nebulx, is in
appearance only wanting in the red.
The stage at which the maximum radiation is in the green, corre-
sponding to the eye’s greatest sensitiveness, would be that in which it
could be most favourably measured by eye-photometry. As the maxi-
mum rose into the violet and beyond, the star would increase in visual
brightness, but not in proportion to the increase of energy radiated by it.
The brightness of a star would be affected by the nature of the sub-
stance by which the light was chiefly emitted. In the laboratory solid
carbon exhibits the highest emissive power. A stellar stage in which
radiation comes, to a large extent, from a photosphere of the solid parti-
cles of this substance, would be favourable for great brilliancy. Though
the stars are built up of matter essentially similar to that of the sun, it
does not follow that the proportion of the different elements is everywhere
the same. It may be that the substances condensed in the photospheres
of different stars may differ in their emissive powers, but probably not to
a great extent.
All the heavenly bodies are seen by us through the tinted medium of
our atmosphere. According to Langley, the solar stage of stars is not
really yellow, but, even as gauged by our imperfect eyes, would appear
bluish-white if we could free ourselves from the deceptive influences of
our surroundings.
From these considerations it follows that we can scarcely infer the
evolutional stages of the stars from a simple comparison of their eye-
magnitudes. We should expect the white stars to be, as a class, less
dense than the stars in the solar stage. As great mass might bring in
the solar type of spectrum ata relatively earlier time, some of the brightest
of these stars may be very massive and brighter than the sun—for example,
the brilliant star Arcturus. For these reasons the solar stars should not
only be denser than the white stars, but perhaps, as a class, surpass them
in mass and eye-brightness.
It has been shown by Lane that, so long as a condensing gaseous mass:
remains subject to the laws of a purely gaseous body, its temperature will —
continue to rise.
The greater or less breadth of the lines of absorption of hydrogen in
the white-stars may be due to variations of the depth of the hydrogen in
the line of sight, arising from the causes which have been discussed. At
the sides of the lines the absorption and emission are feebler than in the
middle, and would come out more strongly with a greater thickness of gas.
The diversities among the white stars are nearly as numerous as the
individuals of the class. Time does not permit me to do more than to
record that in addition to the three sub-classes into which they have been
divided by Vogel, Scheiner has recently investigated minor differences
as suggested by the character of the third line of hydrogen near G. He
——
ig ADDRESS. 19
has pointed out too that so far as his observations go the white stars in
the constellation of Orion stand alone, with the exception of Algol, in
possessing a dark line in the blue which has apparently the same posi-
tion as a bright line in the great nebula of the same constellation; and
Pickering finds in his photographs of the spectra of these stars dark lines
corresponding to the principal lines of the bright-line stars, and the plane-
tary nebule with the exception of the chief nebular line. The association
of white stars with nebular matter in Orion, in the Pleiades, in the region
of the Milky Way, and in other parts of the heavens, may be regarded
as falling in with the view that I have taken.
In the stars possibly further removed from the white class than our
sun, belonging to the first division of Vogel’s third class, which are dis-
tinguished by absorption bands with their stronger edge towards the
blue, the hydrogen lines are narrower than in the solar spectrum. In
these stars the density-gradient is probably still more rapid, the depth of
hydrogen may be less, and possibly the hydrogen molecules may be
affected by a larger number of encounters with dissimilar molecules. In
some red stars with dark hydrocarbon bands the hydrogen lines have not
been certainly observed ; if they are really absent, it may be because the
temperature has fallen below the point at which hydrogen can exert its
characteristic absorption ; besides, some hydrogen will have united with
the carbon. The coming in of the hydrocarbon bands may indicate a later
evolutional stage, but the temperature may still be high, as acetylene
can exist in the electric arc.
A number of small stars more or less similar to those which are known
by the names of their discoverers, Wolf and Rayet, have been found
by Pickering in his photographs. These are remarkable for several
_ brilliant groups of bright lines, including frequently the hydrogen lines
and the line D3, upon a continuous spectrum strong in blue and violet
rays, in which are also dark lines of absorption. As some of the bright
groups appear in his photographs to agree in position with corresponding
bright lines in the planetary nebule, Pickering suggests that these stars
should be placed in one class with them, although the brightest nebular
line is absent from these stars. The simplest conception of their nature
would be that each star is surrounded by a nebula, the bright groups being
‘dune to the gaseous matter outside the star. Mr. Roberts, however, has
not been able to bring out any indication of nebulosity by prolonged
exposure. The remarkable star y Argus may belong to this class of
the heavenly bodies.
oe i ne eee |e ee &
In the nebule, the elder Herschel saw portions of the fiery mist or
‘shining fluid’ out of which the heavens and the earth had been slowly
fashioned. For a time this view of the nebulw gave place to that which
regarded them as external galaxies, cosmical - sandheaps,’ too remote tu
be resolved into separate stars; though indeed in 1858 Mr. Herbert
c 2
20 REPORT—1891.
Spencer showed that the observations of nebule up to that time were
really in favour of an evolutional progress.
In 1864 I brought the spectroscope to bear upon them; the bright
lines which flashed upon the eye showed the source of the light of a
number of them to be glowing gas, and so restored these bodies to what
is probably their true place, as an early stage of sidereal life.
At that early time our knowledge of stellar spectra was small, For this
reason partly, and probably also under the undue influence of theological
opinions then widely prevalent, I unwisely wrote in my original paper
in 1864, ‘that in these objects we no longer have to do with a special
modification of our own type of sun, but find ourselves in presence of
objects possessing a distinct and peculiar plan of structure.’ Two years
later, however, in a lecture before this Association, I took a truer position.
‘Our views of the universe,’ I said, ‘are undergoing important changes ;
let us wait for more facts with minds unfettered by any dogmatic theory,
and therefore free to receive the teaching, whatever it may be, of new
observations.’
Let us turn aside for a moment from the nebule in the sky to the
conclusions to which philosophers had been irresistibly led by a considera-
tion of the features of the solar system. We have before us in the
sun and planets obviously not a haphazard aggregation of bodies, but
a system resting upon a multitude of relations pointing to a common
physical cause. irom these considerations Kant and Laplace formulated
the nebular hypothesis, resting it on gravitation alone, for at that time
the science of the conservation of energy was practically unknown. These
philosophers showed how, on the supposition that the space now occupied
by the solar system was once filled by a vaporous mass, the formation
of the sun and planets could be reasonably accounted for.
By a totally different method of reasoning, modern science traces
the solar system backward step by step to a similar state of things at
the beginning. According to Helmholtz the sun’s heat is maintained
by the contraction of his mass, at the rate of about 220 feet a year.
Whether at the present time the sun is getting hotter or colder we do
not certainly know. We can reason back to the time when the sun was
sufficiently expanded to fill the whole space occupied by the solar system,
and was reduced to a great glowing nebula. Though man’s life, the life
of the race perhaps, is too short to give us direct evidence of any distinct
stages of so august a process, still the probability is great that the
nebular hypothesis, especially in the more precise form given to it by
Roche, does represent broadly, notwithstanding some difficulties, the
succession of events through which the sun and planets have passed.
The nebular hypothesis of Laplace requires a rotating mass of fluid
which at successive epochs became unstable from excess of motion, and
left behind rings, or more probably perhaps lumps, of matter from the
equatorial regions.
ADDRESS. 21
The difficulties to which I have referred have suggested to some
thinkers a diiferent view of things, according to which it is not necessary
to suppose that one part of the system gravitationally supports another.
The whole may consist of a congeries of discrete bodies even if these
bodies be the ultimate molecules of matter. The planets may have been
formed by the gradual accretion of such discrete bodies. On the view
that the material of the condensing solar system consisted of separate
particles or masses, we have no longer the fluid pressure which is an
essential part of Laplace’s theory. Faye, in his theory of evolution from
meteorites, has to throw over this fundamental idea of the nebular
hypothesis, and he formulates instead a different succession of events in
which the outer planets were formed last ; a theory which has difficulties
_ of its own.
i Professor George Darwin has recently shown, from an investigation
_ of the mechanical conditions of a swarm of meteorites, that on certain
: assumptions a meteoric swarm might behave as a coarse gas, and in this
_ way bring back the fluid pressure exercised by one part of the system on
_ the other, which is required by Laplace’s theory. One chief assumption
consists in supposing that such inelastic bodies as meteoric stones might
attain the effective elasticity of a high order which is necessary to the
theory through the sudden volatilisation of a part of their mass at an
encounter, by which what is virtually a violent explosive is introduced
between the two colliding stones. Professor Darwin is careful to point
out that it must necessarily be obscure as to how a small mass of solid
matter can take up a very large amount of energy in a small fraction of a
second.
Any direct indications from the heavens themselves, however slight,
are of so great value, that I should perhaps in this connection call atten-
tion to a recent remarkable photograph by Mr. Roberts of the great
nebula in Andromeda. On this plate we seem to have presented to us
‘some stage of cosmical evolution on a gigantic scale. The photograph
shows a sort of whirlpool disturbance of the luminous matter which is
distributed in a plane inclined to the line of sight, in which a series of
rings of bright matter separated by dark spaces, greatly foreshortened by
perspective, surround a large undefined central mass. The parallax of this
nebula has not been ascertained, but there can be little doubt that we are
looking upon a system very remote, and therefore of a magnitude great
beyond our power of adequate comprehension. The matter of this nebula,
in whatever state it may be, appears to be distributed, as in so many
other nebule, in rings or spiral streams, and to suggest a stage in a suc-
‘cession of evolutional events not inconsistent with that which the nebular
hypothesis requires. To liken this object more directly to any particular
stage in the formation of the solar system would be ‘to compare things
great with small,’ and might be indeed to introduce a false analogy ; but
_ on the other hand, we should err through an excess of caution if we did
22 REPORT—1891.
not accept the remarkable features brought to light by this photograph
as a presumptive indication of a progress of events in cosmical history
following broadly upon the lines of Laplace’s theory.
_ The old view of the original matter of the nebule, that it consisted of
a ‘fiery mist,’
‘a tumultuous cloud
Instinct with fire and nitre,’
fell at once with the rise of the science of thermodynamics. In 1854
Helmholtz showed that the supposition of an original fiery-condition of
the nebulous stuff was unnecessary, since in the mutual gravitation of
widely separated matter we have a store of potential energy sufficient to
generate the high temperature of the sun and stars. We can scarcely go
wrong in attributing the light of the nebule to the conversion of the
gravitational energy of shrinkage into molecular motion.
The idea that the light of comets and of nebulz may be due to a suc-
cession of ignited flashes of gas from the encounters of meteoric stones
was suggested by Professor Tait, and was brought to the notice of this
Association in 1871 by Sir William Thomson in his Presidential Address.
The spectrum of the bright-line nebule is certainly not such a spec-
trum as we should expect from the flashing by collisions of meteorites
similar to those which have been analysed in our laboratories. The
strongest lines of the substances which in the case of such meteorites
would first show themselves, iron, sodium, magnesium, nickel, &., are
not those which distinguish the nebular spectrum. On the contrary, this |
spectrum is chiefly remarkable for a few brilliant lines, very narrow and
defined, upov a background of a faint continuous spectrum, which con-
tains numerous bright lines, and probably some lines of absorption.
The two most conspicuous lines have not been interpreted; for
though the second line falls near, it is not coincident with a strong double
line of iron. It is hardly necessary to say that though the near position
of the brightest line to the bright double line of nitrogen, as seen in a
small spectroscope in 1864, naturally suggested at that early time the
possibility of the presence of this element in the nebule, I have been
careful to point out, to prevent misapprehension, that in more recent
years the nitrogen line and subsequently a lead line have been employed
by me solely as fiducial points of reference in the spectrum.
The third line we know to be the second line of the first spectrum of
hydrogen. Mr. Keeler has seen the first hydrogen line in the red, and
photographs show that this hydrogen spectrum is probably present in its
complete form, or nearly so, as we first learnt to know it in the absorp-
tion spectrum of the white stars.
We are not surprised to find associated with it the line D3, near the
position of the absent sodium lines, probably due to the atom of some
unknown gas, which in the sun can only show itself in the outbursts of
—- ——
ADDRESS. 23
highest temperature, and for this reason does not reveal itself by absorp-
tion in the solar spectrum.
It is not unreasonable to assume that the two brightest lines, which
are of the same order as the third line, are produced by substances of a
similar nature, in which a vibratory motion corresponding to a very high
_ temperature is also necessary. These substances, as well as that repre-
sented by the line D3, may be possibly some of the unknown elements
_ which are wanting in our terrestrial chemistry between hydrogen and
_ lithium, unless indeed D; be on the lighter side of hydrogen.
In the laboratory we must have recourse to the electric discharge to
bring out the spectrum of hydrogen; but in a vacuum-tube, though the
radiation may be great, from the relative fewness of the luminous atoms
or molecules or from some other cause, the temperature of the gas as
,_a whole may be low.
On account of the large extent of the nebule, a comparatively small
number of luminous molecules or atoms would probably be sufficient to
_ make the nebule as bright as they appear to us. On such an assumption
_ the average temperature may be low, but the individual particles, which
_ by their encounters are luminous, must have motions corresponding to
_ a very high temperature, and in this sense be extremely hot.
: In such diffuse masses, from the great mean length of free path, the
_ encounters would be rare but correspondingly violent, and tend to bring
- about vibrations of comparatively short period, as appears to be the case
; if we may judge by the great relative brightness of the more refrangible
_ lines of the nebular spectrum.
Such a view may perhaps reconcile the high temperature which the
nebular spectrum undoubtedly suggests with the much lower mean tem-
perature of the gaseous mass, which we should expect at so early a stage
of condensation, unless we assume a very enormous mass; or that the
matter coming together had previously considerable motion, or consider-
able molecular agitation.
If the hydrogen shown by the spectroscope in the nebulz and in the
atmospheres of the stars is retained by these bodies, we should be able to
assign approximately an inferior limit for the force of gravity at their
‘surfaces; provided that we assume that the gas is in the uncombined
state, and always exists in some greater proportion than in the free space
about them.
_ The inquisitiveness of the human mind does not allow us to remain
content with the interpretation of the present state of the cosmical masses,
but suggests the question—
a
‘ What see’st thou else
In the dark backward and abysm of time?’
What was the original state of things ? how has it come about that by
_ the side of ageing worlds we have nebule in a relatively younger stage ?
Have any of them received their birth from dark suns, which have col-
24 REPORT— 1891.
lided into new life, and so belong to a second or later generation of the
heavenly bodies ?
During the short historic period, indeed, there is no record of such an
event ; still it would seem to be only through the collision of dark suns,
of which the number must be increasing, that a temporary rejuvenescence
of the heavens is possible, and by such ebbings and flowings of stellar life
that the inevitable end to which evolution in its apparently uncompen-
sated progress is carrying us can, even for a little, be delayed.
We cannot refuse to admit as possible such an origin for nebule.
In considering, however, the formation of the existing nebule we
must bear in mind that, in the part of the heavens within our ken, the:
stars still in the early and middle stages of evolution exceed greatly in
number those which appear to be in an advanced condition of condensa-
tion. Indeed, we find some stars which may be regarded as not far
advanced beyond the nebular condition.
It may be that the cosmical bodies which are still nebulous owe the
lateness of their development to some conditions of the part of space
where they occur, such as conceivably a greater original homogeneity, in
consequence of which condensation began less early. In other parts of
space condensation may have been still further delayed, or even have not
yet begun. It is worthy of remark that these nebule group themselves
about the Milky Way, where we find a preponderance of the white-star
type of stars, and almost exclusively the bright-line stars which Pickering
associates with the planetary nebule. Further, Dr. Gill concludes, from
the rapidity with which they impress themselves upon the plate, that the
fainter stars of the Milky Way also, to a large extent, belong to this early
type of stars. At the same time other types of stars occur also over this
region, and the red hydrocarbon stars are found in certain parts; but
possibly these stars may be before or behind the Milky Way, and not
physically connected with it.
If light matter be suggested by the spectrum of these nebule, it may
be asked further, as a pure speculation, whether in them we are witness-
ing possibly a later condensation of the light matter which had been left
behind, at least in a relatively greater proportion, after the first growth
of worlds into which the heavier matter condensed, though not without
some entanglement of the lighter substances. The wide extent and great
diffuseness of this bright-line nebulosity over a large part of the con-
stellation of Orion may be regarded perhaps as pointing in this direction.
The diffuse nebulous matter streaming round the Pleiades may possibly
be another instance, though the character of its spectrum has not yet
been ascertained.
In the planetary nebule, as a rule, there is a sensible increase of the
faint continuous spectrum, as well as a slight thickening of the bright
lines towards the centre of the nebula, appearances which are in favour
of the view that these bodies are condensing gaseous masses.
Sa
i EE
ADDRESS. 25-
Professor G. Darwin, in his investigation of the equilibrium of a rotat-
ing mass of fluid, found, in accordance with the independent researches
of Poincaré, that when a portion of the central body becomes detached
through increasing angular velocity, the portion should bear a far larger:
ratio to the remainder than is observed in the planets and satellites of the
solar system, even taking into account heterogeneity from the condensa-
tion of the parent mass.
Now this state of things, in which the masses though not equal are of
the same order, does seem to prevail in many nebule, and to have given
birth to a large class of binary stars. Mr. See has recently investigated
the evolution of bodies of this class, and points out their radical differences
from the solar system in the relatively large mass-ratios of the component
bodies, as well as in the high eccentricities of their orbits brought about
by tidal friction, which would play a moreimportant part in the evolution
of such systems.
Considering the large number of these bodies, he suggests that the solar-
system should perhaps no longer be regarded as representing celestial
evolution in its normal form—
‘A goodly Paterne to whose perfect mould
He fashioned them. . .’
but rather as modified by conditions which are exceptional.
It may well be that in the very early stages condensing masses are
subject to very different conditions, and that condensation may not always
begin at one or two centres, but sometimes set in at a large number of
points, and proceed in the different cases along very different lines of
evolution.
Besides its more direct use in the chemical analysis of the heavenly
bodies, the spectroscope has given to us a great and unexpected power of
advance along the lines of the older astronomy. In the future a higher
value may, indeed, be placed upon this indirect use of the spectroscope
than upon its chemical revelations.
By no direct astronomical methods could motions of approach or of
recession of the stars be even detected, much less could they be measured.
A body coming directly towards us or going directly from us appears to
stand still. In the case of the stars we can receive no assistance from
change of size or of brightness. The stars show no true discs in our
instruments, and the nearest of them is so far off that if it were approach-
ing us at the rate of a hundred miles in a second of time, a whole
century of such rapid approach would not do more than increase its
brightness by the one-fortieth part.
Still it was only too clear that, so long as we were unable to ascertain
directly those components of the stars’ motions which lie in the line of
sight, the speed and direction of the solar motion in space, and many of
’
26 REPORT—1891.
the great problems of the constitution of the heavens, must remain more
or less imperfectly known. Now the spectroscope bas placed in our
hands this power, which, though so essential, appeared almost in the
nature of things to lie for ever beyond our grasp ; it enables us to measure
directly, and under favourable circumstances to within a mile per second,
or even less, the speed of approach or of recession of a heavenly body.
This method of observation has the great advantage for the astronomer
of being independent of the distance of the moving body, and is
therefore as applicable and as ‘certain in the case of a body on the
extreme confines of the visible universe, so long as it is bright enough,
as in the case of a neighbouring planet.
Doppler had suggested as far back as 1841 that the same principle, on
which he had shown that a sound should become sharper or flatter if
there were an approach or a recession between the ear and the source
of the sound, would apply equally to light; and he went on to say that
the difference of colour of some of the binary stars might be produced in
this way by their motions. Doppler was right in that the principle is
true in the case of light, but he was wrong in the particular conclusion
which he drew from it. Even if we suppose a star to be moving with a
sufficiently enormous velocity to alter sensibly its colour to the eye, no
such change would actually be seen, for the reason that the store of
invisible light beyond both limits of the visible spectrum, the blue and
the red, would be drawn upon, and light-waves invisible to us would be
exalted or degraded so as to take the place of those raised or lowered in
the visible region, and the colour of the star would remain unchanged.
About eight years later Fizeau pointed out the importance of considering
the individual wave-lengths of which white light is composed. It is,
indeed, Doppler’s principle which underlies the early determination of
the velocity of light by Roemer; but this method, in its converse form,
can scarcely be regarded as of practical value for the motions in the line
of sight of binary stars. As soon, however, as we had learned to
recognise the lines of known substances in the spectra of the heavenly
bodies, Doppler’s principle became applicable as the basis of a new
and most fruitful method of investigation. The measurement of the
small shift of the celestial lines from their true positions, as shown
by the same lines in the spectrum of a terrestrial substance, gives to
us the means of ascertaining directly in miles per second the speed
of approach or of recession a the heavenly body from which the light
has come.
An account of the first application of this method of research to
the stars, which was made in my observatory in 1868, was given by Sir
Gabriel Stokes from this chair at the meeting at Exeter in 1869, The
stellar motions determined by me were shortly after confirmed by Pro-
fessor Vogel in the case of Sirius, and in the case of other stars by Mr.
‘Christie, now Astronomer Royal, at Greenwich ; but, necessarily, in con-
ADDRESS. yA
sequence of the inadequacy of the instruments then in use for so delicate
an inquiry, the amounts of these motions were but approximate.
The method was shortly afterwards taken up systematically at Green-
wich and at the Rugby Observatory. It is to be greatly regretted that,
for some reasons, the results have not been sufficiently accordant and
accurate for a research of such exceptional delicacy. On this account
probably, as well as that the spectroscope at that early time had scarcely
become a familiar instrument in the observatory, astronomers were slow
in availing themselves of this new and remarkable power of investigation.
That this comparative neglect of so truly wonderful a method of ascertain-
ing what was otherwise outside our powers of observation has greatly
retarded the progress of astronomy during the last fifteen years, is but
too clearly shown by the brilliant results which within the last couple of
years have followed fast upon the recent masterly application of this
method by photography at Potsdam, and by eye with the needful accuracy
at the Lick Observatory. At last this use of the spectroscope has taken
its true place as one of the most potent methods of astronomical research.
It gives us the motions of approach and of recession, not in angular
measures, which depend for their translation into actual velocities upon
separate determinations of parallactic displacements, but at once in
terrestrial units of distance.
This method of work will doubtless be very prominent in the astro-
nomy of the near future, and to it probably we shall have to look for the
more important discoveries in sidereal astronomy which will be made
during the coming century.
In his recent application of photography to this method of determining
celestial motions, Professor Vogel, assisted by Dr. Scheiner, considering
the importance of obtaining the spectrum of as many stars as possible on
an extended scale without an exposure inconveniently long, wisely
determined to limit the part of the spectrum on the plate to the region
for which the ordinary silver-bromide gelatine plates are most sensitive,
namely, to a small distance on each side of G, and to employ as the line
ot comparison the hydrogen line near G, and recently also certain lines
of iron. The most minute and complete mechanical arrangements were
provided for the purpose of securing the absolute rigidity of the com-
parison spectrum relatively to that of the star, and for permitting tem-
perature adjustments and other necessary ones to be made. .
The perfection of these spectra is shown by the large number of
lines, no fewer than 250 in the case of Capella, within the small region
of the spectrum on the plate. Already the motions of about fifty stars
have been measured with an accuracy, in the case of the larger number
of them, of about an English mile per second.
At the Lick Observatory it has been shown that observations can be
made directly by eye with an accuracy equally great. Mr. Keeler’s
brilliant success has followed in great measure from the use of the third
28 REPORT—1891.
and fourth spectra of a grating with 14,438 lines to the inch. The mar-
vellous accuracy attainable in his hands on a suitable star is shown by
observations on three nights of the star Arcturus, the largest divergence
of his measures being not greater than six-tenths of a mile per second,
while the mean of the three nights’ work agreed with the mean of five
photographic determinations of the same star at Potsdam to within one-
tenth of an English mile. These are determinations of the motions of a.
sun so stupendously remote that even the method of parallax practically
fails to fathom the depth of intervening space, and by means of light-
waves which have been, according to Elkin’s nominal parallax, nearly
200 years upon their journey.
Mr. Keeler with his magnificent means has accomplished a task
which I attempted in vain in 1874, with the comparatively poor appli-
ances at my disposal, of measuring the motions in the line of sight of
some of the planetary nebulw. As the stars have considerable motions
in space it was to be expected that nebule should possess similar motions,
for the stellar motions must have belonged to the nebule out of which
they have been evolved. My instrumental means, limiting my power of
detection to motions greater than twenty-five miles per second, were in-
sufficient. Mr. Keeler has found in the examination of ten nebule
motions varying from two miles to twenty-seven miles, with one excep-
tional motion of nearly forty miles.
For the nebula of Orion, Mr. Keeler finds a motion of recession of
about ten miles a second. Now this motion agrees closely with what it
should appear to have from the drift of the solar system itself, so far as
it has been possible at present to ascertain the probable velocity of the
sun in space. This grand nebula, of vast extent and of extreme tenuity,
is probably more nearly at rest relatively to the stars of our system
than any other celestial object we know; still it would seem more likely
that even here we have some motion, small though it may be, than that:
the motions of the matter of which it is formed were so absolutely
balanced as to leave this nebula in the unique position of absolute immo-
bility in the midst of whirling and drifting suns and systems of suns.
The spectroscopic method of determining celestial motions in the
line of sight has recently become fruitful in a new but not altogether un-
foreseen direction, for it has, so to speak, given us a separating power
far beyond that of any telescope the glass-maker and the optician could
construct, and so enabled us to penetrate into mysteries hidden in
stars apparently single, and altogether unsuspected of being binary
systems. The spectroscope has not simply added to the list of the
known binary stars, but has given to us for the first time a knowledge
of a new class of stellar systems, in which the components are in some
cases of nearly equal magnitude, and in close proximity, and are re-
volving with velocities greatly exceeding the planetary velocities of our
system.
ADDRESS. 29
The K line in the photographs of Mizar, taken at the Harvard Col-
lege Observatory, was found to be double at intervals of fifty-two days.
The spectrum was therefore not due toa single source of light, but to
the combined effect of two stars moving periodically in opposite direc-
tions in the line of sight. It is obvious that if two stars revolve round
their common centre of gravity in a plane not perpendicular to the line
of sight, all the lines in a spectrum common to the two stars will appear
alternately single or double.
In the case of Mizar and the other stars to be mentioned, the spec-
troscopic observations are not as yet extended enough to furnish more
than an approximate determination of the elements of their orbits.
Mizar especially, on account of its relatively long period, about 105
days, needs further observations. The two stars are moving each with a
yelocity of about fifty miles a second, probably in elliptical orbits, and
are about 143 millions of miles apart. The stars of about equal bright-
ness have together a mass about forty times as great as that of our sun.
A similar doubling of the lines showed itself in the Harvard photo-
graphs of 8 Aurige at the remarkably close interval of almost exactly
two days, indicating a period of revolution of about four days. Accord-
ing to Vogel’s later observations, each star has a velocity of nearly seventy
miles a second, the distance between the stars being little more than
seven and a half millions of miles, and the mass of the system 4°7 times
that of the sun. The system is approaching us at the speed of about
sixteen miles a second.
The telescope could never have revealed to us double stars of this
order. In the case of $8 Aurige, combining Vogel’s distance with
Pritchard’s recent determination of the star’s parallax, the greatest
angular separation of the stars as seen from the earth would be 1-200th
part of a second of arc, and therefore very far too small for detection
by the largest telescopes. If we take the relation of aperture to sepa-
rating power usually accepted, an object glass of about eighty feet in
diameter would be needed to resolve this binary star. The spectroscope,
which takes no note of distance, magnifies, so to speak, this minute
angular separation 4,000 times; in other words, the doubling of the
lines, which is the phenomenon that we have to observe, amounts to the
easily measurable quantity of twenty seconds of arc.
There were known, indeed, variable stars of short period, which it
had been suggested might be explained on the hypothesis of a dark
body revolving about a bright sun in a few days, but this theory was
met by the objection that no such systems of closely revolving suns were
known to exist.
The Harvard photographs of which we have been speaking were
taken with a slitless form of spectroscope, the prisms being placed, as
originally by Fraunhofer, before the object glass of the telescope. This
_ method, though it possesses some advantages, has the serious drawback
30 , REPORT—1891.
of not permitting a direct comparison of the star’s spectrum with ter-
restrial spectra. It is obviously unsuited to a variable star like Algol,
where one star only is bright, for in such a case there would be no
doubling of the lines, but only a small shift to and fro in the spectrum
of the lines of the bright star as it moved in its orbit alternately towards
and from our system, which would need for its detection the fiducial
positions of terrestrial lines compared directly with them.
For such observations the Potsdam spectrograph was well adapted.
Professor Vogel found that the bright star of Algol did pulsate back-
wards and forwards in the visual direction in a period corresponding to
the known variation of its light. The explanation which had been
suggested for the star’s variability, that it was partially eclipsed at
regular intervals of 68°8 hours by a dark companion large enough to cut
off nearly five-sixths of its light, was therefore the true one. The dark
companion, no longer able to hide itself by its obscureness, was brought
out into the light of direct observation by means of its gravitational
effects. ;
Seventeen hours before minimum Algol is receding at the rate of
about 243 miles a second, while seventeen hours after minimum it is
found to be approaching with a speed of about 28} miles. From these
data, together with those of the variation of its light, Vogel found, on
the assumption that both stars have the same density, that the companion,
nearly as large as the sun, but with about one-fourth his mass, revolves
with a velocity of about fifty-five miles a second. The bright star of
about twice the size and mass moves about the common centre of gravity
with the speed of about twenty-six milesa second. The system of the two
stars, which are about 3} millions of miles apart, considered as a whole,
is approaching us with a velocity of 2°4 miles a second. The great
difference in luminosity of the two stars, not less than fifty times, suggests
rather that they are in different stages of condensation, and dissimilar in
density.
It is obvious that if the orbit of a star with an obscure companion is
sufficiently inclined to the line of sight, the companion will pass above or
below the bright star and produce no variation of its light. Such systems
may be numerous in the heavens. In Vogel’s photographs, Spica, which is
not variable, by a small shifting of its lines reveals a backward and forward
periodical pulsation due to orbital motion. As the pair whirl round
their common centre of gravity, the bright star is sometimes advancing,
at others receding. They revolve in about four days, each star moving
with a velocity of about fifty-six miles a second in an orbit probably
nearly circular, and possess a combined mass of rather more than 24
times that of the sun. Taking the most probable value for the star’s
parallax, the greatest angular separation of the stars would be far too
small to be detected with the most powerful telescopes.
If in a close double star the fainter companion is of the white-star
ADDRESS. 31
type, while the bright star is solar in character, the composite spectrum
would be solar with the hydrogen lines unusually strong. Such a spec-
trum would in itself afford some probability of a double origin, and
suggest the existence of a companion star.
In the case of a true binary star the orbital motions of the pair would
reveal themselves in a small periodical swaying of the hydrogen lines.
relatively to the solar ones.
Professor Pickering considers, that his photographs show ten stars
with composite spectra; of these, five are known to be double. The
others are: 7t Persei, £ Aurigz, 5 Sagittarii, 31 Ceti, and 8 Capricorni.
Perhaps 6 Lyre should be added to this list.
In his recent classical work on the rotation of the sun, Dunér has
not only determined the solar rotation for the equator but for different
parailels of latitude up to 75°. The close accordance of his results shows.
that these observations are sufficiently accurate to be discussed with the
yariation of the solar rotation for different latitudes, which had been
determined by the older astronomical methods from the observations of
the solar spots.
Though I have already spoken incidentally of the invaluable aid
which is furnished by photography in some of the applications of the
spectroscope to the heavenly bodies, the new power which modern
photography has put into the hands of the astronomer is so great, and
has led already, within the last few years, to new acquisitions of know-
ledge of such vast importance, that it is fitting that a few sentences
should be specially devoted to this subject.
Photography is no new discovery, being about half a century old;
it may excite surprise, and indeed possibly suggest some apathy on the
part of astronomers, that though the suggestion of the application of
photography to the heavenly bodies dates from the memorable occasion
when, in 1839, Arago, announcing to the Académie des Sciences the great
discovery of Niepce and Daguerre, spoke of the possibility of taking
pictures of the sun and moon by the new process, yet that it is only
within a few years that notable advances in astronomical methods and
discovery have been made by its aid.
The explanation is to be found in the comparative unsuitability of
the earlier photographic methods for use in the observatory. In justice
to the early workers in astronomical photography, among whom Bond,
De la Rue, J. W. Draper, Rutherfurd, Gould, hold a foremost place, it is
needful to state clearly that the recent great successes in astronomical
photography are not due to greater skill, nor, to any great extent, to.
superior instruments, but to the very great advantages which the modern
gelatine dry plate possesses for use in the observatory over the methods
of Daguerre, and even over the wet collodion film on glass which, though
a g eat advance on the silver plate, went but a little way towards putting
32 REPORT—1891.
into the hands of the astronomer a photographic surface adapted fully to
his wants.
The modern silver-bromide gelatine plate, except for its grained
texture, meets the needs of the astronomer at all points. It possesses
extreme sensitiveness ; it is always ready for use; it can be placed in any
position ; it can be exposed for hours; lastly, it does not need immediate
development, and for this reason can be exposed again to the same
object on succeeding nights, so as to make up by several instalments, as the
weather may permit, the total time of exposure which is deemed necessary.
Without the assistance of photography, however greatly the resources
of genius might overcome the optical and mechanical difficulties of con-
structing large telescopes, the astronomer would have to depend in the
last resource upon his eye. Now we cannot by the force of continued
looking bring into view an object too feebly luminous to be seen at the
first and keenest moment of vision. But the feeblest light which falls
upon the plate is not lost, but is taken in and stored up continuously,
Each hour the plate gathers up 3,600 times the light-energy which
it received during the first second. It is by this power of accumv-
lation that the photographic plate may be said to increase, almost
without limit, though not in separating power, the optical means at the
disposal of the astronomer for the discovery or the observation of faint
objects.
Two principal directions may be pointed out in which photography is
of great service to the astronomer. It enables him within the compara-
tively short time of a single exposure to secure permanently with great
exactness the relative positions of hundreds or even of thousands of stars,
or the minute features of nebule or other objects, or the phenomena
of a passing eclipse, tasks which by means of the eye and hand could
only be accomplished, if at all, after a very great expenditure of time
and labour. Photography puts it in the power of the astronomer to
accomplish in the short span of his own life, and so enter into their
fruition, great works which otherwise must have been passed on by him
as an heritage of labour to succeeding generations.
The second great service which photography renders is not simply an
aid to the powers the astronomer already possesses. On the contrary,
the plate, by recording light-waves which are both too small and too
large to excite vision in the eye, brings him into new regions of know-
ledge, such as the infra-red and the ultra-violet parts of the spectrum,
which must have remained for ever unknown but for artificial help.
The present year will be memorable in astronomical history for the
practical beginning of the Photographic Chart and Catalogue of the
Heavens, which took their origin in an International Conference which
met in Paris in 1887, by the invitation of M. l’Amiral Monchez, Director
of the Paris Observatory.
The richness in stars down to the ninth magnitude of the photographs
ADDRESS. ou
of the comet of 1882 taken at the Cape Observatory under the superin-
tendence of Dr. Gill, and the remarkable star charts of the Brothers
_ Henry which followed two years later, astonished the astronomical world.
The great excellence of these photographs, which was due mainly to the
superiority of the gelatine plate, suggested to these astronomers a complete
map of the sky, and a little later gave birth in the minds of the Paris
; astronomers to the grand enterprise of an International Chart of the
Heavens. The actual beginning of tle work this year is in no small
degree due to the great energy and tact with which the Director of the
Paris Observatory has conducted the initial steps, through the many
delicate and difficult questions which have unavoidably presented them-
selves in an undertaking which depends upon the harmonious working in
common of many nationalities, and of no fewer than eighteen observa-
tories in all parts of the world. The three years since 1887 have not
_ been too long for the detailed organisation of this work, which has
called for several elaborate preliminary investigations on special points
in which our knowledge was insufficient, and which have been ably
carried out by Professors Vogel and Bakhuyzen, Dr. Trépied, Dr. Scheiner,
Dr, Gill, the Astronomer Royal, and others. Time also was required for
the construction of the new and special instruments.
The decisions of the Conference in their final form provide for the
construction of a great photographic chart of the heavens with exposures
corresponding to forty minutes’ exposure at Paris, which it is expected
will reach down to stars of about the fourteenth magnitude. As each
plate is to be limited to four square degrees, and as each star, to
avoid possible errors, is to appear on two plates, over 22,000 photographs
will be required. For the more accurate determination of the positions
of the stars, a réseau with lines at distances of 5 mm. apart is to be
previously impressed by a faint light upon the plate, so that the image
of the réseau will appear together with the images of the stars when the
plate is developed. This great work will be divided, according to their
atitudes, among eighteen observatories provided with similar instru-
ments, though not necessarily constructed by the same maker. Those
in the British dominions and at Tacubaya have been constructed by Sir
Howard Grubb.
Besides the plates to form the great chart, a gecond set of plates for a
catalogue is to be taken, with a shorter exposure, which will give stars to
the eleventh magnitude only. These plates, by a recent decision of the
Permanent Committee, are to be pushed on as actively as possible, though
as far as may be practicable plates for the chart are to be taken concur-
‘rently. Photographing the plates for the catalogue is but the first step
_ in this work, and only supplies the data for the elaborate measurements
_ which have to be made, which are, however, less laborious than would
_ be required for a similar catalogue without the aid of photography.
Already Dr, Gill has nearly brought to conclusion, with the assistance
1891. : D
34 REPORT—1891.
of Professor Kapteyn, a preliminary photographic survey of the Southern
heavens.
With an exposure sufficiently long for the faintest stars to impress
themselves upon the plate, the accumulating action still goes on for the
brighter stars, producing a great enlargement of their images from opti-
cal and photographic causes. The question has occupied the attention of —
many astronomers whether it is possible to find a law connecting the
diameters of these more or less over-exposed images with the relative
brightness of the stars themselves. The answer will come out undoubt-
edly in the affirmative, though at present the empirical formule which
have been suggested for this purpose differ from each other. Captain
Abney proposes to measure the total photographic action, including
density as well as size, by the obstruction which the stellar image offers
to light.
A further question follows as to the relation which the photographic
magnitudes of stars bear to those determined by eye. Visual magnitudes
are the physiological expression of the eye’s integration of that part of
the star’s light which extends from the red to the blue. Photographic
magnitudes represent the plate’s integration of another part of the star’s
light—namely, from a little below where the power of the eye leaves off
in the blue, to where the light is cut off by the glass, or is greatly re-
duced by want of proper corrections when a refracting telescope is used.
It is obvious that the two records are taken by different methods in
dissimilar units of different parts of the star’s light. In the case of cer-
tain coloured stars the photographic brightness is very different from the
visual brightness ; but in all stars changes, especially of a temporary cha-
racter, may occur in the photographic or the visual region, unaccompanied
by similar changes in the other part of the spectrum. For these reasons
it would seem desirable that the two sets of magnitudes should be tabu-
lated independently, and be regarded as supplementary of each other.
The determination of the distances of the fixed stars from the small
apparent shift of their positions when viewed from widely separated posi-
tions of the earth in its orbit is one of the most refined operations of the
observatory. The great precision with which this minute angular
quantity, a fraction of a second of are only, has to be measured, is so deli-
cate an operation with the ordinary micrometer, though, indeed, it was with
this instrument that the classical observations of Sir Robert Ball were
made, that a special instrument, in which the measures are made by
moving the two halves of a divided object glass, known as a heliometer,
has been pressed into this service, and quite recently, in the skilful hands
of Dr. Gill and Dr. Elkin, has largely increased our knowledge in this
direction.
It is obvious that photography might be here of great service, if we
could rely upon measurements of photographs of the same stars taken at
suitable intervals of time. Professor Pritchard, to whom is due the
ADDRESS. 35
honour of having opened this new path, aided by his assistants, has
proved by elaborate investigations that measures for parallax may be
safely made upon photographic plates, with, of course, the advantages of
leisure and repetition ; and he has already by this method determined the
parallax for twenty-one stars with an accuracy not inferior to that of
yalues previously obtained by purely astronomical methods.
The remarkable successes of astronomical photography, which depend
upon the plate’s power of accumulation of a very feeble light acting
continuously through an exposure of several hours, are worthy to be re-
garded as a newrevelation. The first chapter opened when, in 1880, Dr.
Henry Draper obtained a picture of the nebula of Orion; but a more im-
portant advance was made in 1883, when Dr. Common, by his photographs,
brought to our knowledge details and extensions of this nebula hitherto
unknown. A further disclosure took place in 1885, when the Brothers
Henry showed for the first time in great detail the spiral nebulosity issu-
ing from the bright star Maia of the Pleiades, and shortly afterwards
nebulous streams about the other stars of this group. In 1886 Mr.
Roberts, by means of a photograph to which three hours’ exposure had
been given, showed the whole background of this group to be nebulous.
In the following year Mr. Roberts more than doubled for us the great
extension of the nebular region which surrounds the trapezium in the
constellation of Orion. By his photographs of the great nebula in An-
_dromeda, he has shown the true significance of the dark canals which
‘ had been seen by the eye. They are in reality spaces between successive
‘rings of bright matter, which appeared nearly straight owing to the in-
clination in which they lie relatively to us. These bright rings surround
an undefined central luminous mass. I have already spoken of this
photograph.
_ Some recent photographs by Mr. Russell show that the great rift in
the Milky Way in Argus, which to the eye is void of stars, is in reality
aniformly covered with them. Also quite recently Mr. George Hale has
photographed the solar prominences by means of a grating, making use
of the lines H and K.
4
The heavens are richly but very irregularly inwrought with stars.
The brighter stars cluster into well-known groups upon a background
formed of an enlacement of streams and convoluted windings and inter-
_twined spirals of fainter stars, which becomes richer and more intricate in
_ the irregularly rifted zone of the Milky Way.
We, who form part of the emblazonry, can only see the design dis-
5 orted and confused ; here crowded, there scattered, at OS place
8 aperposed. The groupings due to our position are mixed up with those
which are real.
_ Can we suppose that each luminous point has no other relation to
those near it than the accidental neighbourship of grains of sand upon
D2
36 REPORT— 1891.
the shore, or of particles of the wind-blown dust of the desert ? Surely
every star from Sirius and Vega down to each grain of the light-dust of
the Milky Way has its present place in the heavenly pattern from the
slow evolving of its past. We see a system of systems, for the broad
features of clusters and streams and spiral windings which mark the ~
general design are reproduced in every part. The whole is in motion, —
each point shifting its position by miles every second, though from the |
august magnitude of their distances from us and from each other, it is
only by the accumulated movements of years or of generations that some
small changes of relative position reveal themselves.
The deciphering of this wonderfully intricate constitution of the
heavens will be undoubtedly one of the chief astronomical works. of the
coming century. The primary task of the sun’s motion in space together
with the motions of the brighter stars has been already put well within
our reach by the spectroscopic method of the measurement of star-motions. —
in the line of sight. %
From other directions information is accumulating : from photographs.
of clusters and parts of the Milky Way, by Roberts in this country,
Barnard at the Lick Observatory, and Russell at Sydney ; from the count-.
ing of stars, and the detection of their configurations, by Holden and by
Backhouse ; from the mapping of the Milky Way by eye, at Parsonstown ;
from photographs of the spectra of stars, by Pickering at Harvard and in
Peru ; and from the exact portraiture of the heavens in the great interna-
tional star chart which begins this year.
I have but touched some only of the problems of the newer side of
astronomy. Of the many others which would claim our attention if ~
time permitted I may name the following. The researches of the Earl of —
Rosse on lunar radiation, and the work on the same subject and on the
sun, by Langley. Observations of Innar heat with an instrument of his
own invention by Mr. Boys; and observations of the variation of the —
moon’s heat with its phase by Mr. Frank Very. The discovery of the
ultra-violet part of the hydrogen spectrum, not in the laboratory, but from
the stars. The confirmaticn of this spectrum by terrestrial hydrogen in
part by H. W. Vogel, and in its all but complete form by Cornu, who
found similar series in the ultra-violet spectra of aluminium and thallium.
The discovery of a simple formula for the hydrogen series by Balmer. The —
important question as to the numerical spectral relationship of different:
substances, especially in connection with their chemical properties ; and
the further question as to the origin of the harmonic and other relations —
between the lines and the groupings of lines of spectra; on these points
contributions during the past year have been made by Rudolf vy. Kéve-
sligethy, Ames, Hartley, Deslandres, Rydberg, Griinwald, Kayser and
Runge, Johnstone Stoney, and others. The remarkable employment of
interference phenomena by Professor Michelson for the determination of
the size, and distribution of light within them, of the images of objects
ADDRESS. 37
-which when viewed in a telescope subtend an angle less than that sub-
tended by the light-wave at a distance equal to the diameter of the
objective. A method applicable not alone to celestial objects, but also to
spectral lines, and other questions of molecular physics.
Along the older lines there has not been less activity; by newer
methods, by the aid of larger or more accurately constructed instruments,
by greater refinement of analysis, knowledge has been increased, especially
in precision and minute exactness.
_ Astronomy, the oldest of the sciences, has more than renewed her
youth. At no time in the past has she been so bright with unbounded
‘aspirations and hopes. Never were her temples so numerous, nor the
crowd of her votaries so great. The British Astronomical Association
formed within the year numbers already about 600 members. Happy is
the lot of those who are still on the eastern side of life’s meridian !
Already, alas! the original founders of the newer methods are falling
-out—Kirchhoff, Angstrém, D’Arrest, Secchi, Draper, Becquerel; but
their places are more than filled ; the pace of the race is gaining, but the
goal is not and never will be in sein
Since the time of Newton our knowledge of the phenomena of Nature
_ has wonderfully increased, but man asks, perhaps more earnestly now
_ than then, what is the ultimate reality behind the reality of the per-
a he TE en
ceptions? Are they only the pebbles of the beach with which we have
‘been playing ? Does not the ocean of ultimate reality and truth lie beyond ?
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ON THE
/- STATE OF SCIENCE.
_E_ OO EE «= —
REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr.
FRANCIS GALTON (Chairman), Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Sir
DovuGLas GALTON, Professor Boyp Dawxkuys, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. Joun Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
R. MeE.poia (Secretary),’ Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. W.
Wuirtaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Prrt-Rivers, and Mr. W.
TOPLEY.
Tue Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association begs
to submit to the General Committee the following Report of the pro-
ceedings of the Conference held at Leeds.
The Council nominated Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., Chairman, Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., Vice-Chairman, and Professor R. Meldola,
F.R.S., Secretary to the Conference. The meetings were held on
Thursday, September 4, and Tuesday, September 9, at 3.30 p.m, in the
Philosophical Hall. The Delegates (numbering 36) nominated by the
Corresponding Societies to attend the Leeds Meeting were :—
Mr. A. Tate, C.E. . : : . Belfast Natural History and Philosophi-
cal Society.
Mr. Wm. Gray, M.R.1.A. - - Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.
Mr. Charles Pumphrey . : . Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society.
Mr. J. Kenward, F.S.A. . : . Birmingham Philosophical Society.
Mr. R. W. Atkinson, F.C.S. . . Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.
Mr. M.H. Mills. 3 : . Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti-
tution of Engineers.
Mr, T. Cushing, F.R.A.S. “ . Croydon Microscopical and Natural His-
tory Club.
Mr. W. Healey A : : . Cumberland and Westmorland Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Literature
and Science.
Mr. A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S. . - Hast Kent Natural History Society.
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Mr. Robert Brown, R.N. { Societies.
Perthshire Society of Natural Science.
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. j . Essex Field Club.
42
REPORT—1891.
Mr. D. Corse Glen, F.G.S.
Mr. J. Hopkinson, F.L.S.
Provost Ross .
His Honour Deemster Gill
Mr. J. HE. Bedford, F.G.S.
Mr. J. Stubbins, F.G.S. .
Mr. F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S.
Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S.
Mr. M. B. Slater, F.L.S..
Mr, Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S. .
Mr. W. Watts, F.G.S. . :
Prof. J. HE. C. Munro, LL.D. .
Prof. W. Hillhouse, F.L.S.
Dr. J. T. Arlidge, M.A. .
Mr, C. A. Markham, F-.S.A.
Mr. C. Hawley Torr ; :
Prof. G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S.
Mr. J. Reginald Ashworth
Mr. A. Silva White, F.R.S.E. .
Mr. W. Andrews, F.G.S.
Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A. .
Mr. J. W. Davis, F.G.S. .
Mr. W. Cash, F.L.S.
Geological Society of Glasgow.
‘| Natural History Society of Glasgow.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society
and Field Club.
Inverness Scientific Society and Field
Club.
Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.
Leeds Geological Association.
Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific
Association.
Leicester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
Liverpool Geological Society.
Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society.
Manchester Geographical Society.
Manchester Geological Society.
Manchester Statistical Society.
Midland Union of Natural History Socie-
ties.
North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field
Club and Archeological Society.
Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety and Field Club.
Nottingham Naturalists’ Society.
North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers.
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archzolo-
gists’ Field Club.
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society.
Mr. ©. P. Hobkirk, F.1.S. . \ Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union.}
Rey. E. P. Knubley, M.A.
First CONFERENCE, SEPTEMBER 4.
The chair was taken by Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., the Corresponding
Societies Committee being also represented by Professor T. G. Bonney,
F.R.S., Mr. W. Topley, F.R.S., Mr. J. Hopkinson, F.1.S., and Professor
R. Meldola, F.R.S. (Secretary).
The Chairman proposed that the report of the Corresponding Societies
Committee to the General Committee, printed copies of which had been
distributed among the Delegates, should be taken as read. This was put
to the meeting and carried unanimously. The subjects dealt with in the
report were then taken in order.
Section A.
Temperature Variation in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries—The Chair-
man stated that in connection with the work of this Committee, of which
Dr. H. R. Mill was the Secretary, a large number of thermometers had
1 Three Delegates appointed under the rule which empowers a Society having its
head-quarters in the place of meeting to send up this number of representatives.
7
Se Per te,
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 43
been distributed throughout the country, and a good deal of information
had been collected during the year. It was proposed to ask for the
reappointment of the Committee with a grant to enable the observations
to be tabulated.
Mr. William Watts stated that he had been conducting temperature
observations in two large reservoirs belonging to the Oldham Corporation
during the last eighteen months. These results were included in the
report of the Committee. Mr. Watts added that there was some pro-
bability of the observations having to be discontinued for want of funds,
although on his own part he was perfectly willing to carry on the work
for another year.
Mr. Cushing presented a record of weekly temperature observations.
taken in the River Wandle in Surrey. The temperatures were taken
between 3 and 3.30 p.m. on Sunday afternoons, and extended from
October 1888 to February 1890. The observations were taken at ten
different stations, five of which are on the Carshalton and five on the
Croydon branch of the river. The tabulated records were accompanied
by a statement of the mean weekly shade temperature and the rainfall for
the previous week, both being made up to 9 p.m. on the Saturday. The
tables were also accompanied by a sketch of the district traced from the
25-inch Ordnance map, showing the positions of all the stations, which
were numbered from 1 to 10, and which corresponded with the positions
in the temperature tables as read from left to right. The river is very
shallow, but the tables showed some rather large mean differences of
temperature. While stations 1, 8, and 9 showed respectively the mean
differences of 15°8, 16:2, and 17:7° F.; station No. 5, where the water
is only 18 inches deep, shows a mean yearly variation of only 0°7° F.,
while the mean variation of shade temperature during the same period
was 38:7° F. These temperatures were taken at from 12 to 18 inches
below the surface with a thermometer graduated on the stem and verified
at Kew. The observations had been taken by Mr. F. C. Bayard, an active
Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society and Secretary to the Croydon
Microscopical and Natural History Club, which Society was represented
by Mr. Cushing at the Conference. Mr. Bayard had expressed his
willingness to continue the observations.
The Secretary suggested that the results presented by Mr, Cushing
should be handed to Dr. Mill, the Secretary of the Committee.
The Chairman, having commented on the value of Mr. Bayard’s
observations, proceeded to state that he had recently been reducing
experiments with respect to evaporation, which had been made during
several years at Strathfield Turgiss in Hampshire, in which the ordinary
small evaporators had been compared with a galvanised iron tank 6 feet
square and 2 feet deep. The rough result was that the evaporation from
the tank averaged about 15 inches per annum, while the smaller ones
(owing to the high temperature of the water) indicated an evaporation
considerably in excess of the truth.
Meteorological Photography —Mr. Hopkinson alluded to the success
which had been achieved hy the Committee on Geological Photography,
of which Mr. Jeffs was Secretary, and pointed ont the growing import-
ance of photography as an aid in other branches of scientific research.
He suggested that the idea might be extended to meteorological photo-
graphy, and that a Committee should be formed for carrying out this
object. Photography could be advantageously applied to the investiga-
44 rEPoRT—1891.
tion of meteorological phenomena such as the forms of clouds, lightning
flashes, the effects of storms, &c. It would be the function of such a
Committee to collect the photographs and keep a register of them, which
would be added to from year to year. The study of the forms of clouds
would be more satisfactory if undertaken by a comparison of photographs
than by drawings. Mr. Hopkinson referred to the practical difficulty of
photographing light clouds in a blue sky, and suggested that it might
form part of the work of the Committee to investigate methods for
effecting this object. With respect to lightning flashes he stated that
numerous photographs had been taken, some of which were very valuable,
but others were useless owing to the failure on the part of the photographer
to indicate the position of the plate in the camera. The advisability of
interesting the Corresponding Societies in the work was pointed out to
the Delegates by Mr. Hopkinson, who also urged the special necessity of
securing as soon as possible photographs showing the after-effects of
storms. It was proposed that a Committee of the Association with a
small grant should be formed through Section A. If this Committee were
sanctioned Mr. Symons and Professor Meldola would consent to serve on
it, and Mr. A. W. Clayden, who had made a special study of the
photography of clouds and lightning flashes, would be willing to act as
Secretary.
After some discussion as to the mode of procedure it was decided that
application should be made through the Committee of Section A for the
formation of a Committee on Meteorological Photography, and that
the application should be also supported by a recommendation from the
Conference of Delegates to the Committee of Recommendations.
Section C.
Sea Ooast Erosion.—Mr. Topley stated that the Committee appointed
for this purpose would be glad to receive any assistance. Some of the
Corresponding Societies had applied for forms, but nothing had as yet
been done. Three years ago the Isle of Man Society had proposed to
take the matter in hand and form a Committee. He believed some of the
Yorkshire Societies were doing good work, but they had not yet received
the results.
Erratic Blocks——The Rev. E. P. Knubley stated, with reference to
the work of this Committee, that the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union had
been carrying on the records satisfactorily, and that about twenty-five
reports had been presented during the year. These had been sent to Dr.
Crosskey, the Secretary of the Committee.
Geological Photography.—Mr. O. W. Jeffs stated that, through the
action of the Conference of Delegates at previous meetings of the British
Association, a Committee had been appointed for collecting and reporting
on geological photographs. Very material assistance had been rendered
to the work of this Committee by various Delegates from the several
Corresponding Societies, many of which had sent photographs or lists of
those that had been taken. All that had been done thus far was of a
preliminary character, and had consisted in arranging the photographs
which had been taken in order to select those which illustrated well-
defined strata or sections. The work was by no means complete, and the
report, which would shortly he presented, showed that a very large
‘
+
f
K
4
i
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 45:
proportion of the counties of England and Wales were as yet un-
represented. Mr. Jeffs asked those Delegates who had not yet done so to
bring the matter before their Societies, and to interest their photographic
members in the work. The object of the Committee was to secure by
systematic action in the various districts a series of photographs illustra-
ting the features which geologists thought most worthy of being recorded
in their respective localities. The only portion of England where the
scheme had been .carried out to any extent was Yorkshire. The York-
shire Naturalists’ Union had adopted the photographic method, and had
taken over 100 negatives. Mr. Hopkinson had brought the subject before
the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, and he hoped to receive
photographs from them shortly. A large number of the photographs
which had been received would be exhibited in the room of Section C,
and Mr. Jeffs invited the Delegates to inspect them. He added that the
Committee would be glad to receive any suggestions from the Delegates.
The counties from which photographs had been received were :—-Dorset-
shire, Cornwall (very few), Devonshire (very few), Isle of Man (several),
Kent, Lancashire, Montgomeryshire, Nottingham, a few from North
Wales, Suffolk, and Shropshire, a large number from Yorkshire, and
some from Scotland and Ireland. The list was manifestly very incom-
plete, and he hoped that by next year’s Report it would be considerably
extended. Copies of the circular of instructions issued by the Committee
were circulated among the Delegates.
Professor Lebour asked if any steps had been taken with respect to
the keeping of the photographs.
My. Jeffs said that this matter had not yet been discussed by their
Committee. They intended to keep the photographs until the collection
had assumed a more complete form. A suggestion had been made to
render some of the best examples more available to the Delegates and to
the public, and more especially to those requiring them for educational
purposes, by issuing them in the form of a publication, but the matter
had not yet been properly discussed.
Professor Bonney said that, as a member of the Committee on geo-
logical photography, he was enabled to state that the work had hitherto
been necessarily of a preliminary nature, and had been carried out by the
zeal and energy of Mr. Jeffs. The question of publication would come
before the Committee later on, and, speaking on his own behalf, he con-
sidered it of great importance that some step in this direction should be
taken. He expressed the opinion that the best destination of the photo-
graphs would be to lodge them with the Geological Society if they would
receive them. If an enlarged photograph were required for educational
purposes, the negative could then be borrowed for the purpose. It would,
of course, be a year or two before the photographs would be accessible.
When a large collection had been accumulated, it would be most useful
to select some thirty or forty of the more typical examples of geological
phenomena and to have them enlarged for publication. Professor Bonney
expressed the opinion that, for the purposes of teaching, enlarged photo-
aphs would be better than photographs taken on a large scale.
The discussion was continued by Mr. W. Watts and Mr. Eli Sower-
butts. The suggestions put forward by Professor Bonney were approved
of, and it was pointed out that it would be desirable that the Correspond-
ing Societies should have a list of the photographs already sent in to the
Committee, in order to know which were wanted and which were not.
46 REPORT—1891.
Many members of the Manchester Geographical Society had been taking
photographs, and in time a large number of negatives would be collected,
which the owners would, no doubt, be willing to place at the disposal of
the Committee if it were known that they would be safely deposited in
some accessible place, and a record giving the source and locality of each
negative also kept.
Mr. Jeffs stated in reply that a list of the views which had been
received would be kept, and also a register for entering the name of the
person responsible for borrowing a negative. He suggested that the
Committee might make arrangements with some photographer for pre-
paring lantern slides from the photographs at a fixed charge, for the
purpose of lecture illustration. With respect to the photographs taken
by the members of the Manchester Geographical Society, Mr. Jeffs said
that their Committee would be very pleased to receive them whenever
they were sent.
Mr. William Gray stated that he was interested in the subject of
geological photography in the North of Ireland, and he approved of the
scheme put forward by the Committee, of which Mr. Jeffs was the Secre-
tary. He had succeeded in securing a few photographs, which were
sufficient to show the value of the method both as applied to this subject
and to the erosion of the sea-coast. He expressed the opinion that it
would be an advantage if each Delegate were appointed as the local repre-
sentative of the Committee in his own district, and authorised to collect
the photographs. There were many members of his society (Belfast
Naturalists’ Field Club) who had done a great deal of photographie work,
but there was some amount of hesitation in forwarding negatives to the
British Association Committee, which he thought would be got over if there
were some person in the society directly authorised to collect the photo-
graphs. Mr. Gray expressed his willingness to act in this capacity for
the North of Ireland. He alluded also to the advantage of being able to
get the photographs reproduced in the form of lantern slides, and stated
that, if such slides were required for illustrating the physical features of
the North of Ireland, he would be able to see that they were supplied at
a reasonable price. Mr. A. Tate, on behalf of the Belfast Natural History
and Philosophical Society, expressed similar views.
Professor Meldola pointed out that, in taking photographs of geological
sections, in which differences in the strata were often indicated only by
small differences in colour, it would be an advantage to use orthochro-
matic plates. The colour differences were sometimes so slight, that the
differentiation of strata would be imperceptible in an ordinary photo-
graph, and he therefore expressed the hope that the Committee in their
schedule of instructions would see their way to recommend the adoption
of these plates, which, although somewhat more costly than ordinary
plates, would give such superior results as to warrant their use.
A further discussion took place respecting the desirability of adopting
some means by which members of the British Association, and those who
assisted in the work, would be enabled to procure copies of the photo-
graphs either as lantern slides, prints, or enlargements. Mr. Symons
suggested that the best plan would be for those members requiring copies
to be allowed the temporary loan of the negative itself, while lantern
slides should be prepared by some recognised person under the immediate
direction of the Secretary of the Committee. In reply to a question by
Mr. M. H. Mills as to whether any underground photographs had been
——_ Tas
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, AT
taken, and if so, whether they had proved to be of any value, Mr. Jeffs
stated that no photographs of underground sections had yet been received.
-
Section D.
Disappearance of Native Plants.—Professor Hillhouse distributed
among the Delegates copies of the third report of the Committee on
this subject. He stated that the report had this year been confined to
the North of Engiand, the Isle of Man, and to a few records from the
southern counties of Wales. The bulk of the material had been obtained
directly by correspondence with the local Natural History Societies.
The Committee were especially indebted to the Yorkshire Naturalists’
Union, which had formed a committee of their own, the labours of this
committee having largely contributed to the satisfactory results which
had been obtained. There was still a certain amount of difficulty in
inducing the representatives of the societies, to which circulars had been
sent, to take steps in the matter, and he expressed a hope that the Dele-
gates would do their best to promote the objects of the Committee.
Although the Committee had not yet come to any definite decision, he
thought that next year’s report would probably deal with the whole of
Wales, and possibly adjoining counties, and with the south-western
counties of Hngland, and Delegates from these districts were asked to
bear this in mind.
Professor Hillhouse then gave a réswmé of the report which had been
presented, stating that it contained an account of the more or less com-
plete disappearance from the localities mentioned therein of about seventy
species. In some cases the disappearance had been due to natural causes—
e.g., the encroachments of the sea on the Cumberland coast and elsewhere
had brought about the disappearance of several littoral plants; but in
the great majority the handiwork of man had been recognisable. Dis-
appearance through human agency he classified under two heads—per-
sonal and impersonal. Impersonal action he illustrated by the results of
building works, agricultural operations, drainage, &c., which cause con-
stant changes in local floras. Thus the Isle of Man Brassica (B. monensis),
first found by the famous botanist John Ray at the Moiragh, Ramsey, in
1670, is in danger of extirpation there, and has already been extirpated
at Douglas by building operations; and the commonest of the scarlet
poppies (Papaver rheas) is greatly diminishing in the county of Cumber-
land through the gradual abandonment of cereal tillage. It is only
incidentally, however, that these impersonal changes affect plants of
special interest, while the personal actions of man—that is, his actions
directed intentionally at some particular plant—have naturally their chief
influence upon plants of peculiar interest or beauty. Here again, as in
previous reports, it is the ‘collecting dealer’ whose ravages form the
main burden of complaint. The Ladies’ Slipper orchid (Cypripedium
Calceolus), once not uncommon in Yorkshire, Durham, and Westmoreland,
has well-nigh succumbed, and the hillsides, banks, and hedgerows are
being rapidly stripped of their once abundant ferns. As an example of
the systematic way in which this is done, Professor Hillhouse instanced
the case of the Maiden Hair (Adiantum Capillus-veneris), which in the Isle
of Man is regularly hunted for by men with boats and ladders, and sold
to ‘trippers’ in the Douglas market. He thought that the local Natural
48 REPORT—1891.
History Societies might do a great deal towards persuading holiday
makers and tourists that it is far better, far safer, and, in the long run,
far cheaper, to buy these plants from nurserymen who grow them, than
to incur the trouble, expense, and risk of removing them at a time when
the conditions are so unfavourable as they are during practically the
holiday season, and that they might do something towards restraining
the robbers themselves.
Mr. Hopkinson stated that nearly the whole of the ferns in his dis-
trict (St. Albans) had disappeared within the last twenty years. He
attributed the extermination to the London collectors and dealers, and
added that there was a danger of such a common plant as the prim-
rose becoming exterminated in time from the London district, as they
were taken to the metropolis by cartloads every year.
Mr. Sowerbutts called attention to the inefficacy of the law of trespass
in such cases, as no penalty can be inflicted unless damage is proved.
He considered the worst depredator to be the botanical fanatic.
Mr. Gray did not think that the true botanist would be guilty of such
wilful destruction. They had a special rule among their Society that no
rare plant should be damaged or removed. One class of offenders to be
dealt with were the persons who, without any knowledge of the habits of
a rare species, liked to see it growing about their premises, and for this
reason had it removed. If these persons were taught that it is often
impossible for such plants to live away from their natural conditions their
depredations might perhaps be checked.
Mr. M. B. Slater said that he had known many lovers of plants in his
district (Malton) who would tramp many miles in search of a rare species.
Although in a sense these men were botanical fanatics he did not think
that they were the depredators. It was the young beginner in the study
of botany who, in his opinion, should be cautioned against exterminating
any rare plant in his anxiety to procure specimens. He suggested that
the best plan would be to endeavour to procure at the proper time a little
ripe seed from the plant in its native habitat, and then to try and raise
it. This would be the means of saving from destruction some.of our
greatest rarities. Mr. Slater had adopted this plan himself, and had
growing under cultivation some of the rarer and most. interesting of
British plants. He believed the extension of agriculture to have been
one great cause of the disappearance of local species, and by obtaining
seeds, or even in extreme cases the plants themselves, some species might
be saved from destruction. Although some practical difficulties might be
encountered, he thought that with perseverance these would be overcome,
and the student would certainly derive great advantage from trying to
cultivate his plants. If successful he would thus attain a far better
knowledge of their life histories, as he would be enabled to watch the
plants through their various stages of growth.
Investigation of the Invertebrate Fauna and Oryptogamic Flora of the
British Isles—The Rev. EH. P. Knubley stated that no formal report of the
work of this Committee had been presented to the Section, but that the
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union had been steadily carrying on the work
during the past year.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 49
Srction EH.
Mr. Sowerbutts made some remarks with respect to the scope of
Geography, and suggested that detached papers on the geology, zoology,
meteorology, botany, &c., of some particular region could be regarded as
coming under this science, and might with advantage be read together in
a common Section-room. The discussion was continued by Professor
Bonney, who considered the suggestion worthy of consideration, but
likely to meet with great practical difficulties.
Section G.
Flameless Explosives for use in Coal Mines.—Professor Levour stated
that the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers
were about to make experiments on this subject. They had recently
obtained a grant of 3001. for the experiments, but more would be re-
quired. He appealed to other engineering societies represented at the
Conference to co-operate in the investigation, which was of such general
importance in mining districts.
Mr. Mills said that the Chesterfield and Midland Counties Institute
had not taken the matter up through their Council, but several indi-
vidual members had been working at it, and the results would shortly be
published.
Section H.
Catalogue of Prehistoric Remains.—Mr. Kenward said that the Bir-
mingham Philosophical Society was fully alive to the importance of
recording the few ancient remains in their district. He had done a great
deal of work in this direction himself, and had induced others to promote
the suggestions discussed at the Conferences at Bath and Newcastle, as
well as to assist in carrying out the Archzological survey proposed by
the Society of Antiquaries.'
Mr. Gray stated that the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club had taken
the matter up in a systematic way, and would continue their co-opera-
tion.
At the conclusion of the Conference the Chairman remarked upon the
advantage of being able to have at hand for reference the publications of
the local Societies as collected by the Corresponding Societies Committee
for the purpose of preparing the catalogue of papers which formed part
of their annual report. He also called attention to the fact that a few of
the older and well-known local Societies had not yet become enrolled as
Corresponding Societies.
Professor Meldola pointed out that this matter had already been dis-
cussed at a previous conference (Bath, 1888) as well as by their Com-
mittee in London. He thought that the work of the Conference of
! The objects and mode of carrying out this survey were explained by Dr. John
Evans, President of the Society of Antiquaries, at the Bath Conference in 1888.
‘ ie Assoc. 1889, p. 188. (Secretary Corresponding Societies Committee.)
SD E
‘50 REPORT—1891.
Delegates was now sufficiently well known, and that, although there were
a few societies whose co-operation it would be extremely desirable to
secure, no further approach could be made on the.part of the Committee.
It rested rather with the Delegates themselves to assist in securing the
Societies in their own districts.
Srconp ConFrERENCE, SEPTEMBER 9,
The chair was taken by Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., the Corresponding
Societies Committee being also represented by Sir Rawson Rawson,
Dr. Garson, Mr. Hopkinson, and Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S. (Secretary).
Section A.
Phenological Observations—Mr. Symons made the following com-
munication :—
‘ Phenological observations, which may perhaps be said to have origi-
nated with Gilbert White, although studied with care in Austria, received
little attention in England until 1874, when the Royal Meteorological
Society invited and obtained the assistance of Delegates from the Royal
Agricultural Society, Royal Horticultural Society, Royal Botanic Society,
Royal Dublin Society, and Marlborough College Nataral History Society,
who held several meetings, and eventually drew up an elaborate report,
which, curiously enough, upon re-examining after the lapse of sixteen
_years, seems to show that practically few of the Delegates approved of
it, although from motives of politeness they allowed it to pass. Flowering
plants, insects, and birds were referred respectively to the Rev. T. A.
Preston, Mr. McLachlan, and Professor Newton. Of plants the large
number of seventy-one were recommended for observation, of insects only
eight, and of birds seventeen. Mr. McLachlan, Professor Newton, Mr. Bell
of Selborne, and Professor Thiselton Dyer all expressed the opinion that
the list should be kept as short as possible, and although Mr. Preston’s
long list of plants was retained, it was resolved that special attention
should be called to fifteen out of the seventy-one, by printing their names
in capitals.
‘The Royal Meteorological Society undertook the cost and trouble of
preparing and issuing the necessary forms, and from 1875 to 1888, both
inclusive, the Rev. T. A. Preston prepared and the Society printed
annual reports embodying the results obtained. Mr. Preston found it
impossible to continue the work, and Mr. EK. Mawley took it up and
prepared the report for 1889. He has, however, arrived at the same
conclusion as the authorities already quoted, and his recommendation to
reduce and simplify the observations has been accepted by the Council of
the Royal Meteorological Society, which now desires to enlist as many
observers as possible, all of whom are to work according to the form, of
which copies are submitted for consideration.
‘With this view the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society
has endeavoured to obtain the assistance of the Corresponding Socie-
ties on the British Association list, and it is with the same object that
I have asked permission to bring these few words before this Con-
ference.’
nit
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 51
Mr. Cushing said that the British Association had reported on this
subject at the Cambridge Meeting in 1845, and it was then abandoned
until the Royal Meteorological Society took it up. As Mr. Symons
had said, the list in 1874 comprised seventy-one plants, eight insects,
and seventeen birds. In 1883 the Society published a new schedule,
which included seventy-nine plants, eleven insects, and twenty-one
birds. After some years the list was reduced to thirteen plants, five
insects, and five birds, and he asked why this reduction had been
sanctioned.
Professor Lebour raised the question why, among the plants, two
species had been included which were among the most variable of British
species P
. The Rev. E. P. Knubley, with reference to the list of birds, said that
the swallow had been included, but a large number of persons did not
know the difference between a swallow, a swift, and a martin. It
occurred to him that it would be better to insert the sand-martin in its
place, because it was likely to arrive the first of the three. The nightin-
gale, also included in the list, for all practical purposes ceased in the
south of Yorkshire. The only places it had appeared so far north were
in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, Leeds, and Harrogate. It had oc-
ecurred at Scarborough once, and it might perhaps be heard near Harro-
gate every three or four years. He suggested whether for this bird it
would not be better to substitute the chiff-chaff, the willow wren, or the
_ redstart, which arrive about the same time and are of the same class.
_ This remark applied also to the West of England, where the nightingale
is unknown, and he thought that it would be better to have a bird which
_ extended all over the country.
Mr. Symons said that the nightingale was not included in the first
schedule, but there was a strong feeling that the list of British birds
: would be incomplete without it, and it was therefore eventually inserted.
He saw no reason why it should not stand, because he understood that
the list represented only the minimum, and not the maximum, of species
which might be recorded.
After some remarks by Sir Rawson Rawson and Mr. Corse Glen,
Professor Hillhouse called attention to the list of plants. He said
there was a manifest objection to the free use of hedge plants, because
the body of the hedge was often so protective that there might be two
observers in close proximity watching the same species and yet quite
different dates might be entered, because of the prevailing direction of
the wind at the season. In the next place, with regard to Orategus
oxyacantha, they would not unfrequently find those plants which grew
“near or in the hedge flowering ten days before the normal period. He
knew of two plants which were two forms of this species which grew
side by side with interlacing branches, the periods of flowering differing
by from seven to fourteen days. These were growing at the back of
Trinity College, Cambridge. With respect to Rosa canina, he was not
mre which of the eighteen to fifty forms could be identified with this
name, but their flowering period extended over something like seven
weeks. The records for this plant would, therefore, be very conflicting.
Professor Hillhouse further suggested the advisability of omitting from
‘the schedule the words: ‘If, unfortunately, the first flowering be missed
_ for a day or two, the observer is requested to give the estimated date of
first flowering and to place an asterisk against the entry.’ He was of
B2
52 REPORT—1891.
opinion that botanists would like to see this clause omitted, and that only
actual observations should be recorded.
Mr. Symons, in concluding the discussion, stated that he had brought.
the matter forward on behalf of the Royal Meteorological Society, and
as a meteorologist rather than as a naturalist. At the same time, the
subject was one of equal importance to naturalists and meteorologists,
and he expressed his thanks to those who had given hints and made
remarks with the object of getting the observations made in the best
possible way. He expressed a hope that the Societies represented at the
Conference would be induced to assist in carrying on the work.!
Temperature Variation in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries.—Professor-
Meldola read the following communication from Dr. H. R. Mill, the
Secretary of the above Committee :—
‘The Committee has to thank the following local Societies for their
assistance in obtaining observations, and to state that the work of Society
observers is, as @ rule, more regular and more accurate than that of
isolated volunteers :—
‘Manchester Geological Society, Grantham Scientific Society, Roch-.
dale Literary and Scientific Society, Bristol Naturalists’ Society, Cardiff
Naturalists’ Society, Burton-on-Trent Natural History Society, Hast
Kent Natural History Society, Marlborough College Natural History
Society, Northampton Natural History Society, Dumfries and Galloway
Natural History Society.
‘Several other Societies applied for information, and would have
taken part in the work had there been a suitable river or lake in their
neighbourhood.
‘Tt is desirable that the Societies already engaged in observations.
should continue to make them for another year with as much regularity
as possible. Those which have not already taken it up will not be urged
to do so, as a sufficiency of data for the purposes of the Committee is.
now in course of being secured.’
Meteorological Photography.—Mr. Hopkinson reported that the forma-
tion of a Committee for this purpose had been sanctioned by the Com-
mittee of Section A, and the form had been forwarded to the Committee
of Recommendations.”
Section C.
Professor Lebour stated that he had been asked to represent the
Committee of this Section and to bring under the notice of the Delegates
the following list of Committees recommended for appointment :—
1. Erratic Blocks.—The work of this Committee bad been explained
at former Conferences, and the co-operation of those Corresponding
Societies which had not yet taken part in the observations was invited.
2. The ‘ Geological Record.’—The continuation of this work had been
recommended and a grant had been asked for to assist in carrying on its
publication.
? Mr. Symons distributed copies of the schedule at the meeting. They can be
had on application to Edward Mawley, Esq., Rosebank, Berkhampstead, Herts.
? The Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Mr. A. W. Clayden
(Secretary), Professor Meldola, and Mr. J. Hopkinson, has been appointed with a
eS : 57. for preliminary expenses. (Secretary Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 53
3. Underground Waters——The work of this Committee had also been —
‘several times brought before the Delegates, and the Secretary, Mr. De
Rance, was present to give any further explanations.
4. Haploration of Oldbury Hill.—The exploration of this ancient
earthwork, near Ightham, in Kent, had been recommended, with the
special object of examining the supposed ‘ rock-shelters.” A committee
had been formed for the purpose of carrying on excavations.
5. Geological Photography.—This Committee, of which Mr. Jeffs was
secretary, and the work of which had been discussed at the last meeting,
had been recommended for reappointment with the addition of two
names.
6. Northamptonshire Lias——A committee for collecting and registering
the fossils of this formation had been recommended for appointment, and
excavations had already been commenced.
7. Sea-coast Hrosion.—This Committee, the objects of which had been
explained to the Delegates on former occasions, and of which Mr. Topley
was Secretary, had been recommended for reappointment.
8. Registration of Type Specimens.—A recommendation had also been
sent in for the appointment of a committee for reporting on type speci-
mens in museums, an important subject, in which great assistance might
be rendered by the local Societies.
9. Harth-Tremors.—This Committee, which had been referred to at
former Conferences, had been recommended for reappointment, with
Mr. Davison as Secretary. Professor Lebour explained that his oceupa-
tions left him no leisure for acting any longer as Secretary to this Com-
mittee.
j 10. Exploration of Elbolton Cave.—A committee had been formed for
y the excavation of this cave, which was near Skipton, and in which relics
_ of human occupation had already been found. Some of the local Societies
in Yorkshire might assist in the investigation.
11. Source of the River Aire—The object of the Committee appointed
for the purpose of investigating this subject was to ascertain, if possible,
by means of the coal-tar colouring matter, fluorescein, whether the water
which flows out of Malham Tarn and disappears down a ‘ water sink’ to
the south of the Tarn is the stream which emerges at Malham Cove or
Aire Head, or at both these places. The use of the dye for this purpose
had been suggested by Professor Meldola to Professor S. P. Thompson,
and the latter had brought the subject before Section C in the form of a
paper with the object of having a committee appointed for the purpose of
carrying out the experiments, It had been suggested that the method
might be found generally useful for investigating the course of under-
ground waters, as a very small trace of the dye produced an intense
green fluorescence, and had not the slightest injurious effect upon the
water.
Mr. C. E. De Rance, who had also been requested to act as a represen-
tative of Section C, made some remarks with respect to the work of the
Underground Water Committee. The latter had been appointed in 1874:
and had just presented their sixteenth report. The objects of the Com-
‘mittee were to inquire into the subject of underground water with a view
‘to supply from wells or springs. A form of inquiry had been prepared
in which questions were asked respecting the quality, quantity, and level
of the water. They were particularly anxious to secure records of the
water level extending over long periods of time; they had reason
#
54 REPORT—1891.
to believe that many sets of observations of the level in wells and
springs had been made daily or weekly during past times, and the
Committee thought it highly important to secure these old records if
possible.
The work of the Coast Erosion Committee, which was appointed in 1882,.
had been carried on with important results, and much information had
been derived from a study of old charts to which the Committee had been
enabled to get access. The Committee on Erratic Blocks, of which Dr.
Crosskey, of Birmingham, was the Secretary, was appointed in 1871 with
the object of recording the exact positions of the more important boulders
and, if possible, of entering these positions on the Ordnance map. Copies
of these maps should be kept by the Societies taking part in the work, and
copies should also be ‘sent to the British Association Committee. It was-
important also to have a microscopical examination of sections of chips
from the boulders made by competent geologists, so that the probable:
sources of the boulders might be ascertained. Another point in connec-
tion with this subject, in which the Corresponding Societies might exert
their local influence, was that the boulders where they occurred should
not be left to the mercy of the stone-breaker, but should be preserved.
This applied especially to public parks or gardens, where the local Socie-
ties might well use their influence with the Corporations to induce them
to have the boulders preserved and even placed in prominent positions,.
where they might be readily accessible and at the same time secure from
danger of demolition.
With reference to the publication of the ‘ Geological Record,’ Mr. De:
Rance had been requested by Mr. Topley to bring the subject prominently
before the Delegates. The work was instituted, as was well known, by
Mr. Whitaker in 1874, and entailed a large amount of unremunerated
labour. The number of copies sold was insufficient to meet the cost of
publication, notwithstanding the grant made by the British Association,
and unless more subscribers could be secured the publication would have
to cease. The ‘Geological Record’ Committee took the opportunity of
appealing to the Delegates, and Mr. De Rance on behalf of the Committee
asked them to make known the character and scope of the work in order
to increase the list of subscribers. Circulars for this purpose were dis-
tributed among the Delegates.
Professor Meldola made some remarks with reference to the proposed
method for investigating the source of the Aire, after which he stated
that he had been requested by Dr. Crosskey to render the thanks of the
Erratic Blocks Committee to the Corresponding Societies for the aid
which they had already given, and to express a hope that their assistance
would be continued. Dr. Crosskey had forwarded for inspection a copy
of a paper on the boulders of the Midland district, by Mr. F. W. Martin,.
F.G.S., read before and published by the Birmingham Philosophical
Society. This paper was accompanied by a map of the Midland District
on the scale of two miles to the inch, and was considered by the Erratic
Blocks Committee to be an example of the method of investigation which
would yield the best results in this inquiry. In this paper attention had
been paid to distribution of the erratics, their grouping and various levels.
their mixture with or freedom from local blocks, as well as to the import-
ance of discriminating between erratics distributed without regard to-
local hills and those that ave gathered together in the valleys at present
existing. A copy of the last report of the Committee will be forwarded
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 55
on application to any address sent to Dr. Crosskey, and a few copies
of the map are also to be had by those Societies taking part in the
work.!
Mr. J. W. Davis stated, with respect to the work of the Committee
for investigating the source of the Aire, that some five or six years ago
Mr. Walter Morrison, M.P., and several members of the Yorkshire
Naturalists’ Union, tried a number of experiments with aniline dyes,
similar to that proposed by Professor S. P. Thompson, but they had
all failed.
Mr. Gray made some remarks with reference to the method of induc-
ing the Corresponding Societies to take up the work of the various
Committees. He thought that much force would be given to the represen-
tations made by the Delegates to their Societies if the Committees which
required the co-operation of the local Societies would send copies of their
reports to and communicate directly with those Societies, pointing out
that the work suggested by the Delegate was of real use and likely to be
valuable to the Committee in carrying out the objects of the British
Association. The Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, for example, had no
Committees on Erratic Blocks or on Coast Erosion, but if these Associatiou
Committees sent their reports and a request for assistance he felt sure
that many members of their Society would be glad to take these
matters up.
The Chairman, Mr. De Rance, Mr. Hopkinson, and Mr. Corse Glen
spoke in favour of Mr. Gray’s suggestion.
Section D.
Professor Hillhouse stated that no new committees had been appointed
this year by their Section which had any bearing on the work of the
Corresponding Societies.
Section EH.
Teaching of Geography in Primary Schools—Mr. Sowerbutts said that
the Committee of this Section had had under consideration the teaching
of geography in primary schools. He had undertaken to draw up a
report on this subject with reference to the action of the local authorities,
and especially so far as concerned his own district in Lancashire. The
object of the report would be to make known how far the Government
grant apportioned for technical education or allied purposes was made
use of for the teaching of geography. His own experience went ta show
that the subject was much neglected, and he invited Delegates from other
parts of the country to give information by sending in School Board
reports or reports of municipal authorities dealing with educational
matters, so that he might be able to present a fairly complete report to
the Committee next year. He hoped by this means that pressure might
be brought to bear upon the Government in order to have justice done
to a subject of such importance.
} The paper referred to appears in the Proceedings of the Birmingham Philoso-
phical Society, vol. vii., Part 1., 1890. Dr. Crosskey’s address is 117 Gough Road,
Birmingham.
56 REPORT—1891.
Section H.
Committee of Aid for Anthropological Excavations.—Dr. Garson called
attention to the existence of a Committee of Aid formed by the Anthro-
pological Institute, and the purpose of which had been explained at last
year’s Conference of Delegates. He stated that every year there were
many people who were desirous of carrying on, and who did sometimes
carry on, investigations of this kind, but unfortunately discretion was not
sufficiently mingled with the zeal displayed. This was, no doubt, due to
an imperfect knowledge of the method of conducting such investigations.
Owing to this want of knowledge a large amount of valuable material was
often destroyed. For the purpose of aiding by direction or otherwise the
exploration of ancient remains, a committee had been appointed in 1888
by the Anthropological Institute, the chairman of this committee being
General Pitt-Rivers, the Inspector of Ancient Monuments. Local Societies
would find it to their advantage if they would report to the committee ot
the Anthropological Institute when they were desirous of undertaking
explorations. Due attention would be given to their applications, and, if
thought desirable, the matter would be placed in the hands of some
expert member of the Committee, every member of the latter being in
some way a specialist; so that local exploring committees could have any
assistance they required in the way of skilled advice in opening up
barrows, earthworks, camps, &c.
Prehistoric Remains Committee.—Mr. J. W. Davis said that this Com-
mittee, of which he was the Secretary, was appointed in 1887. Since
then four reports had been presented, which varied much in length, but
of which the interest and importance had been well kept up. He expressed
his conviction that if the various Corresponding Societies would take up
the work the subject would become of the very greatest importance to the
country generally. What was wanted was a record of everything that
had reference to prehistoric man, his dwellings, implements, pottery, &c.
A goodly number of reports had been promised, but it appeared that in
many instances their compilation took a considerable amount of time.
He hoped that next year they would present a much longer list than that
which had been presented to the Section this year. Dr. Munro had pro-
mised a list of the lake dwellings of the British Isles; and, amongst others,
Mr. Gray, who represented the Belfast Society, had promised to send a
one-inch map with the ancient remains in Ireland marked upon it. If
they could get a complete map of the whole country similarly marked,
this map, which would be the property of the British Association, would
be of the very highest value, and the Committee would have accomplished
most important work. He trusted the Delegates would inform their
Societies what had already been done and what still remained to be done,
so that they might be able to enlist the services of others who were
interested in Archeological research.
At the conclusion of the business a discussion took place with reference
to the best method for imparting to the Corresponding Societies through
the respective Delegates a knowledge of what had taken place at the
Conferences. Mr. Hopkinson suggested that each Delegate should read
atpaper before his Society, giving an account of the line of work taken
’ CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 57
up by the various Committees, and that this paper should be published in
the Society’s Transactions or Reports as soon as possible. He distributed
among the Delegates a paper of this kind which he had brought before
the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.!
Another question raised was the advisability of in some way bringing
into relationship with the British Association those Societies which did
not come up to the standard of excellence for enrolment as Corresponding
Societies. It was stated that there were a large number of smaller
Societies doing good work, but which were not in a position to publish the
' results of original investigations or to issue a publication. It was felt
that much good would be done to these Societies if they could be affiliated
by some means, and allowed to take part in the meetings of the Con-
ference, perhaps without having the privilege of sending a Delegate to the
General Committee or of receiving gratuitously a copy of the annual
~ volume of Reports. The matter was referred to the Corresponding
Meldola, the Secretary of the Conference.
Societies Committee for their consideration.
On the motion of Professor Lebour, seconded by Mr. J. W. Davis, a
vote of thanks was passed to the Chairman, Mr. Symons, and to Professor
-_~
With reference to the last point raised at the Leeds Conference, the
_ Corresponding Societies Committee has to report. that, after considering
the question referred to, it is recommended that the attendance at the
Conferences of representatives of local Societies which are not Corre-
sponding Societies should be sanctioned on the understanding that these
representatives are not actually enrolled among, and do not receive the
privileges of, authorised Delegates. The Committee has also authorised
its Secretary to supply any local Society which may apply for them
with copies of the reports of the Conferences, the lists of Committees, and
other information likely to be of use in furthering local scientific investi-
_ gation.
The Committee has received application from all the Societies now
enrolled, and recommends their retention. It is further recommended
to the General Committee that :— |
1. The Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society,
2. The South London Microscopical and Natural History Society,
3. The Tyneside Geographical Society,
4, The Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
should be enrolled as Corresponding Societies of the British Association.
f } This plan has been adopted in former years by the Delegates of the Manchester
Geographical Society, the Isle of Man Natural History Society, the Essex Field Club,
and the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Secretary Corresponding Societies Committee).
“Aye
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58
59°
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
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REPORT—1891.
62>
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REPORT
4 me ad ? ' ete” dr oN So UL is SIMUL] FU B[ GAguLyy, oY d UUddPLIG
at Be v IS GON wiogsog gg |* “00g HN 300M “a | * keg, wopuoT pur ¥TeqO ayy usemgaq spag |* —* "p ‘1ayog
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ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS, 85
Report of a Committee, consisting of Messrs. J. Larmor and
G. H. Bryan, on the present state of our knowledge of Thermo-
dynamics, specially with regard to the Second Law.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed among the Reports. ]
Part I.—RESEARCHES RELATING TO THE CONNECTION OF THE SECOND LAW
witH Dynamicat PrincipLes. Drawn up sy G. H. Bryan.
Introduction.
1. The present report treats exclusively of the attempts that have
been made to deduce the Second Law of Thermodynamics from purely
mechanical principles.
Before considering the several methods in detail it may be well to sum-
marise the meaning of the various terms which enter into the mathe-
matical expressions of the laws of thermodynamics, with a view of showing
more fully what conditions must be kept in view in establishing the
dynamical analogues. This has been done more or less fully by several
authors of papers on the subject, but more especially by von Helmholtz
in his paper on the ‘ Statics of Monocyclic Systems.’! The substance of
this paper will be dealt with more fully later on in the present Report,
but we will now mention the principal points touched on in the introduc-
tion.
2. Meaning of the Second Law.—Let a quantity dQ of work in the
form of heat be communicated to a body whose absolute temperature is 0.
Let E be the internal energy of the body, dW the work done against
external forces by the change in the configuration of the body which
takes place during the addition of dQ. It is not assumed that the
external forces are conservative.
Then the First and Second Laws are expressed by the equations
dQ=dE+dw . 2 : : ae BL)
HOCUS fee ee ee rea)
_ where dS is a perfect differential of a quantity 8, called the entropy, whose
_ value depends only on the state of the body at the instant considered.
The essential principle involved in the Second Law does not lie solely
in the fact that dQ has an integrating divisor 6. In fact, if we assume
that the state of a body is completely defined by two variables and y, it
_ must always be possible to put dQ in the form
dQ=Mdze+Ndy,
where M, N are functions of z and y only. And it is always possible to
find an integrating factor for an expression of this form.
Moreover, if one integrating factor can be found for dQ, an infinite
number of such factors can be found. For in equation (2) let s be any
arbitrary function of S ; then we may write the equation in the form
gore a,
ds
1 Crelle, Journal, vol. xeviii.
86 REPORT—1891.
Hence if
ds
—6§-~ . : f : : 4 (3
=O (3)
we have
dQ=nds . : 2 ‘ : way
so that 7 as well as @ is the reciprocal of an integrating factor of dQ, or,
as we may call it, an ‘integrating divisor’ of dQ. Since dS/ds may be
regarded as a function of S, we see that the product of the temperature
into any arbitrary function of the entropy of a body is an integrating
divisor of dQ, and therefore possesses properties analogous to @ in equa-
tion (2).
Le the absolute temperature 6 is not fully defined by equation (2),
and the Second Law of Thermodynamics is not, therefore, completely
proved by the establishment of an equation of this form.
3. It is, therefore, necessary to take into account the other property by
which temperature is characterised, namely, that heat always tends to pass
from a body of higher to one of lower temperature, and in particular that
if two bodies in contact have the same temperature there will be no transfer-
ence of heat between them.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics consists in the fact that among
the integrating factors of dQ there is one whose reciprocal, 0, possesses
the properties of temperature just mentioned.
4, But, nevertheless, without considering the properties of thermal
equilibrium between different bodies we derive one very important infer-
ence from equation (2)—namely, that the thermal condition of a system
whose parts are in thermal equilibrium can be completely defined by a
single coordinate, or, in other words, that the consideration of thermal
phenomena only adds one to the total number of coordinates otherwise
required to fix the state of a dynamical system.
5. Impossibility of a Perfectly General Mechanical Proof—To reduce
the First Law of Thermodynamics to the principle of Conservation of
Energy it is only necessary to assume that heat is some form of energy ;
no hypothesis is required as to what particular form this energy takes.
It was natural, therefore, that physicists should at a very early date
endeavour to reduce the Second Law in like manner to a purely dynami-
cal principle, and the principle of Least Action naturally suggested itself
as the probable analogue of Carnot’s principle. But here a limitation at
once arises f.om the necessity of giving a dynamical meaning to dQ, the
energy communicated to the system in the form of heat, and of separating
dQ from —dW, the energy communicated in the form of mechanical
work.
6. This limitation requires that some special assumption shall be made
regarding the nature of heat, and the natural and almost inevitable
assumption is that every finite portion of matter is built up of a very
large number of elementary portions, called molecules, and that the form
of energy known as Heat is due to the relative motion of the molecules
among themselves.
But, farther, these molecules must be characterised by some peculiar
property, such as their (practically) infinitely large number whereby
their dynamical properties differ in some manner from those of a finite
number of particles or rigid bodies. For without such a distinction it
would be impossible to deduce any dynamical equations involving dQ,
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 87
the work performed on the system through the coordinates defining the
sitions of the molecules and not involving —dW, the work performed
through the coordinates determining the external configuration of the
system. The two portions of the work could only enter together into the
equations in the form dE.
In other words, it is impossible to deduce the Second Law of Thermo-
dynamics from purely mechanical principles without making some
axiomatic assumption regarding the nature of the molecules whose motion
produces the phenomenon of heat.
7. The question now arises as to what dynamical quantity represents
temperature. We have good reasons for believing that, in gases at least,
the absolute temperature is proportional, either to the total mean kinetic
energy, or to the mean kinetic energy of translation of the molecules.
But if this or indeed any other hypothesis be adopted it will be necessary,
before the mechanical theory of heat is complete, to prove that (1) the
molecular kinetic energy is an integrating divisor of dQ; (2) it deter-
mines the thermal state of a body in relation to other bodies.
- Most of the earlier writings are concerned only with the first property.
But a complete mechanical proof of the Second Law would involve a
mechanical definition of temperature applicable to all kinds and states
of matter, together with an explanation on dynamical or statistical laws
of the principle of degradation of energy in non-reversible processes; and
we are still far from arriving at a satisfactory solution of either of these
“problems.
8. It will be convenient to classify the methods by which the problem
has been attacked as follows, under three headings corresponding to the
three different fundamental hypotheses which underlie them :— j
I. The Hypothesis of ‘Stationary’ or ‘Quasi-Periodic’ Motions as
_ adopted by Clansius and Szily.
‘ II. The Hypothesis of ‘ Monocyclic Systems’ of von Helmholtz, and
similar hypotheses.
III. The Statistical Hypothesis of Boltzmann, Clerk Maxwell, and
other writers on the Kinetic Theory of Gases.
9. Rankine seems to have been the first who attempted to deduce the
Second Law from dynamical principles. As early as 1855 he published
a paper ‘ On the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices,’ ! in which he obtained
equations analogous to those of thermodynamics; and in a paper read at
the British Association in 1865? he explained the Second Law on the
hypothesis that ‘heat consists'in any kind of steady molecular motion
within limited space,’ such as that due to circulating streams. Both of
Rankine’s hypotheses are special cases of Helmholtz’s ‘ Monocyclic
Systems.’
Boltzmann seems to have been the next to take up the subject, but his
laim to priority has been disputed by Clausius, whose investigations
appeared about five years later. Boltzmann was undoubtedly the first to
regard the subject from a statistical point of view.
Szily laid claim to the discovery of the connection of the Second
Law with Hamilton’s Principle of Least Action, and he may fairly be
_ entitled to the credit of having propounded this connection. But most
of his early investigations are not only wanting in rigour, but in many
€ases so inaccurate that they do not prove the connection at all.
1 Phil. Mag. 1855, pp. 354, 411. 2 Ibid. 1865, p. 241.
P
88 REPORT—1891.
Clerk Maxwell’s theorem, named after its discoverer, was the first
attempt at a kinetic analogue of thermic equilibrium. It was generalised
by Boltzmann, and afterwards further generalised by Maxwell himself;
but the latter extensions are probably incorrect, as we shall see here-
after.
Having thus briefly mentioned the earliest researches on the present
subject, let us turn to a consideration of the papers themselves, beginning.
with the writings of Clausius and Szily.
Section I.—The Hypothesis of Stationary or Quasi-Periodie Motions.
10. Clausius and Szily—In 1870 Clausius showed that when a sys-
tem of particles is in stationary motion, the mean vis viva of the system
is equal to its virial.! About a year later he gave a proof of the Second
Law, based on the laws of motion, in a paper entitled ‘On the Second
Axiom in the Mechanical Theory of Heat.’* The methods of proof
employed by Clausius in this paper are very laborious and complicated,
while his arguments are artificial and, in places, not very intelligible.
Soon after Clausius’ paper had appeared, Szily endeavoured to show
that ‘what in the mechanical theory of heat is called the Second Law is
nothing other than Hamilton’s Principle of Least Action.’* The proofs
which Szily gave are, in many places, quite at variance, not only with
the principles of dynamics, but also even with the laws of Thermo-
dynamics themselves. Thus he repeatedly mistook dE for dQ, and tried
to show that dH/T is a complete differential (a result not in general
true) ; moreover, in endeavouring to account for the principle of degra-
dation of energy in anon-reversible cycle, he altogether ignored the First
Law, and supposed some of the molecular energy of the system to be
actually lost or annihilated by friction, viscosity, or imperfect elasticity
of the molecules, or by other similar resistances. In consequence he had
to employ methods of proof that were far from rigorous, and even, in
many instances, illogical.
Szily’s papers seem, however, to have had one good effect—namely,
that of stimulating Clausius to remodel his investigations in a simpler
and more intelligible form. Those who care to examine the original
papers of these writers will find them translated in the volumes of the
‘Philosophical Magazine’ from 1871 to about 1876. Among them is a
paper by Szily,4 in which he claimed to have deduced the Second Law
from the First ‘without any further hypothesis whatever.’ Yet Szily
based this investigation on two hypotheses which are hardly more
axiomatic than Carnot’s principle.
11. Clausius’ Methods.—It would be useless to enter into further criti-.
cism. We now proceed to give a proof of the Second Law based on
the methods of Clausius, with the object of bringing into prominence the
more salient features of his investigations, and of presenting them in a
concise form.
The assumptions which form the basis of Clausius’ proof may be stated.
as follows :—
(i.) In the steady or undisturbed state of the system the motion of
the molecules shall be stationary. or quasi-periodic; in other words, the
potential and kinetic energies of the molecules shall fluctuate rapidly
' Phil. Mag. vol. xl. (1870), p. 122. 2 Ibid, vol. xlii. (1871) (September).
& Tbid. vol. xliii. (1872), p. 339. 4 Ibid. V. series, vol, i. (1876), p. 22.
le oobi
i el
i 2
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 89
about their mean values, and there shall be one or more ‘ quasi-periods,’
7, satisfying the definition which will be given in the course of the proof
(equation 13, infra).
(ii.) When the state of the system is changed (as by the communica-
tion of heat or by changes in the volume or external configuration of a
body), such changes shall be capable of being treated as small variations
of the motion from the state of steady motion.
Helmholtz, in his paper on Monocyclic Systems, makes a similar as-
sumption—namely, that the changes in the state of the system shall take
place so very slowly that the motion of the system at any instant differs
infinitesimally little from a possible state of steady motion. This is the
exact equivalent of the assumption always made in treating the Second
Law from a physical point of view—namely, that heat is communicated
to or taken from the working substance so slowly that at every instant
of the process the temperature of the body is sensibly uniform through-
out.
12. With these assumptions, let the positions of the molecules be
determined in the first instance by the Cartesian coordinates (a, y, z) of
the particles (m) forming them.
Suppose that the state of the system also depends on the values of
certain other coordinates, p,, 2, &c., which, as suggested by J. J. Thom-
son,! we shall call the ‘controllable coordinates’ of the system; to this
class belong the volume of the body, the charge of electricity present
on it, or any coordinates which can be acted on directly from without.
The values of these latter coordinates will enter into the expression for
the potential energy of the system.
Let T=kinetic energy of system = 3} m(a? + 474-27).
V=potential energy.
H=total energy=T+V.
In Thomson and Tait’s ‘Natural Philosophy,’ part i. § 327, it is
shown that ‘
af oTdt= [ Sm Gode+ yy + | + is for = Sm (do + dy + #8z)} dt (5)
t t=t, Jt
But by D’Alembert’s Principle we always have for the motion of the
system
>{ (m+) bu+ (mg +) ay (mz+) az} =0,
- whence
2 nat SVL aU. sOv
Sn Bet poy +2:)=— (Want May + ON oe) eineeCs)
Now, V is a function not only of the molecular coordinates (#, y, z)
but also of the controllable coordinates p,, p., . . . and these latter are
also liable to variation. Hence for the complete variation of V we have
We iay ov. Ov av
BV =D (Gr bet SN by + Sede ) + Se ear?)
1 Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry, p. 94.
90 REvPORT—1891.
Here the terms
> OV,
Op"
represent the work done on the system by variation of the controllable
coordinates—i.e., the external work performed on the system. Hence, if
SW denote the external work performed by the system, as in § 2, we have:
ov
5p P= OW: .) (ae
Substituting in equation (5) from (6), (7), (8), in succession, we have
Lo ty ty
af 2nat=| SY m(i8e+ jy +282) | +| (sT+8V+8W)dt . (9)
2 ty is
But if 5Q represents the variation of energy communicated through the
molecular or wncontrollable coordinates, we have, by the Principle of Con-
servation of Energy! (equation 1),
sQ=sE+SW =8T +6V +8W.
Therefore (9) gives
af 20 [ Son(ade-+ gay +282) | + | "aaa Se eee
2 i
Let ¢t,—t¢,=7, and let mean values with respect to the time be indi-
cated in the usual way by a vinculum drawn over them, then the last
equation (10) may be written
— 4ti ———
a(2iT) =[ Sm (ade + G0y + 202) | 4380 yes ere
t,
whence
+t
5Q _a(2iT) [ on abu-+ y8y-+ 81) ' . (12)
Ti (a iT
Hence, if we assume the quasi-period 7 to be defined, as postulated
(assumption 1), by the relation
| Sm(e82-+ j8y +282) | =.) (hh te
4
we shall have
a 5 2log (iT) =8 log (iT)? [gee a)
18. Equation (14) is analogous to the thermodynamical equation (2)
when written in the form
8Q__8(2:T)
a=
AQ_ as.
Gd;
the mean kinetic energy of the molecules T taking the place of the
absolute temperature 6.
Thus Carnot’s principle is proved for reversible transformations, pro-
__,’ This step was omitted by Szily, who fell into several errors in consequence, and
it is not explicitly mentioned in Clausius’ writings.
q
*
_
%
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 91
vided that the absolute temperature of a body is proportional to the mean
kinetic energy of its molecules taken over a quasi-period of their motion.
But to complete the proof it would still be necessary to show that a
quantity proportional to the mean kinetic energy of the molecules fulfils
the properties of temperature stated in § 3. The investigations on this
point will be considered in Section ITI.
The hypothesis that the quasi-period 7 is very short compared with
the time required to communicate a finite quantity of energy through the
molecules is tacitly involved in our regarding 6Q as a small variation.
On this hypothesis the value of T will vary very slowly, and T may
therefore be regarded as a continuously varying function. Hence, in
considering what takes place over a considerable number of quasi-periods,
we may replace the sign of summation by that of integration, and thus
obtain
2dQ 8Q to T
eee ee
. T = T ° T,
the suffixes 1, 2 referring to the initial and final state of the body.
14. The hypotheses involved in the definition of the quasi-period ¢ by
means of equation (13) call for some comment. In his paper ‘On a New
Mechanical Theorem relating to Stationary Motions,’! Clausius gives a
rather more general form of the theorem, in which he supposes that there
may be different quantities 7 corresponding to different molecular co-
ordinates; but in this case it seems to be necessary, according to him,
that in the varied motion all the 7’s shall be altered in the same ratio. If
such is assumed to be the case, 3 log 7 will be the same for all. Hence
we shall obtain for the portion whose quasi-period is 7%
8Q=2TS log 7+ 28T,
and, therefore, for the whole body
S5Q=2ST . 8 log 1+ 28ST ;
or, if we remove the signs of summation and let the quantities refer to
the entire system, ia
8Q=2T8 log 1+ 28T,
~ whence
dQ Be
28 Closer Wik njerie® Yicdstoy y+ Hele
as before.
If we assume that each molecular coordinate (a, for example) always
fluctuates in the same periodic time 7, so that the corresponding velocity
# vanishes at the times ¢,, t, +7, t; +2:, &c., then the relation defining
the corresponding 7,
t=th+7
[ mde —=\())
t=t,
will be satisfied identically, and there will be no difficulty about the
matter. When, however, the molecular motions do not possess even this
amount of periodicity, Clausius gets over the difficulty by arguments of
the following general nature:—If we are dealing with a body of finite
1 Phil. Mag. vol. x\vi. (1873), p. 236.
92 REPORT—1891.
dimensions, the molecular coordinates (7, y, z) must fluctuate between
certain finite limits, and hence 82, dy, Sz, cannot increase indefinitely with
the time. Hence by taking the time 7 sufficiently large we must have
ultimately
t=t, +7
rou + yoy +20 ]
f Pigaz yoy +202) scat
1=0 u
(15)
since the numerator does not increase indefinitely with ¢.
Now, it appears to me that the statements printed in italics are open
to objection. There is no reason why dw, dy, dz should not increase con-
tinually with the time until they can no longer be regarded as small
variations, and it seems highly probable that this will happen under
certain circumstances. Take, for example, the case of a gas formed of a .
number of hard spherical molecules colliding with one another, the
lengths of the mean free paths being great compared with the radius of
each sphere. If the direction of motion of one of these spheres be varied
very slightly, then at the next impact there will be a considerable altera-
tion in the direction of the line of centres.!_ After the impact, therefore,
the variation in the direction of motion will be very greatly increased,
and a similar increase will take place at each impact, until at last the
molecule will no longer collide with the same molecules as in the original
motion, but will come into collision with quite a different set. By this
time there will not be the slightest connection between the original and
the varied motion.
15. I would therefore suggest that the existence of a ‘ quasi-period ’
i, as defined by (13), can be better explained by arguments of a statistical
nature based on the immensely large number of the molecules present in
a body of finite dimensions. In the steady or stationary motion of such
a body, it is reasonable to assume (as in the kinetic theory of gases) that
the velocities of the molecules are on the whole equably distributed as
regards direction. Thus, for example, the average number of molecules
for which # is positive and lies between u and u+dw is equal to the
average number for which # is negative and lies between —w and
—(u+du).
Moreover, in the disturbed motion the displacements (dz, dy, dz) of
any molecule cannot depend in any manner on its velocity components
(#, y, z). Itis of course quite possible to conceive a disturbance of the
motion in which some fixed relation exists between the displacements and
the velocity components of the molecules—indeed, we might choose the
relation to be any we please—bnut a disturbance of this kind would only
be possible if the molecules were individually controllable; in other words,
the displacements could only be brought about by means of Clerk Max-
well’s ‘demons,’ and it would then be reasonable to suppose that the
Second Law would fail altogether.
Hence in any physically possible variation of the motion the terms
involving positive and negative velocity components in the expression
Sd (edz + ydy + 282)
will on the whole cancel one another, and therefore the average value of
the expression will be zero. This proves Clausius’ Theorem.
} This is easily exemplified by means of billiard-balls.
ee
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 93
It should be noted that Clausius introduces the conception of a
‘phase’ in dealing with stationary motions, but this is not an essential
feature of the proof, and it only modifies the form of the equations. I
have therefore dispensed with it.
16. Connection with Hamilton's Principle——Although Thomson and
Tait have based their proof of the Principle of Least Action on equa-
tion (5), the above investigations do not show more than a very indirect
connection between that principle and the equation (14) which corre-
sponds to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Had we used general-
ised coordinates to represent the positions of the molecules, equation (6)
would have been replaced by Lagrange’s generalised equations of motion,
and the connection would hardly have been any closer, depending only,
as it would have done, on the fact that Lagrange’s equations could be de-
duced from the Principle of Least Action, and that equation (14) would
have been deduced from Lagrange’s equations.
Clausius recognised at the very outset of his researches the fact that
Hamilton’s principle could not be applied directly to the case of a
system of molecules in which the variation of the motion was accom-
panied by the performance of external work through the controllable
coordinates of the system. For, as he puts it, Hamilton’s principle only
holds good when, in the varied motion, the Ergal has the same form as a
function of the coordinates as in the original motion.! By the co-
ordinates Clausius here means the molecular coordinates only, for he
considers the controllable coordinates as variable parameters which enter
into and affect the form of the potential energy or ‘Ergal.’ In consequence
of this fact Clausius claimed that his equations involved a new principle
which was of more general application than Hamilton’s principle. We
shall, however, show (i.) that, by means of a certain assumption as to
the form taken by the external work, a system can be formed to which
Hamilton’s principle is directly applicable; (ii.) that the principle leads
immediately to the analogue of the Second Law in the form of equation
(14); and (iii.) that the assumption made does not really interfere with
the generality of the proof.
17. Our assumption is that the external forces, acting on the control-
lable coordinates of the body, belong to a conservative system. This
system we may, for convenience, call the ‘external system.’ When the
body performs external work dW, the potential energy of the external
system increases by 8W. Hence we may denote this potential energy by
W. The external system and the original body, when taken together,
form a complete dynamical system, to which Hamilton’s principle can be
applied ; for the potential energy of the complete system is a function
only of the generalised coordinates of the system.
Moreover, in the complete system the increment of the total energy is
le by (1). Hence the total energy may be denoted by Q
where
Q=E+W=T+V+W,
the total potential energy being U where
U=V+W=Q-T.
Let p,, p. . . . denote the generalised coordinates of the complete
system, ¢g,, g..-. the corresponding velocities, so that ¢,=/,; and let
1 Phil, Mag. vol, xliv. (1872), p. 365.
94 REPORT—1 891.
$1, 82, .... be the corresponding generalised momenta. Let p, be taken
as a type of the controllable coordinates which define the configuration of
the external system, p, as a type of the uncontrollable coordinates which
define the positions of the molecules in the body. Since the energy of the
external system is assumed to be wholly potential,
5 P=) 5e >i ly hg
With the present notation the two general forms of the equation
expressing Hamilton’s principle are
af (t—Upat=[ Ssbp | — 98: ik cans Og:
and
sf ‘OT dt= [Se | +18Q chip apt)
Of these the latter form must be used. Assume to be so chosen as to
satisfy the relation
[Ss | (0)
which, since s,=0, may also be written
[ Sears | =o ot ae ite Ne Tel ita
a relation identical with that assumed in equation (13) and justifiable in
a similar manner,
Equation (17b) now becomes, on introducing mean values,
8(2:T) =78Q,
giving, as before, equation (14),
8 ft.
aa) 2 log (iT).
It might at first sight appear as if the assumption as to the conserva-
tive nature of the external forces imposed a serious limitation on the
generality of the theorem, and, in fact, prevented its application to cyclical
processes. But this is really not the case. To remove the limitation it is
only necessary to suppose that the external system contains certain connec-
tions by which periodic motion of the body is converted into progressive
motion of some of the external coordinates, as exemplified in the crank
of a steam-engine. In other words, the external energy W must be a
multiple valued function of the controllable coordinates of the body.
From equation (18), 7 depends only on the state of the body, not on that
of the external system, and evidently T depends only on the state of the
body. Hence, if the initial and final states of the body be the same,
although the initial and final states of the external system may be different,
we must have
8Q
[ero ot a
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 95
Since the external system of conservative forces may be chosen to be
any we please, equation (19) must be true for any cyclical process what-
eyer, whether or not accompanied by the production or absorption of
external work.
This, then, is the closest connection which exists between Hamilton’s
principle and the kinetic analogue of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
We might avoid the necessity of constructing a different multiply
connected field of external force to suit each cyclic process by adopting a
generalisation of the principle of Least Action, but this generalisation
would no longer belong to the forms given by Hamilton. Thus we might
suppose W, and therefore Q, to be a function of the time. This would
not affect the form of (17a), but in (170) 18Q would be replaced by
| aQa—ice, 18Q.
A slightly different method adopted by Helmholtz in his papers on
‘Least Action’ (Crelle, ‘ Journal,’ vol. c.) leads to the same result. He
supposed the generalised external force components P, to be functions of
the time only; in this case we must write 3(P,p,) instead of W, and,
therefore, E+ 3(P.p,)=Q.
18. Under the present section of this Report must be mentioned
Prof. J. J. Thomson’s theorem that ‘ when a system consisting of a very
great number of molecules is in a steady state, the mean value of the
Lagrangian function has a stationary value so long as the velocities of
the controllable coordinates are not altered.’ !
This ‘ theorem’ is nothing more or less than Hamilton’s Principle of
Least Action, which is enunciated in a form identical with the above
by von Helmholtz in his paper on Least Action.? In fact, if in equation
(18) we write
H=U—-T,
and assume the variation to be so chosen that
si=0, [ Ser] =0 et osha thre a any
we have at once
af Hit =0,
whence ah
5(¢H)=0,
or by (19)
8H = 0 3
‘so that H has a stationary value.
The function H, which is merely the Lagrangian function with its
sign changed, has been termed by Helmholtz the Kinetic Potential.
The mean value of this function is the dynamical analogue of the
ety in the theory of heat which is called the Thermodynamical Poten-
tal by Duhem and Massieu, the Force Function of Constant Temperature by
J. Willard Gibbs, and the Free Energy by Helmholtz himself.
The fact that, for a system which undergoes reversible transformations
1 Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry, p. 142.
2 Crelle, Jowrnal, vol. c. p. 139.
96 REPORT—1891.
only, the thermodynamic potential is a *minimwm, is thus identical with
the principle of minimum action. For non-reversible processes the
thermodynamic potential tends to a minimum, and this fact expresses the
principle of degradation of energy involved in the Second Law, though as
yet the corresponding dynamical property has not been worked out.
J. J. Thomson’s applications of his ‘ theorem’ have no bearing on the
subject of this Report, as they do not depend to any extent on the
dynamical aspect of the question.
Secrion I1.—Hypotheses based on the Properties of Monocyclice Systems.
19. The peculiarity of the theories to be discussed in this section is
that they are not in themselves statistical. They do not therefore postu-
late the existence of an infinitely large number of molecules the motion
of which, taken individually, is uncontrollable. Instead of this, the funda-
mental hypotheses on which they are based have reference to the forms
of the kinetic and potential energy as functions of the coordinates of the
system. Thus the equations of motion of any finite system of rigid bodies
fulfilling the necessary qualifications will give rise to equations analogous
in form to those which represent the laws of Thermodynamics.
Under the present category may be classed Rankine’s very early
theories, already mentioned, Helmholtz’s papers on the statics of Monocyclic
Systems,! and the proof of the Second Law given by J.J. Thomson in
his ‘Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry.’ Boltzmann has
endeavoured to show how a system satisfying the properties of a mono-
cyclic system may be derived from statistical considerations, but this
investigation naturally falls under Section III. of this Report.
Rankine’s hypotheses call for no comment, being only very special
cases of those of Helmholtz.
20. H. L. F. von Helmholtz on the Principles of Statics of Monocyclic
Systems.—As no account of these papers has hitherto been given in Eng-
lish, we shall now consider them somewhat fully. The introductory por-
tion has already been noticed in §§ 2, 3.
Helmholtz defines a polycyclic system as a dynamical system containing
one or more periodic or circulating motions. If there is only one such
motion, or if, owing to the existence of certain relations between the
velocities of the different parts of the system, the circulating motions can
all be defined by a single coordinate, the system is called monocyclic.
As in other investigations the coordinates of the system fall under
two classes—those which, following the suggestion of J. J. Thomson,
we have called ‘controllable’ coordinates, and those defining the in-
ternal or circulating motions within the system, which that writer calls
‘unconstrainable’ coordinates. In applying the results to Thermody-
namics, the latter coordinates are those which fix the positions of the
molecules, and thus define the thermal state of the body ; they may,
therefore, be called ‘ molecular’ coordinates.
A polycyclic or monocyclic system is assumed to possess the following
properties :—
(i.) The kinetic and potential energies of the system do not involve
the actual values of the molecular coordinates which define the circulating
motions, but only depend on their generalised velocities or rates of
change.
1 «Principien der Statik monocyclischer Systeme,’ Crelle, Jowrnal, xcvii. pp. 111, 317.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS, 97
These coordinates are therefore gyrostatic or, as J. J. Thomson calls
them, ‘speed’ coordinates. The present hypothesis seems to assume that
the molecules exert no mutual forces except those due to impact or un-
yielding constraints. At any rate, if there be any other molecular forces
they can only depend on the controllable coordinates of the system.
(ii.) When the state of the system is changed the changes take place
very slowly, so that the velocities of the controllable coordinates are small,
_ and so also are the accelerations of the molecular or gyrostatic coordinates.
(This corresponds to the second assumption in § 11.)
21. Let the generalised coordinates of a polycyclic system be denoted
by p, the generalised velocities by g, the generalised momenta by s, and
the generalised force components exerted by the system, in the direction
of p increasing, by P; also, let the suffix a refer in each case to the con-
trollable coordinates, and b to the molecular coordinates of the system.
Let T=kinetic energy, V=potential energy, H=V—T, so that H is the
Lagrangian function with its sign changed.
The general equations of motion give
, _p — _OH_ oT
: dt 0g By Siete 25
| _d/oH) oH
' dt\ oq Op
; In consequence, however, of the assumptions (i.) and (ii.) we have
0H oH
~=0 =0 =- =O ¢. Ber ed!
f Ope ; a : Pe Oda ( )
_ whence the generalised equations for the polycyclic system become
poe
Pa buOe 5 DBASW os Boar
pode ery
earl © igus WORE
Hence if dQ is the total energy communicated through the gyrostatic
coordinates q, in time dt, we have
. ds,
= —SPiqndt= + San at=S ude, . : . (23)
Also, if the Lagrangian function has not been modified, or if, in other
‘ords, no gyrostatic coordinates have been ignored, T is a homogeneous
quadratic function of the quantities g,, and hence in this case
BS Teck 4) die) ss So hae BOD)
22. The simplest form of monocyclic system is that containing only
€ gyrostatic coordinate q,; here
CO gies. ko Ai cae. (25)
__ Thus g, is an integrating divisor of dQ, and by § 2 the product of ¢,
: any function of s, is also an integrating divisor of dQ. In par-
cular
2T=q,5, . . . . e e (26)
. dQ : :
Gr=2d(logs). . 2 . . (27)
1891. H
98 REPORT—1891.
Moreover, if H=T+V is the total energy of the system,
dQ=dE + > (Putpa) : : : = (28)
so that dQ is the analogue of the quantity of heat communicated to a
body.
pies equation (27) is analogous to the Second Law of Thermodynamics
as given by equation (2), on the assumption that the kinetic energy T takes
the place of the temperature. A
If Sis the quantity corresponding to entropy in (27), we have on
integration
S=2(log s,—log A), where A is a constant.
This may also be put in the form
fe» Sp .
S=log T+log rere) , : ; ca)
Here s,/q, is of no dimensions in time; hence s,/q, is a function of length
only, and the expression for S is exactly analogous to the corresponding
formula for a perfect gas—
S=c, log 6+(¢,—¢,) log v+C : 3 - (80)
If y, is of the nature of angular velocity, so that q,¢ is of no dimensions
in length, s,f will be of dimensions [L]’, and therefore s,/qg, will be of
dimensions [L]?. But vis of dimensions []?, hence by comparing the
dimensions of the quantities in (29), (30), we must have (c,—c¢,)/c¢,=%,
*. ¢,=4c,, and this is the relation between the specific heats of a mon-
atomic gas.
23. Helmholtz next considers the more general case in which there
are several velocity coordinates q,, and he investigates the relations con-
necting them on the assumption that dQ has an integrating divisor.
Writing
IQ=S 1,8,=Ado ‘ ‘ : o~ (SE)
it is evident that the required conditions will be satisfied by assuming
that the equation
dQ=0 : : : : . (32)
has an integral of the form
F(s,)=c=constant . P ‘ . (83)
and that ,
oe . . . . . (34)
The conditions that the kinetic energy should be an integrating divi-
sor are also found. If the Lagrangian function has not been modified,
Helmholtz finds that the kinetic energy is in every case an integrating
divisor of dQ, provided that the geometrical relations between the motions
of the various coordinates are purely kinematical, or such as could exist
» in nature.
24. It has, however, been pointed out by Boltzmann, in his remarks on
Helmholtz’s paper,’ that Helmholtz’s proof of this theorem is based on
‘ Boltzmann, ‘Ueber die Higenschaften monocyclischer Systeme,’ Crelle, Journal
xevyill. p. 86 et seq. > ’ ,
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 99
the assumption that dQ has an integrating divisor; or, in other words,
that the solution of the equation
dQ=0
can be expressed in the form of a single primitive. Under such circum-
stances, the proof shows that the kinetic energy of the system must
necessarily be one of the integrating divisors of dQ. But, on the other
hand, there may be cases in which the equation d@Q=0 does not possess
a solution in the form of a single primitive, and Helmholtz’s investiga-
tions are not applicable to such cases.
In fact the theory of differential equations shows that the equation
(82)
IQ=J nd=0
does not in general lead to a single primitive of the form (33)
F(s,)=constant.
In order to obtain an integral of (32) it is therefore in general necessary
to assume certain functional relations between the variables. In other
words, we must assume the existence of certain geometrical equations
connecting the different parts of the system, and this is eyuivalent to
imposing certain constraints whereby the number of degrees of freedom
of the system is reduced. Helmholtz finds that the kinetic energy T
will be an integrating divisor of dQ, provided that the assumed geometri-
cal equations are purely kinematical, and in this category are included all
forms of constraint which are possible in a perfectly conservative dyna-
mical system.
There are, however, as Helmholtz has shown, certain cases in which
(32) has for its integral a single primitive of the form (33), and in these
cases it is not necessary to assume the existence of geometrical equations
representing constraints on the system. Such a polycyclic system possesses
properties identical with those of a monocyclic system, and, although the
gyrostatic coordinates are independent, the kinetic energy is always an
integrating divisor of dQ.
It is probable that Helmholtz’s geometrical equations can be interpreted
thermodynamically as the conditions that the different parts of the body
_may be all at the same temperature. Unless this condition is satisfied we
know from purely physical considerations that dQ has not in general an
integrating divisor.
25. The limitations, as well as the meaning of ‘ purely kinematical’
geometrical conditions, are, however, more clearly shown in Helm-
holtz’s second paper,! in which he deduces the analogue of the Second
_ Law by means of an application of the principle of similitude, as follows :
The geometrical conditions are considered purely kinematical when they
_ allow the rate at which the system is moving to be varied without vary-
_ ing the relations between the coordinates of the various parts. Thus
- corresponding to any state of motion of the system we may obtain another
possible state of motion of the system by supposing all the velocities of
the system increased n fold, provided that proportional alterations be
made in the external forces (P) of the system. In the new motion the
1Crelle, Journal, vol. xcvii. pp. 317-322.
100 REPOoRT— 1891.
same changes will take place in a less time ; hence, if we use accented
letters for the original motion, we shall have generally
1
as |
Ww
oe £
ae ; : : : ; - (35)
T—=n?7T'
s=n5'
The effect of communicating a quantity of energy dQ throngh the
speed coordinates cf such a system will be to increase the rate of working
of the system, and therefore to increase 1.
Now we have i
dQ=S (gd)=> {(nq’,)d (ns) )}
=v (q',ds'.) + ndny> (q's 5) a ‘ . (86)
But when the rate is constant, dr=0; dQ=0;
ts > (74s) =0 . ° . « (37)
which defines the monocycle.
a AQ=ndnS (9'r8'r) : ° : . (38)
But
aT = 2°T = 20S (q'8'0) 3
dQ 2dn_
i 2d (log 7) : 4 an Ol) |
The quantity corresponding to entropy—viz., 2 {log m — log (constant) }
differs from that given by the method of Clausius, but the two investiga-
tions are easily reconciled. For writing (36) in the form
AQSndny (7'r8'v) +n? LS (9'8'v) —S (s'rdq'v)} =0); eaux f40)
the assumption made in Clausius’ method is that
St) = 0 . . . . . (41)
and under such circumstances
dQ=ndiu2T’ + n7d2T’ é . ‘ . (42)
aQ dQ 2dn 2d"
A er a a
=2d (log nT’) =2d log (T/n) ; . (43)
which agrees with (14).
26. By far the most interesting part of Helmholtz’s papers is
that in which he has investigated the dynamical analogue of thermal
equilibrium between two or more bodies of equal temperature. Of this
portion we will now give a brief sketch.
If two bodies of equal temperature are placed in contact, the state
of either body will be unaffected, and the system, taken as a whole, will
be subject to the two Jaws of thermodynamics.
The dynamical analogue to be investigated is that of two monocyclic
systems coupled together by means of geometrical connections between
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 101
their molecular coordinates only (not between their controllable co-
ordinates) in such a manner that the motions of the two systems are
individually unaffected by the coupling, but that the coupled system
forms a single monocyclic system. Corresponding to equality of
temperature we must have equality between two integrating divisors of
dQ for the two monocyclic systems, and these integrating divisors must
always remain equal so long as the two systems are coupled together.
Such being the conditions imposed upon the problem from thermal
considerations, Helmholtz investigates the general form of the integrating
divisors for two monocyclic systems in order that this condition may be
fulfilled—i.e., that equality of these divisors may be the criterion of
the possibility of coupling the systems. This kind of coupling he calls
*isomorous.’ As simple instances of such coupled dynamical systems
the following are mentioned :—
(i.) Two revolving wheels may be coupled together by joining their
axles if their angular velocities are equal. If either wheel carries a
Watt’s governor or centrifugal regulator in which the distance of the
revolving balls from the axis is controllable, the angular velocities of the
two wheels can thus be equalised just as two bodies may be brought to
the same temperature by applying suitable pressures.
(ii.) Two circulating streams of liquid in annular vessels can be com-
bined into a single stream wherever their linear velocities are identical,
' and the necessary conditions may be secured by suitably varying the
form and dimensions of the containing vessels.
The principle of limited availability when heat is converted into
work by reversible processes depends on the impossibility of controlling
the individual molecules of a body: all that we can do is to commu-
nicate heat to the body by placing it in contact with another body, which
must be at the same temperature if the process is to be reversible. Cor-
responding to this property we must make the hypothesis that in a
monocyclic system it is impossible to operate directly on the gyrostatic
coordinates by means of external forces, but that work can only be
communicated through these coordinates by coupling the system with
another monocyclic system, and that the coupling must be ‘ isomorous.’
If this assumption be made, the monccyclic system will evidently possess
properties corresponding to the principle of limited availability.
27. Let », and 7, be the required integrating divisors for the two
Systems, so that whenever 7,7 and y,=y the systems can be coupled
together. Let the corresponding entropies be o, and o,; then for such a
_ coupled system we must have
dQ,=ndc,
dQ.=ndo,z . e ° (44)
“. dQ =dQ, +dQ.=nd(o, +02)
_ therefore 7 is an integrating divisor cf dQ for the entire coupled system.
Any other integrating divisor will be the product of y with an arbi-
trary function of the corresponding entropy (§ 2). But the kinetic
energies T,, T,, T,+T, are integrating divisors of dQ,, dQ., and dQ
(since the coupled system is supposed to be monocyclic). Therefore
T= ¢(0,) )
T= ooo) j i f $ » (45)
T,+T.=7 x(a, +02)
102 REPORT—1891.
whence
x(o, +.o2)=$(0,) +¥(o2) . . - (46)
giving, on differentiating first with regard to o, and then with regard
to To;
x"=0:
Therefore on integration
x=a+b-+ce(o,+02)
o=at+co, : : ohh, eG
~=b+coyg |
But if s,, s, be the generalised momenta corresponding to the gyro-
static coordinates of the two systems, we have
dQ, =2T \d log s;=7do,
COr—2 10 log seemed =! . 0 . (48)
From (45), (47), and (48)
2d log s;= By 7
a+co, (49)
Daigpa)eueital
ee eae
.. by integration, #(o,)—a+co,=(s,/a)*) . (80)
W(o2)—b +co,=(s,/B)*)
where a, 8 are constants. Substituting in (45) we find
Te ela ie . 6
aa . e .
n=T.(£) i
These, then, are the most general forms of 7, 7, possessing the two
qualifications by which temperature is characterised—namely, (i.) Carnot’s
principle and (ii.) the property of defining the state of a body in relation
to its thermal equilibrium with another body.
28. There is still another condition to be satisfied in finding a kinetic
analogue of temperature—namely, the property that if two bodies, A and
B, are in thermal equilibrium, and if A and C are also in thermal equi-
librium, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium.
This imposes on our monocyclic systems the condition that whenever
a system (1) can be coupled with either of two systems (2) and (3), the
systems (2) and (3) can also be coupled together. The examples already
given of wheels revolving with equal angular velocity and of circulating
streams are instances of the fulfilment of this condition.
In all such cases the geometrical equations connecting the coordinates
of the coupled bodies must be of the form
= 3—X3 "e : Fy . . (52)
where ¢, only involves the coordinates of the first body, ¥. those of the
second, and x; those of the third.
Applying § 23, we see that if F (s,, s,) denote the entropy of the
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 103
system formed by coupling (1) and (2), the geometrical equation (34)
gives
Tite 2 rere ; ; . (58)
oF OF
0s; 08»
and this must be reducible, after dividing out by a common factor, to the
form (52)
$i =Y2-
Therefore
OE SS ’ * e : 4
¥(s,) We) ine
where ®'(s,) is a function of s, alone and W’'(s)) is a function of s, alone.
Therefore, comparing (53) and (54), we must have
oF oF :
CCV Fak Ch) aa ad
Putting
0(s,)=[0(s,)ds,, ¥(s)=[W(s,)ds, . (56)
(55) gives
OF oF
AY ol : ; : “har,
The integral of this can be written in the form
X(F(s152))=X(o)=P(s,)+¥(s2) tC .« « (58)
where X denotes any arbitrary function of F or o.
Equation (58) determines the general form of the quantity correspond-
ing to entropy in the system formed by coupling the two monocyclic
systems (1) and (2) in a manner satisfying the conditions of the present
problem. ;
Moreover, in the individual systems we have by (56)
val
dQ, =q,ds,;= &'(s jon
1
| (59)
AQ.= qods3= Foy (so)
so that the quantities g,/®'(s,) and q./W’/(s.), which are equated when
the systems are coupled, are integrating divisors of dQ, and dQ,. This
kind of coupling is therefore ‘isomorous,’ and is analogous to the thermal
contact of bodies at the same temperature.
29. Thus Helmholtz has shown that all the thermodynamical pro-
perties of matter can be represented dynamically by means of monocyclic
systems which are capable of being coupled together. In coupling such
Systems it has been assumed that—
(i.) The forces acting on the controllable coordinates are unaffected,
so that only the motions of the molecular or gyrostatic coordinates are
connected together, and the coupled system is monocyclic.
_ Gi.) The geometrical equations connecting the two systems can be put
in the form ¢,;=y., so that ¢, and y, possess the same properties which
104 REPORT—1891.
characterise temperature as the criterion of thermal equilibrium between
two or more bodies.
It has also been deduced that ¢, and wy are integrating divisors for
he two respective systems, so that they satisfy the definition given by
Carnot’s laws.
The only other property of heat—namely, the principle of limited
availability—follows at once on the hypothesis of § 26 as to the uncon-
strainable nature of the gyrostatic coordinates of the system, and the
analogue is therefore complete.
30. Helmholtz is almost the only writer who has made any attempt
at a complete mechanical theory of heat. The other writers have simply
endeavoured to show that an equation of the form (2) can be deduced
from dynamical considerations by assuming that the kinetic energy due
to the uncontrollable motion of the system takes the place of temperature.
This assumption is not necessary in Helmholtz’s investigations—a great
advantage considering our uncertainty as to the nature of temperature.
Although the properties of temperature are explained by means of
monocyclic systems, it cannot be said that they are proved on these
hypotheses. Thus, it would be very easy to couple a monocyclic system
with two other systems in such a manner that the two latter could not
also be coupled together—as, for example, in the case of revolving wheels
connected together by cogs. What Helmholtz has done is to show the
possibility of dynamical analogues and the conditions they must satisfy,
rather than to establish an analogy between all dynamical systems and
heated bodies.
The omission of the work done by intermolecular forces also intro-
duces certain restrictions on the generality of the proof. In the vortex
atom theory of matter no difficulty of any kind presents itself, because
the vortex atoms are essentially monocyclic in character ; but on Bosco-
vich’s hypotheses there will be difficulties, although these difficulties do
not appear insuperable. There seems, for example, no reason why the
molecular potential energy should not be controllable, in which case the
work done by the intermolecular forces would be of the nature of
available energy—available, that is, through the controllable coordinates
of the body. Thus, for example, if we suppose a number of molecules
enclosed in an envelope at rest under their mutual repulsions, and if we
imagine the envelope to expand so that the distances between the mole-
ecules are increased, the intermolecular forces do work in expanding the
envelope, and the whole of this work will be available. Thus there is
nothing impossible in such an hypothesis. But it cannot be regarded as
axiomatic, and can only be justified if it is found to accord with observed
phenomena, among which must be included the Second Law itself. In
fact, it must not be forgotten that the object of all such investigations is
to discover theories which will account for facts, and not to prove facts
by means of theories. ’
31. Professor J. J. Thomson’s Proof of the Second Law.—The investi-
gation now to be considered is one which in its principle and fundamental
hypotheses is intimately related to Helmholtz’s researches, although the
method of proof is somewhat different. I refer to the proof of the Second
Law given by Prof. J. J. Thomson in his ‘Applications of Dynamics to
Physics and Chemistry,’ chap. vi. §§ 46-49. It is in connection with
this investigation that the author introduces the terms wnconstrainable
and controllable, which he uses to distinguish coordinates defining the
Se
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 105
states of the molecules of a body individually from those which define the
state of the molecules in the aggregate.
It was stated in § 24 that, under certain circumstances, a polycyclic
system may possess exactly the same properties as a monocyclic system,
even though the coordinates defining the circulating motions of the
system are all independent. The system considered by J. J. Thomson
belongs to this class, for the necessary conditions are secured by the
assumption which the author makes in the following statement concerning
the kinetic energy due to the molecular or ‘ unconstrainable’ coordinates
wu of the system:!—If the term
4{(uujw+...}
involves any ‘controllable’ coordinate ¢, then it is evident that this co-
ordinate ¢ must enter as a factor into all the terms in the form expressed
by the equation
4{(uu)ur+ ... p=bf() {(uu)w+ ... 3}. . (60)
where the coefficients (ww)’ do not involve ¢, otherwise the phenomenon
would be influenced more by the motion of some particular molecule than
by that of others.2_ In other words, the investigation is limited in its
application to the thermal properties of a single body, for in the case of a
system of more than one body it is. evident that the phenomena would
be differently influenced by the motion of the molecules in different
bodies. In such a case the molecular kinetic energy of each individual
body would contain a common factor f(¢), which might be different for
different bodies. Hven in the case of a single body the assumption,
though plausible, can hardly be regarded as axiomatic.
The other assumptions involved in J. J. Thomson’s work are similar
to those of Helmholtz, but they impose fewer restrictions on the gene-
rality of the proof. While Helmholtz assumes that the changes in the
state of the system take place so slowly that the velocities of the con-
trollable coordinates (q,, or ¢) do not enter into the energy of the system,
Thomson merely assumes that the portions of the kinetic energy due to
the controllable and molecular coordinates are distinct, so that the whole
kinetic energy is of the form
es tot dt sleratananit(Gl)
where the part T,, alone is to be taken as the dynamical analogue of
temperature, the part T., denoting the kinetic energy due to motions of
the body as a whole and other controllable motions.
Moreover, Thomson only assumes that the potential energy of the
_ system is a function of the controllable and not of the molecular coordi-
nates, so that
v= Deva » oldellonbana gi ko yneeee)
and l
Srou=0 j AMBRE OT bool une aah
1 Applications of Dynamios, pp. 94, 95.
* In comparing J. J. Thomson’s proof with that of Helmholtz we must write
Pa=?; Pp =U, Qy= tt
106 REPORT—1891.
while Helmholtz’s investigations involve the assumptions of (21), namely, ~
nar oH _ dH _oVv_ar
H
gst Se ep eee 5 ee , : - (64
Op, Ou Ow Ow sy)
assumptions which characterise the molecular coordinates as gyrostatic
or speed coordinates.
With the above assumptions it is shown that
Ta) log F(#)+8 log orgies oct ge
an equation analogous to the Second Law (2). Also
0Q 0®
— el SS . . . 66
( Od T,, constant Ty (ar) ¢ constant ( )
where ® is the generalised component of external force corresponding to
the coordinate ¢. This relation is analogous to the well-known thermo-
dynamical relation 36 ;
—6 (OP
( ov 8 constant Fut (3 constant i 4 . (67)
32. J. J. Thomson also mentions the case in which V, the potential
energy of the system, is a function of the molecular as well as of the
controllable coordinates. But here he tacitly assumes that the molecular
coordinates only enter into V in the form of the temperature, an assump-
tion quite unjustifiable from dynamical considerations, for no dynamical
meaning can be attached to temperature until the Second Law has been
completely (vide §§ 2, 3) established by dynamical principles.
On the hypothesis that T,, is the quantity which is analogous to tem-
perature in the dynamical system, the assumption takes the form
dV, OV
25, Y= 9p le Jt GIN SERIO AGED
and unless this condition is satisfied the relation (66) will not be true, as
J. J. Thomson asserts, when the potential energy is a function of the
molecular as well as of the controllable coordinates.
Concerning the physical aspect of equation (68) Mr. C. V. Burton has
suggested to me the following argument :—If we consider a vessel of
unalterable volume containing ice, water, and steam at the triple point
it is evident that heat may be communicated to the system isothermally,
the effect being to decrease the quantity of ice and to increase the quantity
of water and of steam without altering the pressure or volume. In this
case the molecular potential energy would in all probability be increased
without any concomitant change in the temperature or in the potential
energy of the controllable coordinates.
33. H. Poincaré on the Applicability of Monocyclic Systems to Irreversible
Processes.—The question whether Helmholtz’s monocyclic systems can
be employed to illustrate irreversible processes has been considered by
Mons. H. Poincaré,' and answered by him in the negative; but his inves-
tigation is far from satisfactory.
In the first place, he points out that an irreversible process is only
1 Comptes Rendus, cviii. (1889), p. 550.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 107
dynamically possible when the Lagrangian function contains odd powers
of the generalised velocities, and that this is the case when it has been
modified so that some of the velocities have been ignored owing to the
corresponding generalised momenta being constant. But this simply
means that the ignored velocities are not to be reversed when the motion
of the system is reversed. It is easy to see that in a dynamical
system it is not in general possible to reverse some of the motions
without reversing them all.
Poincaré now considers, as a test case, that in which the system is
acted on by no external forces, and he considers, more particularly, what
happens when the entropy is approaching its maximum, his object being
to discover whether there is any dynamical way of proving the funda-
mental thermodynamic property that the entropy of a system is con-
tinually increasing. If such is the case, then, taking S as the entropy,
dS /dt must always be positive. Now, taking E as the energy and adopt-
ing the notation of Helmholtz, the Hamiltonian equations give
errs 08 0E_ OS IE
dS S dE
In the subsequent investigation Poincaré assumes that when the entropy
is a maximum the system must be in stable equilibrium, so that in this
condition of the system we have not only
os os
a d — =0
Op nH dar ou i
but also :
dam ET.» dp_ dE _
Tes Sipeesagsinerpak tial 1 ae a
Such a step appears to me to be quite unjustifiable, for it amounts to
nothing less than assuming that the system under investigation is at the
absolute zero of temperature, and the entropy in such a case will of
course be infinite.
If we have any number of bodies enclosed in an adiathermanous
envelope it is known from physical, not dynamical, considerations that
_ the entropy of the system will tend to a maximufn as the temperatures
of the various bodies become equalised, and yet when all the bodies are
at the same temperature the molecules are still in a lively state of motion,
not at rest, as in Poincaré’s investigation.
It is also to be noted that Poincaré nowhere makes use of the fact
_ that S is the entropy of the system.
Hence it is difficult to see how Poincaré’s result can have any direct
bearing on the principle of degradation of energy or even how it can have
a thermodynamical interpretation at all.
34. At the same time, there are many considerations which render it
primé facie unlikely that the monocyclic method should be capable of
accounting for the principle of degradation of energy.
_ A system which is irreversible will certainly not be monocyclic
according to the definition of Helmholtz, and hence we cannot assume
108 REPORT— 1891.
that the geometrical equations which that author has investigated
will any longer hold good; the same may also be said with regard to the
alternative hypothesis underlying J. J. Thomson’s investigation. More-
over, even if the latter hypothesis be assumed to hold good for an
unequally heated body, the function which plays the part of tempera-
ture will be the whole molecular kinetic energy, so that instead of the
entropy we shall obtain an expression which does not alter in value as
the temperatures of the various parts become equalised. Another
hypothesis, which does not seem to me to be unreasonable, is that
possibly irreversible changes may take place when any portion of the
potential energy of the system depends partly on the molecular as well
as on the controllable coordinates of the system, so that this portion of
potential energy, as well as the kinetic, is uncontrollable. But then
there appear to be no grounds, except from statistical considerations, for
supposing that this energy will all be rendered kinetic by the action of
the intermolecular forces. Such would certainly not be the case in a
system possessing only one or two degrees of freedom.
The consideration of dissipative forces, such as friction, is of course
precluded by the conditions of the problem, for their presence would be
a violation of the principle of Conservation of Energy. And as we are
thus left with a dynamical system which is perfectly reversible (provided
that the system is complete and all the velocities are reversed), it seems
necessary to accept the principle of degradation of energy as a statistical
property and not as a dynamical principle. We shall consider the matter
more fully in the third section of this Report.
30. Dr. Ludwig Boltzmann on the Mechanical Representation of Mono-
cycles.—In his paper on the properties of monocyclic systems, already
referred to,! Dr. Boltzmann discussed at great length a mechanical model
illustrative of a system in which it appeared not only that dQ/T was:not
a perfect differential, but that dQ did not possess any integrating factor
whatever.
In a volume only just published? Boltzmann has again taken up the
representation of monocyclic systems by means of mechanical models, and
has slightly elaborated ideas suggested in Helmholtz’s papers. On
account of their greater simplicity we will consider the latter represen-
tations before the former. -
As a simple example of a monocyclic system Boltzmann takes a
vertical revolving shaft having attached to it a horizontal spoke along
which a bead can slide without friction. A string, which is attached to
the bead, passes over a small pulley close to the shaft, and hangs freely,
carrying a scale-pan, on which varying weights can be placed. The
arrangement may be illustrated by the shaft C D and the spoke carrying
the mass E in the figure of § 38.
If we suppose the shaft and spoke to be without mass, and if m be
the mass of the bead, r its distance from the shaft, w the angular velocity,
T the kinetic energy of the system, and dQ the amount of work performed
by turning a handle attached to the shaft, we have
(=A log (r'0) sd, oeun Satna
1 Crelle, Journal, xcviii. p. 88.
* Vorlesungen tiber Maxwell's Theorie der Hlectricitét und des Liechtes, 1. Theil
(Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1891), pp. 8-23.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 109
The right-hand side is equal to d log (s), where s is the angular
momentum, thus agreeing with Helmholtz’s result (§ 21, equation 27).
Boltzmann shows how such a machine may be made to undergo a
series of transformations analogous to Carnot’s cycle. In an isothermal
transformation the angular velocity and the distance of the bead from
the shaft are varied in such a manner that the kinetic energy of rotation
remains constant; in an adiabatic transformation no work is performed
on the shaft, and therefore the anguiar momentum, mr?w, as also the
corresponding entropy, remains constant.
The author gives other models of monocycles in which several movakle
rods and beads are attached to the same shaft. A Watt’s governor is
another simple example of a monocycle. Other examples of ‘kinetic
‘ engines’ were given by Professor Osborne Reynolds in a lecture delivered
on November 15, 1883.!
36. An attempt is also made by Boltzmann to extend the dynamical
analogy to irreversible processes, by showing that for a cycle of changes
_ which do not take place infinitely slowly we must have /dQ/T<0. Un-
fortunately, however, this generalisation does not hold good if the system
is frictionless, and, as already remarked, the introduction of friction is
not allowable in forming a purely dynamic analogue of the properties
of heat. Boltzmann assumes that when the bead is sliding outwards along
the spoke, the tension in the string is always slightly less than the centrifugal
_ force, and that when the bead is sliding inwards the tension is always slightly
greater than the centrifugal force; for otherwise (he says) the bead and
suspended weights would never start moving. Thus if p denote the ten-
_ sion in the string, we may put
r
p=mrw*—e,
where e always has the same sign as dr.
_ But the statements in italics are not true if the spoke is frictionless,
a. the equation of motion of the bead is
2
r 2
m= mre’ —p,
d?r
e=m—
dt?
lf the bead be allowed to slide outwards, starting at distance 7, and
stopping at distance 1., then d?r/dé? must be at first positive and afterwards
negative, for otherwise the outward velocity dr/dét would continually
ncrease. Hence e cannot always have the same sign as dr, and Boltz-
mann’s argument fails.
37. Boltzmann’s mechanical representation of a system in which dQ
as no integrating divisor consists of two parallel revolving vertical
Shafts, which we will call A, B, each similar to that described in § 35 and
figured in § 38, each provided with a horizontal revolving spoke, along
which a bead is capable of being made to slide. The motions of the
two shafts are connected together through the following mechanism :—
The motion of A is transmitted by means of bevelled cog-wheels to a
horizontal shaft C, carrying at its other end a rough dise G, which of
course revolves in a vertical plane. Attached to the vertical shaft B isa
1 Nature, vol. xxix. p. 113,
110 REPORT—1891.
horizontal disc H, the edge of which is in contact with the face of the disc
G. The motion of the horizontal shaft is transmitted to the vertical
shaft B by means of the friction at the point of contact of the two discs
G, H. The disc H is capable of being raised or lowered on the shaft B,
and in this way the ratio of the angular velocities of the two shafts A and
B can be varied. Lastly, the system is set in motion by turning a handle
attached to the shaft A.
Let m, » be the masses of the beads on the spokes attached to the
shafts A, B; let 7, p be their distances from the axes, w, w the angular
velocities of the shafts, a the adjustable height of the horizontal dise H
above the axis of the horizontal shaft C. Boltzmann assumes the dise H
to be of unit radius, and the radii of the bevelled cog-wheels connecting
A, C to be equal, so that the angular velocities of the shafts A, B are
connected by the relation
wo = aw.
Tf, with Boltzmann, we neglect the inertia of everything except the
sliding beads, and supposing that 7, p, a only vary very slowly, the
kinetic energy is evidently
T= 4 (inr?w? + po?w”) = + (mr? + pp?a?) w?.
The system has four generalised coordinates, namely, 7, p, a, and the
angular coordinate corresponding to the angular velocity w. The latter
is the only speed coordinate of the system, for the kinetic energy does
not involve the rates of change of the other coordinates.
Hence if we follow Helmholtz’s assumptions (i.), (ii.) of § 20, the
coordinates r, p, a must be regarded as controllable, and the system is
monocyclic. We have, in fact,
oT
=7 = (mr? + pp?a")w, T= 508,
and
dQ = wds = Td (2 log s),
so that T is an integrating divisor of dQ. ;
This result is quite at variance with that found by Boltzmann. The
reason is that he has not regarded 7, p, a as controllable, but has included
in dQ the work brought into the system through these coordinates.
This work properly belongs to —dW of equation (i.), § 2, and not to dQ.
In varying the height a there would, in the natural course of events,
be a loss of energy through friction, as the edge of the horizontal disc
H would have to slip up or down in contact with the face of the vertical
disc G. This slipping may be avoided by shifting the vertical shaft B
slightly to one side or the other of the vertical plane through the
horizontal shaft C. he friction between the rotating discs will then
cause H slowly to rise or fall (as the case may be) automatically and
without slipping.
This simple device obviates a difficulty which in Boltzmann’s original
paper requires several pages of explanation.
38. Simple Mechanical Model of Carnot’s Reversible Heat-Engine.—The
following model appears to be new. It may be of interest as furnishing
a mechanical representation of the properties of the source and
refrigerator of a perfect heat engine, although to do this it is necessary
a.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. lll
to take the angular velocity instead of the kinetic energy to represent
temperature. In this respect the model resembles the example (i.) given
in § 27, and the angular momentum takes the place of entropy.
As in Boltzmann’s models, I suppose the working substance repre-
sented by a hollow vertical revolving shaft C D, carrying a spoke on
which the mass HE is free to slide. This shaft is terminated by circular
dises C, D; while the source and refrigerator of the engine are repre-
sented by discs A, B, made to revolve with constant but unequal angular
velocities, ,, w,. The discs C and A or D and B may be rigidly con-
nected together only when their angular velocities are equal, just as, in
Carnot’s engine, the working substance and the source or refrigerator
are only placed in contact when their temperatures are equal.
The string S passes down the interior of the shaft, and, instead of
hanging down freely, it may be passed over a fixed pulley R, its pull
being adjusted in any convenient manner. A frictionless swivel I
prevents torsion accumulating in the string.
The four operations of Carnot’s cycle will now be represented as
follows :—
(i.) The angular velocity of the shaft C D being initially w., work is
done on the system by pulling out the string S (and thus bringing the
mass E nearer to the axis of rotation) until the angular velocity has been
increased to w,. Since the angular momentum meanwhile remains con-
stant, this operation is isentropic.
(ii.) The dises C and A may now be rigidly connected together, so
that during this operation the angular velocity must remain equal to ,,
A |, Ang, Vel.=o,
Ang. Vel. Variable
Ang. Vel.=,
the change being isothermal. The mass E is then allowed to slide
- further out, doing work on whatever contrivance maintains the pull in
_ the string.
(iii.) The discs C and A are disconnected, and, the angular momentum
remaining constant, the mass H is allowed to slide still further out, again
doing work by means of the string. This operation must continue until
the angular velocity is reduced to wy.
(iv.) The dises D and B are now rigidly connected, and work is done
on the system by pulling out the string until the mass E has regained its
original distance from the axis of rotation.
he cycle is now complete, and is obviously reversible. If Q, is the
112 REPORT—1891.
energy acquired by the system from A, and Q, the energy given out to B,
it is easy enough to show that :
Oye toa, ee
@) Wo
corresponding to the well-known thermodynamic equation. At the
same time the external work performed by the string is Q;—Qp.
If s; and s, be the angular momenta of the shaft and spoke during
the operations (i.) and (iil.) respectively, either member of (71) is equal
to 85 — 8).
if ino discs were brought into contact when their angular velocities
were unequal, there would be a loss of energy by friction, so that the
analogy with an irreversible cycle would not be complete.
Section III. Statistical Hypotheses.
39. The investigations now to be considered depend on the existence
of a certain law of average distribution of speed, which holds whenever
an enormously large number of molecules is in a state of steady or
stationary motion. This remark applies to the Kinetic Theory of Gases,
and the methods are only applicable when the nature of the molecules is
such that the law of distribution in question is capable of investigation.
Among the more recent researches bearing on the subject may be
particularly mentioned Professor Tait’s papers ‘ On the Foundations of
the Kinetic Theory of Gases,’ ! Dr. Boltzmann’s papers on the ‘ Analogies
of the Second Law’? and on the ‘ Properties of Monocyclic and other
Related Systems,’ * and Sir William Thomson’s recent communication to
the Royal Society ‘On some Test Cases for the Maxwell-Boltzmann Doc-
trine regarding Distribution of Energy.’ 4
40. The Boltzmann-Maawell Doctrine. The law of distribution of speed
is variously known as Boltzmann’s Theorem and Clerk Maxwell’s Theorem,
being due in part to one writer and in part to the other. It seems to
have been first discovered by Clerk Maxwell for the case of a number of
perfectly elastic smooth colliding spheres of two or more different
magnitudes, or, if preferred, a number of simple particles which repel
one another when at a certain distance apart, after the manner of
perfectly elastic spheres.” The theorem was subsequently generalised
by Boltzmann ® for the case of a system of particles repelling one another
according to any law, and was finally generalised still further by Max-
well’ for a number of molecules, each consisting of a dynamical system
1 Trans. R.S. Edinburgh, 1886-91.
2 «Analogien des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik,’ Crelle, Jowrnal, c.
p. 213.
3 ‘Ueber die Higenschaften monocyclischer und anderer damit verwandter
Systeme,’ Crelle, Journal, xcviii. p. 68.
+ Nature, August 13, 1891.
5 «On the Collisions of Elastic Spheres,’ Phil. Mag. 1860; ‘On the Dynamical
Theory of Gases,’ Phil. Trans. R.S. May 1866.
6 «Ueber die mech. Bedeut. des 2" Haupts d. mech. Wirmelehre,’ Wiener
Sitzb. Bd. 53, pp. 195-220. ‘Studien tiber das Gleichgew. d. leb. Kraft zwischen
beweg. mater. Punkten,’ thidem, Bd. 58 (1868). ‘Ueber das Gleichgew. zwischen
mehratom. Gasmolekilen’; ‘ Analyt. Beweis des 2'* Haupts d. mech. Wirmetheorie
aus d, Siatzen fiir den Gleichgew. d. leb. Kraft’; ‘EHinige allgem. Sitze itiber
Wiarmegleichgewicht,’ Wiener Sitzb. Mathem. Naturw. Klasse, Band 63.
7 ¢On Boltzmann’s Theorem,’ &c., Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. 1878.
.
ps ‘ :
ty ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 113
defined by means of any generalised coordinates whatever. The case
when the molecules are in a field of frce due to external influence while
the only intermolecular forces are those due to impact is considered by
Dr. Watson in his ‘ Kinetic Theory of Gases.’
Clerk Maxwell’s theorem in its most general form states that when
_asystem of molecules has attained the ‘special’ or stationary state the
_ time-average of the kinetic energy is equally distributed over the different
a degrees of freedom of the system.
It now remains to examine how far the successive generalisations
_ have since been proved or disproved; accordingly we shall consider them
in the following order : —
(i.) Colliding elastic spheres under no forces.
(ii.) Colliding elastic spheres in a field of force.
{iii.) Simple particles or smooth spheres under molecular forces.
(iv.) Molecules of a perfectly general character.
41. The first case, that of colliding spheres under no forces, has
been considered by Tait in his important papers ‘On the Foundations of
the Kinetic Theory of Gases.’! Tait finds that the theorem does hold
good provided that the following assumptions be made :—
(a) That the particles of the two gases are thoroughly mixed.
(b) That the particles of each gas acquire the error-law of speed.
(c) That there are free collisions between particles of the same
as well as of different kinds, and that one kind does not preponderate
_ overwhelmingly over the other.
42. The second case also has been verified by Tait in the same con-
tribution. He considers the case in which the field of force is uniform,
like that due to gravity. A limitation is thus imposed on the generality
of the proof, for the investigation does not hold good when the external
force varies so rapidly from point to point that the change from molecule
to molecule is appreciable. On the contrary, it must be possible to
divide up the mass of gas into elements which are so small that the
force over any such element may be considered uniform, and never-
theless each element must contain such a large number of molecules that
the distribution of energy in it can be investigated by Tait’s method.
_ This limitation is not assumed in the proof given by Watson,” but it
seems doubtful whether the theorem is valid except under some such
restriction. One of the ‘ test cases’ considered by Sir William Thomson
im his recent paper* may possibly throw some light on this question;
T refer to the case of a system of particles moving in two dimensions in a
field of force whose potential is of the form
V=} (07a? + B?y? + cxy?).
_ Thomson concludes that the portions of average kinetic energy due
to the two velocity components # and y are probably not in general equal
to one another. The author considers a system in which no collisions
occur. The existence of collisions would, of course, materially affect the
1 Trams. R.S.E., vol. xxxiii. part 1 (1886), p. 77.
? Kinetic Theory of Gases, Prop. IV.
oa to the Royal Society, June 11, 1891, Nature, August 13, 1891, § 13.
1
Lia REPORT—1891.
distribution of energy between the two velocity components of the par-
ticles, and it seems reasonable to draw the following inferences regarding
the more general case :—
(i.) If the molecules are very few and far between, impacts will
seldom occur, and the distribution will approximate to what it would be
if there were no impacts, as in the case considered by Thomson.
(ii.) If the molecules are densely distributed, impacts will be nume-
rous, so that the distribution of speed will depend mainly on these impacts,
and will approximate to that investigated by Tait for a uniform field.
(iii.) In intermediate cases the distribution of speed will be deter-
mined partly by the impacts and partly by the variations in the field. It
will, therefore, be intermediate between those investigated by the method
of Thomson and that of Tait. A complete investigation of such a case
would probably be one of great difficulty.
43. The third case—namely, that in which the intermolecular forces
are other than those due to impaet—presents a new feature of difficulty :
it now becomes necessary to take account of the possibility that three
or more particles may be simultaneously within mutual influence of one
another ; for the probability of this is no longer infinitely small, as it is in
the case of simple impacts.
In his recent paper already alluded to, Thomson considers this point,
more especially with reference to a system composed of double molecules
or ‘doublets.’ A compound gas is an example of such a system. Here a
complete collision may consist of a large number of impacts, and the
author remarks that ‘it seems exceedingly difficult to find how to cal-
culate true statistics of these chattering collisions and arrive at sound
conclusions as to the ultimate distribution of energy in any of the very
simplest cases other than Maxwell’s original case of 1860.’ *
It seems, however, unnecessary to consider multiple collisions if either
of the following conditions is satisfied: —
(a) If the range of molecular action lies between narrow limits, so
that the collision is approximately of the nature of a simple impact.
(b) If the intermolecular force only acts when the particles are at a
considerable distance apart. The ‘radius of encounter,’ as it may be
called, being thus very great, we may safely assume that the aggregate
effect on any molecule of such a system of distant molecules is:constant,
and therefore equivalent to that of a field of external force. Unfor-
tunately, however, this case is of little interest.
A difficulty of a different kind has been indicated by Tait ?—
namely, that of giving a satisfactory answer to the question, ‘ What is to
be taken as the measure of the temperature?’ According to the views
of Clausius, Van der Waals, and others, the whole average kinetic energy
per molecule measures the temperature; but Tait gives reasons for be-
lieving that the temperature depends on the mean square speed of the
free paths of the molecules, and is therefore measured by the value of
the average kinetic energy when (with the same mean square speed of
free path) the volume is infinite. In other words, Tait supposes the
temperature measured by the average kinetic energy per free molecule.
If the mean square speed be kept constant, the whole kinetic energy will
vary with the volume of the gas, and thus on the hypothesis of Clausius
1 Nature, August 13, 1891, § 8.
2 ¢On the Virial Equation for Molecular Forces, being Part 1V. of a paper on the
Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases,’ Proc. R.S.L. 1890.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 115
the temperature would vary instead of, as it should, remaining constant.
Moreover, in the case of a liquid in contact with its vapour at the same
_ temperature, the whole kinetic energy per molecule should be equal in
_ the two portions, and this again appears improbable.
44. The last and most general case of all is that investigated by
Maxwell in 1878,' where the molecules consist of dynamical systems
determined by means of generalised coordinates. It has now been
_ proved beyond doubt that the theorem is not valid in this general form.
As a test case, Burnside” has considered a system of colliding elastic
spheres, in which the centre of mass does not coincide with the centre
of figure, but is at a small distance, c, from it. He finds that the average
energies of rotation of any sphere about each of the three principal axes
through the centre of inertia are equal, and that the whole average
energy of rotation is twice the whole average energy of translation. Had
- Maxwell’s theorem been true, the whole average energies of rotation and
translation would have been equal.
___ _Maxwell’s proof is defective in several respects. One of the chief
fallacies lies in his assumption that the kinetic energy of a dynamical
system can always be expressed as a sum of squares of generalised
velocity components. At the same time, he assumes that the Lagrangian
_ or Hamiltonian equations of motion can be applied to the corresponding
_ generalised coordinates of the system. This is not in general true;
thus, for example, it is not true in the simple case of a single rigid
body. Here the kinetic energy due to rotation can be expressed as
a sum of squares of the angular velocities about the three principal axes,
but these angular velocities are not the rates of change of generalised
coordinates which determine the position of the body at any instant.
Thus the want of agreement between Maxwell’s theorem and Barnside’s
result is only what might have been expected.
_ Im the paper already referred to Thomson says, ‘But, conceding
-Maxwell’s fundamental assumption, I do not see in the mathematical
Workings of his paper any proof of his conclusion “that the average
‘Kinetic energy corresponding to any one of the variables is the same for
every one of the variables of the system.” Indeed, as a general pro-
position, its meaning is not explained, and seems to me inexplicable.
The reduction of the kinetic energy to a sum of squares leaves the
several parts of the whole with no correspondence to any defined or
definable set of independent variables. What, for example, can the
meaning of the conclusion be for the case of a jointed pendulum (a
System of two rigid bodies, one supported on a fixed horizontal axis, and
he other on a parallel axis fixed relatively to the first body, and both
ected on only by gravity) ? The conclusion is quite intelligible, however
(but is it true ?), when the kinetic energy is expressible as a sum of
squares of rates of change of single coordinates each multiplied by a
function of all, or of some, of the coordinates.’ 4
_ 45. Many physicists have objected to the Boltzmann-Maxwell
theorem on account of ‘the supposition that the mean energy of any
_ Kind of vibration in any atom must be equal to that of translation in any
} Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. 1878.
* ‘On the Partition of Energy between the Translatcry and Rotatory Motions of a
Set of non-homogeneous Elastic Spheres,’ 7yans. R.S F. vol, xxiii, Part II.
* Compare Routh, Rigid Dynamics, vol. i. § 406, Ex. 1,
* Nature, August 13, 1891, § 10.
iT
Li
116 REPORT—1891.
direction, aud therefore capable of unlimited increase.’' According to
Thomson, however,? ‘what has hitherto by Maxwell, and Clausius, and
others after them, been called an “elastic sphere”’ is not an elastic solid
capable of rotation and of elastic deformation, and therefore capable of an
infinite number of modes of steady vibration, of finer and finer degrees of
nodal subdivision, and shorter and shorter periods, into which all trans-
lational energy would, if the Boltzmann-Maxwell generalised proposition
were true, be ultimately transformed. The smooth “elastic spheres”’
are really Boscovich point-atoms with their translational inertia, and with
for law of force zero force at every distance between two points exceeding
the sum of the radii of the two balls, and infinite repulsion at exactly
this distance.’
It may also be observed that a sphere in which vibratory energy is
set up on impact cannot be regarded as a ‘perfectly elastic sphere’ with
coefficient of restitution equal to unity. The necessity of adopting Thom-
son’s representation by Boscovich point-atoms is otherwise apparent
when we remember that as long as the portions of matter with which we
are dealing are capable of subdivision, so long will the energy contained
in them be capable of subdivision. Unless, therefore, we suppose each
molecule to consist of one or a finite number of indivisible atoms, it
would be unreasonable to expect that heat would entirely take the form
of atomic motion.
46. Applications to the Second Law.—The simplest proof of the Second
Law of Thermodynamics based on the hypothesis of the Boltzmann-
Maxwell law of distribution of speed is that due to Mr. 8. H. Barbury.?
The proof is too well known to need description here. - It leads to the
same form for the entropy as Boltzmann’s original investigation for
the case of a system of point-atoms.4. Although Watson and Burbury
take the temperature as represented by the average kinetic energy of
translation of the molecules, the fact that the average energy is assumed
to be distributed equally among the coordinates shows that the proof
would be equally valid if the whole average kinetic energy were taken to
represent the temperature. Hence the proposition (when valid) does not
afford any evidence as to what part of the molecular energy plays the
part of temperature. \
Another proof has been given by R. C. Nichols,® and is based on the
virial equation of Clausius,
pr=3(2— SSR).
Here T is the total mean vis viva of the system, so that if Nichols’ proof
be valid, it does not seem possible to reconcile the views of Tait (§ 43)
regarding the nature of temperature with the definition afforded by the
Second Law.
A general proof of the Second Law, based on Maxwell’s generalisation
of Boltzmann’s theorem, has been given by Boltzmann in 1885. The
1 Prof. W. M. Hicks, B.A. Report, 1885.
* Nature, August 13, 1891, § 3. Ihave slightly rearranged the original wording,
so as to make the sentence more intelligible.
® Phil. Mag. January 1876, p. 61; Watson's Kinetic Theory of Gases, Prop. XIII.
‘ ‘ Analyt. Beweis des 2'*" Haupts,’ Wien. Sitzb. Bd. 63, II. Abth.
beac the Proof of the Second Law of Thermodynamics,’ Phil. Mag. 1876 (1),
p- dod.
6 Crelle, Journal, c. p. 213.
,
;
-
:
:
:
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. Ba Wy)
author employs the method of reduction to sums of squares and subse-
quent use of Lagrange’s equations—in short, most of the steps that are
erroneous in Maxwell’s work; the proof is therefore invalid except in
certain special cases. One result is, however, interesting ; for the case of
a system whose configuration is determined by a single coordinate, and
whose period of oscillation is ¢, Boltzmann finds
SPST lor ICTY, oiyeclin Sy Vows d ». 6CF2
thus giving for the entropy the expression found by Clausius, and
described in the first section of this Report (§ 12, equation (14) ).
47. Statistical Construction of Monocyclic Systems.—A very interest-
ing and suggestive paper has been published by Boltzmann,! who has
shown how systems possessing monocyclic properties can be built up by
combining a large number of systems which are similar to one another,
_ but not individually monocyclic. This is the paper to which reference
has been made in § 37.
A single particle moving in an elliptic orbit about a centre of force in
the focus is not monocyclic in itself, but a monocyclic system may be
built up by taking a very large number of such particles, thus forming a
stream or a kind of Saturn’s ring, whose density at any point of the
orbit is independent of the time. Here, if the attraction at distance 7 be
a/r?, Boltzmann finds
a2
dQ=Td log —
T
where eee rence
Shor ah T!"
Moreover, if y is the total flux across any section up to the time /, and
m the mass of the ring, we have
gears
J 2m dt.
and, therefore, fqgdt may be taken as a generalised coordinate of the
system.
Another example is afforded by a stream of particles of total mass m
performing rectilinear oscillations under a conservative system of forces.
In this case Boltzmann finds
dQ=2Td log, iT. t : : i a3)
which agrees with Clausius’ result (equations 14, 72). Here we may
take for the generalised velocity and momentum of the system respec-
tively,
q=m/i, s=2T /q=2iT /m. . . (74)
A particular case is that of a stream of particles reflected backwards
and forwards between two fixed perfectly elastic parallel walls at a dis-
tance a apart. If }m is the mass of the stream going in either direction,
v the velocity, and H the kinetic potential, we have
d
dQ=mvdv + mv = ais : : 3 w/ ad))
1 Crelle, Journal, xcviii. p. 68.
118 REPORT—1891.
where :
29? Jel 4a?
pre ey ma ME gE dele
and —0H/0da is the pressure on either wall.
This system is strictly monocyclic.
Boltzmann modifies this example slightly by considering the case of a
mass m formed of minute particles contained in a rectangular box, whose
sides are a, b, c, the directions of motion being parallel to the face (ab)
and inclined to the edges a at an angle=D. Taking a, b, and v as
variable, we have
3 1 db
-H=T=",,, dQ=mvdo +m? (sin? D “= + cos? D +) (re)
and to put the last equation into Helmholtz’s form we must assume
v oH
q= jsin"Dpcos*D’ s= — og ° Cl . (78)
But the kinetic energy is no longer an integrating divisor of dQ if we
suppose the angle D variable. It is not hard to explain why this case
differs from the others considered by Boltzmann. The angle D cannot
be considered as a controllable coordinate of the system, for it can only
be varied by acting on all the molecules individually. Moreover, it is
not a speed-coordinate, so that Helmholtz’s methods are no longer applic-
able. The effect of slightly rotating the box would be not merely to
produce an alteration in the angle of incidence D, but to alter the charac-
ter of the motion entirely, for the particles which are about to impinge
on the face ac would be differently affected from those about to impinge
on the face be.
Boltzmann follows up these simple examples by a perfectly general
investigation based on Maxwell’s theorem, from which it appears that
any system which conforms to the Boltzmann-Maxwell doctrine possesses
monocyclic properties analogous to those found by Helmholtz. The
results obtained by Boltzmann do not hold good, except in the particular
cases when Maxwell’s theorem is valid. Two cases are considered—
that in which all coordinates of the system are independent, and that
in which certain coordinates are connected by invariable relations. The
arguments employed by Boltzmann in discussing the latter case appear
wanting in rigour, thus rendering the result liable to further objections.
The remainder of the paper is chiefly taken up with a discussion of the
models referred to in our second section.
48. Application of Statistical Methods to Irreversible Phenomena.—In a
recent note! Mr. HK. P. Culverwell has called attention to the principal
difficulties attending the explanation of irreversibility on the hypotheses
of the kinetic theory of gases. The general purport of his remarks may
be summarised as follows :-—
(i.) Although the distribution of energy when a gas has assumed the
Boltzmann configuration (or, as Tait calls it, the ‘special state’) has
been investigated, it has never been proved that a gas does actually tend
towards this ‘special state.’
1 «Note on Boltzmann’s Kinetic Theory of Gases, and on Sir W. Thomson’s
Address to Section A (1884),’ Phil. Mag. 1890, vol. xxx. p. 95.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 119
(ii.) Such a tendency cannot be independent of the law of force
between the molecules, for if we take the case of a system of particles
attracting one another with forces varying directly as the distance, the
motion will be strictly periodic, and there will be no tendency towards
equalisation of energy.
(iii.) The tendency cannot be independent of initial circumstances, for
if the motion of every point were reversed we should have a configura-
tion which would tend further and further away from the ‘ special state.’
(iv.) It therefore appears probable that in estimating the tendency to
equalisation of energy among the molecules, account must be taken of
the effects of the luminiferous ether. The molecules cannot be considered
as forming a complete dynamical system in themselves. It seems, then,
impossible to overcome the difficulties of the kinetic theory ; all that can
be done is to shift these difficulties from the molecules on to the ether,
and they then reappear in another form.
We will now examine how far these difficulties have been met by the
researches of those who take a less gloomy view of the question.
It is no doubt impossible, from the inherent difficulty of the problem,
to investigate any general property of non-reversible processes in a body
composed of an infinitely large number of molecules ; for, when even the
‘Problem of Three Bodies’ has not been fully solved, how can we expect
to fully solve the problem of an infinite number of bodies P
But without doing this it is possible to investigate certain irreversible
phenomena by the methods of the kinetic theory, and thus to account
for the degradation of available energy under circumstances in which the
problem is soluble.
49. Thus Tait! has worked out the rate of equalisation of average
energy in a mixture of two kinds of spheres. He has, moreover, applied
_ his formule to the case of a mixture of equal parts of oxygen and nitrogen
on the supposition that the aggregate masses are equal, that the number
of molecules per cubic inch=2 x10, and that the sum of the radii of
the molecules=3 x10-° of an inch. He finds that the difference of the
_ average energies of the two systems of molecules will fall to -01 of its
original value in 4x10-* of a second. This result surely affords very
strong evidence in favour of a general tendency towards the ‘special
state.’
Moreover, the kinetic theory has been applied to explain the phe-
nomena of heat-conduction, viscosity, diffusion of a mixture of gases,
and other irreversible processes. These have all been worked out by
Tait in the same series of papers. One very great merit of his work is
that he has in every instance clearly set forth the assumptions on which
his proofs are based. The investigations are, therefore, not liable to
objection, as is so often the case with the work of writers who have
_ implicitly made similar assumptions without explicitly stating them.
_ With regard to the second ‘point, Sir W. Thomson has pointed out?
that the law of the direct distance possesses unique properties distinct
from those of any other law. It is, in fact, the only law of force under
which the whole motion is strictly periodic and the equations of motion
are completely integrable—a fact sufficiently well known to mannufac-
turers of Senate House problems. But as there is still some uncertainty
1 On the Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Gases,’ Zrans. R.S.L. 1886,
Section V.
2 On Some Test Cases, &c. § 10.
120 REPORT—1891, |
respecting the permanent distribution of energy in a system of material
points under intermolecular forces, it would be premature to form con-
clusions regarding the tendency towards the equalisation of energy, except
in those cases where the only reactions between the points are those due
to impact.
50. If we regard the whole matter as one of probabilities, the argu-
ment derived from reversing the system may be met without an appeal
to the luminiferous wether. Although a conservative dynamical system
is always reversible, the reversed motion may not unfrequently be
dynamically unstable in the highest degree. One of the best illustrations
in point is afforded by the impossibility of riding a bicycle backwards
(i.e. with the steering wheel behind); here the forward motion is stable,
but the reversed motion is highly unstable.
Take, then, a system of material points or colliding spheres all tend-
ing towards the ‘ special state.’ If the motion is slightly disturbed they
will still tend towards the ‘special state,’ and the effect of the disturb-
ance in modifying the character of the motion will diminish without
limit. But if we suppose at any stage of the process that the motion
of every point is exactly reversed, then the difference between the dis-
turbed and undisturbed reversed motions will increase without limit, and
the disturbed reversed motion will tend towards a very different state from
that from which we started. In a very short time we shall have entirely
different series of collisions taking place in the disturbed and undisturbed
reversed motions. When, therefore, we consider the immense number of
molecules present in any body of finite size, it is not hard to understand
that the probability of the energy tending towards an unequal distribu-
tion is infinitesimally small, for just the same reason that if any two
different substances in a minute state of subdivision have become
thoroughly mixed it is impossible to separate them again by simply
stirring them up. There is nothing inconceivable about such a separa-
tion, but the chances are so overwhelmingly against it that we may with
absolute certainty declare the separation impossible. In this manner
there is no difficulty in understanding how on statistical grounds alone
we may be able to state with absolute certainty that ‘heat cannot pass of
itself from a cold body to a hot body.’ ;
Of course evidence of this kind is speculative, and, moreover, only
affords a possible explanation, and not a proof, of the principle of
degradation of energy.
But, as it has been necessary to suppose space furnished throughout
with an zther in order to account for electrical and optical phenomena,
allowance must be made for the fact that this ether will in all probability
play a prominent part in thermal phenomena, more especially as it is the
medium by which radiant heat is propagated. The great velocity of
light shows that the zther can have but a very small capacity for radiant
energy, and, therefore, that its presence will not materially affect the
results of investigations relating to reversible thermodynamic processes,
while it will certainly facilitate the dissipation of energy. It must not,
however, be thought that researches relating to heat are worthless be-
cause they do not take account of the ether; for do not such researches
fulfil what should be the highest object of scientific enquiry—namely, of
helping us to ‘judge the unknown from the known’ ?
Ee EE ————
— SE
——
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 121
Conclusion.
51. Although many of the researches mentioned in this report are not
unfrequently called dynamical proofs of the Second Law, yet to prove
the Second Law, about which we know something, by means of mole-
cules, about which we know much less, would not be in consonance with
the sentiments expressed at the end of the last paragraph. The most
conclusive evidence for regarding Carnot’s principle as a theorem in mole-
cular dynamics lies in the remarkable agreement between the results
obtained by the methods described in the three different sections of this
report, all of which are based on different fundamental hypotheses. It
is worthy of note that the method of Clausius alone is independent of
any assumptions regarding the nature of the intermolecular forces.
It has been proved, on each of the various hypotheses, that when a
system of molecules undergoes transformations analogous to reversible
processes in thermodynamics the molecular kinetic energy T is an inte-
grating divisor of the work dQ communicated to the system through the
molecular coordinates. Thus any quantity proportioned to T satisfies
the definition of temperature afforded by (2), § 2. The evidence that
such a quantity possesses the properties mentioned in § 3 is far less
conclusive. These properties have never been investigated by the
methods of the first section, while, if the statistical method be adopted,
the evidence is confined to the very limited cases in which Maxwell’s
theorem is valid. The methods of the kinetic theory of gases do not
afford a direct proof of any relation between the molecular kinetic
energies of two substances which are in thermal contact, but which do
not mingle.
In the volume already alluded to in this Report, Prof. J. J. Thomson
claims to have deduced certain thermal properties of matter from the
generalised equations of dynamics without the use of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, and he further claims that the results thus obtained
afford evidence of the connection between the Second Law and the
Hamiltonian principle. It would seem, however, that the novelty of this
point of view is not fundamentally very great, for the molecular assump-
tions involved in the proofs are identical with those required in order to
deduce the Second Law from dynamical principles. And, moreover,
properties of temperature are assumed which, as we have just seen,
have not hitherto been satisfactorily deduced from dynamical principles.
Tf, on the other hand, we decide, for the present at any rate, to regard
-Carnot’s Principle (like Newton’s Laws of Motion) as an axiom based
on experience, the researches which we have considered show how this
_ principle may be reduced to a theorem in molecular dynamics by making
suitable assumptions as to the nature and motion of molecules. In this
way the reversible thermal properties of matter may be represented by
means of monocyclic or other dynamical systems, and the fundamental
equations of thermodynamics may be replaced by particular cases of the
ordinary dynamical equations. This is the point of view adopted by
Helmholtz in his valuable paper on the physical meaning of the Principle
of Least Action.!
In conclusion we may reasonably hope that future researches in the
domain of molecular science will still further strengthen the bond of
1 Crelle, Journal, c.
122 REPORT—1891.
connection which we suppose to exist between the Second Law of Thermo-
dynamics and Newton’s Laws of Motion.
My thanks are due to Mr. Larmor for references to many important
papers on the present subject and to Mr. C. V. Burton for his most
invaluable assistance in revising both the manuscript and proofs and in
furnishing many useful suggestions.
Siath Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors FirzGERALD
(Chairman), ArMmsTRONG, and O. J. LopGe (Secretaries), Sir
Wituram THomson, Lord Ray eicH, J. J. THomson, SCHUSTER,
PoyntinG, CkuM Brown, RAMSAY, FRANKLAND, TILDEN, HARTLEY,
S. P. THompson, McLEop, Roperts-AusTeN, Ricker, REINOLD,
CarEY Foster, and H. B. Dixon, Captain ABNEY, Drs. GLap-
STONE, HopKINson, and FLEMING, and Messrs. CROOKES, SHELFORD
BIDWELL, W. N. SHaw, J. Larmor, J. T. Bortomuey, R. T.
GLAZEBROOK, J. Brown, and Joun M. THomson, appointed for
the purpose of considering the subject of Electrolysis in its
Physical and Chemical Bearings.
Dorine the past year the completed portion of Mr. Shaw’s report on our
knowledge of electrolysis has been printed and circulated among the
members, and has appeared in the annual volume of the Association. So
also has the report of the discussion with Professors van t’Hoff and
Ostwald and others at Leeds, which was edited by Professor Thorpe.
Papers received from Mr. J. Brown on the subject of the electrification
of the spray thrown up from a vessel in which chemical reaction with
effervescence was occurring, to which attention has been directed by Mr.
Enright, and on the electrolysis of solutions of the chlorides of iodine
and bromine, were communicated to the ‘Philosophical Magazine.’
The valuable theoretical and experimental work of Professor J. J.
Thomson, which has been described in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ and
in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ on the discharge of electricity
through vacuum tubes, has a distinct electrolytic significance ; and some
researches of Mr. A. P. Chattock on the discharge of electricity from
points, which are to be described at the present meeting, are tending
in very much the same direction; and showing that all convective
passage of electricity, whether in liquids or gases or in partial vacua, are
essentially electrolytic, taking place probably by means of a series of
Grotthuss chains, and with atomic charges of the same order of magnitude
as those concerned in electrolysis proper.
Other interesting work is going on, and a document entailing a great
amount of labour which has been drawn up by the Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick,
one of the members of the Committee on Electrical Standards, is nearly
complete ; it will be published next year.
The Committee suggest that they should be reappointed, and with a
grant of 51. to cover printing and postage.
a
CO ——
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN.
133
Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir WiLL1AM
THomson, Mr. R. ETHERIDGE, Professor JoHN PERRY, Dr. HENRY
“Woopwarb, Professor THOMAS GRAY, and Professor JoHN MILNE
i (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the
standard instrument.
Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan.
by the Secretary.)
Tue Gray-Minne SEISMOGRAPH.
(Drawn up
Tue first of the above seismographs, constructed in 1883, partly at
the expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the
The earthquakes which it has recorded since
April 27 of last year are given in the following list.
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Meteorological Observatory, Tokio, between
May 1, 1890, and April 30, 1891, by the Gray-Milne Seismograph.
Horizontal Vertical
motion motion
No. Month | Date Time Duration Direction
secs. | mm. | secs. | mm.
1890.
H. M. S. M.S. |
1,026 Vie 1 3 56 25 A.M. — — slight _ —
1,027 7 + 8 38 50 a.m. _— — slight — a
1,028 5 “F 7 40 10 p.m _ _— very slight — —
1,029 = os 9 59 21 P.M. —_ _ slight — —
1,030 C 4 2 29 17 P.M. 1 45 S-N. 14 0:2 — _
1,031 5 7 10 4 38 a.m. 0 20 E-W. slight — _—
1,032 a 8 8 35 56 A.M. 1,0 S.W.-N.E -- —
1,033 > 10 6 49 23 A.M. 0 10 E-W. slight —_— —_—
1,034 55 15 236 9PM 5 30 N.W.-S.E. 22 0-9 — —
1,035 Fs 21 0 9 54 PM © 35 E-W. Or4 0-2 = _—
1,036 24 1 39 33 P.M 1 30 N.W.-S.E 0°5 03 _— _
1,037 n 25 8 54 45 A.M. _ — slight —_— —
1,038 a 27 6 49 40 P.M. —_ — slight — _—
1,039 9 31 8 42 25 P.M — —_ slight — —
1,040 Nis 7 11 29 53 A.M. _ —_— slight — =
1,041 a 15 4 30 15 Pm. 0 12 E.-W. slight — _—
1,042 oF 18 1 45 22 P.M. 3 0 N.W.-S.E. 13 0-6 slight
1,043 “A 26 9 313 4.M. _ — slight — —
1,044 a 28 5 10 40 a.m. 0 50 S.E.-N.W. 07 07 — _
1,045 Vil. 2 215 9AM. —_— — slight _ —_
1,046 a 3 11 5 55 PM. — = very slight — —
1,047 . 8 2 50 30 P.M, 0 20 N.E.-S.W. 0-9 0:3 — —
1,048 a 9 953 1 P.M 10 W.N.W.-ES.E. | 1°5 0°3 — —
1,049 a 11 951 54M — — very slight — —
1,050 ma 14 410 49 pM. 0 50 S.-N. slight — =
| 1,051 rf 16 8 15 51 PM. 0 20 E-W. 03 03 — —
1,052 4 18 0 35 46 a.M. 0 10 E-W. slight _— —
1,053 Ps 19 418 50 pM. 0 50 W.N.W.-E.S.E. | 0°4 0°2 sli/eht
1,054 = 20 915 45 P.M, — _— very slight — =
1,055 as 26 3 51 13 a.m. — _— slight — —
— 1,056 5 28 2 57 25 P.M. _ — very slight _ _
1,057 VIII. 2 11 6 35 P.M. 1 8 S.-N. 1:2 0°2 _ _
1,058 r 4 9 38 14 A.M. — — very slight | — _
* 1,059 ae 5 1 46 21 P.M. 214 S.E.-N.W. 15 0°3 _ _
1,060 ae 7 7 2713 am — _ very slight _ _
1,061 ay 11 1 43 45 Pm _ _ slight — _—
1,062 ‘a 21 6 516 PM. — _ very slight _ —
1,063 =F 29 11 34 31 a.m. — — very slight _ —
1,064 Ix. 5 7 57:19 P.M. 3 0 S.-N. 24° «08 et
1,065 vy 6 011 55 a.m. 1 40 S.S.W.-N.N.E, | 1°0 0°6 _ —
1,066 24 17 6 20 57 P.M. 0 55 S.W.-N.E. 06 0-2 - —
1,067 nS 80 7 24 54 PM. 2 0 S.-N. 10 0-2 _ _
124 REPORT— 1891.
CATALOGUE OF EARTHQUAKES—continucd.
| Horizontal Vertical
| motion motion
No. Month | Date Time | Duration Direction ar
| secs. | mm. | secs, | mm,
H. M. S. M. S. |
1,068 Xx. 6 4 36 50 P.M. 2 45 E.N.E.-W.S.W. | 1°4 0-7 — =
1,069 es 10 9 33 30 A.M. _ SN. very slight — —
1,070 Fr 12 9 45 30 A.M. — S.-N. very slight — —
1,071 ss 16 4 5 474M. 0 30 — | slight — —
1,072 = 17 8 38 18 P.M. 0 36 E-W. | slight — =
1,073 eS 19 2 33 45 P.M. 0 30 E-W. 0-2 0:3 = =
1,074 ar 19 8 34 14 P.M. — ~- very slight — —
1,075 + 29 10 36 51 P.M. 0 15 E.-W slight — =
1,076 XI. 2 9 30 30 A.M. ~- _— slight — —
1,077 + 5 0 44 29 a.m. 0 30 E.-W. slight _ —
1,078 + 14 22117 a.m. ie x6 S.E.-N.W. 06 08 — —
1,079 as 16 5) 8) 6 Pim. 0 30 E.-W. slight — —
1,080 a 17 9 31 38 a.m. 0 50 E.-W. slight = =
1,081 4 22 10 50 31 P.M. _ — very slight — —
1,082 - 25 7 1 OPM. iw) S.W.-N.E. 0:2 02 — =
1,083 AS 27 0 24 39 A.M. 0 15 S.B-N.W. slight _— —
1,084 A 27 7 33 48 P.M. — — very slight —_ —
1,085 “s 29 7 30 40 P.M. _ _— feeble _— --
1,086 XII, ll 5 34 53 P.M. 0 30 S.E.-N.W. 03 0-2 — =
1,087 e 24 | 7 22 27 AM. _ — very slight — —
1891.
1,088 15 29 6 20 30 P.M. _— _ | very slight = =
1,089 II. 13 6 30 OAM. 2 50 S.S.E.-N.N.W. | 1:4 05 | slight
1,090 5 13 6 56 20 a.m. 2 0 S.S.E.-N.N.W. | I'l 05 | — —
1,091 ee 14 10 10 34 A.M. 115 E.S.E-W.N.W. | 0°2 04 — —
1,092 Ay 20 217 16 PM. =— — | slight — —
1,093 Il. 1 417 43 PM. 2 20 S.W-N.E. | 03 5 03 03
1,094 5 2 7:17 40 aM. — _ slight ; — _
1,095 5 20 8 39 38 a.m. == E.-W slight — —
1,096 a 24 10 22 31 Pim. = | — | slight — —
1,097 a 25 511 Oa. tO E-W. | 06 0:3 = os
1,098 x 28 328 7 P.M. — —_ very slight — —
1,099 IV. 6 4 810 PM. — | = slight Soe
1,100 » 7 9 49 46 4.M. 6 0 | SS.W.-N.N.E. | 1:5 0°8 sli ght
1,101 “9 15 2 59 16 pM. 010 E.-W. slight — —
1,102 A 18 0 5 6 PM. — — very slight os os
1,103 . 21 10 49 7 a.m. 3 0 | W.N.W.-E.S.E, | 1:1 19 sli ght
1,104 - 28 10 24 23 Pm. = — slight i =
1,105 a 30 11 54 34.M. — — very slight | — fle
In the above list eighty earthquakes are recorded, a number com-
parable with the number of disturbances recorded in previous years.
The intensity of these disturbances has, however, been unusually feeble,
and without the aid of instruments it is likely that not more than thirty
of them would have been noted. Although one earthquake lasted six
minutes, the duration has generally been small, whilst oniy on one occa-
sion did the full range of motion exceed one millimetre.
Notwithstanding the fact that the list of records is as extensive as in
previous years, the opportunities for many kinds of observation have
been unusually sma]l—so small, in fact, that it is thought better to with-
hold the results of a certain class of experiments until they have been
amplified by the observations of another year.
OBSERVATIONS IN A Pir,
In the ‘ Transactions of the Seismological Society,’ Vol. X., the present
writer, in a paper entitled ‘On a Seismic Survey,’ gave examples of
observations made in a pit 10 feet in depth. For certain large earth-
—
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 125
quakes it appeared that the motion at the bottom of the pit was very
much less than that observed on the surface, while for small disturbances
the difference between the surface and pit records was too small to be
measurable. In 1886 a pit 18 feet in depth was sunk through dry
compact earth at the Imperial University in Tokio, at the bottom of
which seismometers were established on a brick pavement. These
seismometers and others in the Seismological Laboratory a few yards
distant when placed side by side gave records which were identical.
The work was commenced by Professor S. Sekiya, and continued by myself,
and the records obtained have now been subjected to a careful analysis
by Mr. F. Omori, a graduate of the University, who has taken from ten
‘to thirty waves in thirty different earthquakes and for each of these
waves calculated its amplitude, period, maximum velocity, and maximum
acceleration. Of these thirty disturbances, for each of which diagrams
were obtained on the surface and in the pit, three were strong and
twenty-seven were feeble. For each set of calculations referring to
a particular earthquake average values were obtained, and the average
for these average values was as follows :—
1. Ratio of Quantities Observed on the Surface to those Observed in the Pit.
(@) FEEBLE DISTURBANCES.
4 Average
1, Ratio of amplitudes : { BU Sete a ay 1:2.
2, Ratio of Periods . nt se nee ak 1-0.
3. Ratios of maximum velocities eee re: 13
4, Ratios of maximum accelerations Wess Nees 2 20f alone
From the above it appears that for small disturbances the motion on
the surface is slightly greater than it is in the pit; further, from an
inspection of the diagrams, it is seen that those from the pit are always
smoother than those from the surface. In severe earthquakes Mr. Omori
points out that this latter character is strongly marked.
(0) STRONG DISTURBANCES.
Average
1. Ratio of amplitudes . ‘ é on canpRREe ii 1-4,
2. Ratio of periods . Pea ok 11
3. Ratio of maximum velocities . Re Maeenece eh 163
4, Ratio of maximum accelerations NG, conte ae iy 1:3.
(c) RIPPLES SUPERIMPOSED ON WAVES OF STRONG DISTURBANCES.
; Average
1. Ratio of amplitudes . 4 ees aay aay 2-2.
2. Ratio of periods . { ate compenenes : / ost 0°8.
3. Ratio of maximum velocities . { fim, dapat : ’ oe y 2°8.
4, Ratio of maximum accelerations ths eee oar 4:7
126 REPORT—1891.
The ripples referred to appear amongst the waves in the early part of
a disturbance, and, as Mr. Omori suggests, may be the continuation of
the minute motions which are sometimes recorded in diagrams before the
true earthquake itself has commenced.
A conclusion of some importance, which is confirmed by the above
observations, is that buildings which rise from a basement or which are
surrounded by an open area receive less motion than those which rise
from the surface.
Observations on the vertical component of motion are now being
made in the pit.
Tur OVERTURNING AND F'RACTURING OF BRICK AND OTHER COLUMNS.
During the past year a long series of experiments was carried out to
determine the accelerations necessary to overturn or fracture columns of
yartous descriptions. The columns were placed or fixed upon a truck
which could be moved back and forth through a range and with a period
comparable with what might occur in a severe earthquake. Hach back
and forth motion was recorded on a band of paper running at a uniform
speed in a direction at right angles to the direction of motion of the
truck. At the instant the column overturned or was fractured a mark
was made on the paper, so that the particular wave which was being
drawn when overthrow or fracture occurred could be identified.
On the assumption of simple harmonic motion, calling the period of
this wave T and its amplitude a, which were quantities measurable on
the diagram, the maximum velocity V, or — , and the maximum ac-
2
celeration, or Be could be calculated. These quantities were compared
a
with quantities dependent on the dimensions, density, and strength of
the columns experimented upon. The object of the experiments was to
furnish those who have to build in earthquake countries with data
respecting the quantity of motion which certain forms of structure
might be expected to withstand.
On October 15, 1884, we recorded in Tokio a maximum acceleration
of 210 mm. per sec. per sec., whilst on February 22, 1880, when Yoko-
hama was considerably damaged, such records as were obtained apparently
indicated 860 mm. per sec. per sec. A maximum range of motion of
100 mm. and a period of 2 seconds implies a maximum acceleration of
450 mm. per sec. per sec. As it is possible that this quantity might be
exceeded, structures in earthquake countries ought at least to be able to
withstand three times as much.
‘For various reasons, of which the following are important, it seems
impossible -to absolutely determine the quantity of motion necessary to
overturn a body of given dimensions.
1. The body may be set in motion and be rocking with a definite
period and amplitude when it receives the final impulse which
determines its overthrow.
2. Bodies, like columns, standing on end have a period of oscillation
varying with the arc through which they rock.
3. An earthquake seldom, if ever, consists of a single sudden move-
|
Se
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 127
ment, but of a series of movements, which continually vary in
amplitude and period.
4, A series of earthquake waves is often accompanied by a series
of superimposed waves.
OVERTURNING.
The theoretical investigation of the owerturning of a body like a
column, which, although incomplete, has yielded results comparable with
those obtained from experiment, is due to my colleague, Professor C. D.
West. ‘The result may be expressed as follows :—
Let f=the acceleration in feet per sec. per sec. which may cause
overturning,
y=the height of the centre of gravity of the column,
«z=the horizontal distance of the centre of gravity of the column
from the edge about which it may turn,
g=the acceleration due to gravity.
Then fog.
Experiments showed that the quantity jf, which may be calculated
from the dimensions of a body, is closely related to the maximum
acceleration, or = which the body experienced at the time of over-
turning.
When the period of motion is short f and ae closely approximate,
but when the period is great (say two seconds) f may be 30 per cent.
greater than “2
FRACTURING.
A theoretically-derived formula, which showed a close relationship
_ with the results of experiment, was
where a=the acceleration necessary to produce fracture ;
F°=the force of cohesion, or force per unit surface, which, when
gradually applied, is sufficient to produce fracture ;
A=area of base fractured ;
B=thickness of the column ;
f=height of centre of gravity above the fractured base ;
W=vweight of the portion broken off.
Values for F° varying between 41 and 14:8 lbs. per square inch were
determined by pulling portions of the brick and mortar columns asunder
in a testing machine.
Corresponding to these different values of F° different values of a were
- obtained.
Out of fourteen columns which were broken, in twelve cases the values
obtained for a, when F°=14'8 Ibs., were fairly comparable with the quan-
128 REPORT—1891.
tity V?/a. In two cases where fracture may have occurred at a bad
joint the quantity V?/a@ was more near to a when F=4:1 lbs.
As an illustration of the practical application of the above investiga-
tion, let us assume that the greatest maximum acceleration to be expected
is 1,000 mm. per sec. per sec., which is a quantity four times greater
than anything yet recorded in Tokio, and then determine the height to
which a brick column 2 feet square may be built above its foundations
and be able to withstand this motion.
If w is the height required and w the weight of one cubic inch of
brickwork=:0608 Ibs., then by substitution we derive from the above
formula ny
FBg
Baw
When F=5lbs. then w= 6ft. Sin.
When F=15 lbs. then z=11 ft. 7 in.
C—
A detailed account of the relationship of this formula to the formula
previously employed, together with an account of the experiments, is
being offered by myself and Mr. F. Omori, a graduate of the Imperial
University, to the Institution of Civil Engineers.
For assistance in carrying out the experiments my thanks are due
to Mr. D. Larrien, who provided the truck and rails on which the
experiments were made; Mr. K. Tatsuno, Professor of Architecture, who
designed and built the walls and columns; the authorities of the Univer-
sity, who provided the workshop and workmen, to Mr. Y. Yamagawa,
who superintended the electrical appliances ; and, finally, to my colleagues,
who from time to time rendered valuable assistance.
HARTHQUAKES IN CONNECTION WITH ELEcrric AND Magnetic PHENOMENA.
1. Magnetic Phenomena.
The conclusion to be derived from the notes relating to magnetic
phenomena and earthquakes published in the Report for last year was
that, for Tokio at least, the records of the Magnetic Observatory, which
is continually being shaken by earthquakes, only show disturbances
which may be the result of mechanically-produced movements. Since
then I have read an account of the experiment of M. Mourreaux, chief of
the Magnetic Observatory of Parc Saint-Maur, near Paris. Having had
his instruments disturbed at the time of earthquakes, M. Mourreaux
suspended on the same stand as the magnetograph a copper bar having
the same form as the magnetic one. The bifilar suspension for the copper
bar was made identical with that used for the magnet, and the movements
of each were recorded photographically.
With three earthquakes the records for the magnet were disturbed,
whilst the records for the copper bar were not disturbed. This experi-
ment has been discussed by G. Agamemnone (‘ Atti della Reale Accademia
dei Lincei,’ vol. vi, January 5, 1890), who points out that for various
reasons the period of the copper bar and the magnet must be different,
and, therefore, by a given movement one might be caused to move whilst
the other remained at rest—a conclusion with which the present writer
concurs.
Near an active volcano, where masses of magnetic matter may be
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 129
shifted or altered in temperature, changes in magnetic elements may
possibly be observed, but, so far as observation and experiment have
hitherto gone, we are inclined to the opinion that ordinary earthquakes
are in no way connected with magnetic phenomena.
2. Electric Phenomena.
In the Report for last year I gave the results of a comparison of the
records of several hundreds of earthquakes, and the photographic records
of atmospheric electricity from a Mascart electrometer. The observations
were made at the Meteorological Observatory in Tokio. A result arrived
at was that at the time of many earthquakes, especially when Tokio was
near the epicentrum, the air often became electro-negative. In a detailed
paper on this same subject (‘ Trans. Seis. Soc.,’ vol. xv. p. 160) it is
stated that these results ‘must only be regarded as tentative,’ and as
during the past year I have discovered a source of error in Mascart’s
instrument, this remark must not be overlooked. Sometimes, even in
exceedingly dry weather, the instrument rapidly loses its sensitiveness,
and, if the mirror be displaced, it does not quickly return to zero. The
reason does not appear to reside in the fibre nor always in the acid, for,
if the wire dipping in the acid and attached to the needle and mirror be
taken out and washed, the sensitiveness is regained. Now the acid is
being changed weekly and the wire washed. The results which have
already been recorded having an explanation in mechanical movements
must still be regarded as tentative.
Second Report of the Commvittee, consisting of Lord RaYLEIGH,
Sir WiLt1am Tuomson, Professor CayLEY, Professor B. PRICE,
Dr. J. W. L. GLaIsHeR, Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor
W. M. Hicks, and Professor A. LopaE (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of calculating Tables of certain Mathematical
Functions, and, if necessary, of taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form.
Tue first Report was in 1889. Since then values of Ip(z) have been
calculated from a=0 to z=6'10 at intervals of ‘01, and considerable pro-
gress has been made in still further expanding this table, making the
interval ‘001. This will enable values of I,(#) for intermediate values
of x to be read off by the help of first differences only.
Progress has been made towards the calculations cf I,(#) for values
of x differing by the interval ‘01, or, if desired, ‘001. The method
_ adopted is that of calculating the successive differential coefficients of
; pee) oe the values of « given in the 1889 Report by means of the
ormula
2 & (Tae) =Ioa@) + Tosa)
and its derivatives, and interpolating by means of Taylor’s Theorem.
The Committee have asked for a grant of 151., to enable them to
ace professional calculator to help in the continuation of the work.
. K
130 REPORT— 1891.
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons
(Chairman), Professor R. Mretpoxa, Mr. J. Hopxinson, and Mr.
A. W. Cuaypen (Secretary), appointed to consider the applica-
tion of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological
Phenomena. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
In commencing operations in the autumn of last year your Committee
considered that the first step was to make their existence and aim as
widely known as possible. Hence the chief work of the year has been
the issue of circulars inviting the co-operation of others, and the taking
of such other steps as seemed likely to help in that main object.
The following circular was first drawn up and issued to the secre-
taries of a large number of photographic societies, field clubs, and other
associations throughont the world. Letters to a similar effect were
widely distributed through the medium of the press, and personal efforts
were made to solicit aid wherever it seemed obtainable.
CIRCULAR A.]
‘WARLEIGH, PALACE ROAD, TuLSE HILL PARK,
LONDON, 8.W.: November, 1890.
Srr,—At the Leeds Meeting of the British Association in September last the
above-named committee was formed in order to ‘report upon the application of
photography to the elucidation of meteorological phenomena, and to collect and
register photographs of such phenomena.’
The success with which these instructions can be carried out necessarily depends
in a great measure upon the voluntary co-operation of others.
Will you therefore lend us your valuable aid by making the matter known
among the members of the society you represent, and by giving us the names of any
persons resident in your neighbourhood who might be willing to further the work in
hand ?
We shall be glad to receive copies of any photographs illustrating meteoro-
logical phenomena, or their effects, but we should especially welcome offers of future
assistance in the shape of photographs taken in accordance with simple instructions
which will be supplied on application.
Photographs received will be numbered and registered and exhibited at the next
meeting of the British Association.
The Committee wish it to be understood that, in the absence of any intimation te
the contrary, contributions to their collection will be regarded as their own property,
with liberty of reproduction at their discretion.
Hoping that you will co-operate in the work,
Iam, your obedient Servant,
ARTHUR W. CLAYDEN, Secretary.
Tt was, however, felt that a photograph of a meteorological pheno-
menon possessed comparatively little value for scientific purposes unless
some information could be gained as to the circumstances under which it
was taken. Again, photographers generally, and amateurs in particular,
seem to find great difficulty in securing good photographs of such things
as clouds; therefore it seemed desirable to endeavour to ascertain whether
any brand of plate, make of lens, or special device deserved particular
recommendation. The following form was therefore printed and issued,
with a modified version of Circular A, and distributed wherever there
seemed any probability of active co-operation.
ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 131
Form. |
Name of Observer
a. Address
Place of Observation !
Description of Lens # Focal length
Make of Plate employed *
Please state also whether the Picture was taken by direct exposure, through yellow
glass, by reflection from black glass, or by any other special device
Any other information
No. of Print . é Ai Mog i
Date. a 0 F,
Time of Day
Direction * = a 2 r void
(SIE ES a" hc) Mall gl ae ol | r
Exposure ®
Developer ”
* If more than one place is used, take a separate Ferm for each.
? Name of maker and his description, such as ‘rapid rectilinear.’
* Maker’s description, unless a special emulsion is used, in which case the Committee would be glad of
the full formula.
* Insert point of compass towards which the camera was pointed. State whether true or magnetic.
2 as F , or whatever the ratio may be.
a1 16
a Great exactness is not required.
7 Insert P. for Pyro, P.S. for Pyro and Sulphite, E. for Hikonogen, F.0. for Ferrous Oxalate, Q. for
Hydroquinone. The Committee will be obliged for the full formula. :
N.B.—It is highly desirable that all prints should show some fixed object, such as a tree or chimney.
In e absence of any such point of reference the print showld be marked to show the north and the
zenith. P
At the same time, since effective help might be looked for among the
great mass of enthusiastic amateurs who possess little or no knowledge
of meteorology, and from meteorologists who know little of photography,
a short paper of elementary instructions was also distributed.
INSTRUCTIONS. ]
_ Photographs are desired of clouds, lightning, hoar-frost, remarkable hailstones,
mow-wreaths, avalanches, glaciers, storm-waves, waterspouts, tornadoes, dust-
_ whirls, halos, parhelia, or any other meteorological phenomena or their consequences.
General Instructions.
‘3
1. As soon as possible after exposing a plate, number it and fill in the’ details
relative to it on one of the forms supplied. The more completely these are filled in
the more valuable will the photograph be.
4
K 2
132 REPORT—1891.
2. The size of the plate is immaterial provided that the focus is sharp. Use a
magnifier when focussing, and for objects like clouds focus upon a distant tree or
building.
* 3. Use a lens which does not distort the image.
4. Do not touch up either negative or print. .
5. When photographing any object which is moving or changing, a series of
views taken at short intervals, so as to show the progress of the phenomenon, will
be of especial value.
6. Whenever possible, a figure or other object of known dimensions should be
introduced, in order to serve as an approximate scale.
Cloud Photography.
For heavy clouds no special apparatus is required, but exposure must be shorter
than for ordinary landscape work. For very thin clouds exposure must be extremely
short and development very cautious. Fair results may then be occasionally
obtained without special means.
In order to obtain better and more certain results three methods have been
adopted :—
(a) Using a slow plate and rapid lens, with short exposure.
(b) Using an ordinary plate and lens, but with a sheet of pale yellow glass in
front of the lens.
(c) Using an ordinary plate and lens, but placing a plane mirror of black
glass in front of the lens, so that its surface makes an angle of about
: 33° with the axis of the lens, Theimage reflected in the mirror is fairly
easy to photograph.
The Commiitee hope to receive examples of each of these processes, as well as
examples and descriptions of any other special devices which may be adopted by
observers.
Lightning Photography.
When a thunderstcrm occurs at night it is very easy to photograph the flashes of
lightning.
Fix the camera rigiGly (do not hold it in the hand) and expose it to a part of the
sky where flashes are frequent.
As soon as one flash has crossed the field of view change the plate.
Whenever possible, count the number of seconds between seeing the flash and
hearing the beginning of the thunder. Note this time on the print or form.
If you have two cameras some useful results may be attained by using one as
described above and holding another in the hand, pointing in about the same
direction, but kept in constant oscillation. It is hoped that two photographs of the
same flash may be thus secured.
Another desirable experiment is to fix both cameras in the same direction, change
the plates in one after each flash, but leave the plate exposed in the second until six
or eight flashes have crossed the field of view.
If the camera is placed in a window this must be open, as the interposition of a
window pane may give rise to multiple images.
Be particularly careful to note the exact time and direction of each flash photo-
graphed.
A rapid lens, with a stop £ or thereabouts, should be used for lightning.
Prints, which may be mounted or unmounted, should be sent as early as possible
to the Secretary at
‘WARLEIGH, TULSE Hi~L PARK, LONDON, 8.W.
This work of distribution has been greatly aided by the courtesy of
the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society. But in spite of their
assistance the time available for the purposes of the Committee has been
mainly devoted to carrying out this introductory labour and conducting
the correspondence it has involved.
The secretary to your committee has also personally appealed to
various societies on behalf of the work in hand by the exhibition of
lantern slides in explanation of the Committee’s object.
a
,
,
.
ey — eT ——— >
ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 133
Tn all cases promises of future help (in the shape of photographs taken
under recorded circumstances) have been solicited, rather than the gift of
prints from old negatives.
The result is that some progress has been made in the organisation
of a system of observers who will be on the look-out for interesting
phenomena. Such offers already number between forty and fifty, and
new names are slowly coming in. Jndeed, many of the circulars inviting
such aid have been sent to such distant places that replies could hardly be
expected yet. However, as it is, the promises in hand include some from
Tasmania, Mauritius, Java, Sweden, America, and the Continent, while
those from the United Kingdom come from all parts of the country.
Your committee view this result with some satisfaction, because a
wide distribution and large number of observers multiply the chances of
securing records of rare phenomena. It is a case of sowing seed over a
large area, and it is only the earlier parts which have yet had time to
yield much harvest.
PHOTOGRAPHS COLLECTED.
The number of prints actually received up to the time of closing this
report (July 20, 1891) is not large. The total number, 153, includes 95
of clouds, 11 of lightning, 6 of damage by lightning, 2 damage by hail, 3
of the positions of meteorological instruments, 6 of glacier structure, 3 of
fog shadows, 8 of hoar-frost, 2 of snow-crystals, and some others. But
these can only be regarded as a first instalment of the results of the
year’s work, and your committee look forward with confidence to a con-
siderable increase in their collection during the next few months.
The details of the collection already made can be best judged by
reference to the appended list :—
First List of Photographs.
CLAss A.—CLOUDs.
Nos. 1-6. From the Kew Committee of the Royal Society.
s, %-23. From Rear-Admiral Maclear.
> 24-26. From Mr. A. E. Western.
», 27-32. From Mr. Arthur Nicols.
», 33-100. From Mr. A. W. Clayden (secretary).
A considerable number of negatives are also available from which
prints have not yet been taken.
CLASS B.—LIGHTNING.
No, 1. Taken on moving plate, from Dr. H. H. Hoffert.
» 2. Reversed flash, from Mr, A. W. Clayden.
» 3. Branched eS AS oS
» 4. Multiple a . “r
” 5. ” ” ” +b)
> 6. Reversed Pr 3s Fr
» 7. Simple and multiple flashes, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
» 8. Narrow ribbon, from Mr, J. H. Bateman.
» 9. es from Mr. Ernest Brown.
” 10, ae ” ” ”
ges — » Mr. Avery.
134 REPORT—1891.
CLAss C.—DAMAGE BY LIGHTNING.
Nos. 1-4. Rear-Admiral Maclear.
» 5-6. Senor Don Augusto Arcimis.
» 7-10. Mr. J. Hopkinson.
CLAss D.—DAMAGE BY STORMS.
Nos. land 2. Effect of hailstorms of August 2 and 3, 1879, from Mr. G.
W. Whipple.
CLAss E.—ELECTRIC SPARKS.
Nos. 1-10. Illustrating forms of discharge, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
11-18. Explaining dark flashes, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
”
CLASs F.—SNOWFALL, &C.
Nos. 1 and 2. Snow-crystals, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
‘ ,, Band 4. Drifts, March 11, 1891, from Mr. R. G. Durrant.
CLAss G.—GLACIERS.
No. 1. Ice-cliffs of the empty Meerjelensee, 1889, from Mr. Greenwood Pim.
Nos. 2-7. Various glaciers from Mr. Greenwood Pim.
CiAss H.—HOAR-FROST.
Nos. 1-8. From Mr. A. W. Clayden.
CuAss M.—MIscELLANEOUS.
Nos. 1-3. Shadows of a camera on fog, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
REGISTRATION OF PHOTOGRAPHS IN OTHER COLLECTIONS.
This section of the work has hardly been commenced. Several pro-
minent firms of professional photographers have been approached with a
view to tabulating the pictures they possess, but they have not offered
any special facilities. This is to be regretted in some ways, but there
seems reason to hope that another year something of the kind might
be done.
The fine collection in the possession of the Royal Meteorological
Society has been examined. It contains a large number of very beautiful
cloud studies by Dr. Riggenbach and M. Paul Garnier, but information
as to the methods adopted by these observers and as to the conditions
under which the pictures were taken is at present wanting. Neverthe-
less the work of registering these photographs would have been taken
in hand had it not been all but impossible to describe them properly.
The chaotic condition of cloud nomenclature seems to render it impossible
to describe the minute differences of structure so admirably shown in the
pictures in terms which would be generally intelligible. Many cloud
forms, especially among the thinner types, are intimately related to one
another, some being only transitional phenomena during the passage of
one stable form into another. Your committee have therefore laid special
stress in their mstructions to observers upon the importance of securing
series of cloud pictures at short intervals delineating cloud changes and
showing, as far as possible, the relations between various forms. Until
some satisfactory system of nomenclature has been devised, or until your
a
F ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA, 135
e
_ committee can form a comprehensive collection, it seems that the accurate
registration of cloud photographs must be left in abeyance. Perhaps by
this time next year, if they are permitted to continue their work, some-
_ thing of the kind may be found practicable by referring other photo-
i graphs to types in their own collection.
4 Another important collection is in the possession of the chairman of
your committee. An early opportunity will be taken for the tabulation
and registration of its contents.
MetHops or Croup PHOTOGRAPHY.
Specimens of cloud photographs have been received illustrating
several methods.
1. By the courtesy of the Kew Committee of the Royal Society six
specimens of the photographs taken under their direction have been
placed at the disposal of your committee. These have been taken ina
special form of camera provided with a rotating shutter, the opening of
which can be varied at pleasure. The exposure given is a fraction of a
second, and the plates are of the rapid gelatine bromide type. So far as
definition is concerned, these pictures leave little to be desired.
2. Mr. A. E. Western sends one printfrom a negative taken on Edwards’
medium isochromatic plate, and two taken with Carbutt’s orthochro-
matic celluloid films, in all cases after placing a sheet of pale yellow glass
in front of the lens. ‘the definition in all three is good, but the type of
cloud is one which is easy to photograph, and it does not yet appear
whether the method is of very much value for thin cirrus clouds.
3. The secretary to your committee has made a careful trial of two
other methods.
The first consists in placing a plane mirror of black glass in front
of the lens, so that the plane of its surface makes an angle of about
33° with the axis of the lens. This method has been theoretically
described by Dr. Riggenbach in a paper read before the Royal Meteoro-
logical Society on November 21, 1888. It is supposed to depend on the
extinction of the polarised component of the light from the blue sky. But
in practice it is found that the mirror is of great advantage, altogether apart
from any polarisation. It diminishes the brilliancy of the whole illumi-
nation, so that it becomes easy to time the exposure correctly. By this
means it is found perfectly simple to get good negatives of even very
delicate cirrus clouds on any of the ordinary brands of dry plates. The
negatives frequently require intensification in order to bring out all possi-
ble detail, and it seems that transparencies on glass or prints on bromide
paper are to be preferred to ordinary silver prints.
_ The second device which has been tested is the employment of slow
plates. Very satisfactory results have been obtained by exposing in the
camera some of the plates prepared for transparency work by Mawson
and Swan. This method has not been tried so thoroughly as the other,
but enough has been done to show that it may be recommended.
____ The lens used in both cases was an Optimus rapid rectilinear with a
, stop iz. With ordinary plates and the black mirror the exposure varied
from about a tenth to half of a second, and with the transparency plate
about twice or three times as long.
The experiments will be continued throughout the summer, and your
136: REPORT—1891.
committee hope that they will soon be in a position to decide which
method is on the whole most suitable for the purpose. The black glass
method has the one great advantage that it works well with the ordinary
plates, and as the mirror may be easily removed and replaced a few cloud
pictures may be taken during any photographic excursion without the
necessity of carrying slides charged with plates of little use for other
purposes.
PHOTOGRAPHS OF LIGHTNING.
The registration of photographs of lightning is beset witb difficulty,
just such as interfered with the description of clouds. A provisional —
classification has been issued under the authority of the Thunderstorm
Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society. This, however, was
premature, and cannot be regarded as satisfactory. Hence your com-
mittee have turned their attention rather to the study of lightning than to
recording pictures of it.
The phenomena accompanying electric discharges do not seem to have
been very perfectly studied, but certain facts are known, and photographs
of lightning and of electric sparks point to others. It seems, therefore,
that no classification can be generally accepted which ignores existing
knowledge of the connection between the electrical conditions and the
character of the discharge.
The so-called black flashes have of course been disposed of. The experi-
ments described two years ago by the Secretary to your committee showed
that the appearance is due to reversal produced by some form of diffused
light having fallen upon the plate. This conclusion has been subsequently
confirmed by Mr. Shelford Bidwell, F.R.S., and again by Mr. Clayden in
the photograph numbered 2B. This was taken at Bath in the early
morning hours of June 25. After the flash had passed, the plate was
left exposed for a few minutes in the hope that a second flash might
illuminate the same part of the sky. This happened, the lower part of
the field of view being brightly lit up by a flash which was itself hidden
in the clouds. Where the consequent glare crossed the undeveloped
image of the flash reversal has occurred, while no reversal can be detected
in the other portion.
It will be noticed that this flash, like many others, shows a distinct
ribbon-like structure. The repeated occurrence of this phenomenon has
already given rise to considerable discussion, and Mr. W. Marriott and
Mr. Cowper Ranyard have attributed it to a movement of the camera
during the existence of the flash. Certainly many such photographs
have been taken in cameras held in the hand or on no very firm base.
Moreover, Dr. Hoffert’s photograph, No. 1 B, shows this structure well in
the successive bright flashes. Nevertheless, it must be noted that in this
last case the camera was in rapid motion, and yet the ribbon-like struc-
ture is hardly more pronounced than it is in other pictures where any
accidental movement was presumably much less. Moreover, the photo-
graphs Nos. 2B and 3B show this structure very plainly, though the
camera was standing on a steady support, and movement during the flash
was quite out of the question.
Alternative hypotheses are that the appearance is due to reflection
from the back of the plate or in the lens. If either view were true the
brighter parts of the flash should show the ribbon form the best, whereas
aa
FE ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 137
_ the contrary seems often to be the case. Again, if the former hypothesis
were true, the position occupied by the reflected light could be ascer-
tained by considering the direction of the incident light. Fact here
disagrees with theory.
The evidence at present obtainable therefore points to the conclusion
that a bright lightning flash may often take the form of a long sinuous
ribbon, whose sectional thickness is very different in two directions
normal to eachother. Some of the appearances noticed also indicate that
hy the greater thickness throughout all the parts ofa given flash lies in one
and the same direction, and the variations in its apparent direction are
merely an effect of perspective.
This structure must be carefully distinguished from another, in which
_ several distinct flashes follow precisely similar paths side by side. Some-
_ times the bright flashes (which may or may not show the ribbon shape
_ proper) are connected by a less brilliant luminosity, which converts the
whole phenomenon into a very broad ribbon. Photographs of this class
are exemplified by Nos. 4B, 5B. The flash represented in Dr. Hoffert’s
photograph is evidently one of the same order, and the curious smudges
which cross the plate must doubtless be due to the above-mentioned
fainter light. Clearly we have here to deal with intermittent discharges,
a number of discharges following each other along the same or closely
contiguous paths. In some cases photographs of this kind show redupli-
cated images of buildings corresponding fairly well with the images of
the component parts of the discharge. In such a case there seems little
room for doubt that the flashes followed the same path or paths only a
_ very short distance apart.
The secretary to your committee, however, secured the photograph
No. 4B on June 25. In this case the camera was certainly not moved.
The flash, like many others, appeared multiple to the naked eye, but as
the motion of the eyeball might have produced that effect, although the
flashes formed the same path, little weight can be laid on that argu-
ment. Indeed, the fact that the camera was standing still and quite un-
touched is sufficientto prove that flashes of such a nature do occur. It
is really a rapid and almost simultaneous volley of flashes connected
partly by a less vivid discharge which obliquely links the brighter lines.
There is also evident a sort of half-twist of one part of the flash around
another part.
In order to elucidate the unexpected facts brought to light in the
numerous photographs belonging to the Royal Meteorological Society a
number of experiments have been made by your secretary upon electric
sparks obtained from an induction machine. As these tend to throw
some licht upon the questions in hand, a brief account of them may not
be out of place.
First remove the small Leyden jars from a Voss or Wimshurst
machine. The discharge is then pink in colour, of slight brilliancy, and
Strongly resembles the brush discharge. If the knobs are brought
near each other the discharge passes along several lines, which arrange
themselves side by side in a plane at right angles to the direction of
discharge.
If now the condensers are introduced in the ordinary position, the
spark at once becomes more brilliant, and the pink tinge disappears.
This spark obtained from the ordinary size of condenser appears to be
precisely the same as the commoner varieties of lightning. If larger
138 REPORT—1891.
condensers are substituted the spark becomes thicker and brighter, and
its minor irregularities frequently disappear.
Next remove the condensers from the machine, and connect their
inner coatings with the prime conductors, while the outer coatings are
imperfectly insulated, as, for instance, by placing them on a wooden
table. If the jars are near each other, as each spark passes between
the discharging knobs another will pass between the outer coatings.
Gradually increase the distance between the jars. The spark be-
tween the outer coatings will become more irregular as it grows longer,
and ata certain distance it will suddenly cease. At this moment the
discharge between the knobs entirely alters its character. If the strik-
ing distance is short, the form assumed is that of a bright pink band,
generally brighter at its margins than elsewhere, and showing a beauti-
ful fluted structure. Its duration is short, but it is nevertheless easy to
see that it is a really intermittent.
Again increase the striking distance step by step. The discharge is
still intermittent, but thin, brilliant white sparks make their appearance.
At first the pink discharge can be recognised passing obliquely between
these bright sparks, but as the distance increases the pink light disap-
pears, and the discharge becomes a rapid volley of bright sparks.
The photographs from No. 1 E to No. 9 H show these phenomena.
Again, if the discharging knobs are placed some distance from the
machine, so that the field due to their charge is but little affected by the
movements of the machine or operator, it may often be noticed that with
ordinary bright sparks their form is repeatedly the same. No, 10 E shows
a series of sparks taken under such conditions at intervals of about one
secord.
Now, it is probable that all these forms of discharge have their
analogues in lightning. The bright sparks with small condensers are
the counterpart of the commoner type of lightning. Those from the
large Leyden jars and between the outer coatings correspond to more
powerful flashes, the latter being the ‘impulsive discharge’ described by
Professor O. Lodge. The volleys of bright sparks are also the type of many
observed multiple flashes. There remain only the pink discharges, and
surely these are the counterpart of the flashes which yield photographs
like No. 4 B.
Moreover there seems to be no primd facie absurdity in supposing
that a short series of flashes may occur during a brief time along parallel
paths. Such a phenomenon is conceivably explicable—
2 ta) by an identity of conditions over the whole area traversed by the
ashes ;
(b) by the movement of the charged cloud causing the conditions
which held in one place at a given moment to hold a short distance
away at another ;
(c) by the movement of the air sweeping along the disturbance
caused by the first spark, so that a path of least resistance resulting
from that disturbance occupies different positions. Your committee
would draw attention to the similarity between the appearance of the
bright pink discharge and that through rarefied air. Some of the dis-
charges, Nos. 3 E to 7 H, look asif the passage of the bright sparks caused
a partial vaccum between them, and the pink sparks then struck through
this lessened resistance along the paths of the bright sparks and across
the low resisting interval between them, the slope of these transverse
i ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 139
sparks being possibly determined by the difference of potential required
to break through what resistance there was.
Possibly it may be found that the ribbon structure is also due
to some such phenomenon. The passage of the first flash will produce
for a short time a highly rarefied column of air, through which a stream
of less luminous sparks may pass until the displaced air surges back.
_ Resistance will then be abnormally high exactly along the track of the
- first spark, and this column of extra dense air will be surrounded by a
tube (so to say) of lower resistance. Indeed, the paths of subsequent
"discharges in a series may conceivably be determined either by the
_ outward movement of the wave of rarefaction or by the alternate com-
pression and rarefaction along the original path. In either case the
‘movement of the air may easily suffice to carry the position of least
‘resistance along with it. That subsequent discharges do sometimes
follow what may be called the trough of the atmospheric wave is indi-
‘eated by the tendency sometimes exhibited for one spark or flash to
twist partly round another.
However, your committee do not wish it to be understood that they
put forward these suggestions as definite hypotheses. They merely state
them in order to indicate various lines along which further research is ,
desirable. They hope, if they are permitted to continue their task for
another year, to add considerably to the experimental and observational
facts at present available, and possibly to reach more definite conclusions
than existing material allows.
Before ending their report your committee feel that a passing
reference is due to the important paper read before the Royal Society in
which the Kew Committee described some of their results, and also to
the work which has been carried on at Berlin and elsewhere in the
photography of the so-called luminous night-clouds and of clouds in-
visible to the naked eye.
They wish to express their thanks to the Kew Committee, to the
numerous persons who have volunteered their assistance, and especially
to the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society.
In conclusion they ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 15/., in
order that they may have an opportunity of following up the beginning
that has been made.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor O. J. Lopas,
Professor Carey Foster, and Mr. A. P. Cuatrock (Secretary),
appointed to imvestigate the Discharge of Electricity from
Points.
MEASUREMENTS have been made of the strength of field necessary to start
scharge at points of radius of curvature varying from 0:7 x10° to
Sx10%cem. The results show that the field strength increases rapidly
as the radius of curvature diminishes. They also point to the gas sur-
founding the point as the seat of resistance to discharge, rather than to
the surface of the metal; and, upon the assumption that discharge means
the breaking down of Grotthuss chains in the gas, extrapolation indicates
am atomic charge of dimensions approximating to those of the ionic
charge of electrolytic ions.
140 REPORT—1891.
The variations of the field strength with pressure of the gas seem to
agree with the Grotthuss chain hypothesis as far as the measurements go,
Upon the assumption that the passage of electricity from a point to a
plate is a one-way flow, it is possible to obtain a value of the ratio of
mass moving to electricity carried by it (i.e., the electro-chemical equiva-
lent of the discharged matter) in terms of the slopes of potential and
pressure brought about by the discharge, and the density of the current
passing. Experiments are now in progress to determine this ratio, if
possible. So far they point to a number far in excess of the electrolytic
value. This may be due to error in the measurements, or, possibly, to
the presence of metal dust in the discharge.
Measurements, also still in progress, have been made on the mechan-
ical forces which act on a point during discharge. They point to interest-
ing differences between + and — electricity, and it is hoped that useful
information may be obtained as to the manner in which the two electri-
cities leave the point by further work in this direction.
Your Committee asks for reappointment with a grant of 501.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord McLaren (Chairman),
Professor Crum Brown (Secretary), Mr. MILNE Home, Dr. JoHN
Murray, Dr. Bucuan, and the Hon. RaLpH ABERCROMBY, ap-
pointed for the purpose of co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis.
Durine 1890 the hourly observations by night and by day at the Ben
Nevis Observatory have been carried on uninterruptedly by Mr. Omond
and the assistants, and as heretofore the five daily observations at Fort
William have been made with great regularity by Mr. Livingston. As
intimated in last report, a vitally important advance was made in the
system of observations on Ben Nevis by the opening of the low-level ob-
servatory in Fort William on July 14, 1890, for regular continuous obser-
vations. This observatory has been equipped by the Meteorological
Council with a complete set of self-recording instruments, such as are in
use at the first-class observatories of the Council. The directors have
thus now at their disposal the best information available for extending the
scientific and practical inquiries they have undertaken through the
unique facilities offered by these well-equipped observatories. A begin-
ning has also been made with an elaborate discussion of this double series
of hourly observations of which some account will be given in this
report.
The directors were again able to give relief to the various members
of the observing staff by the courtesy of the following gentlemen, who
have given their services as observers for periods varying from four to
eight weeks :—Messrs. R. C. Mossman, James McDonald, M.A., and
Alexander Drysdale, M.A., B.Sc. ; and Messrs. P. Gillies and C. Stewart,
from Professor Tait’s Laboratory, are now (August, 1891) assisting in
the work of observing.
For the year 1890 the following were the monthly mean pressures and
temperatures, hours of sunshine, amounts of rainfall, and number of fair
- 141
ie ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.
days, or days of less than 0:01 inch of rain, at the observatory, the mean
pressures at the Ben Nevis Observatory being reduced to 32° only, while
those at Fort William are reduced to 32° and sea-level :—
1890 | Jan. Feb. March! April May | June July | Aug. Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
Mean Pressure in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob- } 24°983] 25°543| 25°079| 25°226] 25°316| 25°349) 25°297| 25°312] 25-482) 25°395) 25°147| 25°409) 25°295
servatory
Fort William | 29°548) 30221) 29:674| 29°820| 29°845) 29-878) 29°802| 29°799) 29°964| 29°955) 29°732) 30:084) 29°860
Difference .| 4°565| 4°678| 4:595| 4:594| 4°529| 4°529| 4:505| 4:487| 4°482) 4:560| 4°585| 4°675| 4565
Mean Temperatures.
- ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° fo} ° °
BenNevisOb-} 26°9 | 24°8 | 25-4 | 264] 35°3 | 364 | 37:1] 38°6 | 41°9 | 336 | 274 | 22:2 | 31:3
P servatory
| Fort William | 42:1 | 89°6 | 42:3 | 44:4] 53:2 | 542) 55:0 | 55°9 | 566 | 49°6 | 42:0 | 37:2 | 47-7
‘Difference 15:2 | 148 | 169 | 180 | 17°9| 17°83 | 17°9 | 173 | 147 | 160 | 146 | 15:0) 164
Extremes of Temperature.
4 Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory : ° ° 9 ° ) ° ° ° 9 ° Of iwna °
Maxima «| 27:3 | 461 368 | 37:1 | 52-4 | 45°6 | 51:7 | 537) 589 | 44:9 | 41:0 | 39:0) 58:9
Minima. -| 16°83 | 127 | 10°1 | 16°9 | 22°91 | 27°71 | 28:8 | 27-7 | 27:5 | 16°0 | 132 90 90
Difference .| 20°5 | 33:4 26:7 | 20°2 | 30°3 | 18°5 | 22°91 26:0 | 31-4 | 28°91 27°8 | 30:0 | 49°9
Rainfall in Inches.
| Ben NevisOb-| 29°42; 4:57 27:31; 8:09] 6°01] 14°67| 13:22] 14°33) 20°71) 37:30} 18:96| 3°75 |198:34
servatory
No.of Daysof| 0 17 peal) als 10 3 4 A 6 2 2 15 83
no Rain | |
No. of days 1} 11 23 ae8 2 2 3 4 6 6 15 6 1 66
in. or more |
| fell -
Fort William | 19°67} 1°66, 11:13; 3:10] 2°67| 7:68| 7°69| 6:22| 7:85} 13°85| 10°31] 1:29| 93:12
Hours of Sunshine.
BenNevisOb-| 4 68 | 36 78 126 | 24 42 46) 83
'_ servatory | |
Fort William | — -—- | — —_ -- — _ 117 | 102
52 34 26 --
At Fort William the mean temperature of the year was 47°°7, being 0°°5
above the mean. The exceptional departures from the monthly means were :
January 2°°8, May 3°:2, September 3°-1, and October 2°:0 above, and
July 2°°3, August 3°°1, and December 2°°4 under, the means. The mean
annual temperature at the top of the Ben was 31°'3, or 0°-4 above the
mean, and as contrasted with Fort William the departures from the means
were in July 2°'8 and in August 1°-0 under and in September 4°°0 above
t. In anticyclonic weather, such as largely prevailed in September, the
xcess of temperature at the top of the Ben is always relatively higher
n at sea-level adjoining.
The minimum temperature for the year was 9°-0 on December 19, being
bout the point to which the temperature has fallen each year since the
observatory was opened. The maximum was 58°9 on September 7. This
is about the lowest annual maximum temperature hitherto observed, and
it is otherwise remarkable as having occurred so late in the season.
Indeed, low temperatures ruled during the summer in an unusual degree,
he highest in June being 45°°6, July 51°°7, and August 53°-7. Thus
e extreme range of temperature for the year was 49°°9; in the previous
year it was 55°°4.
__ The registration of the sunshine-recorder showed only 591 hours out
_ ofa possible 4,470 hours. Excepting 1886, when the number was 576,
142 REPORT—1891.
this is the lowest since the observations began. In January only 4 hours
were registered, being the lowest monthly amount yet observed, but in
December the number of hours was 22, being considerably in excess of
the hours registered at stations generally over the United Kingdom
during this exceptional month.
The rainfall was the heaviest yet recorded in any year, being 198°34
inches, and if the amount were calculated for the meteorological year
beginning with December, 1889, the annual amount would be 213-63
inches. The rainfall for October, 37°30 inches, is the highest yet recorded
in any month; and 29:42 inches were recorded in January and 27°31
inches in March. On October 3 the rainfall was 7:29 inches, but for the
24 hours from 9 p.m. of the 2nd to 9 p.m. of the 3rd the extraordinary
quantity of 8:07 inches was collected. In four months the rainfall was
the highest yet recorded for these months.
The number of days on which the rainfall was nil, or less than the
hundredth, of an inch, was 83, being the fewest number of fair days of
any year since the observatory was opened. There were 17 fair days in
February, 15 in April and December, but none in January. There were
66 days on which one inch or upwards fell. In October there were 15
such days and 1] in January.
The rainfall of 1890 in the eastern part of Scotland to the south of
the Grampians was nearly everywhere under the average, the deficiency
being a sixth in the Border Counties. On the other hand, in north-western
districts it was about a fifth above the average. The annual average at
the observatory since 1885 is 13450 inches, and hence the rainfall of 1890
was 63°84 inches, or 48 per cent., above the average—an excess nowhere
approached at any observing station in Scotland.
Atmospheric pressure at Fort William was 29-860 inches, or 0:032
inch above the mean pressure. The monthly extremes were the minimum
in January and the maximum in February, these being respectively 0:229
inch below and 6:295 inch above the means of these months.
The following shows the departures from the means of the pressure
and rainfall of the four months of heaviest rainfall at the Ben Nevis
Observatory :—
Differences from the Means.
Pressure Rainfall
Inch Inches
January a C . iS 2 . —0:194 +12°55
March . . ‘4 : , 2 » —0:143 + 15°39
September . : ; : - . +0:088 + 8:96
October ? A 2 ‘ , . +0086 + 22-44
It will be observed that during the two last months, when the rainfall
was greatly above the average, pressure also was above the average. On
the top of the Ben it repeatedly occurs that high pressures are accom-
panied with very heavy and long-continued rains.
Considerable progress has been made during the year with the dis-
cussion of the Ben Nevis observations.
An exhaustive examination of the ‘Winds of Ben Nevis,’ by Messrs.
Omond and Rankin, has been recently completed and the results com-
municated in a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, The
authors show that while the sea-level winds in this part of Scotland are,
with respect to the distribution of pressure, in accordance with Buys
Ballot’s Law of the Winds, the Ben Nevis winds do not at all fit in with
8
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 143
such a distribution of pressure, but that on the contrary they point to a
widely different distribution of pressure at the height of the observatory,
4,407 feet above the sea. In large storms, with a deep barometric depres-
sion in the centre, the Ben Nevis winds are practically the same as at lower
levels ; but with smaller storms great differences are presented. In these
cases it is remarkable that with a cyclone covering Scotland, the North
Sea, and Southern Norway the winds frequently blow, not in accordance
with the sea-level isobars, but in an entirely opposite direction, suggest-
ing an outflow from the cyclone towards the anticyclone near at the
time on the other side. It is further remarkable that this outflowing
seldom or never occurs when the centre of the storm is to the south or
west, but only when it lies to the north or east. If the wind on the hill-
_ top is not ata right, or greater, angle from the sea-level wind, it is
usuaily nearly the same as it; the supposed veering of the wind at great
heights required by the theory that a cyclone is a whirling column,
drawing the air in spirally below and pouring it out spirally above, is
so seldom observed as to be the exception, and not the rule. This
important result and the analogous observation that frequently in great
_ storms of winds prostrated trees lie practically in one direction over wide
regions show impressively how much observation has yet to contribute
before any satisfactory theory of storms can be propounded.
The winds of other high-level European observatories, which may all
be regarded as situated in anticyclonic regions, have been examined,
and it is found that they show the closest agreement with the winds at
4
low levels in the same regions. This result separates the Ben Nevis
Observatory from other observatories, so as to form a class by itself, the
_ differentiating cause being the circumstance that Ben Nevis alone lies in
the central track of the European cyclones. This consideration emphasises
_ the value of the Ben Nevis observations in all discussions of weather. It
_ may be added that, with respect to the relation of the winds to the low-
_ level isobars, Ben Nevis Observatory is more pronouncedly a high-level
: observatory in winter than in summer, or, more generally, in cold than
in warm weather.
Mr. Rankin has communicated to the directors a paper on the results
of the dust-counting observations of the past year. The highest number
observed was 14,400 per cubic centimetre in- April last, whilst the lowest,
0, was observed in J uly, 1890, and again in March, 1891; and here it must
be noted that each observation is really the mean of ten observations taken
at the time. The greatest amount of dust is observed when the wind is
E., S.E., or S., both at sea-level and the top of the Ben; but when the
winds at the top diverge most from those at sea-level then the lowest
dust values are obtained. We have here, broadly indicated, another con-
tribution to weather prognosis afforded by the dust observations, since
they point to quite different phases of weather.
True fogs and wet mists exhibit marked differences. In fog there
4s usually a considerable amount of dust; in mist, or wet mist, usually
very little. It is observed when the number of dust particles noted is
extremely small, or even 0, that the air is surcharged with aqueous vapour,
if such a condition be supposed possible, and that then, there being no
dust particles to serve as nuclei on which the vapour might condense, it
simply condenses on all exposed objects direct from the air. This has
been found to be the most wetting condition of the air, a few minutes
only being sufficient to give the observer a thorough soaking. Every
144 REPORT—1891.
post and rope seem running over with water, though, looking out at the
weather, one has no idea it is nearly so wet.
Sufficient observations have been made to show a well-marked diurnal
variation in the numbers of dust particles. The following are the tri-
hourly results for March, April, and May, 1891 :—
Means Means
ACN hs ‘ . . 136 P.M . . ‘ 950
A ess < F : 4 9b26 Avg i BR F ‘ . 1,488
Tt bis , p 3 . 570 Ue - Pea 5 $ . 1,035
TO"; ‘ ; , - 5626 LO) eae ‘ . 1,029
Mean . 4 ‘ = . ‘ ‘ ‘ . - 854
The daily minimum thus occurs when the daily strength of the wind is
greatest, and also the descending current, down the mountain, and the
maximum when the wind is least strong and the ascending current up the
mountain strongest.
Mr. R. C. Mossman has communicated a paper to the Scottish
Meteorological Society on the cases of silver thaw at the Observatory,
which will appear in next issue of the Society’s Journal. From 1885 to
1890 there occurred 198 cases, lasting in all 873 hours—that is, cases in
which rain froze as it fell. The maximum frequency is from November
to March. It occasions, as may well be supposed, much inconvenience
and discomfort to the observers.
The chief point established by Mr. Mossman is that the distribution
of pressure over Western Kurope is at the time always substantially the
same. The daily weather charts show that on these 198 days the distri-
bution of pressure was for the Ben cyclonic on 137 and anticyclonic on
61 days. In anticylonic cases a cyclone is off the north-west coast of
Norway, while the anticyclone stretches away over the south of England
and Ireland. In cyclonic cases Ben Nevis is clearly within the area of
low pressure, the centre of which again is off the north-west coast of
Norway, while the anticyclone is removed farther to southward over the
Peninsula. Hence the value of this phenomenon in forecasting weather.
The average duration is 6 hours in winter and 3 in summer. The longest
continued was 41 hours on January 3-4, 1889. The lowest temperature
at which it has occurred was 18°:0, but nearly in all cases the occurrence
takes piace shortly before a thaw.
During the past year the unremitting attention of Dr. Buchan has
been given to the examination and discussion of the hourly observations
of the two observatories. The discussion includes the ten months ending
May, 1891.
In entering on the discussion it quickly became apparent that the
influence of high winds on the barometer was the first inquiry calling for
serious attention. The depression of the barometer during high winds
was plainly so serious as to render the examination of many questions all
but a hopeless task until some approximation was made to the values of
these depressions for different wind velocities.
Fortunately the two observatories present the conditions favourable
for this investigation. They are so near to each other as to form vir-
tually but one observatory, the barometer at the top being in a building
exposed to winds of all velocities up to at least 150 miles an hour, whereas
the other barometer is in a sheltered building, where light winds prevail
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 145
generally, so that this barometer may be regarded as recording the
true pressure of the atmosphere. This was more exactly secured
in making comparisons of the two barometers by selecting only those
cases when winds at the Fort William Observatory were light. As
stated by the Committee in previous reports, the observations of the force
of the wind are estimations on a scale of 0 to 12, the equivalent of each
figure of the scale in miles per hour having been carefully determined
by Mr. Omond by means of Chrystal’s anemometer. The barometric
observations at the two observatories were reduced to sea-level hour by
hour, and the differences plus or minus were entered in columns repre-
senting the different wind forces at the higher observatory. The following
is the result of the comparison :—
Wind Force Eq. miles per hour Bar. Depression
ne.
0 2 —0:001
1 7 , — 0-004
2 13 —0:005
3 21 —0:010
4 29 —0:014
5 38 —0:026
6 47 —0:035
7 57 —0:050
8 67 —0:070
9 77 — 07104
10 88 —0-122
11 99 —0°150
Thus in calm weather the two reduced barometers are practically the
same, but with every increase of wind which sweeps past the higher
observatory, the depression of the barometer inside steadily augments.
Tt is not till a velocity of more than 20 miles an hour is reached that
the depression amounts to one-hundredth of an inch. At 57 miles it is
9-050 inch, at 77 miles 0-104 inch, and at 99 miles 0°150 inch. In
forecasting weather it will be necessary to keep this effect of high winds
on the barometer constantly in mind, with the view of arriving at a
better approximation to the geographical distribution of pressure at the
time the forecasts are being framed.
These results are for all winds grouped together irrespective of their
direction. The next inquiry grouped the winds according to their direc-
ion to sixteen points of the compass. During the time under examination,
all the very high winds were from E.S.E. or S.E., these being the direc-
tions in which the wind blows freely along the slopes of the mountain to
the observatory. In 11 cases the wind from these directions attained a
velocity of 100 miles an hour or more, and the reduced barometer of the
high-level station read about one-sixth of an inch lower than the baro-
meter of the low-level observatory. In no other of the 16 directions was
there, during the ten months, a higher velocity than 62 miles an hour
_ Observed, and indeed in the directions E., E.N.E., N.E., N., N.W., and
oy. the observed velocity was never greater than 29 miles an hour,
| With these northerly winds the observations at the top of the mountain
indicate a much lower speed than that which, from the drift of the clouds,
18 seen to be reached at a comparatively small height above the top of the
Ben. The cause of this comparatively calm state of the air immediately
on the top is the impact of the air on the face of the tremendous cliff,
ie the top of which the observatory is built, by which the stream
. L
146 REPORT—1891.
lines are suddenly deflected upwards. Now in such cases the de-
pression of the barometer is about three times as great as that which occurs
with an equally strong wind from other directions, and indicates clearly
the formation of a restricted region of low pressure around and outside
the observatory. Another curious and highly interesting result observed
with other directions of the wind is that the reduced high-level baro-
meter exceeds the reduced low-level barometer when the wind blows at
the rate of about 5 miles an hour. This increased pressure accompanying
wind rising up the slope of the hill may perhaps explain the small clear
space immediately on the top of a hill, otherwise cloud-topped, and the
very different force of wind on the two sides of a ridge lying about a
right angle to the direction of the wind.
An examination has also been made of the relations of differences of
temperature atthe two observatories to differences of the sea-level pressures
at the same hours. During the ten months examined the temperature
differences have ranged from the high-level observatory showing a tem-
perature 26° lower to a temperature 6° higher than the temperature at
Fort William at the time. A comparison has been made by sorting the
differences into two-degrees amounts, and instituting a comparison only
on those cases when the strength of the wind at either of the observatories
did not exceed 26 miles an hour.
The following show for each two-degrees difference of temperature
the difference between the reduced barometer of the top and the barometer
at Fort William, the plus sign indicating that the top barometer was the
higher, and the minus sign that it was the lower of the two :—
Difference of Difference of | Difference of Difference of
Temperature Pressure Temperature Pressure
Inch Inch
+6° to +4° +0:047 —10° to —12° + 0°006
+4 ,, +2 + 0-044 —12 ,, —14 + 0:001
+2 ,, +0 +0:041 —14 ,, —16 —0:005
-—0O , —2 +0:031 —16 ,, —18 —0:010
—2 , —4 +0°020 —18 ,, —20 —0'018
—4 ,, —6 + 0:008 —20.,, —22 —0:023
—6 ,, —8 +0:009 —22 ,, —24 —0:029
—8 ,, —10 +0:007 —24 ,, —26 —0:033
The broad result is this, and it is clear and explicit, when the higher
observatory has the higher temperature, and when the differences of
temperature are small, then the reduced pressure at the top of the moun-
tain is the greater of the two; but when the differences of temperature
are large then the reduced pressure at the top is the less of the two.
The regular progression of these figures show that what is substantially
a true average has been obtained. The result, which is altogether unex-
pected, raises questions of the greatest importance, affecting the theory
of storms, the effect of vertical movements of great masses of air on the
barometric pressure which accompanies cyclones and anticyclones, and
the necessity there is for some accurate knowledge of the absolute
amounts of aqueous vapour at different heights in the atmosphere under
different weather conditions. Ben Nevis, with its two observatories, one
at the top, the other at the foot of the mountain, would, with a third
halfway up the hill, afford unique facilities for the prosecution of this
all-important hygrometric inquiry, which would, however, require ‘con-
siderable additions, for the time it is carried on, to the observatories’
present appliances and staff.
ON RECALESCENT POINTS IN IRON AND OTHER METALS. 147
Third (Interim) Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
FiTzGERALD, Dr. JoHN Hopkinson, Mr. R. A. Haprieup, Mr.
TrouToNn, Professor Roperts-AusteNn, Mr. H. F. NEWALu, and
Professor Barrett (Secretary), on the various Phenomena con-
nected with the Recalescent Points in Iron and other Metals.
Tre Committee reported at some length last year, and wish to postpone
a further report till next year. They desire, therefore, to be reappointed
withont a grant.
Second (Interim) Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. JoHN
Kerr, Sir Witu1sM THomson, Professor Riicker, and Mr. R. T.
GLAZEBROOK (Secretary), appointed to co-operate with Dr. KERR
in his researches on Electro-optics.
Tue Committee report that Dr. Kerr is continuing his experimeuts on
Electro-optics, and hopes to be able to get some definite results for the
meeting next year. They wish to be reappointed.
_ Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Livnrne, Dr. C.
Piazzi Suyra (Secretary), and Professors Dewar and ScuusteEr,
appointed to co-operate with Dr. C. Prazat Smyru in his researches
on the Ultra-violet Rays of the Solar Spectrun.
Tue first proceeding of this committee after authorisation was to inquire
into all that their Secretary was proposing to do in the way of observa-
_ tion and record in the ultra-violet of the solar spectrum and the suf-
ficiency or otherwise of the apparatus he had already collected for the
purpose. Much correspondence followed through the autumn and in the
winter of 1890-91, and it soon became evident that only a small part of
what was scientifically necessary could be procured with the amount
voted.
In February, 1891, however, a most agreeable surprise occurred, in
the shape of a resuscitation of a still earlier application on the same
general lines, but on a wider basis, by Dr. C. Piazzi Smyth to the Royal
Society’s Government Grant Committee in July, 1890, and which he
erroneously imagined, from their silence after receiving it, had not been
approved by that body. But it had been simply kept in abeyance, and
was finally pronounced favourably upon and granted in 1891. This
Measure happily relieved the British Association Committee from attempt-
ing to do altogether too much for its small means, though still requiring the
tmost economy in their disposition, as well as their limitation to the exact
tine pointed out in the resolution passed by the General Committee at
Leeds, viz., ‘to co-operate with their Secretary in his researches on the
Ultra-violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum.’
_ Now this part of the spectrum being absolutely invisible to the eye,
though otherwise known to be in the field of the Secretary’s Grating
spectroscope at the time, while the focus of the inspecting or photograph-
L2
148 REPORT—1891.
ing telescope thereof varied rapidly with the smallest angular change of
its direction in spectrum place, there arose a necessity for a considerable
improvement of the focussing arrangement over and above what is usually
supplied for the visible parts of the spectrum, or had been furnished in the
present instance for all parts. But this improvement has now been accom-
plished by Messrs. T. Cooke & Sons, of York, according to a design by
the Secretary, enabling the focus to be set distinctly and solidly to the
thousandth of an inch without reference to anything but numerical tables
prepared beforehand and tested by photographic record.
Again, however, in some of the most interesting of those ultra-violet
regions of solar spectrum light a further and more intricate difficulty of
a physical nature was found when photographing in the second order
of the Grating’s spectra. For, though that operation was performed under
double shields of the darkest blue glass procurable, yet the red region of
the first order of spectrum would insist on breaking in through all ob-
stacles, and showing itself even brilliantly by means of the anomalous ultra-
red ray transmitted by the supposed most pure and densely blue, or violet,
glass known! One possible method of getting rid of this difficulty imme-
diately seemed to be by photographing only in the first order of the
Grating’s spectrums, throughout whose violet fields there is no red band
of any other order to come in—blue glass in place or not. But could
sufficient spectrum separation of lines be thereby obtained, and without
any other drawback ?
To meet this essential problem Messrs. T. Cooke & Sons, of York,
were again applied to, and they constructed within the grant made to
the Committee an extra-large Barlow photo-achrom-concave lens, which
magnified the previous image of the inspecting telescope’s object-glass
by 2°3 times, or rather more than the first order of the Grating’s spec-
trums is magnified, in separation only, by the second order. And if by
the Barlow concave the magnifying is both in separation and in height
of lines (and therefore weakening to the intensity of the image), it was
hoped that longer exposures could be freely given. So that then, with
them, would come the final trial, which has still to be made—whether the
exquisite definition of the first order of spectrum cannot be Jenticularly
magnified to the required degree, with less loss of that still more valuable
feature, definition, than what takes place when it is diffractionally magni-
fied (at least in the Secretary’s Grating spectroscope) by resorting to cts
second order of spectrum ?
This is the main point, then, up to which the Secretary’s research has
just arrived by aid of the British Association’s grant of 1890. For while
the whole of that sum has now been expended on the above-mentioned
major subjects and a number of minor improvements and working particu-
lars bearing on the same ends, and nothing further in the way of grant
is now being asked for, it leaves sufficient material in Dr. C. Piazzi
Smyth’s hands for much work in the months to come. In earnest whereof
he begs to send some of his accomplished work during the last nine
months, in the shape of two album cases, each containing twenty-six of
his separately mounted and scaled but continuous solar spectrum mag-
nified photographs of lines in the violet and ultra-violet, besides a third
and thinner album case of previously taken eye-and-hand-made drawings
at the same instrument, but of the easier half only of the same subjects,
for inter-comparison of the two methods which are past, and in prepara-
tion for the third, which is to come.
ON MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 149
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Grytts ADAMS
(Chairman and Secretary), Sir Wit11am Tuomson, Professor
G. H. Darwiy, Professor G. Curystat, Professor A. ScHUSTER,
Professor Riickrr, Mr. C. H. CarpmMazt, Commander Creak, the
AstronoMeR Roya, Mr. Witi1am Etuis, and Mr. G. M. Wurerts,
appointed for the purpose of considering the best means of
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations.
Ix accordance with the arrangements made last year for determining the
mean diurnal range from the observations taken on five days in each
month, the following list of quiet days during the year 1890 has been
selected by the Astronomer Royal as suitable for the determination of the
magnetic diurnal variations :—-
Quiet Days in 1890.
January D5) da, oO, ole
February . 6 . 3 : ; 2 2, 0, 10) 23.25;
March 6 . 3 5 : ; : Zen Os) Gy Lop oUs
April . 3 F 3 , F : P 3, 9, 18, 25, 28.
May . F : 3 5 : A 1, 13, 16, 22, 29.
June . F 3 S - i = : 6, 10, 15, 24, 30.
July . : : J : : : 3 3, 9, 14, 28, 29.
August 4 ; A : P a 5 4, 12, 13, 28, 30.
September . 8, 9, 23, 27, 28
October : ‘ e B c 6 4, 7, 21, 28, 29
November . z 4 - ‘ : 2 3, 6, 11, 24, 29.
December . 3, 7,12, 14, 26.
During the past year the magnetic survey of the United Kingdom,
now in progress under the superintendence of Professors Riicker and
Thorpe, has advanced rapidly. Messrs. Gray, A.R.C.Sc., and Watson,
B.Sc., A.R.C.Sc., are at present working in Ireland and Scotland respec-
tively. A body of computers has been organised at South Kensington,
so that the reductions are proceeding pari passu with the observations,
and by the end of this summer complete observations will have been made
at more than 600 stations in the British Isles.
On June 18 last, in a paper read before the Royal Society on the
‘Comparison of Simultaneovs Magnetic Disturbances at several Observa-
tories, and Determination of the Value of the Gaussian Coefficients for
those Observatories,’ the Chairman pointed out the importance of adopt-
ing the same scale-values for similar instruments at different observatories,
specially at new observatories which have been recently established, and
iscussed special magnetic disturbances, especially the disturbances of a
great magnetic storm which occurred on June 24 and 25, 1885, for which
photographic records have been obtained from seventeen different obser-
tories: eleven in Hurope, one in Canada, one in India, one in China,
one in Java, one at Mauritius, and one at Melbourne.
In this paper the records are discussed and compared, tables are
formed of the simultaneous disturbances, and the traces are reduced to
_ Greenwich mean time and brought together on the same plates arranged
_ 0n the same time-scale. Plates I. and II. show the remarkable agreement
between the disturbances at the different observatories, and the tables
show that the amount of disturbance, especially of horizontal magnetic
force, is nearly the same at widely distant stations.
150 7 REPORT—1891.
An attempt has also been made to apply the Gaussian analysis to
sudden magnetic disturbances, and, with a view to their application in
future work, the values of the Gaussian coefficients have been obtained
for twenty different observatories, and the numerical equations formed
for the elements of magnetic force in three directions mutually at right
angles, and also the equation for the magnetic potential in terms of the
Gaussian constants to the fourth order. The observatories of Washing-
ton and Los Angeles in the United States of America are included in
this list.
During the past year a very interesting volume has been published,
giving the magnetic observations at the United States Naval Observa-
tory at Washington for 1888 and 1889. In accordance with the recom-
mendation made at the International Conference held at Washington in
1884 the hours adopted in these American tables are for the seventy-fifth
meridian (west of Greenwich), mean time.
The results of the Washington cbservations are contained in ten
tables, as follows :—
TABLE I.—Mean hourly values of declination for 1888-89.
TABLE II.—Mean hourly declination for each month of 1888_89, taken from monthly
composite curves. :
TABLE 1JI.—Mean hourly values of horizontal force for each month of 1889 in c.g.s.
units (dynes). ;
TABLE [V.—Mean hourly values of vertical force for each month of 1889 in c.g.s.
units (dynes).
TABLES V., VI., and VII.—Hourly values of declination, horizontal force, and vertical
force respectively.
TABLE VIII.—Summary of disturbances in declination during 1888-89, determined
from the composite curve.
TABLES IX. and X.—Observations for 1888-89 for horizontal force and dip respec-
tively.
In addition to the tables there are fourteen plates as follows :—
PLATE I,—Examples of the daily photographic traces of declination, horizontal
and vertical force.
PLATE II.—Mean diurnal variation of the magnetic elements for 1889.
PLATES III., 1V., V., VI.—Monthly composite curves of declination for 1888 and
1889, each plate for six months.
PLaTss VII. to XIV.—Comparisons of disturbed days of declination at Washing-
ton, Los Angeles, Toronto (Canada), and Pawlowsk (St. Petersburg).
The traces are all placed for the same time, and are reduced to the
same length of base line. In the horizontal-force trace increase of ordi-
nate denotes increase of force, and in the vertical-force trace increase of
ordinate denotes decreasing force, and the scale-value adopted for both
horizontal and vertical force instruments is yery nearly the scale-value
recommended in the third report of this committee to the British Asso-
ciation (1887), viz., 1 centimetre of ordinate=-0005 c.g.s. units.
The Committee entertain hopes that another of their recommendations,
to which attention was first drawn in their third report (1887), and to
which attention was again drawn in their fifth and sixth reports, viz.,
the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, is
about to be carried out. At a meeting of the Committee held on June 2,
1891, at which the Chairman, Sir William Thomson, Professor Riicker,
Commander Creak, Mr. Ellis, and Mr. Whipple were present, and at which
Mr. Gill also attended at the request of the Committee, a statement was
drawn up with regard to the requirements for a Magnetic Observatory
at the Cape of Good Hope, and a rough estimate of cost and maintenance
= CL ee
a
ON MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 151
was supplied by Mr. Whipple at the request of the Committee. It was
resolved to ask the First Lord of the Admiralty to consider a statement
of these requirements and to receive a deputation of the Committee and
other scientific men interested in the progress of terrestrial magnetism to
urge the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape of Good
Hope, to be placed under the direction of Mr. Gull, the Director of the
Cape Royal Astronomical Observatory. In answer to Sir William
Thomson’s application to the first Lord of the Admiralty, asking him to
receive a deputation on the subject, the First Lord requested that before
receiving a deputation he. might have a statement of the requirements
with regard to the proposed magnetic observatory at the Cape to be asked
for by the deputation.
At the request of Sir William Thomson a statement was laid by the
Chairman of the Committee before the first Lord of the Admiralty,
pointing out the importance of establishing a magnetic observatory at the
Cape of Good Hope and submitting a rough estimate of the cost of
observatory and apparatus and the necessary requirements.
In a circular issued by the International Meteorological Committee,
which will meet in Munich in September next, the following questions
bearing on terrestrial magnetism are proposed for consideration :—
QUESTION 8.—Is it not necessary in the introduction to the publication of mag-
netic observations to give the absolute values of the nermal readings of differential
instruments?
QUESTION 31.—Would it not be useful to come to an agreement as to the values
of the coordinates of magnetic curves registered by magnetographs ?
To these questions, according to the opinion of this Committee, as
expressed in their reports, especially in their third report (1887), there
can be but one answer. The absolute values of the normal readings of
all magnetic instruments and their scale-values should be given in the
publication of magnetic records, and it would be convenient that the same
scale-values should be adopted at all Observatories for similar instruments.
The value recommended by this Committee for changes of horizontal and
vertical force is ‘0005 c.g.s. units for 1 centimetre of the scale.
The Committee recommend that for self-registering magnetographs
the scale values for declination, horizontal force, and vertical force should
be arranged so that equal changes of ordinate correspond to equal in-
crements of absolute force in three directions at right angles to one
another, dz, dy, and 6z being the changes in the horizontal force in the
magnetic meridian, the horizontal force perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian and the vertical force respectively.
The Committee also recommend that as far as possible the same time-
scale should be adopted for the registering magnetographs at different
Observatories, and that this scale should be 15 millimetres to the hour.
Professor Lemstrém, of Helsingfors, also suggests the following ques-
tions for consideration :—
QUESTION 29.—What inethod should be employed for the study of earth-currents ?
QUESTION 30.—What is the extent of our knowledge of atmospheric electricity,
and how should we measure it quantitatively so as to get better results?
QUESTION 32.—What instrument is best for studying the variations of vertical
intensity of terrestrial magnetism ?
_ With regard to Question 32 the Committee are of opinion that Lloyd’s
_yertical-force magnetometer is a very satisfactory instrument for studying
e changes in the vertical magnetic force.
152 REPORT—1891.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. CAREY FostEr,
Sir Witt1am THomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. PERRY,
Professor W. G. Apams, Lord RaYLeicH, Dr. O. J. Lopar, Dr.
Joun Hopxinson, Dr. A. Murrueap, Mr. W. H. PREECE, Mr.
HERBERT TAYLOR, Professor EVERETT, Professor SCHUSTER, Dr.
J. A. FiemineG, Professor G. F. FitzGeraLp, Mr. R. T. GuAzE-
BROOK (Secretary), Professor CoHRysTaL, Mr. H. Tomuinson, Pro-
fessor W. GARNETT, Professor J. J. THomson, Mr. W. N. SHaw,
Mr. J. T. Borromiey, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the
purpose of constructing and issuing Practical Standards for
use in Electrical Measurements.
Tue work of testing resistance coils at the Cavendish Laboratory has been
continued. A table of values found for the coils is appended :—
B.A. Units.
No. of Coil Resistance in B.A. Units Temperature
HUGH PAS sw igo No. 74 “99954 11°-9
i
Miliott OAG6, Sk C, No. 75 “99949 12°-15
Wihovees.. . ate iy No. 76 99988 13°9
B.A., No. 38 in faecal, C, No. 77 1:00023 15°-7
Elliott, 257 . : : : i No. 78 1:00046 | 15°°6
Legal Ohms.
No. of Coil Resistance in Legal Ohms | Temperature
McWhirter, L.O. . . Ge, No. 200 99836 _ 13°9
Miliogeoes ae en! iy No. 202 ‘99871 11°75
Elliott, 250 cain <A be Ki No. 208 99924 13°9
Mulder isGsle sy . oh y uy No. 204 - 99868 15°2
PUlicteweoR eee Xi No. 205 “99985 15°4
Elliott, 259 eerie > | ¢, No. 206 “99975 15°-5
Elliott, 260 aa «2 , G, No. 207 10-0019 15°°6
Nalders20G inne ¢, No. 208 10:0066 17°8
Nalder, 2020 ¢, No. 209 100-056 17°-7
E ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 153
Ohm Coils.
No. of Coil Resistance in Ohms Temperature
meeeas £, No. 201 -99948 11°85
Elliott, 267 '; Maer ¢, No. 325 1:00040 16°-0
Nalder, 3059 . . . ¢, No. 326 1:00005 16°8
Among these the coil B.A. No. 38 iy No. 77 has a special interest ;
it is an original platinum silver coil which formerly belonged to Professor
Balfour Stewart, and is now in the possession of Professor Schuster at
the Owens College. According to the label on it, it was right at 16°°5.
According to the Secretary’s observations, its value is one mean B.A.
Unit at 14°9. This coil, therefore, would appear to have risen in value
since about 1867 by ‘0006 B.A.U., and this result is not in accordance with
the conclusions deduced in 1888 from the observations on the other plati-
num silver coils then examined.
Some further experiments have been made with satisfactory results
on the air-condensers of the Association. A megohm resistance box has
been purchased for use in comparisons of capacity.
With a view to testing the permanence of the resistance standards it
was thought desirable to compare them again with the mercury standards.
This was done in December and January by the Secretary. The coil
Flat was compared with two mercury tubes constructed in 1884 by Mr.
J. R. Benoit, which had been filled at Cambridge early in the year 1885,
and had remaired full since. An account of the comparison was read
before the Physical Society May 9, 1891, and appears in the ‘ Philoso-
phical Magazine,’ July, 1891.
The tubes were compared with the B.A. standards. If we take, as was
done in 1885, for the resistance in B.A. units of a column of mercury
100 em. Jong 1 sq.-mm. in section, the value ‘95412 B.A.U., we have the
following results for the resistance of the tubes in Legal Ohms.
N Value in 1885 Value in 1891
o found by RTG found by RTG
|
Bi : . . : "99990 99986
39 : : A ‘99917 "99913
The differences are only ‘00004 Legal Ohms, which is too small to feel
‘really certain about. If we accept for the resistance of mercury the value
95352 B.A.U., which (B.A. Report, 1890) appears the best value, then
we have:
i N Value given by Value found by
{ phe Benoit 1885 RTG in 1891
| [ee
ee Phe RE dee 1:00045 1:00033
| ae : : ‘ ; : 99954 99959
154 REPORT—1891.
These comparisons were made with Flat, and lead to the conclusion
that it has remained unchanged.
In November, 1890, the Association was invited by the President ot
the Board of Trade to nominate two members to represent the Associas
tion on a Committee ‘On Standards for the Measurement of Electricity
for use in Trade.’ A meeting of the Electrical Standards Committee was
held on December 2, and it was agreed to suggest to the Council of the
Association the names of Professor Carey Foster and Mr. R. T. Glaze-
brook as representatives. These gentlemen were appointed by the Board
of Trade together with Mr. Courtenay Boyle, C.B., Major Carden, Mr. E.
Graves, Mr. W. H. Preece, Sir Wm. Thomson, Lord Rayleigh, Dr. Jno.
Hopkinson, and Professor Ayrton.
This Committee after various meetings drew up a report, a copy of
which is printed as Appendix I. to this report.
The standards of resistance constructed in accordance with Resolution
6 of the report are now in the hands of the Secretary, and are being
compared with the standards of the Association.
Numerous experiments on the methods of constructing Clark’s cells,
and on the electromotive force of such cells, have been made at the
Cavendish Laboratory by Mr. Wilberforce, Mr. Skinner, and the Secre-
tary. These are still incomplete, but the experiments so far as they have
been finished lead to the value 1°434 volts at 15° for the E.M.F. of the cell.
The value found by Lord Rayleigh was 1:455 at the same temperature.
Mr. Fitzpatrick has continued his experiments on the resistance of
silver, and an account of these will be given in a future Report.
The Committee ask for reappointment with omission of the names of
Principal Garnett and Mr. H. Tomlinson, and addition of those of Dr. G.
Johnstone Stoney and Professor S. P. Thompson. They recommend that
Professor Carey Foster be Chairman, and Mr, R. T. Glazebrook Secre-
tary. They further ask to be allowed to retain an unexpended balance of last
year’s grant, amounting to 171. 4s. 6d., as well as for a new grant of 101.
APPENDIX I.
Report OF THE ELECTRICAL STANDARDS COMMITTEE APPOINTED BY THE
BoarpD oF TRADE.
To the Right Honourable Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, Bart., M.P., President
of the Board of Trade.
In compliance with the instructions contained in your Minute of the
16th December last, that we should consider and report whether any, and,
if so, what action should be taken by the Board of Trade under section 6
of the Weights and Measures Act, 1889, with a view to causing new
denominations of standards for the measurement of electricity for use for
trade to be made and duly verified, we have the honour to submit the
following report:
1. Before coming to a decision as to the points referred to us, we
were anxious to obtain evidence as to the wishes and views of those
practically interested in the question, as well as of Local Authorities
who are concerned in the administration of the Weights and Measures
Acts.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 155
2. With this view we prepared draft resolutions embodying the pro-
posals which, subject to further consideration, appeared to us desirable,
and forwarded copies to the representatives of various interests for criti-
cism. Copies were also forwarded to the Press. We also invited the
following bodies to nominate witnesses to give evidence before us :
The Association of Chambers of Commerce of the United King-
. dom.
The Association of Municipal Corporations.
The London County Council.
The London Chamber of Commerce.
3. In response to this invitation the following gentlemen attended and
gave evidence :
On behalf of the Association of Chambers of Commerce, Mr.
Thomas Parker and Mr. Hugh Erat Harrison.
On behalf of the London Council, Professor Silvanus Thompson.
On behalf of the London Chamber of Commerce, Mr. R. H.
Crompton.
The Association of Municipal Corporations did not consider it
necessary to offer any oral evidence, but the following resolu-
tion passed by the Law Committee of that body, was ‘adopted
by the Council of the Association :
‘The Committee are of opinion that, assuming that the
science of electricity has advanced so far that itis now
possible properly to define the three units referred to
in the Board of Trade letter,’ (7.e., the ohm, ampére,
and volt) ‘and to construct an instrument for the
purpose of standard measurement, the time has
arrived for the Board of Trade to take action thereon.”
4. In addition to the witnesses above referred to the following gentle-
men were invited to give evidence, and we are indebted to them for
valuable information and assistance.
Dr. J. A. Fleming.
Dr. Alexander Muirhead.
5. We also had the advantage of the experience and advice of Mr.
H. J. Chaney, Superintendent of Weights and Measures, who, at the
request of our Chairman, was present at our meetings.
6. After a careful consideration of the questions submitted to us, and
the evidence given by the various witnesses, we have agreed to the follow-
ing resolutions :
Resolutions.
1. That it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the
measurement of electricity should be made and approved by
Her Majesty in Council as Board of Trade standards.
2. That the magnitudes of these standards should be determined
" on the electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference
to the centimetre as unit of length, the gramme as unit of
mass, and the second as unit of time, and that by the terms
centimetre and gramme are meant the standards of those
denominations deposited with the Board of Trade.
156
10.
oa.
13.
14.
15.
REPORT—1891.
. That the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated
the ohm, and should have the value 1,000,000,000 in terms of
the centimetre and second.
. That the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by
a column of mercury of a constant cross sectional area of one
square millimetre, and of a length of 106°3 centimetres at the
temperature of melting ice may be adopted as one ohm.
. That the value of the standard of resistance constructed by a
committee of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science in the years 1863 and 1864, and known as the British
Association unit, may be taken as ‘9866 of the ohm.
. That a material standard, constructed in solid metal, and veri-
fied by comparison with the British Association unit, should
be adopted as the standard ohm.
. That for the purpose of replacing the standard, if lost, destroyed,
or damaged, and for ordinary use, a limited number of copies
should be constructed, which should be periodically com-
pared with the standard ohm and with the British Associa-
tion unit.
. That resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted
as Board of Trade standards for multiples and submultiples of
the ohm.
. That the standard of electrical current should be denominated
the ampére, and should have the value one-tenth (0:1) in
terms of the centimetre, gramme, and second.
That an unvarying current which, when passed through a
solution of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with the
specification attached to this report, deposits silver at the
rate of 0:001118 of a gramme per second, may be taken as a
current of one ampere.
That an alternating current of one ampére shall mean a cur-
rent such that the square root of the time average of the
square of its strength at each instant in amperes is unity.
. That instruments constructed on the principle of the balance,
in which by the proper disposition of the conductors, forces
of attraction and repulsion are produced, which depend upon
the amount of current passing, and are balanced by known
weights, should be adopted as the Board of Trade standards
for the measurement of current whether unvarying or alter-
nating.
That the standard of electrical pressure should be denomi-
nated the volt, being the pressure which, if steadily applied to
a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a cur-
rent of one ampére.
That the electrical pressure at a temperature of 62° F. between
the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark’s
cell, may be taken as not differing from 1-433 volts by more
than an amount which will be determined by a sub-com-
mittee appointed to investigate the question, who will prepare
a specification for the construction and use of the cell.
That an alternating pressure of one volt shall mean a pressure
such that the square root of the time-average of the square of
its value at each instant in volts is unity.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 157
16. That instraments constructed on the principle of Sir W. Thom-
son’s Quadrant Electrometer used idiostatically, and for high
pressures instruments on the principle of the balance, electro-
static forces being balanced against a known weight, should
be adopted as Board of Trade standards for the measurement
of pressure, whether unvarying or alternating.
7. We have adopted the system of electrical units originally defined
_ by the British Association for the Advancement of Science; and we have
found in its recent researches, as well as in the deliberations of the Inter-
national Congress on Electrical Units, held in Paris, valuable guidance
for determining the exact magnitude of the several units of electrical
measurement, as well as for the verification of the material standards.
8. We have stated the relation between the proposed standard ohm
and the unit of resistance originally determined by the British Associa-
tion, and have also stated its relation to the mercurial standard adopted
by the International Conference.
9. We find that considerations of practical importance make it un-
desirable to adopt a mercurial standard, we have, therefore, preferred to
adopt a material standard constructed in solid metal.
10. It appears to us to be necessary that in transactions between
buyer and seller a legal character should henceforth be assigned to the
units of electrical measurement now suggested, and with this view, that
the issue of an Order in Council should be recommended, under the
Weights and Measures Act, in the form annexed to this report.
SPECIFICATION REFERRED TO IN ResoxuTion 10.
In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the
_ arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is passed
through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver voltameter
measures the total electrical quantity which has passed during the time
of the experiment, and by noting this time the time-average of the
current, or, if the current has remained constant, the current itself can
be deduced.
In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about
l ampére the following arrangements should be adopted. The kathode
on which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum
bowl not less than 10 cm. in diameter, and from 4 to 5 cm. in-depth.
The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square cm. in area
and 2 or 3 millimetres in thickness.
This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the solu-
tion by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at opposite
corners. To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed on the
anode from falling on to the kathode, the anode should be wrapped round
with pure filter paper, secured at the back with sealing wax.
The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate,
containing about 15 parts by weight of salt to 85 parts of water.
The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current
passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the
current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be inserted
in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit should not be
less than 10 ohms.
158 REPORT—1891.
Method of Making a Measurement.
The platinum bowl is washed with nitric acid and distilled water,
dried by heat, and then left to cool in a desiccator. When thoroughly
dry it is weighed carefully.
It is nearly filled with the solution, and connected to the rest of the
circuit by being placed on a clean copper support, to which a binding
screw is attached. This copper support must be insulated.
The anode is then immersed in the solution so as to be well covered
by it and supported in that position; the connexions to the rest of the —
circuit are made.
Contact is made at the key noting the time of contact. The current
is allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and the time at which
contact is broken is observed. Care must be taken that the clock used
is keeping correct time during this interval.
The solution is now removed from the bowl and the deposit is washed
with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours. It is then
rinsed successively with distilled water and alcohol and dried in a hot-air
bath at a temperature of about 160° C. After cooling in a desiccator it
is weighed again. The gain in weight gives the silver deposited.
To find the current in amperes this weight, expressed in grammes,
must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has
been passed, and by 001118.
The result will be the time average of the current, if during the
interval the current has varied.
In determining by this method the constant of an instrument, the
current should be kept as nearly constant as possible, and the readings
of the instrument taken at frequent observed intervals of time. These
observations give a curve from which the reading corresponding to the
mean current (time average of the current) can be found. The current,
as calculated by the voltameter, corresponds to this reading.
PROVISIONAL MEMORANDUM ON THE PREPARATION OF THE CILARK’S
STANDARD CELL.
Definition of the Cell.
The cell consists of zinc and mercury in a saturated solution of zinc
sulphate and mercurous sulphate in water, prepared with mercurous
sulphate in excess, and is conveniently contained in a cylindrical glass
vessel.
Preparation of the Materials.
1. The Mercury.—To secure purity it should be first treated with acid
in the usual manner, and subsequently distilled in vacuo.
2. The Zinc.—Take a portion of a rod of pure zine, solder to one end
a piece of copper wire, clean the whole with glass paper, carefully remov-
ing any loose pieces of the zine. Just before making up the cell dip the
zinc into dilute sulphuric acid, wash with distilled water, and dry with a
clean cloth or filter paper.
3. The Zine Sulphate Solution—Prepare a saturated solution of pure
(‘ pure re-crystallised’) zinc sulphate by mixing in a flask distilled water
with nearly twice its weight of crystals of pure zinc sulphate, and adding
_
4 ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 159
?
a little zinc carbonete to neutralise any free acid. The whole of the
_ erystals should be dissolved with the aid of gentle heat, 7.e. not exceeding
a temperature of 30° C., and the solution filtered, while still warm, into
a stock bottle. Crystals should form as it cools.
4, The Mereurous Sulphate-—Take mercurous sulphate, purchased as
pure, and wash it thoroughly with cold distilled water by agitdtion in a
bottle ; drain off the water, and repeat the process at least twice. After
the last washing drain off as much of the water as possible.
Mix the washed mercurous sulphate with the zinc sulphate solution,
adding sufficient crystals of zinc sulphate from the stock bottle to ensure
saturation, and a small quantity of pure mercury. Shake these up well
together to form a paste of the consistence of cream. Heat the paste
sufficiently to dissolve the crystals, but not above a temperature of 30°.
Keep the paste for an hour at this temperature, agitating it from time to
time, then allow it to cool. Crystals of zinc sulphate should then be
distinctly visible throughout the mass; if this is not the case, add more
erystals from the stock bottle, and repeat the process.
This method insures the formation of a saturated solution of zinc and
mercurous sulphates in water.
The presence of the free mercury throughout the paste preserves the
_ basicity of the salt, and is of the utmost importance.
Contact is made with the mercury by means of a platinum wire about
No. 22 gauge. Thisis protected from contact with the other materials of
the cell by being sealed into a glass tube. The ends of the wire project
from the ends of the tube; one end forms the terminal, the other end
and a portion of the glass tube dip into the mercury.
To set up the Cell.
The cell may conveniently be set up in a small test tube of about
2 cm. diameter, and 6 or 7 cm. deep. Place the mercury in the bottom
of this tube, filling it to a depth of, say, 155 em. Cut a cork about
*5 em. thick to fit the tube; at one side of the cork bore a hole through
which the zinc rod can pass tightly ; at the other side bore another hole
for the glass tube which covers the platinum wire; at the edge of the
cork cut a nick through which the air can pass when the cork is pushed
into the tube. Pass the zinc rod about 1 cm. through the cork.
Clean the glass tube and platinum wire carefully, then heat the
exposed end of the platinum red hot, and insert it in the mereury in
the test tube, taking care that the whole of the exposed platinum is
covered.
Shake up the paste and introduce it without contact with the upper
part of the walls of the test tube, filling the tube above the mercury to a
depth of rather more than 2 cm.
_ Then insert the cork and zinc rod, passing the glass tube through the
hole prepared for it. Push the cork gently down until its lower surface
is nearly in contact with the liquid. The air will thus be nearly all
expelled, and the cell should be left in this condition for at least twenty-
four hours before sealing, which should be done as follows :—
Melt some marine glue until it is fluid enough to pour by its own
_ weight, and pour it into the test tube above the cork, using sufficient to
_ cover completely the zinc and soldering. The glass tube should project
: _ above the top of the marine glue.
: <
160 REPORT—1891.
The cell thus set up may be mounted in any desirable manner. It is
convenient to arrange the mounting so that the cell may be immersed in
a water bath up to the level of, say, the upper surface of the cork. Its
temperature can then be determined more accurately than is possible
when the cell is in air.
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor CaYLEy,
Professor SyLVESTER, Mr. A. R. Forsytu, and Professor A. LODGE
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of carrying on the
Tables connected with the Pellian Equation from the point
where the work was left by Degen in 1817.
A tarcE part but not the whole of the work has been completed, but the
Committee hope to have it completed in time for next year’s meeting of
the Association.
101. of the grant of 151. has been expended.
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. SToKzs
(Chairman), Professor Scuuster, Mr. G. Jounstone Stoney, Sir
H. E. Roscosz, Captain Asney, Mr. Wurppie, Professor McLEop,
and Mr. G. J. Symons (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of considering the best methods of recording the direct Intensity
of Solar Radiation.
Your Committee have to report that, after considerable search, Professor
Schuster found the thermometers constructed for Professor Balfour
Stewart for use with the apparatus designed by and constructed for
him, and that the apparatus and a mass of correspondence relating thereto
had been placed in Professor McLeod’s hands. He reports that he has
tested all the thermometers, and made observations with the instrument
when opportunity has offered. He has found it desirable to provide a
screen to prevent the action of the sun on the outside of the instrument
affecting too much, or too unequally, the reading of the internal thermo-
meters. It was always contemplated that the action of the sun on the
case of the instrument would affect the embedded thermometers; but as
care was taken that the central thermometer should be prompt in respond-
ing to changes of temperature, while the embedded thermometers, in
consequence of the way in which they were protected, should change but
slowly, it was expected that the difference between the temperatures
marked by the central thermometer and by the embedded thermometer
respectively would be sensibly proportional to the intensity of solar
radiation, notwithstanding the changes of temperature of the outer case.
This anticipation, the correctness of which is of vital importance to the
success of the instrnment, has not, however, as yet been tested experi-
mentally, and the trials would require to be made under specially favour-
able atmospheric conditions. The Committee hope to report definitely
in the course of another year as to the utility of the apparatus and
desire reappointment without any grant.
ON WAYE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 161
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor, Mr. J. N.
Lockyer, Professors Dewar, WoLcoTr Gipss, LIVEING, SCHUSTER,
and W.N. Hartiey, Captain ABNEY, and Dr. MARSHALL WaTTS
(Secretary), appointed to prepare a new series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Convpounds.
Tron (Arc Specrrum).!
(¢ denotes one of Rowland’s ‘normal’ lines, or one of Miller and Kempf ‘300’
lines, as the case may be).
Thalén Be & Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity | writer and 5 g¢ Vacuum Oscillation
Bouee;) | 7 ca. | _and Kempf |2 = op : Frequency
(Rowland) Angstrom Fievez Character a ree A+ —- in Vacuo
6750°36 486 2 176 | 1:97 4:3 14809°7
6708-04 2 1:96 4:4 14903-1
667814 769 8 667836 | 1:24 14969°8
6668718 66°6 i 1:58 14992°2
6665°58 1 14998:0
6663-60 62-3 6 $6663°74 1:30 | 1:96 15002°5
6654-30 52-8 1 1:50 | 1°95 15023°5
6647°69 45-7 1 1:99 15038°4
6644°85 1 150448
6640713 38°4 4 1°73 150555
$6633:90 32:7 6n 6634-14 | 1:20 15069°7
6627-77 26:5 4 1°27 | 1:95 15083°6
6614:05 ln. 1°94 15114°9
6611°94 1 151198
+6609°25 08-7 6 $6609°50 | 0°55 15125°9
6608-06 1 4-4 15128°6
6605°34 04-2 il 114 4:5 15134:'8
6597:°93 96°8 4n 1:13 15151-8
6594-00 94-3 6 —0°3 15160°8
6593-07 92-2 10 $6593°61 | 0°87 15162°9
6591:79 1 1°94 15165°9
658614 if 1:93 151789
6584-80 2 15182:0
6581°45 80-3 2 115 15189°7
6577°83 1 15198°1
6575719 74-0 6 7657527 | 1:19 15204:2
6572°87 1 15209°5
6571:33 L 152131
6569-36 68-2 8n 1:16 152177
«© 6556°92 55-6 1 1:32 | 1°93 15246°6
6546-40 45-1 10 $6546°66 | 1:30 | 1°92 152711
6544-14 1 15276°3
6538-77 1 15288'9
6534:07 33:0 2n $6534°30 | 1:07 15299°9
6528-81 27:7 1 1-11 15312°2
6523-59 1 1:92 15324°5
6518°51 173 6 1:21 | 1°91 15336°4
— 6515°95 1 : 15342:4
— 6510-15 083 1 1:85 15356°1
6507°43 1 153634
: » Kayser and Runge (Berlin, 1888); Thalén (Upsala, 1884); Miiller and Kempf
(Potsdam, 1886). :
1891. M
162 REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Ss Reduction
é os Pc) ‘
‘Kayser and ebee Intensity | \fiiller and | £ = = fo Na Oscillation
Runge ~~ and Kempf. SE &p ji Frequency
(Rowland) Agestconi Jueves Character eS as ALE <- in Vacuo
650438 03:3 2 1:08 15369°7
6501°77 00:7 2 1:07 153759
6499713 98:3 2 0°83 15382°2
649668 96-1 2 0°58 153880
6495713 94:2 10 0:93 15391°6
6494-09 1 15394-1
649281 1 15397-1
6490:°60 1 15402°4
6488°39 2 15407°6
6486-08 2 191 154131
6483°93 1 1:90 15418°2
6481:97 81:0 4 0:97 15422°9
6475°73 74:8 4 | T6475°91 | 0°93 15437°8
6471-58 L _ 15447:7
6469 40 68°5 4 0°90 15452°9
+6462°76 61:7 4 | $6462°95 | 1:06 15468°8
6457:19 ip 15482°1
645651 552 Ll Heit 15483°7
6450°08 Ll | 76450-18 1:90 15499°2
6439°24 i | 6439°38 1:89 15525°3
6436-79 i 15531°2
6433-42 1 15539:3
6432°85 il 15540°7
+6450°99 301 8 | 643112 | 0°89 15545-2
6426°75 1 15555°5
6421-52 20°6 8 | {6421°72 | 0°92 15568'1
6420°23 19°2 6n 1:03 15571°3
641724 1 15578°5
6414°23 ] | 1:89 15585°8
6411°83 10°9 8 6411-98 | 0°93 | 1°88 15591°7
6411-18 L 4:5 15593:°2
6408:25 OT 1 6 | T6408°35 | 1:15 4°6 15600°3
6404°98 1 15608°2
6402°74 1 15613°7
6400°13 99-1 10 ¢6400°35 | 1:03 15620'1
6299-68 i 15621-2
6398-30 1 15624°5
6396°22 1 15629°6
6393'83 1 | 6393-92 15635°5
6395°63 92°6 8 1:03 15636°0
6392°96 1 15637°6
6391°50 1 15641°2
6389°51 1 15646:0
6387-44 1 156511
6386°28 In 15654:0
6385-00 2 / 15657°1.
6383°57 1 15660°6
6382°37 1 15663°6
+6380°89 79:7 79'S 6 7638113 | 1:19 15667°2 ©
6379°32 1 1:88 156711
6378'16 1 1:87 15673'9
6376°09 750 735 iL 1:09 15679-0 |
6373 89 if 15684:4 |
6371°60 il 15690:0
6369°79 74
156945 r
; ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Runge
6364-69
6363-01
6361-90
6361-01
| 6360-20
‘| 6358-83
6357°61
6356'39
6355°16
638°86
6344-28
6341-73
_ 6339'17
6336-97
6335'43
6334-62
6333-49
6331-04
6328-93
6324-60
631059
| 6309°53
}
- 6302-65
| 6301-61
~ 6300-60
629931
6297-90
6296-67
6293-94
6292:88
629110
| Kayser and
(Rowland)
636753
6326-84 -
Thalén
Angstrom Fievez
21°6
16:9
139
11:0
09°5
06:0
01°6
00:7
96°9
93:0
92-0
90:2
88:0
84:5
81:6
79°6
766
69-9
69°1
64:1
62:7
60°6
13-4
09-1
05:7
02:0
00:5
97:0
69:2
64:0
163
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Qn g Reduction to
Intensity | \fijller and | 2 2a eae Oscillation
4, and Kempf SE 2 1 Frequency
Character z a Nee —— in Vacuo
il 15700°1
2n. 1-19 157071
2 1°81 157112
il 157140
1 15716°2
1 15718-2
£ 76358°99 | 1:13 15721°6
1 15724-6
1 15727°6
4 $6355°46 | 1:16 | 1:87 15730°6
1 1:86 15743-7
4 $6344-50 | 1:08 157476
1 0-73 15764:0
2n $6339°33 | 1:17 15770°3
10 1:07 157758
8 {6335-72 | 1:13 15779°6
1 157817
1 15784°5
2n 0:54 15790°6
2n 15795'8
2n. 15801°1
1 158067
6 6323-06 | 1:23 15811:1
1 15813°7
i 158171
10 6318-41 | 1:26 15822°8
1 15825°0
2 158284
4 {6315-46 | 1:52 15829°7
2 0°62 15839°2
1 1:09 15841°8
1 1:86 158444
1°85
6 4630284 | 1:05 15861°7
10 0:91 15864-4
i 15866-9
1 158702
6 $6298:24 | 1:00 158737
1 15876°8
2 0:94 158837
1 0°88 158864 |
6n 4629133 | 0-90 15890°9
1 0°67 15897-0
2n 0°73 159057
2n 1:57 © 15910°9
4 114 159171
1 15918°8
In 6277-95 | 1:01 15925-0
in 1°85 15933°9
2 1:59 | 1°84 15940-6
6 1:29 159434
1 4:6 15946-2
1 £7 15949-4
8 7626548 | 1:17 15956°3 |
1 159588 |
mu 2
164 REPORT—1891.
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM) —continued.
Thalén Qn g Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity | iter and | 3.2 dese Oscillation
RON eee | are Kempt EE bp Frequency |
(Rowland) Angstrom! lieve Character aa 7 - in Vacuo |
6263°31 In 15961°3
6261-26 2n 15966°5
6258°87 2n 15972°6
6256-52 553 55:1 6 7625666 | 1:22 159786
6254°40 53:2 53°0 6 1:20 159840
7625271 515 51:2 10 $6253:00 | 1-21 15988-4
6251 90 1 1599074
6250 °56 in 159939
6248°85 In 159982
6247°68 1 160012
6246748 45°4 45-4 8 $6246°72 | 1:08 16004°3.
6245°69 1 16006 3.
6244-20 In 16010°2. }
6243-06 In 16013°1
6241-73 1 16016°5
6240-77 39-2 39:0 4 4624093 | 157 16019-0
6240-47 1 16019'7
6239°54 1 1:84 160221
6238 53 1 1°83 160247
6237-44 In 16027°5:
6235°26 1 16033°1
6232°83 31:5 31°5 6 1°33 16039°4
6231°76 1 1604271
$6230°88 29:7 29°5 10 6231-14 | 1:18 16044°4
6230-16 1 160462
6229°34 1 16048-4
622872 1 16050°0:
6227-78 1 16052°4 |
6226-95 25:4 25°3 2 1:55 16054°5
6224-42 In 16061°1
6222°31 in 16066°5
6221°57 1 16068°4
6220°93 19-7 20:0 s| 1:23 1607071
6219-42 18°3 18:2 8 76219°61 | 1:12 16074:0:
6218°51 1 16076°3. }
6217°81 1 16078'1
6216°49 in 16081°5
6215'29 14-1 15-0 6 1:19 16084°6
$6213°57 12°3 12°4 8 6213-78 | 1:27 16089°1
6211-25 In 16095°1
6209-11 In 16100°7
6206-98 In 161062
6204-98 + In 1:83 161114
6202°59 1 1:82 16117°6
$6200°46 99°G 99-2. 6 6200-71 | 0-86 16123°1
6199-61 1 16125°3
6196-24 1 16134°1
619389 1 16140:2
6191-70 90°5 90°7 10 $6191°84 | 1-20 16145°9 }
6190°84 1 16148°2 |
6190°35 1 47 16149°5
618954 1 4:8 16151°6
6188°25 87:1 86:9 4 1:15 16155°0
6187-42 1 16157:1
6185°20 85 3 85°6 2 0:60 16161°1
| Kayser and
Runge
} 6183-15
| ¢6180°34
| 6178'80
4 6173'48
| 6172'60
6170-62
6169°77
6168'18
6166'80
6165°51
- 6163-70
6163-23
6162-40
6160-95
6159°47
6157°87
6157 29
6154 86
—6153°75
6151-78
6150-47
6149-24
6147 96
6147-48
6146-46
6145-38
6144-26
6143-17
+6141-88
6141-13
614012
6139-00
613784
6137-06
6136-76
613589
ON WAYVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén
83:0
793
723
69-4
63'8
623
56:7
36°6
35:6
26°8
15:3
56°7
50:5
46°6
30°3
26:7
22:0
15-1
12:0
Intensity
and
=]
Se De DPR BE Oe Re Oh
i=]
a
Seal
—
BNF RR REP ENR ND RE REE OR REN RRP RP RP Or OS RFR arr ree
Miiller and
Kempf
Reduction
to Vacuum
°
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrom
>
+
J
ie
165
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
6180°56
{6170°85
$6162:53
6148-10
$6142.04
6137-03
ae
or
H~ OL
1:82
1-81
1:17
1:24
1:16
1:24
1:81
1-04
16168°3
16175°6
16179°7
16193-6
16195:9
16201°1
16203-4
16207°5
162111
16214-5
16219°2
16220°4
16222°6
16226°5
16230°4
16234°6
16236°L
16242°5
16245°4
16250°7
162541
16257°4
16260°8
16262°2
16264:7
162676
16270°5
16273°4
*16276'9
16278°8
16281°5
16284°5
16287°6
16289°6
16290°4
16292°7
16295°8
16298°6
16301°4
16304:2
163071
16310°5
16313°6
16315°5
16318°6
16321°3
16324°9
16328°6
16335°9
16338-6
16341°8
16344°8
163471
16353°7
16356'9
166 REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
is » §| Reduction to
Thalén aes Vacuum ai Fe
Kayser and Intensity | \fiiller and | 585 Oscillation |.
hanes yl and Kempf 2 E af ; 1 Frequeney
(Rowland) Angatrom| ‘Fieve Character Aas At | oo in Vacuo
6110°81 1 | 16359°6
610944 07:0 2 16363°3
6107°22 1 16369°3
6105°51 1 16373°8
$6103°35 02-0 01°8 8n 1°35 16379°6
6102-30 01-2 00°8 8n 1-10 16382°5
6100°42 1 1:80 16387°5
609861 974 97-0 4 1:21 | 1:79 163924
6096-89 Saae 95°1 2n eas 16397°0
6095-88 1 16399°7
6094°50 93:3 92°8 1 1:20 16403°4
6093°84 92°7 921 4n 114 | 16405°2
6092°02 In 1641071
6090°38 2 16414'5
6089°68 88:1 4 16416°4
6088'49 In 16419°6
6087:00 1 16423-6
6085°42 84-0 1 16427-9
6082°84 81:3 1 16434°9
6081-77 80'0 1 16437°8 .
6079°29 2 164445
76078°64 176 IT 6n ¢6078°83 | 1-04 16446°2
6076'66 In 48 16451°6
607421 2 4-9 164581
6072712 2 4-9 16463°8
6070710 2 16469°3
6067°88 2 16475°3
76065°64 64:5 64:5 10 606581 | 1:14 16481°4
6064-92 1 1°79 16483°4
6063754 i 178 16487°1
6062°98 61:4 2 16488°6
6061°41 1 16492°9
6059°43 1 16498°3
6057734 1 165040
76056715 551 55:0 6n $6056°35 | 1:05 16507°2
605420 5371 2 1:10 16512°6
604457 1 16538°9
6043°86 1 16540°8
6042-24 41:2 41-1 6 7604246 | 1-04 16545°2
6040-00 1 16551°4
6035°63 350 350 2 0°63 16563°4
6034-27 33°0 38 0 2 1:27, 165671
603270 2 | 16571°4
6031°43 1 16574°9
6030749 290 1 1:78 16577°5
6028°56 1 177 16582°8
6027:22 26:0 26:0 6 1:22 16586°5
6026°47 1 16588°6
$6024:21 23°0 23:0 10n $6024:38 | 1:21 16594°8
6022°02 4 16600°8
$6020°28 1g }ei | 19°2 6n 1:18 16605°6
6018°20 1 16611°4
6016°87 4 16615°0
6015°85 1 16617°8
_6013°68 4 6013°83 16623°8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 167
TRON (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
. Thalen t 2 3 & Hestntioe to ; ;
Kayser and Intensity | yiter ana | BES acuum | Oscillation
anonce|———_——_|" and : 5S & Frequency
. : Kempf | 2 es 1 oe ans
(Rowland) Anpstiem| Fieve: Character Be “ meer sis in Vacuo |
—— | |
6012-50 11:2 11°5 1 1°30 16628-1 |
} 6008°80 07°5 07:3 8 1:30 16637°3 |
} 6008714 06:7 4n 16639°2
| 6006-74 05:0 1 1:74 16643°1
| 6005°70 03°9 2 | 16645°9 |
| 6003-17 02-1 6 $6003°33 | 1:07 166530 |
6001-36 986 | 1 16658-0 |
5999-45 1 16663°3
5998-05 96°9 97:0 4n 115 16667°2
5997-04 1 16670-0
5995712 if ent 16675'3
| 5993°37 1 1-76 16680-2
» 5991-42 1 16685-6
5990 04 1 16689 5
5988-67 1 16693°3
5987-21 86-2 86:2 6n t5987:40 | 1:01 16697°4
5984:98 |. 84:2 84:2 8n 0-78 16703°6
5983-91 82°8 82°7 6n ifala! 16706°6
| 5978-97 1 16720°4
| 15976:93 76:0 76:0 8 f5977T-11 | 0-93 167261
| $5975°51 74:6 74:3 6 0°91 16730-1
| 5974°65 1 16732°5
5973°36 il 167361
| 597222 1 1€739°3
5969°92 1 16745°7
5969°28 it 167475
5968°10 66°5 1 16750°8
596688 1 167543
596487 il 16759°9
_ 5963-82 61:3 i 16762°9
5962°28 59°5 2 16767'2
5960-04 ] 1:76 16773°5
‘ 57-1 57-4 4 7595855 | 1:28 | 1-75 167782
55:0 56:0 6 1:85 16782°5
1 16785°3
1 16788°7
516 51°6 8 134 16793°5
48:5 48-7 4n 1:05 16803°1
i 4-9 16808'1
41-6 2 5:0 16822°6
40:0 4 16826°5
1 16831-9
1 16833°3
33°9 33:0 8 $5934-99 | 0:91 16844-7
1 16846°4
29°3 28-7 | 10 0-95 16857°7
27°2 26:2 4 0-80 16864:1
1 1-75 16867-1
1 1-74 16873°1
1 16876°5
il 16879°3
1 16882°1
1 16885°1
1 16889°4
1 168921
168
REPORT—1891.
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Kayser and |
Runge
(Rowland)
591732
+5916-41
5915°65
$5914-32
5912:37
5910°16
5908°14
+5905°82
5905°13
5902-64
5901-87
5900:41
5899-40
$5898:33
5895°16
5894-49
5892°88
5892-04
5891-23
5889-22
5888°10
5884-05
5882°52
5881-60
5880-27
5879-80
5878-01
5876°71
5875°76
5874:82
587344
5871-72
5871:28
5864-38
$5862°51
5859-83
5857-71
5856-24
5855°30
5854-01
5853°38
5852°35
5849-80
5849-07
5848-25
5845-93
5845-13
5838-64
5837-88
5836-00
5835°52
5834-22
5830°80
5827-83
5816-50
Thalén
Angstrém) Fievez
15°7 15°6
13:2 13-4
09°4 09-0
06-7
O44 O£3
01:3 01°3
00:3
98:0
97-0 97-0
92-0 92-0
90°6 90°6
89-9
84-4
83:0 82°5
80°6
78:2
78:0
77-0 76:0
74:0 72°0
61:5 61-4
58°4 58°5
555 55:2
54:2
52-2
51:3 51:0
48°5 48°5
47-4 47-2
37:0 35'8
35'1
32°5 33°5
27°5 27°5
25°0
15°5 16°5
peety Miiller and
Character Kempe
if
6
i
10n $5914-47
2
4
1
6
1
2
1
i!
ih
2
1
1
2
1
il
1
1
4 $5884:19
uf
1
ik
4
a
i]
1
1
2
1
1
1
10 $5862:66
8
1 5857-8)
2
1
1
1
2n
1
1
2n 758 48-52
1
1
2
2n
1
2
In
1
1
6 $5816:68
Difference
Rowland
- Angstrém
1:05
1:64
3°02
3°30
1-00
Reduction to
Vacuum
ee et
A
174
1:73
1:73
1:72
5:0
51
1:72
171
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
16894°5
16897:1
16899°3
16903°1
16908°7
169150
16920°8
16927°4
16929°4
16936°6
16938°8
169430
16945°9
16948°9
169581
16960:0
169646
169670
169694
16975°2
16978°4
16990°1
16994°5
16997°2
170010
17002°4
17007°6
17011°3
17014'1
17016'8
17020°8
17025°8
17027°1
17047°1
17052°5
17060°3
17066°5
17070°8
17073°5
17077°3
170791
17082°1
17089-6
170917
170941
17100°9
17103°3
17122°3
171245
17129:9
17131°3
171351
171452
17153°9
171874
ON WAVE-LENGTIT TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 169
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén 2x & Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity Miiller and SE 5 Vacuum Oscillation
Seenoice.)|———_|_—}_ and Kempf gee i Frequency
| Rowland) isstrtinl Fievez Chamieter aerd A+ Ser ean
581554 i 17190°2
5815-02 14:0 13°6 2 1:02 171917
5811:°99 11:0 10°5 1 0:99 17200°7
| 580939 08°3 08:0 2 1:09 17208 4
~ 6808-10 06:7 1 17212-2
5806°83 05°8 05°8 2 $5807:05 | 1-03 17216-0
5805°83 1 17219:0
5804-63 03°5 03:2 1 1-13 17222°5
580422 02°8 1 17223-7
580021 00:0. 1 { 7235-7
5798°38 973 97°3 2 108 172411
5794:09 93°0 92°2 2 1:09 17253°9
5791°82 1 17260°6
| t5791°14 90:2 90°1 4 f5791:30 | 0:94 17262 6
5790°55 89°8 1 172644
578845 ul 17270°7
5785°50 84:5 1 17279°5
6784-78 84:2 1 17281°6
5784-00 83°4 il 1-71 17284:0
$5782:28 81:3 81°6 8 0-98 | 1:70 17289°1
5780 84 175 785 2 3°34 172934
577858 76:0 1 2-58 17300°2
| t5775°24 74-1 74:0 6 {577536 | 1-14 | 173102
6774-49 1 17312°4
5771:28 69:7 1 1732271
5769°37 : af 17327°8
576534 1 17339°9
$5763°15 61:9 62:0 10 $5763:23 | 1-25 17346°5
- 5762:58 1 17348-2
576170 In 17350°9
5761°39 59°9 1 17351°8
5760-51 2 173545
5759°73 In 17356°8
5759°37 58-2 1 17357°9
5756-85 56:0 In 17365°5
5755°24 1 L7370°4
| 5754-44 53:9 in 17372°8
| 15753 28 52:0 52-0 8 1:28 17376°3
6752711 51:0 51:0 2n 1-11 17379°8
} 5748-01 46:7 46°5 2n $5748:19 | 1-31 | 1:70 17392-2
| 5745:34 1 1:69 17400°3
5743:04 41°8 1 17£407°3
5742-02 40:9 40°9 2 1:12 17410-4
5740 10 39°5 1 17416-2
| 5738-43 1 17421:3
|} 5737-11 36'8 1 17425°3
| 5733-97 1 174348
$5731-91 30°5 30°5 6 ¢5732°07 | 1°41 5-1 174411
| 5727-86 27:0 28:0 ] 0°86 5-2 17453°3
5727.20 Ll 17455-°3
— 6724-52 1 17463°5
| 572382 23:0 22°5 1 0:82 174656
| 5722-00 1 17471°2
| 5720-95 20:0 19°8 In 0°95 17474-4
— 6718-03 16°8 16°5 6 f5718-13 | 1:23 17483°3
170
|
REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland) | Rnestrim Fievez
5716-20 15:2
$5715°24 13°8 14:0
571434 13'3 133
5713°54
5712°30 11:0
5712-02 10°8 10°7
1570956 | 083 08°5
5708°25 O71 O71
570715 06:0 06:0
5706°14 05°0 05:0
5705-65
570487
5703°66
5702750
T5701-71 | O0-4 00°5
5700°37
5699°62
5698°55 | 97:2 97°5
5698-23
5696°02 95°5
569521
5693°77 92°8 93:0
5691°64 90°6 90°8
5690-76
5688°52
5686°60 85:5 85°3
5684:84
5683°25 82:2
5680°42 79:0 79-2
7567918 (Ges) 73:0
5672°32 71-0 70°5
5668-65 69:1
5667-67 66°0 66°6
5666°95
5664°85
5663°94 63-0
$5662-68 616 6175
5661-50 60:3
5658°93 57°6 579}
5657-90
5656°84
5655-64 54-4 54-6
5655°40
5654°21
5652°51 516 52:5
5650796 49-5
5650-24 48-8
5649°90 48:0 480
5646°84 AT-B
5646:20
5645°95 44-0
564415 43°0 42-7
5642-99 42-0
©. 8 | Reduction to
peuy, Miiller and ee basin
cae Kempf |= 2
Character SS nM
aa A+ ye
i
1 1:00
4 1:44
2 1-04
1
2
2 1:22 | 1:69
8 5709°75 | 1:26 | 1-68
2 1-15
2 1:15
4 14 |,
2
1
1
1
6 1°31
4
1 5698-70 |
2 | 1°35
1
1
1
= 0:97
2 1,04
1
1
: 1-10
1
1
: 1:42
: 1:28 | 1-68
: 1:32 | 1-67
1
2 1-67
1
1
1
S 1-08
1
1
a0 1:33
1
1
2 1:24
2
In
2 0-91
1
1
1
oe 1:90 |
1
in
1
2 $5644.27 | 115
1
|
Oscillation |
Frequency |
in Vacuo
1749771
17500°9
17501°7
17509°3
17513°3
175167
17519°8
17521°3
17523°7
17527°4
17531:0
17533-4
175375
17539°8
17543°1
175441
17550°9
17553-4
17557°9
175644
175671
175741
17580:0
175854
17590°4
175991
17603-0
17624:3
17635°7
17638°7
176410
17647°5
17650°4
176543
17658:0
17659°7
17666:0
17669-2
17672°5
176763
176770
17680°7
17686:0
17689-1
17690°9
17693°2
176943
17703°8
17705°8
17706°6
17712°3
177159
— as
Led
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 171
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén 85 & Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity] yriiter and | 225 Vacuum | Oscillation
eis =~ it. 2and Kempf. s Ee Frequency
(Rowland) Angstrém| Fievez Character A a A+ += in Vacéuo
5642°76 1 177166
$5641°60 40°2 40'5 4 1:40 | 1°67 17720°3
5640°60 39°5 In 1°66 17723°4
5638-45 37°2 37°3 6 7563858 | 1:25 177302
5637°53 36°0 1 17733°1
5637°29 1 17733'8
5636°84 352 1 17735-2
5636-08 34:0 i! 17737°6
5634:16 32:7 32°5 4 1:46 17743°7
5632°54 | 31:0 1 177488
5631°84 2 177510
5630-70 1 177546
5629-33 1 177589
5628-68 1 177609
5627:72 2 17764:0
5626:87 1 17766°7
562595 24-4 24-1 1 1°55 177696
$5624:70 23°2 23°5 8 1°50 177735
5623°95 1 17775°9
5623°61 a 177770
5621:72 1 52 17782:9
5620°70 19°3 19-4 2 1:40 53 177861
5619-70 18°5 1 17789°2
5618°81 18-0 ie 2 081 17792°1
5617:90 1 177949
5617°39 161 16:0 i 1°29 177966
$5615°81 14:5 146 10 5615°85 | 131 178016
5614-09 178070
5612°11 11:0 1 17813:3
5610-05 09°2 2 17819°8
5609-12 07°8 1 17822°8
5607:90 05:8 2 17826:7
5606°30 1 1°66 17831°8
560512 1 1°65 17835:5
5603-14 01-7 015 8 1-44 17841°8
5601-77 ul 17846°2
5600°39 98°9 98:6 2 1:49 17850°6
5598°37 97:2 97-2 4 117 178570
5596-48 In 17863°1
559473 93-4 93°3 2 7559482 | 1°33 17868°7 .
5592-64 90°8 1 17875°3
5591:16 1 17880°1
-5590°30 88:7 1 17882°8
5588-92 1 17887°2
5586-92 85°6 85-4 10 5587-04 | 1°32 17893'6
5585-00 83°3 2 17890°8
558313 In 17905°8
5580-99 In 17912°7
5579-21 78:0 In : 17918-4.
4557622 749 74:4 8 1:32 17928:0
5574-99 ‘ 2 17931°9
5573:05 717 71:3 10 1:35 | 17938°2
5571-51 1 165 | 17943°2
$5569°77 68°5 68°5 10 1:27 | 1°64 17948°8
.5568°89 | Li 17951°6
REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SpectRUM)—continued.
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
5567-50
5565-76
556373
5562-78
5560°36
5558-00
5554-96
5553°70
5550:00
5547-12
5546°60
5544-07
5543-24
5542:09
5541-14
5540°93
553991
5539-40
5538-68
5537°86
5536-63
558552
5534°87
5533-10
5532'87
553213
553116
553071
5529-26
5525:70
5524-40
5522-60
5521-26
5519°69
5517-25
5516°80 |
5514-71
5512-47
5510°70
5508-53
$5506'92
5506-06
550451
5503-32
5501-61
5500°87
5499-60
5497-96
5497-73
5197-52
5496-92
5495-75
5494-62
5493-70
Thalén P
Intensity | Miller and
and Kempf
Angstrom Fievez Character
66:4 66°0 4
64:6 64:2 6n 7556599
62°7 62°5 4
61°8 61-4 2n
59°3 59-0 2n
67-1 56:7 2n
53°9 54:0 6n 75555°17
52:7 52:4 1
49-0 49:0 2n
45-7 2
45°5 45°3 2
42°7 43°0 4
42:0 42-0 4 5543-44
il
40:0 In
at
1
37:7 1
36:3 372 2
1
il
4
1
31°5 318 2
1
1
1
78 i cal leat E
284 ; 2
24:7 244) 4
23-0 In
21°5 21°5 2
20:0 202°) 2
”
een:
15°6 16°5 1
1
114 11:2 2
09°5 09°2 In
07°6 07°2 In
05°9 05'9 8
if
03°3 if
01:9 02-0 2n
00°5 00°5 8 $5501°82
1
In
al
1 $5497-83
96°6 96°4 6
1
1
93°5 93:7 2
92:5 93:0 4
92°5
Bes E | Reduction to
SEs Vacuum" \qesdtwties
2's 2 i Frequency
Bet| ae | ee in Vacuo
| A
1:10 179561
1:16 179617
1:03 179682
0-98 179713
1:06 179791
0:90 17986°8
1:06 179966
1-00 18000-7
1:00 18012°7
180221
1:10 18023-8
1:37 180320
1:24 18034-7
180384
18041°5
180422
18045-5
18047-2
2°38 18049-5
180522
18056-2
164 18059°8
1°63 18062:0
1:60 18067°7
18068°5
18070°9
18074:1
18075°6
18080°3
1:00 18091°9
18096°2
1:10 18102-1
1:26 53 18106°5
5-4 18111°6
181196
1-20 18121:0
18127-9
1:07 18135°3
1:20 18141-1
0:93 18148-3
1:02 18153-6
18156-4
181615
1-42 18165+4
dea tut 18171-1
18173°5
1°63 18177°7
1°62 18183-2
18183-9
0-92 181846
181866
18190°5
1-12 18194-2
1:20 18197°3
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES
OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 173
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
‘ Thalén o ££] Reduction
| Kayser and Intensity] 4,.. see | Vacuum 3 oye
. : unge ed s. -oe aa Hale ana £ z z petaten
(Rowland) Angstrém| Fievez Character cmp aes Abts We cored
ee A
5491-98 | 910 | 908 | 2 0:98 “48
549010 | 890 | 893 | 1 r10 18203°0
54ss-04 | 868 | 866 | 4n 1-94 re
5486-00 | 850 | 840 | 1 60 SaM16
5483-28 | 824 | 818 | 4 Ges | Teaners,
6481-62 | 802 | 802] 4 ts 18231"
648106 | 799 | 796 | 4 ide 18287-4
5478°60 74 | 780} 2 1-20 epee
47682 | 759 | 75°8 5476: ; peat
a Aesok Ns {5476-97 | 0-92 1825 3-4
5474-08 | 733 | 736 | 6 0-78 eek
5472-88 | 720 | 721 | 2 0-88 paeee 2
5470-79 697 | 2 Bele
5470-36 | 690 | 691 | 1 1ra¢ 18273'5
Beant ht 182749
5467-15 662 | 2 eee
5466-52 | 656 | 657 | 4 6-28 Pea
5465-20 1 ‘ eas
5464-46 | 632 | 634 | 2 292-2
; ean? 1-26 | 1-62 18294-7
5463-41 | 623 | 62°3
5463'19 po Vl | 161 18298-2
5461°68 aad 182989
Fae Eo a | 18304-0
BABT-72 2 He ast
5455-80 | 54-7 | BL pul Spa
neared 7 e 1:10 | 183237
5452-96 Bis | 1 hae
5459-10 we eee
5451-00 1 ee
5449-95 1 / ee
5449-16 1 eee
2 473 | 1 ee
6447-05 | 45:9 | 460 eee
eet fae loaegih aac ker) shoe he
5443-33 1 pba
5442-49 1 baal
5441°56 40:0 407 1 156 18368'8
oe : 18371°7
5439-48 380 | 2 cae
5438-51 1 peed
5437-50 360 | 1 saeeeo
ge as | Be) 3 : ee
4:66 | 33:0 . : aaa
ee 33°0 oS 7543481 | 166 18395-0
5431-82 1 Taro
5429-74 | 28-8 ae
Eebrs 260 | 10 0-94 18411-7
Bees ; 161 18413°9
Ree; ; 1-60 y 18417°5
oe 1 eae
5424-20 | 23-6 A so
Bissne 23-4 re 0°60 18430°5
5420°52 192 | 1 a
5418-66 1 Died
5-4 | 184493
174 REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM) —continued.
Thalén | oh; g Reduction to
Kayser and | Intensity | yyiter and ae s | ——— Oscillation
Runge a a He Bd ote Kempf |2 = eb | - Frequency
(Rowland) Angstrém| Fievez Character 3 eed Ae x in Vacuo
5417-715 16:0 16:2 i 115 55 18454°4
5415°43 145 14:6 10n $5415°52 | 0:93 18460°2
5413°30 1 18467°5
541113 10-0 10:0 8n 113 18474-9
5409°75 08-5 08:2 1 1-25 | 18479°6
5409-30 1 18481-2
5407-73 06-5 1 1848675
5405-91 04:8 04:9 10 7540606 | 1-11 18492°8
5404°35 03:1 03°3 8n 1:25 184981
5402-91 1 18503-0
5401-97 1 18506°3
Vogel
5400°60 99°6 99°6 6n 7540083 | 1:00 18511-0
5399-65 1 | 18514:2
5398734 97°3 97:0 2n 5398°63 | 1:04 18518-7
7539727 96°2 96:0 10 5397-45 | 1:07 | 1°60 18522°4
5395-42 fe mallee) 159 18528-7
5394-74 fe) ed 18531-1
$5393°30 92-1 92:59] eS | $5393°57 | 1:2 18536-0
5391-75 90°4 90:3} 4 5391-73 | 1:35 18541°3
5389-71 88-4 888 | 4n 5389°76 | 1:31 18548°4
5387-80 86°6 860 | In | 5387-87 | 1:20 18554°9
5386-63 85°5 85-0 1 | 538676 | 113 18559°0
5385°63 1 | 18562°4
$5383-50 82°5 82-4 10n | +5383°68 | 1:00 18569°8
$5379°70 785 78:0 4 | 5379°83 | 1:20 18583°9
5379-01 1 18585°3
B37788 | 765 | 762 | 2 | 1:38 18589-2
5377-08 757 75°2 2 | 5387775 | 1:38 18591°9
5375°57 1 | 5376-96 18597:2
5573°85 726 72°5 4 } 5373°85 | 1:25 1860371
5372-01 it 18609°5
75371°62 70°5 70°6 10 | F5371-74 | 1:12 18610°9
5370-09 69:0 69°0 Sn | 537024 | 1:09 18616°2
$5367-60 66°4 66°6 sn | $5367°79 | 1:20 18624'8
536562 64-4 64:3 t | 5365-67 | 1:12 18631°7
5365-02 63°9 63°6 6n | 5365°19 | 132 18633°8
5362-90 61:9 61:8 2 5363:21 | 1:00 186411
5361-80 60°8 60°6 1 5362:06 | 1:00 186450
5359-97 1 1:59 5:5 18651°3
535816 573 573 1 | 535865 | 086 | 1:58 56 18657°5
535628 55-0 es 18664-1
$5353°53 52°5 52°5 6 | 5353°71 | 1:03 18673°7
§349°83 48°8 48-7 4n | 5349-91 | 1:03 18686°6
5348°58 1 18690:9
5347-62 1 | 18694:°3
5346 62 ele 18697°8
524575 ba 18700°8
5344-64 1 187047
5343°62 42-7 42-4 4n | 5343°82 | 0:92 18708°3
5341-49 1 187158
534115 40°3 40:0 8 | $5341°36 | 0°85 18717:0
5340:10 39°2 38°9 8 | 534034 | 0:90 18720°6
5337°37 In: | 18730°2
,
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 175
. Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén Qn & Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity} riser and | 3 2 Vacuum Oscillation
Peg | |e ee Kempf 3 - Frequency
(Rowland) Vogel | Fievez Character = ee 4 Bs : _ | in Vaeuo
533547 1 187369
§335°25 1 187377
5333-04 32°1 32:0 6 7533316 | 0°94 187454
5330715 29:0 29:1 4 5330°07 | 1:15 18755-6
532894 1 18759°9
532850 | 27:3 27°6 8 5328-51 | 1:20 18761-4
532815 27-0 27:0 10 5328-20 | 1:15 18762°6
5326°32 25:2 1 18769°1
532431 23-2 23°5 10 $5324-48 | 111 | 1:58 18776-2
5323-70 1 1:57 18778°3
5322-30 21°4 21°3 2 5322-45 | 0:90 18783°3
532136 | 204 | 203 | 1 5321-51 | 0-96 18786°6
5320°28 19°3 19:2 1 5320°39 | 0:98 18790°4
5319-24 18°5 18:0 1 O74 187941
531685 | 161 | 160 | 2 5317-01 | 0-75 18802'5
531519 146 14:5 1 5315-73 | 0-59 18808-4
5313-44 1 188146
5311°61 1 18821°1
5309°89 1 18827-2
$5307°48 06'5 06°6 6 $5307°66 | 0:98 18835:7
530631 1 188399
530422 if 18847°3
5302-46 O15 O14 10 $5302°60 | 0:96 18853°6
5300-25 | 994 | 990] 1 530051 | 0-85 188614
529891 98-1 98:2 2 539919 | 0°81 18866:2
5296-82 94:9 95:0 1 0:92 18873°6
5295°41 94:3 1 18878:7
5294-63 93°7 93°9 1 5294:70 | 0:93 18881-5
5294-05 92-7 2 1:55 18883°5
§292:78 92-0 2 18888:1
5291-07 1 18894-2
- 5289°22 1 18900°8
$5288°64 87:6 87°6 4 $5288°85 | 1:04 | 1:57 18902°8
5287-48 1 1:56 18907:0
5285°76 84:2 84:2 1 5285°33 | 1:56 18913°2
_ §284°63 83-4 83'8 1 5284-66 | 1:23 18917°2
5283-75 | 827 | 826 | 10 5283-93 | 1-05 18920°3
5281°91 80:9 80:8 8 75282715 | 1:01 18926°9
5280°53 797 79:0 2 5280°68 | 0:83 18931°9
5278°95 1 18937°6
5277°80 1 18941-7
5276°19 75:2 75:0 1 75276:26 | 0:99 18947°5
527512 74:5 74:0 In 5275°68 | 0-75 189513
5273°55 72:5 72:3 6 5273°81 | 1:05 18957:0
5273-32 4 a 18957°8
5272-28 1 18961°5
© 5271-37 1 18964:8
75270 43 69:2 69°5 10 $5270°55 | 1:23 18968:2
| eee 65 68°5 68°6 10n $5279°90 | 1°15 18971:0
6268-73 1 18974:3
6266:72 65°3 65°5 10 5266°80 | 1:42 J8981°5
6264-00 1 18991-4
5263-42 62:3 | 62:0 6 5263°67 | 1:12 18993-4
5257-77 56'8 56°6 1 525816 | 0-97 19013-9
5255-44 54:7 54:7 1 5256°03 | 0-74 19022-3
176 REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued,
=| Reduction to
Thalén Sz
pe oe Intensity | Miiller and 88 $ ve
HES and Kempf Bo z oo
(Rowland) Vogel »| Fievez Character Aa At —
5255-08 53°9 54:0 2 $5255°32 | 1°88
$5253°56 52°4 52:6 4 5253°68 | 1:16 | 1°56
5252-08 50°8 51:0 2 525207 | 1:28 | 1°55
$5250°76 49-4 49°8 6 75250°85 | 1:36
$5250°33 1
5249-17 48: 47-9 In 5249:33 | 1:17
5247-20 46°2 45-7 2 5247°37 | 1:00
44-7 44:0 524598
5243-95 43°0 42:8 2n 5244:24 | 0:95
524258 41°8 411 6 $5242°75 | 0-78
5242-00 1 56
5236°33 354 35°5 1 5236°46 | 0:93 57
5235°50 34:4 34:7 4 5235°60 | 1:10
5234-77 33°6 33°8 i 5234:77 | 1:17
$5233°05 32-1 32:1 10 $5233'21 | 0°95
5232-48 1
6231:49 1
5229°95 29°0 29:0 6 5230°28 | 0:95
5228°53 27°4 27°6 1 522839 | 1:13
5227-85 1
5227-33 26-2 2674 10 5227:-47 | 1:13
5227-00 26°1 10
5226-63 1
5226°25 i
§225°60 24°5 24°8 2 5225°66 | 1:10
5224-40 In
5223-28 22-5 22:0 1 5223°44 | 1-18
5222°63 21°5 21-4 1 5222-79 | 1:13
5221-89 20°8 1
5221-09 2072 20:0 1 0:89
5219-76 18-7 1 5220-07 | 1:06
5218-28 Ly ve 2
5218-03 2 1:55
5217-49 16°7 16-7 4 5217:93 | 0:79 | 1:54
5216-37 15°6 15°5 6 5216°38 '| 0-77
5215-28 14:5 14:5 4 521556 | 0:78
§212°85 11:0 1
09°5 09°5 5210°72
5208-72 07-6 07°8 6 5208-77 | 1:12
5208711 1
5207:95 1
5206°13 05°3 2
520517 Li
5204-65 03°8 03-3 4 5204°85 | 0:85
$5202°42 01:7 01:4 8 5202-61 | 1-72
5201-22 1
5199°70 1
$5198°82 98:2 98:2 4 519915 | 0-62
5198-09 1
5197°68 1
5196°69 1
5196-20 95°3 95°6 1 5196-46 | 0:90
5195°59 94°6 94:7 4 5195°73 | 0°99
5195-03 94:0 94°2 8 519515 | 1:03
5194:20 1
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vaecuo
19023°6
19029°1
190345
19038°3
19040°8
19045°0
19052-2
19064:0
19069-0
19071°1
19091°6
19094 7
19097°3
19103°6
19105-7
19109°3
191149
1912171
19122°6
19123°5
19125°7
19127°1
19128°5
19130°9
19135 3
19139°3
19141°7
191444
19147-4
19152°3
19157°7
191586
19160°6
19164°7
19168°7
19177°7
19192°9
191951
19195°7
19202°4
19206:0
19207°9
19216:1
19220-6
19226°2
19229°4
1923271
19233°6
19237°3
19239°1
192414
19243°5
19246°3
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,
Kayser and
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
177
Thalén
Runge ay
pend) Vogel | Fievez
5193°10
5192-47 91-4 91:8
| 519210
i! 5191-56 90°6 90°6
5188-90
| 5188-00 87-2 87:2
5186-65
5184-42 83°3 83°8
5181-90
5181-40 80'8 80:7
5180714 794 79°4
5178°89 778 78:2
5177-40 763 76°5
5173°85
5171-71 711 70°9
517115
5170°86
5170:08
} 5169-09 68°4 68°9
| 5167-50 67:0 67:1
5166°36 65'8 65°7
} {5165-52 64:8 65:0
} 5164°65 63°38 64-2
9 $5162-49 61°6 61:5
} 5160°39 59°6
5159-09 58°35
5157:18 56°6
56°0
54:7
53°7
5153°28 52°8
5152-00 515
$5150:96 50°6
5149-43
5148-36 478
5148-15 46-4
5146-57 45°3
5145-17 44:3
5144-17 42'8
41°9
41-6
40:8
38°5
36°3
35°4
33:0
30°8
28°8
26-4
25:3
24+4
beasts Miiller and
an
Character stat ie
1
10 $5192°67
1
10 $5191:76
1
2 5188-16
il
4n 5184-46
1
1 5181°81
2 5180:29
In 5178°87
1 5177:23
1
8 5171:89
1
1
1
6 5169°33
10 5167-67
4 5166°70
4n
1 5164:87
6n 7516260
in 5160-57
4n | $5159-40
1 5157-69
5157-18
5155-87
5154-77
5154-04
5152-64
5151-66
7 1)
5148-84
5147-64
5146-56
5145-78
5143-98
5143-09
5142-71
5141-95
5139-72
See Hers teres Nee
7
n | 5137-46
5136-50
5134-00
5131-98
5129-92
He bt et He OD et Dm
5127-55
5126-42
mn | $5125-48
Dt he
Difference
Rowland
—Angstrém
Reduction
to Vacnum
1
A+ ea
1:54
1°53
57
58
1:53
1°52
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
19250°6
19253:0
192543
19256°3
19266°2
19269-5
192746
19282-9
19292°2
19294-1
192988
19303°5
19309-0
19322°3
19330°3
19332°4
19333°4
19336°4
19340°1
193460
19350°3
19353-4
19356°7
193648
19372-7
19377°6
193846
19399°3
19404°1
19408°1
19413°8
19417°9
19418°6
19424-6
19429-9
19433°7
19438-1
19439-5
19442°5
19451-0
19451:9
19456°6
19458°9
19464°1
19473°5
19481-6
19488-4
19494°4
19497°1
19499°9
19501°4
19505-4
N
178 REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Thalé ore Reduction
Kayser and Sere Intensity | \iter and BE i= to Vacuum | Oscillation
Runge |— and Kempf s E- zp ; Frequency
(Rowland) Vogel | Fievez Character ae 4 at |5- in Vacuo
512418 1 19509°5
5§123°82 2371 6 5124-31 | 0-71 19510°9
5121°71 20°9 2n 5121:93 | 0°81 19518°9
5120°32 1 19524:2
| © 119°77 1 19526°3
5117-98 | if | 19533°2
Die, | 146 | 1 | +5115-79 1-27 1°62 19541°2
5114°45 13-6 | 1 | 611452 | 0°85 | 1-51 19546°6
56111:21 if 195590
$5110 50 | 09-2 6 5110°03 | 1:30 19561°7
5109°75 | it 19564°6
5107-76 07-2 + 6 $5107°85 | 0:56 19572°2
5107°53 4 195731
5106°57 ] 19576°8
75105°66 052 8 5105°83 | 0:46 19580°3
5104°45 04-0 1 5104-75 | 0-45 195849
5104°25 03°7 1 5104°35 | 0°55 19585°7
510407 | In 19586"4
5103°37 | 1 19589°1
510228 | 1 19693°3
5100:00 | 1 19602°0
5099°17 af 19605°2
5098°77 98:2 6 7509891 | 0°57 19606°8
5097-07 96°6 4n 5097°36 | 0°47 19613°3
| $5090-90 90°3 4n 5091-12 | 0°60 19637'1
5088715 87:7 1 5088748 | 0°45 19647°7
508716 85:7 1 5086'52 | 0°46 19651°5
508426 83:8 1 7508439 | 0-46 19662°7
+5083'46 82:8 6 5083°66 | 0°66 19665'S
5083714 i 19667°1
5080:78 80°6 1 508174 | 018 19676°2
5080°37 80-2 1 508111 | O17 | 1:51 19677'8
5079°85 79-4 6 5080°41 | 0°45 | 1:50 19679'8
'5079°36 788 6n 5079°77 | 0°56 19681°7
5079-00 1 19683°1
5076743 TDT 2 $5076°62 | 0°73 19693°1
, 5074-80 ye) 4 5075:03 | 0°80 19699°4
| 5072°82 72:0 1 5072°94 | 0°82 19707°1
|5072°04 | 713 1 5072'34 | 0-74 197101
+5068°88 68-2 8 506910 | 0°68 19722°4
| 5067-22 66°6 1 5067°50 | 0°62 19728°9
5065:09 64:5 6n $5065°21 | 0:59 5'8 19737°2
5060711 59-2 1 5060711 | 0:91 5:9 19756°5
57-5
56°5 5057°44
55:8 505680
} 55:3 5056:11
i 5054-71 ba:9 1 5054-76 | O81 19777°6
5053°65 52°8 af 5053'77 | 0°85 19781°8
52‘2 505307
5051-72 51-0 6 $5051°85 | 0-62 19789°3
5050798 il 197922
5050758 1 | 197932°8
q5049°94 49-4 8 $5050-05 | 0°54 19796°3
} 1504857 | 48-1 | 2 5048-75 | 0:47. 19801°7
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF TIE ELEMENTS. 179
Iron (Arc SPectRuM)—continued.
. Thalén = | Reduction to
| Kavser and : 8330 |
} Runge = |———_——__— ied Miiller and 5a + Vaenum Oscillation
| (Rowland) Vogel t Chavactex Kempf {2 2 Frequency
, oge Fievez A ar NE ; ae in Vacuo
5047-85 1 aa —
5044-38 3: a *e 19804°5
5041-85 410 ‘ eee | een ee LOS18°1
5041-17 | 40°3 4 rey phe 19828°1
5039°38 38-5 9 5039-51 0°87 19830°8
5036-90 | 36-2 1 FORE 0°88 19837-8
5036-40 | 35+7 ; Basecach aes 198476
5031-95 | 31-3 ; RoHoaS 0°70 1984955
503099 | 30-4 1 Bietanel ace 19867°1
30:3 45 | 0:59 19870°9
5029-73 29-1 ;
5028-25 | 27-4 i aed 0°82 19875-9
5027-28 | 264 ie $5027-51 0°85 19881-7
502560 | 24-8 1 BBesaR| Roo 198856
24-0 cceeerel aoe 19822
5023-53 | 22-7 1 tt ila:
5022°35 21°5 4 5022-45 ‘83 19900-4
5021-61 | 20:8 i Bapildeel one 19905°1
5020°90 | 20:0 1 5021-08 Ost 19908-0
5019-89 19-4 1 502030 0:90 H 19910-8
5019-11 1 oe 199149
| 5018: ‘ vB 199179
BOLTS as pocerene| aes 19920-3
5017: : 2 19923°1
Bo640 | - ee ee 19926-2
5015-40 1 / 19928°7
5015-09 : ; 19922-7
he Pe aoe | eee | 19933-9
5014-10 1 | 19936°6
501348 “4 199379
5012°86 1 19940°3
5012750 11: . 19942°8
5012°15 te - els 0°80 1994 1-2
5011-42 1 0°85 Ye 19945:6
500750 06: : : 19949:4
5006-24 O56 = lene 28 G20 sy 48 199641
4500584 | 05-0 6 Rou gee 19969-2
5004-92 | 04-0 1 oe 199708
5004°14 03:2 6 A 199744
5002-95 | 02-2 E aes 0-94 19977°5
500202 | O11 8 pose lit 19982'3
95-6 1 999°38 | 0-93 19997-2
94°8 1 4995: 0°40 20006']
1 ep" | EOL 20010°9
936 4 499458 | O-@s 20015°6
; 20017:
39.9 2n || H99144 | o-93 3028-4
88:3 Z 4990°94 | 0-66 2003 1-9
85:9 ti Pek ee 20037°8
85:3 “ 298699" || O47 20048-8
84-7 4 4986°36 | 0:38 2005 1*5
Bard 4 74985°74 | 0-65 20052°9
82-4 = poee LG) Ord 20060:7
4983-45 | 0-60 200523
N 2
180 REPORT—1891.
TRON (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén = 8 Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity | riser and Se 3 Vacuum Oscillation
RUOCA Se .7 5 een ge |e eo. Kempf oe ob : Frequency
(Rowland) Vogel | Fievez (Character 5 ped vee. in Vacuo
4982-67 81:8 6 4982°81 | 0°87 20063°7
4981°73 797 1 2°03 20067°4
4979°66 78°8 1 4979-69 | 0°86 20075'8
fA978-71 78:1 4 4979-09 | 0°61 20079°6
497779 77:0 1 4978°72 | O79 | 1:48 20083°3
497603 1 1:47 20090°4
4975°60 747 1 4975°81 | 0:97 20092°2
497440 1 20097:0
$4973°29 72°4 4 | $4973:40 | 0°89 20101°5
4972°36 1 | 5:9 | 20105°3
4970°58 69°5 1 1:08 6-0 20112°4
497007 69°2 lL 4970:06 | 0:87 201144
4968°79 67-7 1 496869 | 1:09 20119°6
4967-97 671 1 aed: | 4968-05 | 0:87 20122°9
4966-96 (wal 20127-0
4966°23 65:3 | 6 | F4966°36 | 0:93 20130°0
4964-65 63-4 1 | 4964-50 | 1:25 20136°4
4962°65 62:0 1 | 4963°02 | 0°63 201446
4962°03 61:3 1 | 4962°37 | 0:73 20147:0
4961715 60°3 1 | 4961-46 | 0°85 20150°6
4959-61 1 20156-9
4957-80 568 8 4957-90 | 1:00 20164-2
4957-43 56°6 6 4957°53 | 0°83 20165°7
495611 1 20171-1
495573 ] 20172:7
495490 1 20176°0
4954-60 53°7 1 | 4954°83 | 0:90 20177°3
4952-64 51°8 1 | 4952°81 | 0°84 20185'2
4950°25 49-4 2 | 4950-43 | 0:84 201950
4948°38 In 20202°6
4946-54 45°7 4 | 4946-74 | 0:84 20210'1
4945°80 44-9 1 | 4945:99 | 0:90 202132
4943°80 43-7 1 | 4944-70 | 0:10 20221°4
4942-51 41-7 i 4942-75 | O81 | 1:47 20226°6
4941°32 L 1:46 20231°5
493978 38°8 4 4939-80 | 0:98 20237°8
38°3 4939°43
493893 37:8 6 4938-93 | 1:15 20241°3
| 4938°30 37:3 2 4938°3L | 1:00 20243°9
| 4937°44 36°3 1 493734 | 1:14 20247-4
4934 08 1 20261-2
| 4933-44 32°6 1 4933°67 | 0°84 | 20263°8
. 313 4932-40 |
| 4930743 29°7 1 4930'76 | 0:73 | ~ 20276°2
4927°93 27°3 1 4928°40 | 0:63 20286°7
4927°46 at 1 4927-93 | 0-76 20288°4
4492489 24-1 2 4925:19 | 0:79 20299:0
4924-00 23°2 1 F4924-25 1°80 20302°7
4923°26 1 20305°7
4921°11 1 203146
$4920°63 19°5 10 $4920°79 | 1-13 20316°6
f4919-11 181 8 $4919:20 | 1:01 20322°9
4918°15 17-0 1 4918-27 | 1:15 20326°8
4917-41 | 16-4 1 491759 | 1:01 20329°9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
TRon (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
18
Reduction to
Thalén gas
Kayser and Intensity | filer and a i Vacuum
Runge and Kempf Ss z op — aie
(Rowland) Vase! || Fieves Character 5 a El ide
4913°76 1
4911:93 11°2 1 4912°38 | 0°73
4910-60 10:0 2 4911:15 | 0°60
4910715 09°5 4 4910°58 | 0°65
4909-53 08°7 2 4909°81 | 0°83
4907-86 06°8 iE 490797 | 1:06 | 1°46
4906-68 1 1:45
4905°30 04°3 1 4905°33 | 1-00
4903-41 02-4 $4903°63 | 1-01
00-1 4901:30
97°8 4898'98 |
96°8 4897-91
4896°56 95°9 1 4897-01 | 0°66 6:0
4893-02 92-2 1 4893°12 | 1-02 G1
4891-62 90°8 10 T4891°78 | 0-82
4890°89 90:2 8 T4891-:10 | 0-69
4889-95 1
4889°14 88-4 2 4889-32 | 0-74
4888-71 87-9 1 488887 | 0°81
4887°39 86:3 1 488736 | 1:09
4886°43 85°6 1 4886:59 | 0°83
4885°55 84:6 2 4885-63 | 0°95
4882-27 81-4 1 4882°47 | 0°87
4881-80 80:8 1 4881-95 | 1-00
4878°33 77-4 6 4878-49 | 0:93
4876°00 753 1 4876-67 | 0:70
74:3 487568
737 487515
73:0 4874-21 1:45
487225 71:3 8 4872-45 | 0-95 | 1:44
4871°43 70°6 8 $4871°60 | 0:83
487014 1
4869°71 68- 1 4869°87 | 1:01
67°6 4868°76
66°6
4863°78 62°8 1 0:98
61:7
4862°07 61:2 i 4862:17 | 0°87
4860°92 60°3 In 0:72
$4859°86 58°8 8 4860:01 | 1:06
4859°20 1
4857°40 56°6 1 485764 | 0°80
4855°80 54-7 1 $4855°89 | 1:10
4855°00 54-1 1 4855-11 | 0:90
4852-09 51-2 1 4852°39 | 0°89
4849-02 48°8 1 $4849:05 | 0-22
4848-57 48-1 ] 4848:77 | 0-47
4845°76 44-7 1 4845°67 | 1:06
4844-13 43°3 1 484435 | 0°83
4843°31 42°3 2 4843-48 | 1:01
4841-92 41-1 1 4842-12 | 0°82
4840-42 39-4 1 4840°62 | 1:02
4839°66 38°8 2 4839°94 | 0°86
4838°66 37-7 1 $4838-90 | 0:96
483604 35°0 ui 483631 | 1°04 | 1:43
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
20345°0
20352°6
20358°1
20360-0
20362°5
20369°5
20374:4
20380°1
20388-0
20416°5
20431-2
204370 |
20440°1
20444-0
20447-4
20449-2
20454-7
204587
20462°4
20476°2
20478'1
20492-7
20502°5
20518°3
20521°7
20527°2
20529°0
205540
20561°3
205661
20570°6
20573-4
20581:0
20587°8
20591:2
20603°6
20616°6
20618°5
20630°5
20637°4
20640°9
20646°9
20653°3
20656°5
20660°8
20672°0
1
182 REPORT—1891.
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
| mate soi] eee
Kayser and | Intensity | fier and | 3.27 Oscillation
Ramee. SS and Kempf 2 — Bo 1 Frequency
(Rowland) | Vogel | Fievez Character} = Fa AL rn in Vacuo
|
4834-64 | 33:8 1 4834:96 | 0°84 20678:0
4832°84 3158 «| 2 483317 | 1:04 20685°7
4827°57 267 1 0:87 20708°2
4825°44 24-6 1 0°84 207174
4824-27 1 20722°4
+4823-63 233 | [ames | $4824:04 | 0°33 61 20725°2
4817-90 17:2 1 | f4818:24 | 0°70 62 20749°7
4815:42 ron oe] 1 1:12 2076074
4813°33 12°3 1 481368 | 1:03 20769-4
4811-22 10°3 1 | 4811:67 | 0:92 20778°5
4810:06 09:3 1 | F4810°81 | 0-76 20783°6
4809°65 L 20785°3
4809°36 08°6 it 0:76 20786°6
4808 87 08-0 1 | $4809-05 | 0°87 20788°7
480825 07-5 1 0-75 20791°4
4807-86 O71 1 0°76 207931
4804°71 03°8 1 4804-89 | O91 20806°7
4803°00 02°1 4 4803°12 ‘90 | 1:43 208141
4801-26 i 1:42 20821°7
4800°76 99°8 2 0:96 20823°8
4799°98 99-2 1 0:78 20827:2
4799-50 98°6 a 0:90 20829°3
4798:90 1 20831°9
4798-38 977 1 $4798°75 | 0°58 20834:2
Ses} 479858
AT94-15 93°5 1 4794:73 | 0°65 20852°6
479262 92-1 1 4793°21 | 0°52 20859°2
4791°33 90:3 il 4791:51 | 1:03 20864°8
4790-54 1 20868°3
4789°74 88°8 6 479002 | 0°94 20871°8
4788°86 87'8 2 478910 | 1:06 20875°6
A787°95 868 In 478818 | 1:18 20879°4
A786°91 85°9 4 1-01 208841
4786-04 84°9 i 478617 | 1:14 20887°9
4783°56 79°8 4 $4783'73 | 3:76 20898°7
| 4779-55 785 1 4779:°80 | 1:05 20916°3
AT7O-17 75°3 1 0:87 209311
477295 71:8 2 fi773°24 | 1-15 20945°2
4771°81 70-7 1 Ail Op | ae 20950°2
476846 67:3 Z 476870 | 1:16 209649
4767:13 1 20970°8
4766:56 65'S 2 476718 | O76 | 1:42 20973°3
4765:98 65°3 1 4766-74 | 068 | 1:41 20975'8
64-4 4765°82
476248 1 $4762°83 20991°3
4761°66 58°8 1 4760°21 | 0°86 20994°9
4757-70 56-7 2 4757-91 | 1:00 210124
4756°20 55:3 L 475645 | 0:90 21019°0
$4754-16 54:7 4 475440 | 0-46 210280
4752°50 516 1 4752-77 | 0:90 21035°3
50°2 4751-47
| 4750713 49:2 1 4750°29 | 0:93 21045°8
4749°77 Ta aed 6-2 | 21047-4
4747-49 47-2 1 4474840 | 0-29 6:3 21057°5
| 4745-92 45:0 2 4746-16 | 0°92 210644
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 183
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
4741-65
4741-27
4740-48
4739°26
4737°75
4736°91
4735°96
4734°25
4733°71
4731°60
4730-41
4729'84
A729°13
4728°67
4727-56
4726'38
4722°27
4721°11
471431
471221
4711:56
4710°37
4709°83
4709'18
470745
4705'53
4705'10
4701-10
4700°49
4698°50
4694-97
4691°52
4690°26
4689°62
4688°39
4687-49
4685°27
4683-68
4682:74
4682'18
4681°58
4680°49
$4678-97
4675:23
4674°78
4674:37
4673:29
4669°30
4668-23
4667-56
4666-08
4664-46
4663-25
4662-09
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)— continued.
Thalén : os g Reduction te
"| Intensity] iter and | 522 acuum | Oscillation
and Kempt 2 = o0 | Frequency
Vogel | Fievez eres a i A+ + epee
43°6 | 4744-75 |
40°7 2 4741°84 | 0:95 ! 21083°4
39°6 1 4740°69 1:67 | 21085°1
1 ) 21088°6
1 21094-0
371 1 4738°05 | 0°65 21100°8
36°2 10 T4738715 | 0-71 21104°5
35°2 4 473616 | 0-76 21108°7
33°3 1 473438 | 0-95 2111674
32°7 4 473390 | 1-01 | 21118°8
30°7 1 473181 | 0-90 | 1:41 21128°2
1 1:40 21133°5
289 L 4730°02 | 0:94 2113671
28°3 1 472941 | 0:83 7 21139-2
27°9 4 4728°90 | 0-77 21141°3
4 f4727-72 21146°3
25-4 1 472645 | 0:98 21151°5
1 21170°0
20°3 1 0:81 21175°2
13:7 1 TATI4-75 | 061 21205°7
11-4 i 471246 | 0-81 21215°2
107 1 4711°83 | 0:86 21218'1
09°5 +b 4710°62 | 0:87 2122374
1 21225°9
08°3 4 4709-41 | 0-88 21228°8
06°6 8 470769 | 0:85 21236°6
04:7 i 47085°83 | 0-83 21245'3
04:2 2 4705°30 | 0-90 21247°2
In 21265'3
99-4 In 4700°48 | 1:09 212681
97-7 1 4698°78 | 0-80 | 1°40 2127771
94:3 1 4695°41 | 0°67 1:39 2129371
90:6 6 4691°78 0:92 | 21308°7
89°3 2 4690°37 | 0:96 213145
88°6 1 4689°64 | 1:02 21317°4
87:3 In 4688°39 | 1:09 21323-0
86°5 if 4687°56 | 0:99 21327'1
83:7 i 4684-79 | 1:57 21337-2
82°7 2 468376 | 0:98 213444
1 21348°7
81:3 1 4682746 | 0-88 2135173
80°6 1 4681°60 | 0:98 21354:0
19°T 1 4680°63 | 0:79 21359°0
THe) 8 $4679°23 | 1:07 213659
1 6:3 21383°0
1 64 | 21385-0
1 21386°8
72:2 4 $4673°37 | 1:09 21391°8
68°3 4 4679°28 | 1:00 2141071
67:2 6 467820 | 1:03 f 21415°0
65°5 6 4667-81 | 1-06 2141871
64:9 In 466608 | 1:18 21424°9
1 21432°3
62°3 1 4663°49 | 0°95 21437°9
61:2 2 0°89 21443:2
184
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
4661°61
4658°77
4658-42
4657-71
4654-70
4652-21
4651-27
4649-95
4647-54
4646°34
4644-94
$4643°58
464112
4640°45
4638°13
4637-66
4635°95
4634-92
4633-87
4633-02
4631-61
4630-91
4630-22
4629°44
4627-65
4626-65
462519
4619°40
4618°88
4615 73
4614-29
4613°35
4611-38
4607°79
4606°34
4605°52
460484
4604-01
4603-03
4602-11
4601-08
4600-09
4598-26
4597°50
4596-64
4596713
4595°48
4594-25
4593°64
4592-75
4591-52
4587:23
4586-46
4584-89
4583-93
REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén
Fievez
Intensity
and
Character
iy
COR eee
ee te Bere ee ee
Bb i=] Bp
_~ =
“oS
BS
i=]
See tate eae es ee ag oO Ca ee ee i ba Ee
Miiller and
Kempf
4661-71
4658°52
4657°82
465489
4651°55
4650°37
4647°70
4646-52
4643°76
4641-21
4638-32
4637-83
4636719
4635°04
4634-06
4633-24
4630°45
4627-79
$4625°35
4619:66
461914
4615-92
4614-53
4613-59
4611-60
4607-88
4604-90
4603°30
4602°35
4601°35
4598-48
4596°38
4595°71
4592-88
4591-10
4597-45
4595-11
4594-17
te)
Rowland
—Angstrém
Difference
2
ile)
a
Reduction to
Vacuum
x 1
ie
1:39
1:38
1°38
1:37
6-4
6°5
Moss
1°36
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
214454
21458°5
2146071
21463-4
21477°3
21488°8
21493°1
21499-2
21510°4
215159
21522°4
21528°7
2154071
21543°2
215540
21556°2
215641
21568-9
21573°8
21577°8
21584-4
21587°6
21590°8
215945
21602°8
21607°5
216143
216414
21643-9
21658°6
21665-4
21669°8
216791
216959
21702°7
21706°6
21709°8
217137
21718°3
21722°7
217275
21732°2
21740°9
21744°4
217485
21750°9
21754:0
21759°8
21762°7
21766°9
21772'8
217931
217968
21804:3
21808:8
Tes ven
es aw
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 185
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
- Thalén o,, #| Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity| iter ana g25 Vacuum sau
(Rowland) i ae ee and Kempf’ 25 Ey oe
. y uency
Vogel | Fievez piace aes 44 | 2S an yaeds
——<—<——_ A
4583-04 1 = wh ana
4582-51 1 218131
4581°66 | 80°8 4 : 21815°6
4580-67 | 79°8 pas Fone 21819°6
458004 | 79-4 1 : 21824°4
a.53 ! 4580°38 | 0-64 21827-4
4579-30 1 21827°9
4575°87 1 218309
4574-84 | 74:2 ae 21847°3
| 4574-34 ab iarOT 1) Oo4 21852'2
| 4573°05 72:2 1 Bt ! 218546
4571-62 | 71-1 1 457200 | 052 pee
| 4568-93 | 68-2 4 cele yaatc es 21867°6
| 4567-10 | 663 1 Cee eaten 21880°5
4566-62 | 65°8 2 4566°82 td 21889°2
456581 | 65-0 2 pee dae 218915
4565-44 1 0-81 218954
4564-87 | 64:2 = 21897:2
| 4561-09 | 60-7 1 219145
| 4560-26 | 59-4 2 4560.58 be 21918-1
| 4558-18 | 57-3 1 4558-36 | 088 pie
| «4557-46 ia 0°88 21932:1
| 4557-04 1 21935°5
| 4556-22 | 55-4 21937°6
| 4554-63 7 4556°33 | 0°82 a 91941°5
| 4554-26 1 ; 21949-2
| 4552-66 | 51-3 + MBEe- at ; 219514
| 4551-76 Le 0°86 21958-7
| 455110 | 501 In 4561-07 | 1-00 21963-0
| 4549-57 | 48-9 4 | +4549-86 | 0: anes
4548'88 1 0:67 219732
4547-95 | 473 8 21976-9
4547-14 | 463 ' pete 0°65 21981°4
4546-61 1 0:84 21985°3
454613 | 44-0 21987-9
4542-84 ™ 4544°95 | 2:13 21990°2
454263 | 41-8 9 a 22006:2
4542-07 4 4542/80 1) 0-78 22007°7
4541-43 1 22009°9
4540°77 1 22013-0
4539-87 1 6-5 | 22016-2
4538-96 38-0 nae 66 22020°5
4537-74 : 4539°07 | 0:96 22024-9
453658 1 22030°8
4536°10 1 220364
4535:65 1 22038°8
4534-94 in 22041-0
4534-13 1 22043°4
4533°35 32-5. 2 a | 22048°3
4532°47 1 453347 | 0°85 22052'1
4531-'75 | 30°8 4 : 22056'4
4531-25 | 90-4 8 ae8i40.| O88 2259-9
4530-51 1 0°85 22062"4
4529-75 | 28:8 22066-0
4 4529°86 | 0-95 | 22069°7
186 REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén Qn & Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity | yfiter and | 322 Vacuum Oscillation
onges Sand Kempf |2 = 2 Frequency
(Rowland) Wesel altaya: Character fe a sik - x in Vacuo
4528°78 28°0 10 $4529°02 | 0-78 220744
4527°99 1 22078°3
4527°36 1 | 220813
4526°66 25°7 + 4526°75 | 0°96 22084°7
4525°99 | 1 22088:0
4525°27 | 24-4 6 4525°42 | 0:87 22091°5
452491 2 22093°3
4523°47 22°6 1 4523°65 | 0:87 22100°3
4522-72 | 22-0 1 $4523°60 | 0-72 22104-0
4520°35 19°5 1 $4520°46 | 0°85 | 1:35 22115°6
4518°62 17°6 1 4518°67 | 1:02 | 1°34 221240
4517°64 16°8 4 4517°83 | 0°84 22130°8
4515°36 14:7 1 451563 | 0°66 221400
4514-29 13-4 2 0°89 22144°3
4509°95 089 Lb 450998 | 1:05 22166°6 j
4509-41 ik 22169°2
4508°40 07°6 1 4508°48 | 0-80 221742
06°5 ‘ .
450493 | O12 1 4505°07 | 0-73 221913 |
4502-76 01:8 1 450286 | 0:96 22202:0
4502°31 1 22204°2
4499-03 98-4 1 4499°35 | 0°63 »22220°4
4497-86 96-2 1 4407-13 | 0°66 22226°2
4496°20 2 22234-4
4495°51 1 22237°8
7449467 93°S 8 | [449471 | 0:87 22242°0
4493°95 1 22245°5
4493°42 1 22248:2
449284 92:0 1 4492°90 | 0°84 22251°0
4491°53 1 22257°5
4490°88 90:2 2 4491:02 | 0°68 22260°7
4490719 89°3 oI 4490°35 | 0°89 22264°2
4489°84 88°8 4 1:04 22265°9
4489-08 88:3 1 4489°37 | 0°78 22269°7
4488°26 87°5 2 4488-47 | 0:76 22273°7
4485°77 84:8 4 | $4485°98 | 0:97 2228671
4484°36 83°5 6 448447 | 0°86 | 1:34 22293°1
4483°32 1 133) 22298°3
| 4482°86 | 82:0 1 4482:99 | 0°86 22300°6
4482°35 816 8 4482-37 | 0°75 22303°1
4481°72 8L:0 1 448177 | 0:72 22306°3
4481-03 1 22309°7
4480°26 79-4 2 4480°30 | 0°86 22313'°5
4479°73 788 2 4479°81 | 0:93 22316:2
447818 if 22323°9
4477-71 il 22326:°2
4477-37 iL 22327°9
4476°98 1 22329°9
447620 | 75-4 10 $4476:29 | 0°80 223338 |
4475-41 | 1 22337°6
4474-87 1 223404
4474-13 i! 223441
4472°84 2 $4473:10 66 22350°6 |)
4471°94 1 6:7 22355:0 |
4471-31 1 223581;
‘Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
4470:23
4469°53
4468-44
4467-96
4467°55
4466:70
4465°96
4465°39
4464-88
4463-66
4463°33
4462-11
4461-75
4460°48
4459-88
4459-24
4458°35
4457-68
4457-18
4456°46
4455°85
4455-20
4454-50
4453-53
4453-16
4452-22
4451-71
4450-44
4448-66
4447-85
4447-23
4446-95
4446-47
4446-16
4445-61
4445-15
4444-79
4444-15
4443-30
4442-97
4442-46
4441-80
4441710
4440-56
4439-96
4438-50
4437°88
4437-04
4436-50
| 443527
4433-98
4433-32
4432-68
4461-40 -
4439-40 -
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
187
Thalén
Intensity) Miiller and
|, and Kempf
Vogel | Fievez Character ;
il
68:7 8 4469-64
it
1
1
66:0 8 $4466°97
1
1
4
1
iu
aa
61:2 6 4461°98
1
1
if
58°6 8 | [4459-44
2
1
ut
55:7 2 4456-69
1
In
53°8 6 4454-76
52°38" if 4453-71
1
ay
2
49°8 2 4450°81L
i
47-2 8 4448/12
2
46°3 2 4447-21
y
1
45:0 1 4445°85 |
1
1
1
42-7 8 4443°57
1
41:7 8 4442-70
1
40°3 1 4441-32
39°9 1 4440°76
39°3 2 4440°22
it
37'8 2 4438-69
1
363 2 4437-29
1
4 4435-42
33°2, 2 4434-11
32°6 6 4433°53
320 2 4432°86
Rowland
°
Difference
— Angstrom
Reduction to |
Vacuum
A+
L
r
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
2
~
w
0°55
0-64
67
a
wv
bo oo
22363°5
22367-0
22372°5
22375°9
223769
22381-2
223849
22387°8
22390°3
22596°4
22398°1
22404°2
22406-0
22407°8
22412-4
22415°4
22418°6
22423°1
22426°5
22429:0
22432°6
22435°7
22439°0
22442°5
22447-4
22449°3
224540
22456°6
22463:0
22472°0
224761
22479°2
22480°6
%2483-0
22484°6
22487-4
22489°7
22491°5
22494°8
22499°1
22500'8
22503°3
22506°7
225102
22513°0
22516°0
22518°9
22523°4
22526°6
22530°8
22533°6
22539°8
22546°4
22549°8
22553:0
188
REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
Thalén
Vogel | Fievez
4432-06
4431-43
4430-74
4430°32
4499-44
4428-74
4428-17
4497-44
4496-74
4426-08
4425-79
4424-96
4424-01
4493-99
4429-67
4422-02
4421-37
4418-43
4417-13
4416°85
4416-56
4416°10
4415-27
4414-56
4413-99
4413:35
4412°15
4411-12
4409°25
4408°54
$4407-80
4406-74
4406-07
4404-88
4403-60
4402-95
4401-46
4400-72
4400-02
4398-84
4396-76
4395:39
4392-66
4391-95
4391-68
4391-09
4390°59
4390-10
4389-35
4388-57
4388-01
4386-70
4285-40
4384-82
4384-38 |
30°2
29°6
26:7
23°3
22°65
21:8
143
Intensity
and
Character
B
MR DD DE OHH END HEHE OH HOR HAAR HN EE ROR BE EEE EO Ree ee oe
B
bet BD bt
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
—Angstrém
Reduction to
Vacuum
4430°89
4430°30
4427-46
4425-77
4415-34
4408-37
4407°85
4405-00
4395-45
4392-92
4391-34
439088
4389°61
4388°80
4388°29
4385-76
4385:12
0°97
O74
0:60
0:58
0-76
0°89
0°46
0:59
0:39
0°55
0°67
0-61
0:50
0°52
iy dee
2 A
1:32
1:31
67
68
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
225562
22559°4
22563'9
22565'0
22569°5
225731
22576°0
22579°7
22583'3
22586°6
22587'1
22595°9
22596°2
22600°9
226041
226074
22610°7
22625°8
22632°4
22633'9
22635°4
22637°7
22642°0
22645°6
22648°5
22651'8
22658'0
22663°3
22672'9
22676°5
22680°4
22685°8
22689'3
22695°3
22701°9
22705°2
22712°9
22716°7
22720°4
22726°5
227372
227443
22758'4
22762°1
22763°5
22766°6
22769°2
22771-T
22775°6
22779°7
22782°6
22789°4
22796°1
22799°2
22801°4
\
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 189
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
\
. = | Reduction to
| alé 93:5
Kayser and ie Intensity Milled and g z = Vacuum Oscillation
m_enooee |-————_|__and Kempf BE gp Frequency
(Rowland) Wena | Fiever Character a & 4 re <- in Vacuo
4383-70 83:0 | 10 $4383°70 | 0-70 22805°0
4382°88 2 22809°2
4380°60 In 22821°1
4379°36 2 22827°6
4377°94 1 1°31 22835°0
437746 769 1 437769 | 0-56 | 1:30 22837°5
4376°89 76-4 2 4377:23 | 0-49 22840°5
$4376:04 756 8 4376°38 | 0-44 228449
— 4375:06 74:2 1 437492 | 0-86 22850°0
4374:59 1 22852°5
4373°67 73°3 2 4374:01 | 0°37 22857°3
4373°10 72-4 1 437323 | 0°80 22860°3
4371°51 iL 22868-6
4371-09 1 228708
4370°59 1 22873°4
$4369°89 69°3 8 0°59 228771
4369°18 1 22880'8
4368-67 1 22883'5
4368-00 67°6 2 4368°36 | 0-40 22887:0
4367°68 67°2 6 {436807 | 0-48 22888-6
4366°89 1 22892°8
4366:02 65°5 1 4366°34 | 0-72 22897°3
4362°47 62°5 1 4363°21 22916-0
4360°91 60°5 1 4361:21 | 0°41 229242
4358°62 58-1 4 4358-91 | 0°52 22936°2
| 4356°94 1 68 229461
| 4353-60 1 6-9 22962°6
$4352°86 52°3 8 4353°12 | 0°56 22966°5
4352°57 1 22968-0
4351°67 51:0 4 4351:66 | 0-67 22972°8
435111 1 22975-7
4350°43 in 22979°3
4349°87 i 22982°3
4349-07 48°6 2 4349°30 | 0:47 22986°5
4348°57 In 22989°2
4347-99 AT-4 2 4348:18 | 0:59 22992°2
4347°34 , ok 22995°7
4346°66 46:2 4 4346°88 | 0-46 22999°3
4345:17 44:2 1 434479 | 0-97 23007-2
4344-62 1 : 23010°1
4343°81 43°3 2 4343°96 | 0-51 23014-4
4343-39 42°7 2 4343:49 | 0-69 | 1:30 23016-6
4340°65 40-0 1 ${4340°'71 | 0°65 | 1:29 230381:1
4340°21 1 23033°5
4338-38 378 2 4338'55 | 0-58 23043-2
4338-05 1 23044-9
4337°71 1 23046-7
4337-14 36°6 10 4337°35 | 0°54 23049-8
4335°96 1 23056-0
4333°88 32°0 1 4322°72 | 1:88 23067-1
4331°89 1 23077-7
4331-02 30°6 1 4331-44 | 0°42 23082°3
4328°91 1 23093°6
4328-02 27°3 2 5328°34 | 0°72 23098°3
_ 4327-22 26°6 4 4327-51 | 0°62 231026
190 REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued,
ar on Reduction to
Kayser and sien si Intensity | \iiller and age SS
Sela and Rempt, Ze ep ;
pene) Vogel | Fievez a aes A+ 7
4326°86 26°3 1 4327-20 | 0°56
$4325-92 25°3 10 74325°98 | 0°62
4325°19 1
4324-66 1
4522'93 1
4321-90 21-4 2 4322:20 | 0°50
4320°89 20:2 1 432123 | 0°69
4319-88 1
4318°78 1
4318°22 1
4317°10 1
4316-21 In
4315°83 1
4315°21 14°6 10 431556 | 0°61
4314:43 1
4313-91 1
4312-28 1
4311:12 1
4310°52 10-0 1 4310°98 | 0°52
4309°50 09°2 6 430920 | 0°30
4309°14 2
G4307°96F | 07°73 10 $4308-25 | 0°63
4306-80 1
4306711 1
4305°58 04:7 6 4305-71 | 0°88
4305°32 1 1:29
4304°66 04:0 1 4305:05 | 0:26 | 1:28
4303°87 1
430325 1
4302°68 1
4302-31 OT 2 4302°75 | 0°61
4301-16 1
4300°86 it
4300°29 1
4299-42 988 10 4399-77 | 0°62
4298°16 97-6 es 4398°58 | 0°56
4297-46 1 ‘
4296°56 1
429613 1
4295°83 1
429545 1
4295:08 1
4294:26 93°7 10 429464 | 0°56
429361 1
4293-07 In
4292-49 il
4292°36 91-7 2 429261 | 0°66
4291°69 91-2 4 4292°02 | 0:49 6-9
4290°99 90:5 1 429145 | 0-49 7-0
4290°50 89:9 2 4290°77 | 0:60
4290-04 1
4289°84 2 $4289°87
4289-08 88-7 2 4289°54 | 0:38
4288°25 87-7 4 4288°63 | 0°55
4287-05 86°7 2 4287-44 | 0°35
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
23104°5
23109°6
23113°5
23116°3
23125°5 .
231311
23136°5
23141°9
23147°8
23150°8
23156°8
23161°6
23163°6
23166°9
231711
23173°9
23182°7
23188°9
23192°2
23197°6
23199°6
23205°9
23212°2
232159
23218°8
23220°2
23223°7
23226°0
23231°3
232344
23236°4
23242°6
232443
23247°3
23252:0
23258°9
23262°7
23267°5
23269°9
23271°5
23273°5
23275°6
23280-0
23283°5
232864
23289°6
23290°3
23293°9
23297°6
23300°3
23302°8
23303°9
23308-0
23312°5
23319°2
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 191
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
_ | Kavser and
Runge
(Rowland)
4286°58
4286-22
4286-02
4285°57
4285-20
4284-90
4284-55
4284-20
4283-73
4283-35
4283-20
4282-58
4281-86
4281-24
4280-68
4279-99
4279°59
4279-01
4278-35
4277-80
4277-34
4276'80
4275'79
4275/27
4274-87
4273-99
4273/16
4272-61
4271-93
4271-30
4270°65
4270-13
4269-89
4269-50
4268-87
$4267-97
4267-08
4266-69
4266-09
4265°37
4264-88
4264-37
4261-48
4260-64
4260-21
4259-63
4259°39
4259-06
4258-75
4258-43
4257-80
4257-18
4256-82
4256°32
4256-00
Reduction to |
Thalén a5
Intensity | \fiiter and | = gs a | Oscillation
an Kempf |.2 = 2 | Frequency
Vogel | Fievez Character 7 aed ate <- | in Vacuo
86:2 1 4286:99 | 0:38 23321°6
1 23323°6
1 23324°7
85:2 6 4285:92 | 0:37 23327°1
1 , 23329°1
1 23330°8
In 23332°7
In 23334°6
i 23337-1
1 23339°2
1 23340°0
82:1 10 428287 | 0:48 233434
1 23347-3
1 23350°7
80:0 1 4280°87 | 0°68 23353'8
79°4 1 4280°20 | 0:59 23357°5
79°2 1 4279°94 | 0:39 23359°7
1 23362°9
17-9 2 4278°66 | 0:45 23366°5
173 1 4278:02 | 0:50 23369°5
1 23372°0
76-4 2 4277:10 | 0:40 23375-0
753 1 427591 | 0-49 23380°5
1 23383°3
73-7 2 427425 | 1-17 23385°5
1 23390°3
1 233949
1 23397-9
71-6 10 4272-17 | 0:33 23401°6
71-0 10 427154 | 0:30 23405°1
1 23408°6
ut 23411°5
il 23412°8
1 1:28 23414-9
68-6 4 4269°12 | 0:27 | 1:27 23418-4
67-6 6 426814 | 0-17 23423°3
66-7 4 4267°35 | 0:38 234282
LE 23430°4
1 23433°7
65-2 2 4265°65 | 0-17 23437°6
1 23440°3
64-1 P 426463 | 0:27 23443°1
2 23459-0
60:2 10 $4260°73 | 0-44 23463°6
1 23466-0
1 23469°2
1 23470°5
2 23472°4
58°4 2 4259-00 | 0°35 234741
580 2 4258°60 | 0:43 23475°8
In 23479°3
In 23482-7
1 23484-7
1 23487-5
1 23489°2 |
192 REPORT—1891.
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén 2 § Bedneton
esha and Intensity | yiitler and 5 & 4 to Vacuum | Oscillation
eburce |. an Kempf |= 0 Fi eg a
(Rowland) Voeel 4) Sever Character a a ae | Se in Vacuo
4255°64 55:3 2 425592 | 0-14 23491-2
4255-08 1 234943
4254-45 54:6 2 4255°28 23497°8
425413 53°6 1 425422 | 0°53 23499°6
4253°89 1 23500°9
425325 if 235044
4252 27 1 23509°8
4250°93 50°5 10 4251-13 | 0°43 235173
4250:28 49°8 10 4250-45 | 0-48 23520°9
4249-07 1 23527°6
4248-77 1 23529°2
4248°35 47-9 4 424860 | 0-45 23531°5
4247-60 47-1 8 4247-72 | 0°50 23535°7
424660 1 23541:2
4246:18 45°7 4 4246°36 | 0:48 23543°6
4245°39 44-9 6 424559 | 0-49 235480
4244°38 1 23553°6
4243°89 43-4 1 4244-13 | 0:49 23556°3
4243-44 43:0 2 4243:67 | 0-44 23558°8
4242°85 42°3 2 4242-98 | 0°55 235621
4242°44 1 23564'3
4241°90 1 23567°3
4241-20 40°7 1 4241-41 | 0°50 23571-2
4240°79 1 23573-5
4240°50 2 23576°1
4239-90 39°4 6 4240°11 | 0°50 23578°5
423898 38°5 8 424910 | 0°48 23583-6
4238-14 377 4 4248°32 | 0°44 23588-3
4237-26 36°8 2 4237-45 | 0-46 23593-1
4236°84 in 23595°5
4236-09 35°6 10 7423621 | 0-49 23599°7
4235-41 2 23603°5
4235°01 1 23605°7
4234-51 1 1:27 23608°5
4233°76 33°3 10 4233'87 | 0-46 | 1:26 23612°7
4233°25 1 23615°5
4232-93 L 23617°3
4232-67 1 23619°3
423132 1 23626°3
4230°75 1 23629°5
4230°36 In 23631-6
4229-86 1 23634-4
4229-61 29-0 2 4229'72 | 0°61 23635°8
4228°98 in 23639-4
4227-60 27-0 10 4227-67 | 0:60 70 23647-1
4226°84 4 (Gl 23651-2
4226'52 25°9 4 422665 | 0°62 23653°0
4226:08 25°5 4 422625 | 0°58 23655°5
4225°61 25:0 6 4225°69 | 061 236581
4224-63 24-1 2 4224-76 | 0:53 23663°6
422427 23°7 6 422443 | 0:57 23665°6
4223-40 1 : 23670°5
422232 21:8 8 4222:45 | 0°52 23676°6
4221°36 1 23681°9
4220°44 19°8 o 4220°59 | 0°64 236871
F ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TIE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 193
IRon (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued. et
; —— ‘ae iy, y Og & Reduction to / ‘
{ Thalén be = FI = Vacuum Oscillation
' — ntensifyv Miiller and | 24 @ ‘requency
oe <i > aaa Seanad, a ealery = 5 2 es | in Vacuo
> d f -,. ,Charazter| Bilan | pee | pay
i (Rowland) Vogel | Fievez | | A
CN ES ache | aay a | 23689°6
4219-99 L ee | 23692'6
4219-47 | 18:8 : 421959 | 0°67 | | 23698-1
4218-48 L ; : 23702°6
4217-69 | 172 6 Teen levee | | 237105
421628 | 15:7 6 4216:45 | 23711°6
4216-08 : | | 23714°8
4215-52 ERA Pe) Pee : | 937247
4213-75 | 13:2 ‘ ee ad ak | | 237268
4213-38 # | | 237312
4212-61 e : | 93743-2
4210-48 | 09:8 8 4210:59 | 0°68 | | 237531
S 4208:83 | 0°51
420871 | 08-2 eB ok ) 23757°5
4207-93 Ae 59 / | 937616
4207-22 | 067 4 ae ti / | 237640
4206-78 | 06"3 2 pga bib | | 237705
4205-63 | 05-0 Ge (he ee | 2373-4
4205712 : : ee | | 23779-4
420407 | 03% 6 tap | | 337819
4203-63 1n 237839
4203-27 ; / | 937863
4202°85 2 ee 23790°2
420215 | O16 RB ae } | 98795-0
4201-31 i = | 937967
4201-01 | 003 a | 238024
4200:01 ead Lae 23807-0
| 4199-19 | 98:7 ”) pC UE 23808°5
4198 75 ~ | QBSL14
4198-42 | 97-7 10 4198-46 | O72 = | 23817-6
4197-32 ay | | 93821-4
4196-66 2 ! -” | | 3823-4
419631 | 95:7 : wig ane --23826'8
4195-71 95°3 = | 23828-2
4195-46 6 238333
4194-56 2 | 238382
4193-70 1 | 93840-2
4193-35 1 I3844-3
4192-62 1 | 238466
4192-22 | 23849+4
4191-72 FR Pe | 23850°3
419157 | 90-9 10 4191-65 | 0°67 | «| gag R4.o
4190:89 1 | 238565
4190-48 1 | | 238588
4190-07 y | 23861-1
4189:67 2 23865-0
4188:99 . | . | 938669
4188'66 5 | | 988711
4187-92 | 87-3 10 Abe ree | | 93875-4
4187-17 | 86-6 10 #887 | 938809
4186 20 | i | | 23883-6
4185-72 4 23887°8
+4184-99 84-4 8 4185-12 | 0°59 23891°7
4184-31 L | | 23898-6
4183-11 : | 23900-0
4182-46 81°8 6 4182°58 | 0°66 | (239029
ba el
i
1891, -
194
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
REPORT—1891,
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
4181°16
4180-60
4179-93
4179°46
4178°95
4178-64 |
4178-11
4177-66
4177-16
4176-62
4175°71
4174-98
4174-47
4174-00
4173-52
4173-39
4172'81
4172-66
4172-20
4171-99
4171°79
4170°99
4170°42
4169-90
4169-03
4168-71
4168-33
4167-96
4167-38
4165-51
4164-89
4163-74
4162-63
4162-19
4161-57
4161-13
4160°59
4160-31
_-4159°36
$4158'89
415791
4157-46
_-4156'88
4156-13
4154-95
4154-57
4154-04
4153-47
4152-78
4152-25
4152-04
4151-34
4150-42
4149-44
418185
Thalén
Vogel
58-2
57-2
56-2
54-2
53°2
Fievez
2 g Reduction
Intensity yrier and ees to Vacuum | Oscillation
and |" k empf SE &o| — ; Frequency
\Character 5 a eh -- in Vacuo
8 | 4182-00 | 0°55 23905'8
ee 23909-7
1 239129
i 23916°7
1 23919-4
J 23922°4
1 239241 |
1 23927-2
6 T4A178-07 | 0-46 23929°7
1 23932°6
6 4176'80 | 0-62 23935:°7
8 4175°85 | 0-51 23940°9
6 417510 | 0-68 23945°1
1 23948°0
4 417420 | 0°60 23950°7
1 23953°5
4 4173°66 | 0°59 23954°2
6 4172°88 | 0°61 239576
1 23958°4
8 4172-26 | 0-70 2396171
it 23962°3
2 | 23963°4
8 | 4171:21 | 0:59 23968°0
1 23971°3
1 2397473
2 ' 4169-20 | 0-63 23979°3
] } 239811
| | 23983°3
1 | 416816 | 0-66 239854
1 | 23987°8
2 | 416571 | 0-71 23999°6
1 cL 240031
2 4163-88 | 0-74 72 24009°7
1 240161 |
1 24018°6
2 4161:75 | 0°67 24022°2
2 24024°7
i 24027°8
1 24029°5
1 1:25 24035-0
6 | 4159:04 | 069 | 1-24 24037-7
6 4158:03 | 0-71 24043°3
1 24045°9
8 | 4157-02 | 0°68 24049°3
1 24053°6
6 4155-05 | 0°75 24060°5
6 | 4164-74 | 0-77 24062°7
6 | 415415 | 0-84 24065°7
1 24069-0 |
1 } 240731
4 $4152°34 | 0-85 24076°1
2 24077°3
1 24081-4
4 4150°56 | 0-72 24086-7 |
6 4149°56 | 0°84 | 24092-4 |
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TIE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 195
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
| halén . 208 Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity filer and| S22 Me ee Oscillation
Runge | “| and Kempf 2 ae ; Frequency
(Rowland) | Vogel | Fiever Character 5 Red ; a in Vacuo
}
4147-74 | 47-0 8 4147-93 | 0-74 241023 |
4146-70 In 241084 |
414612 | 45-4 4 4146-32 | 9-72 / QAl1L-7 |
4145-29 1 | 241166
4144-72 1 24119-9
414396 | 43-2 10 414414 | 0-76 241243
414350 | 42:7 10 4143-:71 | 0-80 24127-0
4142-74 / oh ae 24131-4
4142-31 1 241339 |
4141-94 | 41-2 2 414211 | 9-74 2413671
4141-51 | | 1 24138°6 |
4141-11 | 1 24140°9 |
4140°54 2 24144-2
413996 | 39-2. | 2 4140-20 | 0-76 241476
4138-99 1 24153°3
4138-15 | ae: 241582
4137-66 | , 1 24161-2
4137:06 | 363 | hes 413725 | 0-76 241646
413658 © ate. | 24167°-4
4135°98 In | 24170°9
4135-43 it rset 241741
4134-77 | 34-0 10. | 4134-92 | 0-77 24177-9
4134-50 2 24179°5
4133:96 | 33-2 4 | 418412 | 0-76 24182°7
4133-67 1 241844
| 4182-96 | 32-2 8 | 413317 |'0-76 24188°5
413215 | 31:3 | 10 |: F4132-43 | o-gs 24193°3
P| 4131-14 | | | 24199°2
4130°58 1 24202-5
4130-08 | 242054,
4129-71 © re F 24207°6
4129-28 Ia 2421071 |
4128-91 1 ) 24212-3
4127-86 a : 24218-4
4127-68 | 26-9 6 4127°95 | 0-78 242195
4126-95 | 1 | 1-24 24223-8
4126-25 | 25:5 | 4 4126-45 | 0-75 | 1:23 24297-9
4125-94 2 | 24228-7
4125-71 | 9 | 24231-0
4125-17 | i emt 24234-2
4124-76 1 24236°6
4124-35 i 24239-0
412381 | 23-2 4 | 412404 | 0-61 24249-9
4123-16 rT alee 24246-0
412259 | 21:8 6 | 4122-85 | 0-79 | 24249-4
4121:88 | 21-1 6 | 4122:07 | 0-78 24253-6
4121-48 | 14 24255-9
4120-59 A | 24261-2
412028 | 19:5 6 . 4120-49 | 0-78 24263-0
- 4119-84 1 24265-6
4119-45 2 24267-9
} 4119-00 2 72) 249705
— 4118-62 | 17:8 10 4119-02 | 0-82 73 | 24972-7
~ 4118-00 2 24976-3
4117-75 | 1 24277-&
02
196 REPORT—1891.
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Thalén ef | Reduction
Kayser Beciei. MURS 6: Intensity) yrner and FI BRE es V ios | Oscillation
Runge and Kempf Ss =p | ; K requency
(Rowland) Vogel | Fiever Character | 5 a | at | a in Vacuo
4117-41 1 | 24279'8
4116°86 | iy ae | 24283-1
4116722 | Ly 4: ' 24286°8
4115°78 i) | | 24289-4
4115°34 2 | 24292-0
4114-98 2 24994-2
$4114°53 | 13:7 6 4114-74 | 0°83 | 24296'8
411389 1 | 24300-6
4113°52 | 1 | 24302°8
411308 | 123 | 4 4113-24 | 0-78 | 243054
4112-47 2 24309:0
4111°85 2 24312°7
4111:17 1 | 243167
4110-41 1 | | 24391-2
4109°88 | 09-2 8 411009 | 0-68 | | 24324°3
4109-23 4 | . | 24398-2 |
4108°23 a | e| 2438341 |
$4107°58 | 06'S 8 | 410776 | O78 | | | 924337-9 |
4106°55 4 243440
410637 | O57 -| 4 4106°63 | 0°67 | | 24345°1
4105°28 | 2 | | 24351°6
4105-04 | 1 | | 24353-0
4104:70 | ae | 24356°0
4104-20 | O33 | 6 410440 | 0-70 | | 24¢58:0
4103-44 | 1 | 24362°5
4102°50 Ppa | | 24368'1
4101'76 2 ti LOL-98 24372°5
4101:37 | 4 | | 243748
4100°82 | 002 6 | 4101-00 | 0-62 | 243781
4100°26 4 | 24381-4
4099°87 2 | 24383°7
4099-04 1 24388°6
409826 | 97°6 8 4098-41 | 0-66 24393°3
4097°19 1 23399'7
4096°67 In 24402'8
409606 | 95:6 8 409629 | 0-46 244064
4095°35 1 24410°6
4094°57 ! Ly) al 244153
409328 ime | 24423-0
4092-60 4 | 4092°83 | 244270
4092-43 [os 24428-1
4092°11 | 1 | 24430°0
4091-66 “ai 244327
4091-34 sen 244346
4091°12 A tact 1-23 24436°1
4090°17 1 | | 1:22 24441°6
4089-28 4 24446°9
4088-65 1 24450°6
4087-95 1 24454°8
4087°50 l | 24457°5
408716 | 865 2 4087°35 | 0-66 | 24459°6
4086°54 1 | 24463°3
4086-06 1 24466:2
4085°38 | 84:7 6 4085°53 | 0°68 | 24470°2
408507 | 84:4 6 4085°27 | 0-67 | 24472°1
{
|
|
ON WAVE-LENGTIL TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 19
Kayser and |
Runge
(Rowland)
|
Thalén
4084°59 |
4083°90 |
4083-70 |
4083:03
4082°55
4082-20
4081°67
4081°35
4080:96
4080°30
4079°91
4079°50
4079°32
4078°83
4078-41
407774
4077°36
4076°72
4076°32
4076-05
4074:87
4074°49
4073-84
4073 35
4072°62
4071-79
4070°85
4069-08
4068:07
4067-36
4067-04
4066°66
4066°29
4065°87
4065-48
4064°55
4063°63
4063°40
4062-94
4062751
4062-00
4061-24
4060°88
4059-80
4058-99
4058°86
4058°30
4057-91
4057-43
4056°61
4056-04
#405563
405512
405494
4054-25
63-0
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
|
| Intensity
eos and
Character
re OS ll ell OS ao 2)
i=}
RHR eH ROR RH Re EE OH EON RE BE ROO DRE DONE REPAIR RP ORR oOe Wt
an
i=]
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
wland
J
| —Angstrém
oO
>
iy
°
Reduction to
Vacuum
A+
c
x
Oscillation |
Frequency |
in Vacuo
{
4084-75
408047
4080-09
4078-65
| +4077°48
4076°93
4075-01
4074-03
4071-86
4070°50
4068°21
4067-21
4063-94
4062 73
4060:03
405916 |
4057-77 |
4055°18
2
a
Za)
aa
He vO
24475°0
24479°1
24480°3
244843 |
24487°2
24489°3
24492'5
24494-4
24496°7
24500°7
24503-0
24505°5
24506°6
24509°5
24512°1
24516°1
24518-4
24522-2
24524-6
245263
24533-4
24535°7
24539°5
24542-4
24546°8
24551:8
24557°5
24568°2
245743
24578°6
24580°5
24582'8
24585-0
24587°6
24589-9
24595°6
24601-1
24602°5
246053
24607°9
24611-0
24615-6
24617°8
246243
24629°3
24630°1
24633°8
24635°8
24638-7
24643-7
24647-2
24649-7
24652'8
24653-9
24658"
~
‘
198 rePort—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
ae Thalén 22 | Reduetion to |
avser an ta | o's | Ts
eestor inten | Mipiist and poe |e iPecillaline
Rowland a co dee em pe oF So —_;~——— | Frequene
Miowland) Vogel | Fievez parecer ‘ Spe | get ea) Soon
= ipa r
4053°87 | yn eae
4053-31 adel 24660°4
4052°56 Bi:7 | 1 Leen couraalinter Y
4052-43 spe Lad eamraeeane 24668°4
4052-03 = 24669°1
4051-40 bors 24671°6
4050-83 ee: =| | 24675°4
| 4049-92 1 | | | 24678-9
4049-40 Lt <p if | | | Hie
4048-82 | 48:2 | [echoed Verte i ) :
| Laas’ : | 4049°12 | 0:62 | ene
4045-90 | 45:3 10 | ¢4046-00 | o-60 | / j
4044-69 | 440 De agece a0 cae | zene.
4044-00 43'3 4 4044-27 0-70 | | 247164
4041-44 | 405 ew ee 24720°6
4040°74 39°5 4 2 24736°3
4040-12 1 — / 24740°5
4038°83 ot | / 247443
+4035-76 geen | seis
4032-72 | 32-0 2 4032-97 | 0-72 | Lace
4032:54 eld A 72) eariaeed
4032-06 813 AN29-5 ae } | 24790°9
403133 | oe ee ae | | 947938
4030:84 | 30:0 Sahel WT | 247983
4030-60 Fh ing ai est | | pesos
4030-26 1 24802'8
4029-72 A | T+ | 248049
4027-63 Naa 75 | 248081
4025-93 hae peearo
4024-86 24-0 OF-0K 57) 248315
4024-20 es ee eee _-24838'1
4023-51 1 | 24842-2
4022-80 hae | | 24846-4
4022-25 el 24850°8
4021:96 | 21:3 teins 24854-2
4021-69 : 402227 | 0:66 24856-0
4020°54 1 | | 24857°7
4019°75 jae 121 | 248648
4019-13 | I | 1:20 | 24869°7
4018-79 ane | 24873°5
4018-36 | 17:5 : 24875°6
here ae ae 401854 | 0:86 24878:3
4017-23 | 16-4 7 24879-2
4016-55 1 ll saa nomi dh 24885°3
| 4015-40 Pi | 24889°5
| 4014-63 | 13:6 | nite ; : 24896°6
4014-41 | 5 | 4014°68 | 1-03 | 24901-4
4013-91 13:0 4 | 24902°8
4013°75 a Sieiwencee oe 249059
4011-81 aa 24906-9
4011-49 pe | 24918-9
| | 24923°6
\ ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 199
) Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Thalén o_, | Reduction to | , |
Kayser gia Intensity Mii BER Nec Oscillation |
Runge and aller and | 2s toil. >, 50 | Frequency;
# | Kempf | SE 4 | 4 : 3
(Rowland) Weel. «litaver Character) Red ser | <a in Vacuo
|
EEE Se — eet + aE ie ——
400980 | 09-0 6 4010-08 | 0:80 24931-4
4008-97 1 ) 24936°6
4007:36 | 06-6 4 4007°68 | 0-76 24946:6
400671 2 | | 24950°6
400639 | 05:5 LY 4006-67 | 0-89 | 24952°6
4005°33 | 04:3 OL3 8 $4005-46 | 1-03 | | 24959-2
4005:07 1 24960'8
4004-96 1 24961°5
4003'88 2 24968°3
~ 4002°77 1 24975-2
4001°77 | 00-9 4 4002:05 | 0-87 249814
400057 | 99-5 ae 4000°59 | 1-07 | 24988°9
4000°36 : 1 24990°2
3998-76 1 25000-2
3998-16 | 97-2 6 3998°33 | 0-97 25004-0
3997-49 | 96-7 96-7 6 3997-77 | 0-79 25008°2
3997-25 1 250097
| 3997-06 2 25010°9
3996-42 1 25014:9
3996-08 4 25017-0
3995°3 1 25021°7
3994-22 4 25028°7
3990-48 4 25052°1
3989-94 2 75 | 25055°5
3986:27 6 3987-04 76 | 250785
3985-46 4 | 25083°6
$3984-08 6 3984-23 1:20 25092-3
3983-47 1 1:19 | 250961
3981-87 Gian | 251062
3981-21 1 25110-4
3979-73 1 25119-7
3978-91 1 25124-9
3978-55 ta | 25127-2
3977-83 ; aan. | 25131-7
3977-66 1 | . | 25132-8
3976-95 1 25137°3
3976-71 | 2 | 25138'8
3976-47 | 1 25140°3
3976-00 | 1 / 25143°3
3975-33 f ) 25147°5
397481 1 25150°8
3974-46 1 251530
3974-10 In | 25155°3
3973-75 4 25157°5
3973-00 1 | 25162'1
3971-41 6 | 25172°4
3970°51 4 251781
3970°35 i / 25179'1
3969-72 1 | 25182°1
3969-34 66:7 8 3969:52 | 25185°5
8968-55 4 $3968°79 25190°5
3968 05 | 2 | 25193-7
3967-51 | 4 | 251971
396670 | | | 4 25202'3
| 3966-16 | | | 4 | 25205°7
200
REPORT—1891.
TRON (ARC <r liaamhaastanatal
R oaiwnittt to |
|
/
Kayser and | Intensity) yyii1er and | Difference Vacuum : Oscillation
Runge | Cornu |. and | Kempf Rowland Frequency
(Rowland) | er j—Angstrom) . 4 | 1_ | in Vacuo
| | | hee
3965-62 | Veale ties, 252091
3964-61 | a2 | | 252156
396324 | 4 3963°61 ' 25224°3
3962°80 | 1 / | 25297-1
3962-42 | epee! 3962-57 | 25229°5
396163 | PD. Gale | | 25234-5
3961-24 eel | | | 25237-0
3960°38 inae 3960-46 25242°5
3958-48 eet ae / 252546
3958°29 | lS apn | 25255'8
3957-80 | 1 395810 | | | 25259-0
3957-17 | 2 | 252630
395677 | 659 | 6 |. COsr 74) 25265°5
3956-54 4 | 25267-0
3956-05 4 395612 | | | | 2527071
3955°50 2 | | 25273°6
3954-78 BA | | | 25278°3
3953-93 | pid | | 25283-7
3953-25 | 4 3953-65 | 252880
3952-71 | 6 $3953:00 | | 25291°5
3951-25 | 6 | | | 25300°S
3950-05 6 | 304997 | | 1-19 | 25308:5
3949-25 el 1:18 253137
3948-87 | ae | 25316"
3948-23 | 4 | 25320°2
3947-64 | 4 3947-87 | 25324-0
3947-11 | 2 3947-48 | | 25327°4
2945-22 2 3945-47 | | | 25339°5
3945-00 | 2 394528 | 25340°9
3944-82 1 25342°1
3944-11 2 : 25346°7
3943-43 | 2 | | 25351-:0
4394254 | 6 3942-92 | 253568
3941-40 | Bay | 25364-1
394098 6 | 394136 | 253668
3940714 | 1 | 25372°2
3938°59 | 1 25382°2
3938'16 | 1 | 25385:0
3937-42 4 25389'7
3935-92 6 3936-00 | 253994
3935-40 2 25402'8
3934°81 1 254066
3934-47 1 25408'8
3933-75 | 329 | 6 3933-79 O85 | 254134
3933-01 1 254182
3932-71 2 25420'3
3931-22 2 | 25429°8
3930°37 | 29°8 8 3930°44 O57 | 25435°3
3929-24 2 3939°31 254446
3928-17 1 | 22449°5
3928-05 | 273 | 8 3938-27 O75 | | 76 | 25450°3
3926-05 | a 77 | 25463-2
3925°74 [ap 25465-2
3925°31 | are 25468-0
3923-00 | 220 8 3923-04 100 | 25483 0
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
|
Kayser and .
Runge |
(Rowland) |
3921-34
3920-93
3920-36
3919-18 |
3918-74 —
3918-49 |
3917-29 |
43916°82
3914-35
3913-74
3910-95
3909-95
3909-78
3909-40 |
3908-02
3907°58
390684 —
390658 |
390564 —
390400 —
3903-06 |
3902°43 |
3900°64
3899-80
3899-13
3898°73 |
3898-05 |
$3897-54
3895:75 |
3894-56
3894-09
3893°47 |
3893-00 —
3892-54
3892-02
3890-94
3890-49 |
3890-02
3888-92
3888-63 |
388717
3886-38
3885-61 |
3885-25
3884-46
3883-39 |
3882°11
3878-82
3878-63
387812 |
3876-81
3876-14
3874-95
B87455
3874-18 |
Cornu
18-4
05°9
01:9
98-4
97-0
94-7
92-6
88:0
87-4
86-4
86-0
84-7
80°3
77-4
|
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
|
Intensity
and |
Character;
;
Miiller and
Kempf
TSE EI
7
Se ee
le el 0 SUES ON el A er ll el ol coll el oO eT OT el OT eS OT
3920-41
3919-28
3918°82
3917°36
391692
3914-55
3913°87
3910-14
3909-89
3909-50
3908-20
3907-75
3907-02
3906°74
+3905-87
3904-16
3903-24
3902-60
3900-86
3900-04
3898°32
3897-82
3895-78
|
Difference |
Rowland
'— Angstrém}
1:96
0°69
i 0:68
0°87
|
teduction to |
Vacuum
Grad
eae a
1:18
NS Wee
{
{
|
|
}
.
|
|
|
1:17
116 |
Oscillation
201
Frequeney |
in Vacuo
| 25493°8
554964
25500°2
25507'8
25510°7
2551273
25520°1
255232
25539°3
25543°3
255615
25568" L
25569°2
25571-7
25580°7
25583°6
255884
25590°1
25596°3
25607°0
25613°2
25617'4
25629°1
25634'6
25639:0
256417
25646°1
25649°5
25661°3
25669'1
25672°2
25676°3
25679-4
256825 -
25685'9
256930 |
25696-0 |
25699'1
257064 |
25708°3
257179
257232
25728°3
25730°7
257359
25743-0
25751°5
257733 |
257746
257780
257867
|
!
25791-2
25799°1
25801°7 |
25804-2
202 REPORT—1891.
IRon (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and Antensity) — yy41er and Difference Vacuum. Oscillation
Runge Cornu and Kempf Rowland {~~~} _~_~| Frequency
(Rowland) | —Angstrém mee: Ue. in Vacuo
| . A
3873-88 eae 25806-2
3873°69 1 25807°5
| 3873-04 1 | 25811'8
387261 | 71:3 8 1:31 25814-7
3871:86 | 70:6 4 1:26 25819°7
3871°36 1 | 25823-0
3869-69 4 | 77 | 25834-2
3868-71 1 TS | 258406
3868°37 1 25842°9
386803 | 65:5 2 253 | 25845:1
3867°33 | 65:2 6 2:13 25849'8
3865°65 | 648 8 0°85 258611
3864-42 1 25869°3
3864°16 1 | 25871:0
3863'87 4 ) 25873-0
3861°69 1 25887°6
3861-46 | 60-6 4 0-86 25889'1
386003 | 593 | 10 0-73 25898°7
3859-34. 6 | 25903-4
3856-49 | 55-7 8 0-79 259295
3856-00 ae | 25925'8
B855'45 | oo | 25929°5
385451 | 53:7 2 0-81 25935:8
3853°60 | 52-7 l 090 | 259420
Sepauii | 51:8 | 6 ool | 25947°9
3850:96 | 50:0 6 096 | 25959°7
3850711 | 49:7 s O41 | 25965'5
3848-42 1 25976°9
3846-96 | 45-9 6 106 25986-7 |
3846-55 | 2 ) | 259895 | 7
3846-18 he A | 259920 |
3845°84 1 '25994°3 |
3845°58 ie a | 259961
3845:30 | 446 | 4 | 0-70 ~~ | | 259980 | |
3844-08 1) at | 26006-2
3843-40 | 419 | 6 150 | 1:16 | 26010°8
3843-04 Ke ae | | 26013°3
384119 | 405 8 0-69 115 | 26025°8
384058 | 401 8 0-48 ) 26029-9
3839-78 1 | 26035°4
383938 | 38:5 6 0:88 ) 26038°1
3838°87 1 26041-9
3837:27 | fsa 26052°4
3836-48 | 6 26057°8
383437 | 33:6 8 0:77 | 26072°1
3833'44 4 | 26078°4
3830-95 2 26095 5
3830°54 1 26098°2
3830-29 1 26099°9
3829:86 2 26102°8
3829-59 * 1 | 261047
3829-30 | 1 | 26106°6
3829-02 1 | 26108°5
3828-65 1 26111°1
3827-96 | 27-7 8 0:26 | 26115-8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 203
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
j Reduction to
A . s ns Vacuum Wet?
corr: | aad’ | Millenand,.» | Pierence |__| Qusiliation
| (Rowland) Character; —— —Angstrém Ae Le in Vacuo
A
3827-72 | | 2 7-8 | 26117-4
3826:99 1 79 | 261223
382604 | 25-3 | 8 O-74 | 261288
3825°54 | , #1 26132°2
ge2e5s | 241 | 8 0-48 | 26138°8
3824-24 | es 26141-1
3823-66 1 | 261451
3822'39 1 | 26153°7
3821-98 2 261565
3521-71 1 26158-4
3821°32 4 | 261611
1382056 | 19-7 8 0-86 261663
| 3819:75 | 19-2 1 0:55 | 26171°8
3818:77 1 | 26178°5
| 3818-43 1 26180:9
3817-84 1 / 261849
3817-11 | 1 261899
3816-48 16-9 4 —0-42 261943
oni 15°3 rs 0-67 26197°9
3814-94 | 1 | 26204:8
381466 > 14-0 4 0°66 26206°8
3814-03 2 26211+1
3813-77 | 2 26212 9
| 381312 | 126 8 0-52 26217°3
| 3812-03 | 4 eel 26224-8
; ae 1 | 26230°6
3810" 4 262327
3809-70 2 | | 262409
3809-20 1 | | 262443
380886 4 26246°7
380843 | 1 26249°6
3807°68 — 4 , | 262548
3807-39 | 1 26256°8
380684 | 6 26260°6
3806°36 2 | 262639
380612 1 26265 6
3805:82 1 26267°6
3805-47 | 05-0 6 0-47 | 115 | 26270°1
| 380415 1 114 26279-2
3802-41 2 26291°2
3801-92 1 262946
380181 | 02-0 4 ~019 26295°3
Bais 1 | 26297°2
380115 2 26299:9
| 3799°68 | 99-4 ne 0:28 26310°1
379865 | 98-7 6 —0:05 26317°2
3798-09 | 1 26321°1
3797-65 | 96:8 6 0°85 26324-2
3797-04 | 1 26328-4
| 879667 1 | 26331-0
| 3796712 | 1 263348
| 3795-66 | 1 26338-0
| 379513 | 949 8 0-23 263417
879446 | 93:3 4 1:16 26346'3
379399 1 | 26349°6
204
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
3793°60
379348
3792-96
3792°62
379228
3791°89
3791°65
3791-28
3790°88
3790°22
3789°31
3788-01
3787°30
3786°81
3786°30
3786'07
3785°83
3782-74
378256
3782°23
3782°05
3781°31
3779°58
377932
377882
377863
3778°45
3777'56
3777-20
377658
3775°93
377495
377384
377351
3770°43
3770°12
376815
376731
3766°74
3766:19
3765°66
3763-90
3762°30
3761-52
3760:66
3760:17
3759°30
3758°36
3757:60
3757-06
3756°17
375463
375374
3753-27
3752°57
}
|
REPORT—1891.
Miter and
Kempf
Intensity ,
Cornu and
Character
1
1
it
92°7 if
92°2 2
if |
1
In
il
90°5 6
89:8 4
87:1 6
1
86:2 4
4
85-4 4 |
1
2 |
2
1
2 }
4
6
1
1
4
1
2
il
4
1 /
4
2 |
1 H
2
2
2 |
66:8 8
i
if
65:0 8
63-4 8
1
1
4
4
1
Bere 8
1
2
ak
1 |
53-4 4 |
1
1
-Tron (Arc SpectrumM)—continued.
Difference |
Rowland
,— Angstrém
0°66
0°50
0°66
0-54
| Reduction to
| Vacuum
| ee
es
| |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bey
| 79
8-0
| }
| |
|
Pe
|
|
1-14
1:13 |
|
{
|
|
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
26352°3
26553°1
26356°7
26359°1L
263615
26364-2
26365'8
263684
26371-2
26375°8
26382°1
26391-2
26396°1
26399°5
26403 0
264046
26406 3
26427 9
26429°1
26431-4
26432°7
26437°9)
26449°9
26451°8
26454°6
26456°6
26457°9
264641
26466°6
26471-0
264755
26482°4
26490-2
26492°5
26514-2
265163
26530°2
26536-1
26540°1
26544-0
26547°8
26560-2
26571°5
26577-0 |
26583°1
26586°5
26592°7 ©
26599°3
26604-7
26608°5
266149
26625°8
2663271 ©
26635-4
26640°4 —
3751/97
3749-61
3749-06
3748°39
$3747-09
3746:56
3745-95
3745°67
3744-21
3743°58
3743-45
3742°77
3740°44
3740-22
3739°73
3739-45
3739-22
3738°44
3737-27
3735°45
3735-00
3733'46
3732°54
3731-51
3731-07
3730°53
3728°81
|3727-78
\8727°13
3725°62
3724°51
3722-69
3722-07
3721-69
3721-57
3721-41
3720-07
3718°55
8716-59
3716-04
8711-54
3711°35
3709-79
3709 66
3709°37
3708-72
3708-03
8707°73
3707-60
3707°18
3705-70
3704-59
8703-96
3703-83
3703-68
Cornu |
|
‘Intensity |
and
‘Character
ee a
Re DOR RE RE OR OPE NR RAR ORP RP NEP DAH ROR ENON ADP RADARE RW RNN TEN ODARE RAW Kee |
Miller and
Kkempt
IRON (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Difference |
Rowland,
— Angstrom
ON WAYVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TIE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 205
Reduction to
Vacuum
" 1
rm A
eed
Ne
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
26644-7
26661-4
26665°3
26670°1 |
26679-4
26683°1
266874
26689-4
26699-8
26704-3
26705-2
267101
26726-7
26728'3
26731°8
26733°8
26735°4
26741-0
26749-4
26762-4
26765°7
26776°7
26783-3
26790°9
26793'9
26797-7
268101
26817°5
26822-2
26833°1
26841°1
26854-2
26858°7
26861-4
26862'3
26863-4
268731
26884°1
26898'3
26902'3
269349
26936°3
26947°6
26948'5
26950°7
269554
26960°4
269626
26963°5
26966°5
26977 2
26985°3
26989-9
26990°9
26992-0
206 REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued. .
Reduction to :
peeeet and} eo Waller and piers Yeraon a Sasa | :
unge Cornu an Kempf ,owland 1 d be icy |
(Rowland) Character |— Angstrém Puce: Wie in Vacuo |
A
| | oe ee
3702°63 nay | 26999°6
3702716 2 27003'1
3701-20 | 008 6 | 0-40 270101
3699-23 1 270244 ||
3698-73 | 2 | 270281 |
3698-17 1 | 27032°2 |
3697-58 | iar 112 270365. |
3695°68 | ie Ly ma | 1-11 270504 |
3695-18 | 4 270541 |
369413 | 93-7 6 | 0-43 | 27061°8 /
3693-16 ih ea | | 270689 |
3692-79 17S 270716
3691-49 1 | | 270811 |
see bee a
I 2 t | | Par ae
3690-60 1 | | 27087°7 |
3690°23. | 1 270904
3689-98 | 1 27092:2 |
3689-58 | 4 | 27095°2
3688-65 1 271020
3687-77 | $72 6 0°57 27108°5
3687-58 6 oar 27109°9
3687-21 | 1 | 971126
3686-65 1 | 27116:7
3686-40 1 271185
368610 | 85-8 6 0°30 27120°7 |
3684-24 | 85-0 4 0°76 271344 |
3683°77 | 83-9 2 013 | 271387-9 |
3683-18 1 | 271422
368235 | 81-7 6 0°65 27148-4 |
~ 3681-79 | sy, ea 271525 |
3681°35 | 1 | 971557
368090 | 2 | 271591 /
3680-03 | 80-3 | 4 — 0:27 | 271655
3679-49 ie wk | 2716975
3679-13 1 | 271721
3678:99 | 2 | 27173-2
3677-76 | 77-6 $ 0:16 271823
3677-60 1 | Q7183-4°!
3677°42 | 2 27184-8 |
3677-03; 1 QT18T7 |
3676-44 | 4 271920
3675°29 1 27200°5
3674-89 1 27203°5
367455 | 1 | 27206-0 |
3674-12 | 1 27209°2 |
3673719 | 1 272161
3672°85. | 1 | 27218°6 |
3671°80 1 27226-4
3671-64 i] 272276 |
3670-95 1 272327 |
3670-20 4 27238'3 |
366965 693 6 0-35 272424
3669-29 | 2 272450
3669-04 | frm bel te 45 27246-9 |
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 207
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and Intensity) a4 ;jNer and Difference acer: Oscillation
tRunge Cornu and Kempt Rowland |———],____ | Frequency
(Rowland) Character p —Angstrém) , s a in Vacuo
rx
ae “ ear 3. |
366882 L 272485
3668°68 peas | 27249°6
3668°35 il 272520
366811 2 8:2 27253'8
3667°45 2 83 27253°6
°3666°99 1 27262:0
3666-41 1 27266'3 |
3665°90 1 2727071
3665°33 1 272744
3664-74 ioe 2s 272788
3664-10 1 27283°5
3663-60 1 27287°3
3663°41 624 1 1-01 27288°7
3663-04 62°0 1 1-04 27291-4
3661°52 i 27302°8
3661-08 1 273060
3660°53 1 Toa! 27310°1
3659°65 56°2 6 3°45 1:10 27316°7
3658-68 1 273240
3658-07 1 27328°5
3657-66 i 27331°6
3657°27 i 27334-5 |
3656°37 1 27341°2
365593 1 27344°5
3655-60 | 4 273470
3655712 eat | 27350°6
3654°83 1 27352°7
3654-11 1 27358'1
3653:90 | 1 27359°7
3651-61 51-7 6 —0:09 273769
3650-64 1 27384-2
3650742 494 | 4 1:02 27385°8
3650714 2 27387°9
3649-65 48-6 4 1:05 27391-6
| 3649-44 | 1 27393°2
| 3647-99 469 | 8 1:09 274040
| 364757 | il 27407-2
| 3645-96 eg! 27419°3
364563 1 27421°8
3645°22 1 27424°9
3644:97 1 27426°8
364473 x 27428°6
} 3643-80 a 27435°6
| 3640-53 6 27460-2
| 3638-44 377 4 0-74 274760
3637°98 1 | 27479°5
| 3637-39 1 27483°9
| 3637-16 In 27485°7
| 363673 in 27488°9
| +3636°32 2 27492:0
| 3635°39 in : 27499°1
} 3634°80 1 27503°5
| 3634-48 53°83 4 , 0°68 27506-0
| 3633-98 1 274097
3633°16 2 27515°9
208 REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
| | | Reduction to |
_ Kavser and | Intensity | Miiller and Difference | Vacuum Oscillation
| Runge Cornu and Kempf Sowland |__|, __ | Frequency
| (Rowland) | Character! —Angstrém | 1__| in Vaeuo
| A
| 3632-71 1 27519-4
3632-20 4 ) 27523°2
363162 | 30:9 6n | O72. 4 275276
3631-23 4 27530°6
3630°50 4 8:3 | 27536-1
3628-97 1 S4 | 275476
3628-22 1 275533
362791 1 27555°7
3827/19 1 27561°2
3626-64 1 275653
3626-31 Lee 27567°8
3625°30 | 23:7 4 1-60 | 275755
3624-95 Sah | 27578°2
3624:46 rey 275819
3623-94 Pe | 275859
3623°58 1 | | 27588°6
3623°33 | 22-7 Ci | 063 | 1:10 27590°5
362215 | 21-0 Bi | 1:15 | 1:09 | 27599°5
3621-87 1 | | 27601°6
3621-61 | 20°6 6 | 1-01 27603°6
| 3621-24 as “| 27606°4
3620°62 oe . | 27611°2
3620°37 ie || ) 276131
3619-89 i eee | | 27616-7
| 3619:54 1 | 27619°4
361892 | 17:8 s ioe 27624:1
3618°54 | 27627:0
361794 | 16-9 ae Pal 1-04 | 27631°6
3617-47 dite | | . | 27635:2
3617-23 kee 27637°1
3616-76 at oy | | 27640-7
3616-46 1 / 27642'9
3616-29 ae 27644-2
3615°80 ae . 27648:0
361541 hae | 276510
3614:78 aie | 27655°8
3614-26 l | | 27659°8
3613-75 1 276637
3613°58 1 276650
3613-26 ae 276674
3613°10 es | 27668-7
3612-25 ee | 27675'2
3610-86 aa 27685°8
3610-29 | 097 | 6 059 | 276902
3608-99 | 083 | 8 069 27700-2
3608°33 ie | 27705°3
3607-72 | aes | 27709'9
3606-83 | 060 | 6 oss | 27716°8
3606-05 | 1 27722'8
360562 | 046 6 102 | | 2772671
3604-88 1 277318
3604-54 1 277344
3604-29 | 1 bie: 27736°3
| 3603-98 | ie | | 27738-7
| 3603°83 | 1 | 27739-9
ON WAYVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 209
Tron (Arc a a
“t etacken to
Kayser and jIntensity} ygier and | Difference elie Oscillation | |
unge Cornu and Kempf Rowland Frequency |
(Rowland) Character —Angstri om) 4 1_ |} in Vacuo |
Br to A
3603'71 1 | 27740'8
3603-59 1 27741°7
3603°34 02°1 4 1-24 27743°6
3602°64 018 2 Os4 27749 0
3602'23 1 277522
3599°77 2 27771°3
3599-30 1 277748
359912 1 27776°2
3598-85 1 27778°3
3597°84 i 27786°2
3597°22 2 27790°8
3596°35 2 | 277976
3596:03 1 27800-0
3595°78 1 27802-0
359543 1 | 278047
3594-71 94:0 6 0-71 27810-2
359362 ] | 27818°7
3593°46 1 27819°9
3592°97 1 27823°7
359283 1 \ 27824:8
3592°61 1 | 278265
8592-13 1 { 8-4 27830°2
3591°48 il | 85 27835°2
359113 1 | 27837°9
3590°80 1 | 27840-4
3590-21 1 27845'0
3589°73 ] 27848°7
3589°58 2 27849'9
3589°25 4 27852°5
3589-05 1 273540 |
3588°75 2 278563 |
3587°87 2 27863°2
3587°55 2 27865°7
3587°34 1 27867°3 |
3587°10 86°2 8 0:90 27869°2
| 3586°62 1 1:09 27872°9
| 3586-24 6 1-08 278758
3585784 4 278790
358543 84:9 4 0°53 27882°1
3585°33 2 27882°9
3585-08 4 278849
3584°78 84°1 6 0°68 27887-2
3583°74 1 27895°3
8583-45 2 27897°6
3582°76 1 27902°9
3582'32 4 27906°4
3581-94 1 27909°3
3581°73 1 27911:0
WN 3581-32 80°6 10 0-72 27914-2
3578°80 2 27933°8
8578-49 1 27936°2
3578-03 2 27939°8
| 3576-89 2 279487
| 3576-11 1 27954°8
3575°49 4 27959°7
mie91., P
210
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
327279
357212
3571°34
3570°45
3570°23
3569°60
3569°09
3568:94
3568753
3567°52
3567715
3566-70
3566-46
3565:72
3565°50
3564-61
3564-22
3560°S1
3559°62
3559°39
3559°18
3558°62
3556-99
3555-04
3554-62
3554-24
3553°84
3553°58
3053-29
3552-95
355258
3552-24
3549-97
3548-13
3547-89
3547-31
3546-29
3545°95
3545-74
3544-74
3543-78
3543-53
3542:37
3542-20
3541-22
354082
3540-24
3538-87
3538-68
3538-48
3538-01
REPORT—1891.
Cornu
68:9
64-1
58:1
56:0
64-0
415
401
39-2
Intensity)
and
Character
—
—
SRF RPREN NRF ROR IRN RR Re NR ORN OHA HS
ry
RRR RN NOON FN NAR RIN NNN RR ee Re
Miiller and
Kempt
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrém
Reduction to
Vacuum
1:33
1-40
0-52
0-99
1-04
0:70
1:12
1-62
Oscillation
—| Frequency
in Vacuo
27960°6
27961°8
279713
279751
279808
27986°1
27992°2
27999°2
28000°9
28005°8
28009°8
280116
280142
28022-2
280251
28028°6
28030°5
28036'3
28038:0
28045°1
28048°1
28075-0
280844
28086°2
28087'9
28092°3
28105°2
28120°6
28123°9
28126°9
28130°0
28132:0
28134°3
28137°0
28140°1
28142°6
28160°6
28175°3
281772
28181°8
28189°9
28192°6
281943
28202°2
28209°8
28211°8
28221°1
28222°4
28230°3
28233°4
282381
28249:0
28250°5
28252°1
282559
Iron (ARC ical Aki it
Aton tis). i |. 1.
_ | Kayser and pacers
Runge Cornu and /
_ | (Rowland) oes a
3537-84 4
3537-60 2
3536°65 35-4 6
3535-01 1
3534-63 1
3533°30 | 6
3533-08 | 4
3532-71 1
3532°17 1 |
3531°90 1
3531-56 1 j
3530°48 2
3529-90 4
3529°63 1 |
3529-44 1
352790 | 270 | 6 |
3526°76 4
3526°51 25°7 6
362625 6
3526-08 2
3525°97 1
3524-62 2
3524-34 om * 4
352415 y }
_ 3523-38 1
3522-97 ri a
3522°37 2
| 3521-93 nS |
| 352136 | 206 : ge. |
| 3520-95 ae
852014 rae 4
3518-96 Rane |
3518°80 1 }
3517-19 1 }
3516°66 1 |
3516°50 2
3515°39 ee ea
H 2 i
Sore bat
13:7 8 1
ay |
1 7
1 |
at
1
ae
1 i
i
1
2 i
1
4
]
05:8 4
aoe. Aa f
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
—Angstrém
0:90
0°81
oo
teduction to
Vacuum
& | o
A+ Xr
= || ret
|
|
|
|
8-6
8-7
1-07
1-06
j ON WAVE-LENGIH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 211
Oscillation
282957°2
28259°2
282667
28279°9
282829
28293°6
28295-3
28298-3
28302-6
28304-8
28307°5
283) 6-2
28320°8
28323-0
28324-5
28336-9
28346-0
28348-0
28350°1
283515
283524
28363°2
28365°5
28367-0
28373-2
28376-5
28381-4
28384-9
28389-5
28392-8
28399-4
28408-9
28410-2
28423-2
28427-4
28428-7
28437°6
28439°6
28443-1
28449-6
28455-8
284566
28458°8
28462-7
284667
28469-2
28475°2
28477°1
28477°8
28481-7
28487°6
28492°9
28503°8
28509-0
28510-7
PB 2
212
Kayser and
Runge |
(Rowland) |
|
REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Cornu
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrom
Reduction to
Vacuum
A+ a
350515 |
3504-95
3504-52
3502:35
3500°64
3498°84
3497°92
3497-20
3496-27
3495-96
3495:37
3494-76 |
3494-24
3493-7
3493-37 |
3493-04 |
3492-68
3490°65
3489-74
3489-49
3486-63 |
3485-42
3485-06
3484-92
3483-91
3483-09
3489°23
3481-87 |
3481-64 |
3480-45
3479-73
3478-69
3477-93
3477-09
3476-93.
3476-75
3476°39
3476-17 |
3475-95
347572
3475-52
3474°51 |
3474-14 |
3473:78
3473-59 |
3473:39 |
3472-61 |
3472-29
3472-06
3471-40
3470-78
3469-91
3469-70
3469-49
3469-09
91:9
89°8
88:9
88-0
S54
761
70-4
ee ee ee a a Sl el el cl el SO el oe el el el
BS
0°65
1-00
aman
an
1:06
1-05
28520°7
Oscillation |
Frequency
in Vacuo
28522'4
28525-9
28543-6
28557°5
26572-2
28578°7
28585°6
28593-2
28595°7
28600-6
28605°6
286098
28613:6
28617 0
28619°7
28622'6 |
28639°3
28646:7
28648°8
28672'3
28682-2
28685:2
28686-4
28694:7
28701-4
28708°5
287115
28713-4
28723'1
28729'1
28737°6
28743-9
287508
28752°2
28753-7
28756:7
28758'5
28760°3
287622
28763'9
28772-2
28775'3
287783
287799
28781°5
28788-0
28790°6
28792'5
28798-0
288032
28810-4
28812-1
28813-9
288172
TRoN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
3466-98
3466°57
3465-95
3464-98
3464-16
3463-39
3462-87
3462 43
3461-73
3461-15
3460-40
3460-02
3459-83
3459°51
3458°55
3458°39
3457°53
8457715
345632
3455-41
3454-26
3453-60
3453-10
3452-35
3451-99
3451-71
3450-41
3447-37
3447-00
3446°86
3446-34
3445-87
3445-22
3443-96
3443-30
3443-03
3442-75
3442-44
3442-07
© 3441-07
3440-69
3439-93
| 3439-09
| 3438-36
| 8438-02
| 3437-68
| 3437-37
| 3437-11
3436-06
| 3433-64
3433-09
| 3431-90
-3428'81
3428-26
3468-92
Cora test} Miller and
Character Kempf
4
2
4
65°5 10
1
| In
fe if :
te: |
2 :
2 '
In
1
61:5 6
l |
2 |
3 |
578 4 |
1
In |
In |}
In j
1 i
Bo
53:2 4 |
6 t
6 |
9 |
|
457 6
|
|
2 i
In |
44-4 8
43-0 10 |
In |
In
Rae
40°8 4
1
39-9 10
39°6 10
2n
In
In
cn
| In |
In
| 2n |
im .j
: |
1
me!
In |
|
Reduction to |
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrom
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
213
Vacuum
A+
:
=
Oscillation
Frequency
' in Vacuo
0-45
—1:48
—O1
1:67
0°82
0-96
164
117
1:09
28818°6
28834-7
28838°2
28843°3
288514
28858°2
288646
28869-0
28872°6
28878°5
28883°3
28889°6
28892°8
28894°3
28897-0
289050
289064
28913°6
28916°8
289237
289313
28941°0
28946°5
28950°7
289570
28960:0
28962°3
28973°3
28998°8
29001:9
29003°1
29007°5
29011-4
29016°9
29027-4
29033:0
29035°3
29037°6
29040°3
29043°4
29051°8
29055:0
29061°5
29068°6
29074:7
29077°6
29080°5
29083°1
29085°3
29094°2
2911 4:7
29119°4
29129°5
29155°T
29160°4
214
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
3427-21
3426-71
3426-44
3425-08
3424:36
3423°79
3422°69
3419°76
3419°25
8418°91
341858
3418-28
8417:92
3417-30
3416°65
3416°30
3415°61
3414°83
3413°22
3412-43
3411743
3411-22
3410°98
3410°26
3409-22
3408°52
3407°55
3406°88
$3406°50
3405-89
3405°65
3405-45
3405724
3404°75
3404-41
3403°39
3402°33
3401-60
3400°50
3399°39
3398°29
3397-68
3397-05
339613
339465
3394-13
3393-72
3393-46
3393-07
3392-74
3392°37
339212
3391-21
3390-61
3389-83
'
Cornu
|
|
br |}
wma
AR
wo
S
=)
11°8
0671
97-6
91-0
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
REPORT—1891.
Intensity
and
\Character
We RE NERD eH HEN De ENR ORK DSB NORP KE HH NN ROCF NOE RK SE OR OHHH De Oe Pp
Miiller and
Kempf
}
Difference |
Rowland
— Angstrém |
|
05)
1-04
0-28
156
79
LS
or
wm
ty
ns
bo
1:42
1-45
131
Reduction to
Vacuum | Oscillation |
Frequency |
zn a in Vacuo |
<— )
29169°3
29173°6
29306'1
29308-2
29314-4
89 | 29323°3
29329°2
29337°6
293434
293466 |
29351°9
29354:0
293557 |
29357°5 |
29361:7
04 293647
03 293735
29382°6
29388:9 |
29398-4
29408-0 |
29417°6
29422°8
29428°3
29436'3 |
59449°1 |
29453°6
29457°2
59459-4
294628
29465'7
29468'9
29471'1
294790
| 29484-2 |
| | 29491:0 .
ae
S
Ad
v ») af
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 215
TRON (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued,
{
}
|
| | Reduction to
fesse i Vacuum ilatio
Kayser and Intensity Miillersnd | Difference roe
anes Cornu | and Kempf | Rowland | 1 in Wace
(Rowland) Character | Angstrém| A+ | >
——<— > | 294981
3389-01 I 29499°6
3388-84 1 | 295115
3387°48 4 29528-0
3385°58 2 295329
3385-02 1 295414
3384-05 8 29543°6
3383-80 4 29555'1
3382-48 a 295644
3381-42 2 295714
3380-62 2 29575°3
3380°17 8 29584°6
3379-11 6 29587°6
337877 6 29593'8
3378-06 ee 29606'8
3376758 2 29615-0
3375°64 1 29624:3
337458 L 9:0 29629°3
3374-01 1 9:1 29639:0
3372-90 1 29645°3
3372/18 4 29656°8
3370'87 10 29667°8
3369°62 8 1-03 29680°7
3368°16 1 1:02 29692-0
3366°88 6 297116
3364-66 1 297144
3364-34 1 29719°4
3363-77 1 29720°7
3363-63 |. 29731°8
3362°37 fee 297343
3362-09 I 29743-7
3361-03 1 | | 29754-2
3359'84 I | | 29756'8
3369°55 1 29766'9
3358-41 1 29784:4
3356°44 4 297948
3355-27 6 298046
3354-16 4 29811:2
3353-42 1 29814-0
3353°10 1 29825:2
3351°85 a 29826-9
3351-65 ; 2 29837°6
3350°45 | 1 29859:2
3348-03 | 6 298681
3347-03 2 29885'2
334512 1 29896-7
3343-83 1 29901-6
3343-29 1 29910-()
3342-35 2 29913-0
3342-01 = 29922:0
3341-01 1 29925°3
3340-64 : 29933°7
3339-70 | 2 91 | 29937:8
| 3339-24 2 9:2 29942-0
| 3338-76 | 2 299513
iP 8337-73 6
216 rEPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
l | | nee to
| | nee acuum | Oscillation
Kayser and Intensity) writer and | Pipers ——) Frequency
Runge Cornu and el Kempt ee: Angstrém) 1 in Vacuo
(Rowland) Character | At Ke
a | 299641
3336-30 ore | | 299682
3335°85 hoasoeee 1-02 | 29982-0
3334°31 aoe 4 1-01 30005°1
3331-74 oe W 30017°5
3330°37 ieee? 300241
3329-64 oe) | 30029°8
3329-00 error. if | 300425
3327-60 rode 30060:9
3325°56 ae tH | 30069-4
3324-62 aL at 30076°5
3323-84 . | 30087°3
3322-65 al vl 30103°5
3320°86 a0 30108-0
3320:36 ee 301172
3319-35 4 30136°3
3317-24 Pages a | 30142-2
3316-60 1 | 30149°9
3315-75 1 30158-0
3314-86 8 | 30160°3
3314-60 1 30163-5
3314-25 1 | | 30166-0
331398 1 | 30176-6
3312-82 ae | 30180-4
3312-40 ee. 3019-1
3311-23 | 301974
| 8310-53 =: 30212-4
setae) : | | 30221-7
3307-87 Saas 9.(s¢ 30226-7
3307°33 | O47 : / aa 30228-2
3307-16 | 9: | 302343
330650 | O41 a ae 30238-0
3306-09 | 03-7 10 | 30245-4
3305-28 ee 92 30253-0
3304-45 is 93 | 30259-9
3303-69 1 | 30267-4
3302°87 DSeemcd | 30275-2
3302-02 Pied : 302813
3301-35 ene 4 | 30287-4
| 3300-69 ae ie | 30297°3
3299:61 1 | 80301-6
3299:14 2 ae 30305-0
3298-77 ie 2-95 30309°8
329825 | 96-0 8 ok, 30322°1
3296-91 1 | 30325:3
3296°56 | | 303311
3295-94 ee | 1-01 | 30338-6
3295-12 1 | 1-00 30356°6
3293-17 ae 1-90 | 30360°9
3292-70 | 908 cay 213 | 303662
3292-13 | 90-0 8 1:80 30375:7
3291-10 | 89:3 6 30377°9
3290-86 1 | 30385°6
3290-03 1 80390:4
3289°51 1 | | | 808947 |
3289-04 Varo
iJ
: , Ml 917
ON WAVE-LENGTIL TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 217
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
- Vacuum Oscillation
| Kayser and Intensity} fiiller and Distegmce Frequency
| Runge | Cornu | and Kempf Ly errr 1_ | in Vacuo
| (Rowland) Character S A+ Xx
| ais 303897°2
3288-77 a 30403:0
eet | | 80412°7
3287-0 ; | 304148
Beneees7? | 848) 10 | el | 30421°8
| 328611 846 1 30427-5
3285-50 2 30429-0
3285°33 1 | 131 30436°2
3284-71 | 83-4 30444-7
328364 ul 030 304506
3283-00 | 82-7 4 30456-2
3282-40 1 30460°4
3281-95 1 304655
3281-40 1 304751
3280°37 § 30479°7
3279:87 1 30489-4.
3278°83 2 30502°5
3277-42 L 30510°6
3276:55 2 30517-2
3275-84 } 30529°4
3274-53 ! 1-85 30533'9
3274-05 122, 8 7 30546:0
3272-75 E 30555°4
tae 2 30557-0
32715 2 “29 9-3 30561°3
3271-12 | 69:3 8 182 9-4 | cualneane
3270:08 1 305772
ee , 3058773
3268-3 “ae 30611°6
3265-73 | 63-9 8 rata 30617-1
3264-80 In 30622°2
3264-60 4 306329
3263-05 Bo 30649-9
326210 1 30652:2
3261-41 ae | epee
3260-09 4 1-00 306734
3259-16 1 0-99 30679°6
3258°50 i 30687°2
3257-69 q 30690°6
3256-80 1 30701'2
3256-20 ] 30703-4
ond z 30714:5
3254°7 9. 30717°6
B25447 | 524 8 as 307217
3253°00 2 30735°7
3262'55 F 30747°4
3251-31 6 307527
3250-75 2 | 80755-1
3250 50 1
218 REPORT—1891.
* Tron (Arc Srecrrum)—continued.
| Reduction to |
Kayser and Intensity! yyiitier and Difference Vacuum | Oscillation
Runge Cornu and Kempf ) Rowland |———7—___, Frequeney
(Rowland) Character !— Angstrom AA 1__ | in Vacuo
x |
3249-94 1 | 30760-4
3249-27 1 30766°7
324853 il 307738
3248-31 | 46-8 6 151 30775'8
3247°70 | 46-1 4 1:60 307816
3247°39 4 ; | 307846 |
3247-08 2 3078775 |
3246°55 1 30792°5
3246 09 4 | 30796-9
3245°59 1 30801°6
3245-35 1 30803°9
3244:97 1 30807°5
3244-27 42:8 8 1:47 | 30814:2
3243-94 1 | 30817:3
3243-50 1 | 30821°5 |
3243-22 1 / 308242 |
3242°35 1 ) 308324
3241-54 1 | | 30840-1
3240-59 1 308492
323953 | 38-9 8 0°63 30859°3
38°7 }
3239:07 | 37-8 1 | 1:27 30863-7
3238-60 1 308681
3237-92 1 | 308746 |
3237-43 1 30879°3
3236'88 2 | 94 | 308845 |
323631 | 34:3 4 | 2-01 9:5 | 30889°9 |
3235-66 1 3089671 |
3234-71 2 309052 |
3234-07 | 32:3 6 | 1:97 309113 |
3233°14 4 [ 30920°2
3232-42 1 | 309271 |
3231-72 1 30933°8 |
3231-05 6 309402
3230-80 1 | 30942°6
3230°29 4 | 809475
3230-01 2 | 30950-1
3229-64 1 30953-7
3229+19 2 30958-0
3228-97 2 30960°1
3228-64 1 | 309633
3228°36 4 | 809660 |
3228-11 2 0:99 | 30968-4
3227-88 | 26-5 6 1-38 0:98 , 30970°6 |
8227-17 2 | B30977-4 |
3226°86 1 | BO980-4 |
3225-90 | 24-4 10 1:50 | 309896 |
3224-98 1 30998°4
3224-27 1 310053
3223-89 1 | 310089
3223°31 1 31014°5
322212 | 21-0 10 1-12 310260 |
3219:92 | 18-7 8 1-22 31047°2 |
3219-67 8 | | 310496 |
3218-60 1 | | 310599.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Kayser and
hunge
(Rowland)
3217-49
3216-03
3215-49
| 3214-48
| 3214-14
3213-43
3212-08
3211-77
| 3211-63
3210-92
3210°35
3209-45
3208-60
: 3207:22
3205-45
3204-15
3203'14
3202-65
3201-52
3200'81
3200:58
3199-62
3198-38
3197-67
3197-04
319624
3195+35
3194-73
3194-52
3193-92
319337
3192-93
3192-66
3191:77
3191-22
3190-80
3190:13
3188-96
3188-67
3188-14
3187-70
3187-35
3186'83
3185-72
3185°34
3185-00
3184-73
3184-24
3183-67
3183-11
4 3182°13
j 3181-97
e 3181-60
3180°85
R3180°30 |
Cornu
99:7
98°8
96:3
Tron (Arc SpECTRUM)—continued.
Intensity
and
Character
HB Pe 0 NS > It ND), 0 PRO Fr 00. be BO) ND: bt 00° 1DS tt 0.00
5
OPP PD RE HEE RHE Dt
219
Miiller and
Kempf
|
| Difference
Rtowland
;—Angstrém
Reduction to
Vacuum
A+
|
|
Oscillation
Frequeney
in Vacuo
1 I
A
1-15
0°88
0°82
0-74
0°67
0-63
0:98
0:97
31070°6
31084:7
31090-0
31099-7
311030
311099
31123-0
31126-0
31127°3
311342
31139°7
31148°5
311567
311701
311874
311900
31209°9
312145
31225°6
31232:5
31234:7
31244/1
31256-2
31263°2
31269°3
31277°2
31285-9
31291-9
31294:0
312999
313053
31309°6
31312°2
31321-0
| 313264
| 313305
3133771
31348-6
31351-4
31356°6
31361-0
31364-4
313695
| 313805
| 31384-2
31387°6
31390:2
3139571
31400°7
31406-2
31415-9
31417°5
314211
31428°5
314340
9-5
96
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
REPORT—1 891.
Kayeer and
Runge
(Rowland)
Cornu
| Intensity
and
ees
|
Miiller and
Kempf
3179°61
317906
3178°64
3178:08
317764
3177-09
3176°44
317609
3176°53
3175718
3173'75
3173°53
3172°14
3171-73
3171°44
3170°43
316894
316815
316797
3166°55
3165-97
3165-11
316440
3163-95
3162°45
3162-04
3161-44
3160°74
3160°37
3159°20
3159-08
3158-48
3157-99
3157-15
3156°35
3155°89
315537
315461
3154:29
3153°85
3153 31
3151°95
3151:42
3150°35
3149-64
3148°47
314831
314784
3147-70
3147:40
3146°52
314513
3144-61
3144-06
3143°33
60:9
44-4
44°92
MP RD ENN DMN HN ADE APE NN E ROE DE RON AON NE RAGERHE EN OHNE RE OHM EE AHEEDLD
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrém
114
Reduction to |
Vacuum
At
1
A
Oscillation
| Frequeney
in Vacuo
31440°8
31446°2
31450°4
31455°9
31460°3
31465°7
31472°2
31475°7
31481-2
31484-7
314989
31501-1
31514°9
315189
31521°8
31531°8
3156466
31554°5
31556°3
31570°4
315762
31584°8
315919
31596-4
31611°3
31615°4
316215
31628°5
31632°2
31643°9
316451
31651°1
316560
31664°4
31672°5
316771
31682°3
31689°9
3169371
31697°6
31703°0
31716°7
317220
31732°8
31740°0
317518
31753°4
317581
31759'5
31762°5
3LT714
317Te5'5
31790°7
31796°3
318037
i.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES.OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 22]
Kayser and
hunge
(Rowland)
314297
3142°54
3140°47
3140-00
3139°76
3138°62
313784
3136°89
313659
3135-76
3135°51
3134:21
3132°61
3129-45
3129-20
3129-05
3126°89
3126°25
3125°77
3125:00
3124-16
3123-43
3122-41
3121°83
3120-95
3120°54
3120°41
3119°58
3117-69
3116-73
3116°47
3115°86
3113-70
311216
3111-90
3111-81
3110-97
3110°37
3109-73
3109-07
3108-07
3107-46
3106°59
3105°69
3104°34
3103-95
3102-96
3102-76
3102°23
3101:96
310163
3101:10
3100°97
310077 |
8,3100°38
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
|
| Intensity
Cornu | and
|Character'
CODER RE HORE RH He HED EP DNDN PN HE RONDE PRE NR RE HY DOOR DNR OCONEE RE Ee Pee
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
—Angstrém
Reduction to
Vacuum
A+
1
A
Oscillation
Frequeney
in Vacuo
— 0°33
—0°06
0:97
0:88
|
1 O9d |
20
ele)
31807'3
31811-7
31832°7
31837°4
31839:°9
31851°4
31859°4
31868°9
31872:0
31880°4
31882 9
318962
31912°5
31944-7
31947°2
31948'8
31970 8
319774
31982°3
319902
319988
32006°3
32016°7
32022°7
32031°7
32035°9
32037°3
32045°8
32065°2
32075'1
32077'8
32084'1
321063
32122°2
321249
321258
32134°5
32140°7
32147°3
321542
32164°5
32170°8
32179°8
32189°1
32203'1
32207°1
32217-4
32219°5
32225:0
322278
32231°2
32236°7
32238 'L
32240-1
32244°2
Kayser and |
Runge
(Rowland)
3100°04
3099-11
3098-25
3097-70
3097-00
3096-12
3095°37
3095:03
3093-92
3093°45
309287
309167
309125
3090°31
3089°64
3088-93
3088°25
3087-49
3086°85
3085°78
3083°81
308322
3082°75
308227
308197
3081°26
3081-09
3080-11
3079°81
3078°50
3078710
307777
3077-32
3976°60
3075°80
307453
3074°24
3074-08
3073°28
3072:28
307154
3070°33
3069°56
3068°89
3068°25
3068-06
3067°30
3066°55
3066:13
3065°40
306482
3064-01
3063-28
3062-96
3062°47
|
Cornu
90:
ir)
Gr
4
ot
REPORT—1891,
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Intensity
and
Characte
—
La el ll ee el dl Del el el a)
=
PND DOR RNR RE REE RR EB
Bp
i=}
et 8 Oe ee ao
Reduction to
i Vacuum
Miiller and rt ag
Kempf towland
—Angstrém il
Rep
a
i> ee
| 0:84
|
1-27
0-95
0-94
| 031
9:9
10:0
1-80
Oscillation
Freq uency
in Vacuo
32247-7
322574
32266°4
32272°1
32279°4
32288°6
32296°4
32300-0
32311-6
32316°5
32322°5
323535-1
32339°5
32349°3
32356°3
32363°8
32370°9
323789
32385°6
32396°8
32417°5
324237
32428°7
32433-7
32436°9
324443
32446°1
32456°5
32459°6
32473°5
32477-7
32481°2
32485°9
32493°5
32502°0
32515°4
32518°5
32520°1
32528°5
325391
32547:0
325598
32568°0
325751
32581°9
32583'9
32594°8
32599°9
32604°4
82612°2
32618'3
32627:0
32634-7
32638°2
32643°4
a .
4 2
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 223
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
i iff Vacuum Oscillation
Kayser and Intensity; yyij}ler and Piper eee
panes aon oa Kempf |_ Angstrom 1 in Vacuo
(Rowland) Character | g A+ 57
| gat pies 32645°3
3062°29 ] | Parr
3061°89 1 : Saacae
SnD 68 | 32663-0
ani. ome 326784
3059-19 57:3 10 : 1:89 Pees
8057°55 10 Sern e
3056'39 2 warikd
8055°82 1 ite
8055'35 6 | rang
305445 2 | rts
3053°95 1 | serene
3053°53 2n Pith
305315 6 | pobre
3051°84 1 | Save
3050°90 : | peter
Pay | | 0-93 32791-7
3048°61 2n | | en batt le
s 3047°71 46°5 10 2 aes
3047°15 4n Senne
3047-02 aL pret
3045:70 2 epoca
3045°16 6 Preone
304468 2 | Pra iw
aie re dD : | 1°25 328550
pele i : 1°43 10-0 32861°7
3042°13 40°7 6 | : seeeee
‘i 1°53 10°71
3041°83 40:3 ; ; | sera o
3041:08 : é
3040°54 392 8 134 ea
3040°07 1 eons
3039-44 2 etna
3039°19 In | ae Gis
ea : . 32908°5
3037°80 2 | ; Berne
3037°54 36°2 6 | } 1:34 pe
3037°37 6 i Pare
3035°86 2n | por
303463 gna!) / senda
3034-26 zh | 320469
3033-45 oi) | 829657
Sabre A | 32974:3
3031-7 |
hed 29°8 : / Rok ee
3030°75 | i
— 8030-24 28:7 : | 1:54 pasha
3029°33 | i ue
aed 253 : } 1:27 peteeie
3026°0' : ne
3025° 2 ee
3024-13 22°7 4 1:43 bei le
3022-89 | ee
| \3020-70 19°4 10 ettis
—3019°31 iS ecae |
224 REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SpEcTRUM)—continued.
| | | Reduction to
}
| | 4
| Kayser and | Intensity! yfiler and _-Dilfference | Vacuum Oscillation
| Runge | Cornu and Kempf Rowland (~~ Frequency
| (Rowland) Character} I —Angstrém | = in Vacuo
} i A
3019-08 177 8 1°38 | 1071 331126
3018-23 1 | 102 331218
3017-72 165 8 22 3 33127°4
301629 15:0 6 129 | 33143'1
3016-04 4 | | 33145°9
3015-01 1 33157°2
3014:27 2 | 331653
3012°59 2 H 0°93 331838
3012-07 1 0-92 | 33189°6
3011°57 6 | 33195°1
3010-28 1 | 33209°3
3009°66 08-4 10 126 6 | 3321671
3009°18 4 | 33221-4
3008-23 | 07°3 10 |92:079:} se ee 33230°9
3007°30 | 063 10 100 =| 33242°2
3005-40 4 33263°2
3004-73 1 332707
3004-20 2 33276°5
3003°74 1 35281°6
3003°14 02:7 6 |} O44 | 33288°3
3002°74 02-4 4 | OS 33292°7
3002-58 1 33294°5
300218 | 1 | 33298-9
3001-80 | 1 i 33303°1
3001-05 00-2 8 0°85 | 33311°5
3000°56 6 33316°9
2999-61 99-0 10n O61 33327°5
2998-61 1 33338°6
2997-51 1 ) 33250°8
2996-49 6 10:2 3332-2
2995-96 1 10°3 | 333568-0
2995-41 1 | 333741
£2994'54 | 94-4 10 0-14 | 33383°8
2992°63 1 | 23405°1
2992°34 1 33408°4
2991-78 6n 334146
2990°48 6 | 33429°1
2989-43 1 H | 33440°9
2989-00 1 ) B3445°7
2988°58 2 | 33450°4
2987-82 1 | 33458°9
2987-40 87-1 8 03 H 33463°6
2986-72 1 33471-2
2986°54 2 33473°3
2985°65 6 33483°2
2984-92 84-1 8 0-82 H 334934
2983 68 82-0 10 168 j 335054
2982-94 1 33513-7
2982-73 1 33515°5
| 2982°31L 1 } 33520°8
| 2981-95 6 | 335248
2981°54 797 8 1°$4 335294
| 2980-62 6 ! 33539°8
| 2979-98 1 33547-0
| 2979-44 1 33553°1
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 225
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
| Vacuum | Oscillation
. Kayser and 6 epee Miiller and Ditemee Frequency
ornu aw os i
(Rowland) Character] S°™PF |_—Angstrim) a=) ee
————— 33567°5
2978-16 1 33581°6
297691 ; 33584-4
297666 A 99 33589°4
2976:22 | 768 6 —0:58 al 33604:7
2974'86 1 0:39 103 | 33621+1
2973-41 | 73:8 8 10-4 | 33623-7
2973:17 8 336329
2972°36 4 336382
2971:89 1 33652°8
2970-60 + _O-5 336574
297020 | 70-7 10 0-48 3665'1
2969-52 70-0 10 % 33671°5
\ 2968'95 1 33675°7
296858 ah a 0-41 33693'8
2966:99 | 67:4 10 33701'5
2966°31 2 33705:°9
2965:92 4 _ 0-25 ; 337124
296535 | 65°6 8 33715-0
2965°12 a 33719°6
2964-72 2 33724-4
2964-30 2 33730-4
2963:77 In 33742°9
2962-67 1 33748:°3
2962-20 2 33753°5
2961-74 1 33758°5
2961:30 a: 337648
2960:75 2 33766°1
2960°64 1 33768°9
2960:39 4 0-43 33772'6
2960:07 | 605 8 337761
2959-76 2 33779°8
2959-44 1 33789-9
2958-55 i 33795:8
2958-04 In 33801-1
2957-57 6 0-08 33802°2
2957-48 | 57-4 6 33803°3
2957°38 6 33808'3
2956-94 2n 33821°8
2955°76 1 33837°5
2954°39 In 33840°5
2954:13 6 33841:9
2953-99 4 0-06 33843'6
295386 | 53°8 6 33846°7
2953'59 6 33857°5
2952°65 In 10-4 33868°5
2951-69 In 0-16 105 | 33883-9
2950:34 | 50°5 8n i. 33889°8
2949:83 1 33896°1
2949-28 6 33898-5
| 2949-07 1 33901-7
2948-79 2 339048
2948-52 6 0-20 33910°8
U 2948-00 | 47-8 8 329134
2947:77 8 33917°1
' 2947-45 4
Q
; 1891.
226
Runge
2946°54
2945:79
2945°20
294449
2943°73
2942-79
2941-93
2941:42
294068
2939°39
2939°15
2937-90
2936°99
293618
2934°45
2934-04
2933°14
2932°06
2931°92
2931°55
2930°72
2929-67
Kayser and
(Rowland)
2947°26
293118 |
2930°49 —
2929°20 |
2929°04 |
2928°83
2928-20
2928-02 |
2927°66
2927-08 |
2926°65 |
2925°96
2925-43
|
2924-66 |
2923-94
2923:39
2922-81
2922-46
2921°86
292119 |
2920°76 |
2920°41
2919-95
2919°31
2919-11
2918-42 |
291811
291758 —
2916-20 |
291434 |
* 2913-70
REPORT— 1891.
Liveing anq| Intensity
Dewar
28°3
bo bS bo
oS
ANwo
bo t
wo 23
(ool «
17-4
136
and
Character
bo
i=}
Lori
6B
6B
=
P
DOY REDE NORHE HE HEN HERE RHEE RODON ER ROH HE
6
In
n
SHH ORE HE REO
In
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
—Angstrém
0-74
0°82
0:90
O74
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Vacuum
||
23)
0°91
0:90
10°5
10°6
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
33919°3
33927°6
33936°2
33943°0
339512
33960°0
33970°8
33980°8
339867
33995°2
34010°2
34012°9
34027-4
34038-0
34047-4
34067°4
34072°2
34082°6
34095:2
34096°8
34101°1
34105-4
34110°8
34113°5
34123°0
34128°5
34130°4
341327
34140°1
34142°2
34146°4
34153°1
34158°2
34166°2
34172°4
341814
34189°8
34196°3
34203°0
342071
34214°2
34222-0
342271
34231°2
34236°6
342441
34246°4
342545
34258°2
342644
34280°6
34302°5
34310-0
* Those marked with an asterisk (*) were observed only in the Spark-spectrum.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 227
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and Liveing and Intensity | \fjitler ang | Difference Vacaua Oscillation
Runge Dewar an Kempf Rowland |~——)___|_ Frequency
(Rowland) Character —Angstrém) ) A in Vacuo
rx
2912-26 115 10 0-76 34327°0
2911-01 *10°5. a 0-51 34341°7
2909-91 1 343547
2909°57 08:9 6 0:67 34358°7
2909°38 1 343610
2908-97 08-2 6 O77 34365'8
2907-94 1 34378°0
2907°59 O71 6 0-49 106 343821
2906:70 1 10°7 34392°6
2906-53 05 8 4 0-73 343946
290623 1 34398'1
2905°60 a 34405°6
2905°46 2 34407°3
290466 1 344167
2904:22 03'5 4n 0°72 34421°9
2903-52 il 34430°2
2902°55 1 34441°8
2902:02 01:3 8n 072 344480
2901-46 60°8 6 0-66 344547
2899°49 98°9 8 0°59 344781
2898°93 2 34484°8
2898°74 1 34487-0
2898°52 97:8 6n 0-72 34489°7
2897°69 1 34499°5
2897°33 *96°7 1 0°63 34503°8
289714 1 34506'1
2896°63 1 34512°2
2895711 94:5 8 0-61 34530°3
289459 54:0 8 0°59 34536°5
289397 93°2 4 0-77 34543°9
2893°86 2 345452
2893°47 1 34549°9
2893°17 1 34553°5
2892°89 1 34556'8
| 2892°56 92:0 6 0°56 0:90 34560°7
2891-98 91:2 2 0:78 0:89 © B4567-7
2891-82 2 | 34569°6
2891-49 1 34573°5
2890:99 2 34579°3
2890°53 In 34585 0
2890°12 2 345899
2889°96 89-2 4 0-76 34591°9
_ 2889°66 1 345954
2888-01 *87°6 1 0-41 34615°2
2887-88 87°3, 6 0°58 34616°8
2887-43 1 846222
2887-22 1 346247
2886°38 85'8 6 0°58 | 34634°8
2885-46 2 346458
2884°45 In 34657°9
2883-80 83°3 6 0:50 34665°8
2882-99 j1 34675°5
2881°65 10 34691°6
2880-84 80°4 6 0-44 347014
2880°67 : i2 347034
a2
228
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Dewar
Liveing and|Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
2879°60
2879°01
2878°84
2878°75
2877°95
2877°37
2876 80
2876°24
2875°78
2875°35
2874-98
2874:24
2873°74
2873°48
287293
2872°54
287238
2871°83
2871:39
2871-16
2870°37
2869°93
2869°38
2868-94
2868°50
2868°33
2867-94
2867°63
2867°37
2867-09
2866°68
2865°90
2865°43
2863'92
2863°46
2962°56
2862-00
2861-48
2861-29
2860 50
2859°48
2858°96
285841
2858:13
285788
2857-29
2857-09
285619
2855°75
2853'81
2853-02
2852°19
2851°85
285158
2850°69
ee
in]
a ae ete ae ey ASRS) Er ef ron Bp HB
Bb
_
—
MKRPONF KSB RrPNWN ROE RPE RE eE COD
be
anon
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrom
0°59
0-45
Reduction to
Vacuum
il
A+ z
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
10:7
10°8
0°89
—0°88
347163
34723°5
34725°5
34726°6
34736°2
34743°3
347500
34756'8
34762-4
347676
34772-0
347810
34787°1
34790°2
34796:9
348016
34803°5
34809°6
34815°5
348183
34827°9
34833'3
34839°9
348453
34850°6
34852°7
34857-4
348612
348644
34867°8
34872°8
34882°3
34888-0
349064
34912°0
34923:0
34929°8
34936°1
34938°5
34948°1
34960'6
34966°9
34973°7
349771
34980°2
34987-4
34989°8
35000°9
35006'3
3503071
35039°8
35050°0
350541
35057°5
35068°4
.e
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 229
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
. : Vacuum sug. gs
Petnnge | Liveing and) nteneHy | Muller and | Pierre) ___| Oxeillation
ng ar 4 ° ‘ | Eeeene
(Howland) va Character ba —Angstrém ules in Vacuo
. *49°3 1 0-61 35078°0
oa | i 35081-0
2848°77 48-2 8 0-57 35092°1
2848°13 48-0 2 0-13 108 | 35100°0
2847°72 In 109 | 351049
2846-87 46°5 6 0:37 351154
| | 2845-75 2 351292
2845°63 45:3 8 0:33 35130°7
2844-04 43-6 10 0-44 35150°3
: 2843-69 43-1 8 0:59 351547
| 2843-30 2 35159°5
| 2842-96 2 45163°7
2842-46 1 351699
2842-06 In 351748
2841-72 ln 351791
2841-32 In 35184°0
2840-99 4 351881
2840°73 2 351913
2840-50 40°3 6 0-20 351942
2840-06 39°6 10 0-46 35199°6
2839-66 1 35204°6
2838°51 2n 352188
2838-19 37-7 8 0:49 35222'8
2836-45 In Bo2dded
2836-02 4 35249°8
2835-76 2 352530
2835°51 *35-2 6 031 35256'1
2834-81 4 35264'8
2834-48 1 352689
2834-22 1 352722
2834-07 1 ? 352740
2833-95 | 32:8 In 1-15 35275°5
2833-47 32-4 2 1-07 35281'5
2832°47 318 10 0-67 352940
2831-04 4 35311'8
2830°85 1 353142
2830-55 In 35317°9
2829-58 In 35330°0
2828-87 28°3 6 0-57 35338'9
2828-70 1 35341°0)
2828-44 In 353443
2827-98 27°3 4 0-68 35350°0
2827:68 *27-0 2n 0-68 ee
.! In .
Sieas In 10:9 | 35363°8
2826:56 4 11:0 | 35367-7
2826-07 2 353738
2825-75 6 35377°8
2825-60 25:1 8 0-50 35379'7
2824-73 2 35390°6
2824-42 23-9 6 0°52" 35394°5
| 2823-32 22-9 8 0-42 35408°3
2821-95 1 354255
2821-69 1 35428'7
2821°33 1 35433'3
‘
REPOoRT—1891.
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
epee and |Civeing and
unge :
(Rowland) of ig
2821-09
2820°86 20°4
2820°35
2819°51
2819 35 190
2818-28
2817-98
281755 17-0
2816-74
2815°58 151
2815°14
2813°67 *13°4
2813°36 128
2812-60 ¥*12°2
2812°36
2812-09 1Mlee
2811:23 *10°9
2810-94
2810°37 09-7
2808°73
2808°37 07-9
2808°03
2807°32
2807:03 06:7
2806°53
2806713
2805°87 *05°4
2804:92
2804°56 04:2
280413 *03'8
2803°68 032
2803°20
2802°76 01°8
2801:15 00'8
2800°73 00-1
2800°31 99°4
2799°87
2799°34
2799:21 98°8
279864
279831 97:9
2797°82 97-4
2796°91 *96°3
2796°38
279590
2795°58
2795:00 94°5
2794-77
2794-21
2793°97 *93°3
2792°89
2792-44 92°2
2791°84 91:5
2791-51
2791-00 *90°3
Intensity
and
Character
=]
tS SSS EE Fe Geile COIS NS
€
i
=)
HRAAHE NRF AOCODHKH HN DDH RE Re
Miiller an
Kempf
Reduction to
- J %
a A
| Difference | Vacuym | Oscillation
Rowland Frequency
—Angstrém 1 in Vacuo
A+ Ti
35436°3
0:46 35439°2
0°88 35445°6
0°87 5545671
0°35 35458°2
35471°6
354754
0°55 35480°8
35491-0
0-48 35505°7
35511-2
0:27 35529°8
0°56 355337
0:40 35543'3
355463
0°39 35549°7
0°33 35560°6
355643
0:67 35571°5
35592°3
O47 35596'8
35601-2
35610°2
0°33 35613°8
35620-2
110 35625°3
0-47 isl: 35628°5
35640°5
0°36 35645-1
0°33 35650°6
0-48 35656'3
35662°4
0:96 35668:0
0°35 35688°5
0°63 35693°9
0°91 35699-2
35704'8
35711°6
0:41 35713°3
25720°5
0-41 357247
0:42 35731:0
0°61 35742°6
35749°4
35755°6
35759°7
0:50 . 85767'1
35770:0
35777°2
0°67 35780°3
357941
0°24 35799°9
0:34 35807°6
35811°8
0:70 3581873
ees. *
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 231
Kayser and Liveing and
Runge
(Rowland)
Dewar
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
2789°87
2789°54
278819
2788-05
2787-16
2786°84
2786-26
278525
2785-11
2784-40
2784-07
2783°75
2782712
2781-89
2780°93
2780°77
2780-61
278028
2779°85
2779°34
2778-89
2778°64
2778°29
277815
2776°86
‘2776°47
2775-92
277511
2774:76
2774-47
2774-21
2773°96
2773-28
2772°89
2772°56
2772°40
277215
2771-94
2771:30
2770°75
2770°57
2770-06
2769-73
2769°37
2768°98
2768°52
2768:19
2767-56
2766:99
2766-75
2766:45
2766-07
2765°73
2765°30
2765°13
89°5
1 gs.
j 880
73-1
Re
=]
He OD He ret bet HS et 00 BD He BS 00 BD et bet G0 et et BS et 2 00 > Ht 0 Pt Go ROH et A et © © He OD
| Difference
Rowland ©
—Angstré6m
0:37
0-12
0:20
0°35
0:29
0°44
0:59
0°39
0°45
0-76
0:26
0718
Reduction to
Vacuum
1
A+ ae
11-1
11:2
0:87
0°86
11:2
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
35832°9
35837-0
358544
35856°2
35867°6
35871°7
35879°2
358922
35894:0
35903°2
35907°4
35911°6
35932°6
35935°6
35948-0
35950°1
35952°1
359564
35962:0
35968'6
359744
35977°6
35981°2
35984:0
36000°7
36005°7
36012°9
36023°4
36028-0
36031-7
360351
36038°3
36047°2
36052°3
36056°5
36058°6
36061°9
360646
36072°9
36080°1
36082°4
36089°1
36093°4
36098°1
36103°2
361092
36113°5
36121°7
36129°1
36132°3
36136°2
361412
36145°6
361512
36153°5
232 REPORT—1891.
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
f é Vacuum Wat
Kayser and |p jvej Intensit rs Difference Oscillation
eas eieend and te eT eenot . Rowland |——_,____| Frequency
(Rowland) Character —Angstrém| |, 1_ | in Vacuo
’ A
2764:80 1 11:3 361577
276441 64:0 8 0:41 3616278
276317 63:0 6 017 36179°0
2762°82 *62°4 6 0:42 36183°6
2762752 1 36187°5
2762°12 61:9 8 0:22 36192°8
2761°83 61:7 8 013 36196°6
2761°57 ub 36200°0
2761°30 1 36203°5
2760:96 6 36208°0
2760°71 1 36211°3
2760°42 i 36215'1
2760:20 1 36218°0
2759°86 59°7 8 0-16 36222°4
2759-42 1 36228°2
2759°02 1 36233°6
2758°20 1 362442
275791 6 36248-0
2757°38 57-2 8 0-18 36255°0
2757-09 *56'9 1 0-19 36258°8
2756°85 1 36262°0
2756°36 56:2 8 0-16 36268°4
2755:77 55°5 10 0-27 36276°2
2755°25 4 36283-0
275501 2 36286°2
2754:72 1 36290:0
2754-48 54:3 6 0-18 362932
2754-09 53°9 6 0-719 36298°3
2753°74 53°5 6 0-24 36302°9
2753°37 53°0 6 0°37 36307°8
2753°19 2 36310°2
2752°20 1 363233
2752°89 4 36327°4
2751:44 *50°8 2 0-64 36333°3
275120 1 36336°5
2750°95 50°6 8 0°35 36339°8
2750°82 1 36341-5
275021 49°8 10 0-41 36349°6
2749°58 6 36357°9
2749-42 49:0 6 0-42 36360-0
2749°23 : 6 36362°5
274849 ay 36372°3
2748°25 at 36375°5
2747 64 6 36383'6
2747-03 46°6 10 0°43 36391°6
2746°54 46-1 10 0-44 363981
2745°87 2 0°86 36407°0
274552 al 0°85 36411°7
274513 6 36416°8
2744-61) 44:2 8 0:40 es 36423°9
2744-12 43°7 8 0°42 11-4 36430°3
2743°63 43°3 6 0°33 36436°7
2743°2: 42°8 10 0-43 36442-0
2742°45 42:0 10 0°45 36452°3
2742°11 d 36456°9
ON WAYE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 233
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
2741°65
2741-48
2741:20
2740°42
2739-59
2738-92
2738°55
2738-28
2737°93
273772
2737°37
2737:02
273661
2736°31
2735°71
273561
2735°51
273498
2734-70
2734°39
2734-07
2733-65
2732°88
2732-53
2731-93
2731:37
2731-04
2730-79
2730°16
2729-45
2729-02
2728:90
2728°45
» 2728-11
2727-61
2727:48
2726-90
2726-20
2725:92
2725-68
2725°37
2724-97
2724-78
2724-42
2723°66
2723°08
2722710
2720°99
2720°28
2719°51
2719711
2718°51
271784
2717-43
2716°52
Iron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Liveing and Intensity | yyi11er and | Difference Vacuum
Dewar and Kempf Rowland
Character — Angstrém 1
A+ ae
*41-1 2 0°55
1
4
In
39-1 10 0-49
i
2
4
4
2
36°9 8 0-47
36°5 8 0°52
1
1
6
6
35:0 6 0-51
2
2
33°9 8 0-49
Bank 4 0-37
33'1 10 0-55
*32°5 i 0-38
i
*31°5 In 0-43
2
4
30°2 8 0-59
1
*29°1 1 0-35
it
28:3 6 0-60
af
27-5 6 eee
27:1 s O51
1
In
25°5 10 0-70
1
2
4
24:3 8 0-67
2
a
23°1 10 0°56
, 11-4
2 11-5
20°3 10 0-69
19:7 6 0°58
6
18°5 10 0-61
180 8 0-51
17:4 4 0-44
2
1
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
36463:0
36465'2
36469°0
36479°4
36490-4
36499'3
365043
36507'9
36512°5
36515°3
36520:0
365246
36530°2
365342
365422
36543°5
36544°9
36551°9
36555°7
36559°8
36564°1
36569'7
36580°0
36584:7
36592°8
36600°3
366047
36608°0
36616°5
36626:0
36631°8
366334
36639°4
366440
36650°7
36652°5
36660°3
36669°7
36673°5
36676°7
36680°9
36686°2
36688°8
36693°7
36703°9
36711-7
367248
36739°8
36749°4
36759°8
36765°2
36773°4
36782°4
36788-0
36800°3
234
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
2716°31
2715°38
2715-24
2714-93
2714:48
271415
2713°64
2712742
2711:92
2711-71
2711-02
2710-61
2710-08
2709°74
2709°47
2709°13
2708°64
2708-00
2707-57
270713
270663
2706-07
2705°61
2705730
2704°80
2704-06
2702°83
2702752
2701:99
2701-08
2699°93
2699°18
2698°68
2698°23
2697-58
2697-08
2696-41
2696°12
2695°64
2695-12
2694°63
269437
269291
2692°71
2692°31
2691°80
2691°46
2690°80
2690°12
2689°92
2689-71
2689:28
2687-91
2687-59
2686°82
Liveing and Intensity | \iiller and
Dewar
REPORT— 1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
an
Character
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
—Angstrém
NaroawneKrRORRE
i=] BS
BB 6B BB
eh = dala ph alg
B
ool Se or Mer Noo a om well a lo
===] i=}
Reduction to
Vacuum
1
ge ll Pe
I
/
0°84
0°83
11°5
11°6
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
36803°1
368158
36817°7
36821°9
36828°0
36832°4
36839°4
368559
36862°7
36865°6
368750
36880°6
36887°8
36892°4
36896°1
36900°7
36907°4
36916°1
36922:0
36928°0
36934°8
36942°5
36948°7
36953°0
36959°8
36969°9
36986°8
36991°0
36998°3
37010°7
37026°4
37036°7
37043°5
37049°7
37058°7
37065°5
37074:°7
370787
37085°3
37092°5
37099°2
37102°8
37122°9
37125°7
37131°2
37138°3
37143:0
37152°1
37161°5
371642
37167-1
371731
37192:0
37196°5
372071
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 235
TRON (ARC SPECTRUM)—centinued.
Reduction to
Kayser and |Tiveing and | Intensity | yiiner ana | Difference Vacuum Oscillation
Runge Wewar and Kempf Rowland |———,___ | Frequency
(Rowland) Chaigeter —Angstrém Se oe in Vacuo
Xr
2685°77 In 372217
2685-19 1 37229°7
2684-86 84:2 4 0°66 37234'3
2684-10 83°5 4n 0°60 372448
2682-28 81:5 2n 0°78 372701
2681-62 80°8 4n 0-82 37279°3
2680-99 *80-4 1 0:59 37288:1
2680-53 799 6 0°63 372945
2680°26 2 37298°2
2679-97 i 116 373022
2679-14 78°5 10 0°64 117 373137
rh lide 7-2 In 1:05 373261
7:30 ul 373394
2676°97 *76-1 2 0:87 373440
2676-56 il 37349°7
2676-21 751 In 111 373546
peo 74:6 4n O77 37366°3
2674-74 2 373751
2674°32 1 0-84 37381:0
gene (2-4 6 0°88 0°83 373955
2 30 71°8 In 0:50 37409°2
poo *70'8 1 0°69 37420°6
70°86 1 37429°4
2670°59 69-9 1 0°69 37433°2
2670-00 *69°2 1 0°80 374415
2669°55 68:7 8 0°85 374478
mrenee *68°5 1 0°50 37455°5
“84 In 37457°8
2668-30 1 7465°3
= ll 67:2 6 O77 374700
T7 1 374735
2667:36 1 374785
2667:05 6 374829
aoe 66-1 8 0°84 37484-4
‘72 4 374875
2666-43 65:7 8 0-73 37491°6
2665°87 | 64:2 1 0:67 37499°5
2665°15 640 1 115 37509°6
ae 63°5 8 1-24 375154
; 4n 37523°6
nae *62-2 In 1:08 375360
: 2 375481
oie 61°6 8 0°53 37552°2
1:57 1 37560°1
a. 60°8 8 0-51 37563'8
: 6 37575°5
2659-26 In 37592°7
2658-48 578 2 0°68 ery 37603°8
=a Pe 6 0°45 11°8 37626°7
; oy 8 0:52 37635°7
he *54-4 1 O77 37650°6
: 2 37661°5
2653°87 *53°3 il 0:57 37669'0
2652°53 *52°2 1 0:33 37688:1
2651°78 50°9 6 0-88 37698°7
236
8 anne
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
2651°27
264857
264829
2647-64
2646°40
2645°52
2644:07
2641°74
264)°13
2640°35
2639-60
2637°69
2636-54
2635°87
2635-00
2633°68
2633'09
2632°66
2632-30
2631:72
2631°37
2631-07
2630713
2629-66
2629°28
2628°35
2627-18
2626°52
2625°72
2624°84
262421
2623°58
2622-00
2621°72
2620°73
2620°47
2619:06
261878
2618:47
261810
2617-71
261725
2616°50
2615°94
2615°50
261462
2614:27
2613°91
261333
2612°96
2611°94
2611716
2610°87
2609°79
2609°30
REPORT—1 891.
Tron (ARc SPECTRUM)—continwed.
ee to
Liveing and Intensity Miiller and Difference pono
Dewar an Kempf powland
Character —Angstrém| a ae
50:4 4 0-87
4
il
473 8 0°34
45:2 1 1:20
44-9 6 0°62
43'8 10 0:27
41-4 8 0:34
*40°7 2 0:43
1
*39°2 il 0:40 11:8
36°6 1 1:09 0°83 { 11:9
3671 4 044 0-82
35°5 8 0:37
In
*32°9 1 0:78
1
32°3 2 0°36
32:0 4 0°30
2
31-0 10 0°37
30°7 10 0:37
29°7 2 0°43
29°2 1 0-46
1
279 10 0°45
26°8 2 0°38
26°2 1 0°32
25:2 10 0:52
1
23°6 2 0°61
231 10 0-48
1
21:2 8 0°52
*20°4 1 0°33
19-9 6 0-57 11:9
*18°6 1 0-46 12:0
18:3 4 0-48
1
17°6 4 0:50
17-2 6 O51
2
1
1
15:0 6 0-50
14:0 4 0°62
il
13°3 8 0°61
2
12:3 a 0-66
11-4 10 0-54
10°7 2 0-46
10:3 1 0-57
091 In 0°69
08°7 i 0-60
|
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
377060
37744°4
37748-4
BTT5TT
377754
37787°9
37808°7
37842-0
37850°8
37862-0
37872°7
37900°1
37916°6
37926°2
37938'8
37957°8
379663
27972°5
379777
379861
379911
37995°4
38009-0
38015°8
38021°3
38034'8
38051°7
38061°3
38072°9
38085'7
38094'8
38104:0
38126°9
381310
38145°4
381492
38169°6
38173°7
38178°2
38183°6
38189°3
38196°0
38207°0
38215-2
38221-6
38234°5'
- 38239°6|
38244°9
38253°4
38258°8
38273°7
3828571
38289°4
38305°3
38312°5
i
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 237
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
,
|
:
Reduction to
Kayser and |fiveing and| Intensity] iilier and | Difference Vaeuum Oscillation
Runge Wawar and Kempf Rowland ;———]____| Frequency
(Rowland) Character —Angstrém| 1 in Vacuo
A
’ LS
2608-65 08-2 4n 0-45 383220
2607'16 06-7 8 0-46 38343-9
2606-92 06:5 4 0-42 38347°4
. 2606-36 *06-1 2 0-26 38355°7
2605:77 05:3 8 0:47 38364-4
2604-90 04:4 6 0-50 38377-2
2603-71 03°5 4 0-21 120 | 383947
; 2600:25 99°7 4 0°55 082 | 121 | 38445-7
. 259953 98-9 10 0°63 0-81 38456-4
259895 1 38465-0
| | 2598-44 97-8 10 0-64 384725
| 2596-60 96:0 2n 0:60 38499°8
: 2595-41 95-2 1 0-21 38517-5
2594-20 93°5 6 0:70 38535-4
2593-75 93°1 6 0°65 38542:1
| 259290 *92°2 4 0:70 385548
, 2592°35 91-7 2 0°65 38562°9
2591-65 91-0 8 0°65 385734
2591-34 4 . | 88578-0
2590°65 *90-0 1 0°65 38588°3
2588:96 #882 1 0-76 38613-4
2588°11 87°5 10 0-61 38626-1
2586°56 1 38649°3
2585°93 85-4 10 0°53 38658°7
2584-59 84-0 8 0°59 386788
2582-50 82-0 10 0°50 121 | 3871071
81:7 12°2
2581°57 80°9 2 0°67 38723:9
2581-05 80°3 1 0°75 38731-7
2580°52 79°9 2 0-62 38739°7
2579-92 79°5 6 0-42 38748-7
79°3
2579°35 78°7 4 0°65 38757°3
2578-86 78:3 1 0°56 38764-6
2578-01 17-4 10 061 38777°4
2577-41 *76°5 1 O91 38786:4
2576:76 76-2 8 0°56 38796-2
2576°20 75°7 6 0°50 38804:7
2575'83 15:3 10 0°53 38810-2
74:8
2574-43 74:0 6 0-43 38831°3
2573'84 1 38840°3
257323 *72°8 1 0°43 38849°5
2572°82 72:5 6 0°32 38855°7
267167 *71-2 4 0-47 38873-0
- 257092 *70°6 1 0°32 38884-4
257056 .| 701 8 0-46 38889°8
2569°73 69-4 6 0°33 389024
2568-97 68°6 4 0:37 38913-9
2568°49 468-1 2 0°39 389212
2567°93 4 38929-7
2566-99 66:7 8 0-29 389339
| 2565°55 65-1 2 0°45 38965°8
| 2564-63 64-2 4 0-43 0°81 38979°8
| 2563 99 1 0:80 38989°5
238 REPORT—1891.
Tron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
eee SS SSS SS ES Ee EEE
Reduction to
Vacuum
Kayser and Liveing and | Intensity | Miller and | Difference Oscillation
Runge Dawn and Kempf Rowland |——— |__| Frequency
(Rowland) Character —Angstrém) ) Le in Vacuo
xr
2563°53 63:2 10 0:33 12-2 | 389965
2562-63 62°3 10 033 {123 | 390101
2562°35 61-9 4 0°45 390144
2561°87 61'5 4 37. =| 39021°7
2561°33 60°9 4 0-43 39029-9
2560°65 60°3 6 0°35 39040°3
2560°43 60-0 4 0-43 39043°6
255991 *59°6 2 031 39051°6
2559°25 *58-9 1 0-35 39061°6
2558°60 58°3 4 0:30 390716
2557-42 *57-2 1 0-22 390904
2556°92 566 6 0:32 39097-2
2556°38 56:0 6 0-38 39105°5
2555°59 #552 4 0-39 39117°6
2555'37 54-9 4 0-47 39121-0
2555'04 *548 | 4 0-24 39126-0
255400 +534 | 1 | 60 3] “| 39142-0
255332 52°8 Soe | (O52 | 39152-4
2552°74 Bip cit) Pe 2a 044 | 39161°3
2551°19 Boe | PS 0°39 3918571
2550°75 50°3 2n O45 | 39191-8
2550°07 49:7 2n | cs; 39202°3
2549°63 49°2 8 043 | 3920971
| 2548°76 *48-4 6 0-36 = | 39222°5
254817 478 2 Ege «| 392315
2547-06 46°6 8 | 0-46 | 392486
2546'26 45°8 S| 0:46 39261-0
2545°95 *44-9 ot ea 1:05 12°3 | 39265:8
2544'83 44-5 Sn | | 0:33 12-4 | 392830
2544-02 43-7 bine 0°32 39295°5
2543°47 ase | ha * | 0:47 393040
2542°85 94 || | 1 0-45 39313°5
2542'20 47 8 0°50 39323°6
2541:18 40°8 6 0°38 393394
2540:90 *40-4 4 0°50 39343-7
2540-00 1 39357°7
2539'48 39: 2 0°38 39365°7
2538-98 38°6 10 0:38 393735
2537-21 369 10 0°31 394010
2536'90 36-6 8 0:30 39405°8
2535°67 35-2 6 0-47 39424-9
2535°25 4 39431-4
2534-52 342 4 0°32 39442°8
2533'86 33-4 10 0-46 39453°1
2533-26 32°6 pS 0°66 39462-4
2532-98 ee | kl, Sey 0°58 39466°8
2532°37 32-05 0 16 0°37 394763
2531°62 31: 1 0-52 39488°0
2530-79 30° | 8 0:37 39500°9
2530-03 29 | 14 0:43 395128
2529-65 #29: | $4 0-45 : 39518°8
2529-40 289 8n 0°50 39522°7
2529-03 boa 2 39528-4
2528-57 a | 6 0:47 39535°6
| -
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 239
Tron (Arc SpEcTRUM)—continued.
0 a ee eee
Reduction to
Kayser and |[iveing and | Intensity Miiller ana | Difference Nacuom Oscillation
Runge ina scan and Kempf Rowland |——7{—_——_ Frequency
| (Rowland) Character —Angstrém) , | 1_ in Vacuo
2527-67 27-1 8 0°57 39549-7
2527-30 *26°7 8 0:60 0°80 | 12:4 39555°5
2526°30 26-0 8 0°30 O79 | 12:5 39571°1
2525°48 25:1 6 0°38 395839
2525°11 24:7 6 0°41 39589°7
252452 23-9 2 0°62 39599-0
2524-32 6 39602°1
2523 76 23'3 6 0:46 396109
252319 8 39619-9
2522°93 1 39623'9
2522-67 22°5 6 0-17 39628:0
2521-97 21°5 6 0:47 39639-0
2521-09 20°8 6 0:29 39652°9
2519-71 19°3 4 0°41 396746
2519-30 18°8 4 0°50 39681°1
2518-93 18°5 2 0°43 39686°9
2518-25 17:8 10 0°45 39697°6
2517°76 17-4 6 0:36 397053
2517:25 16°8 6 0°45 39713°4
2516°65 16:3 2 0°35 39722'9
2516°19 158 8 0°39 3973071
2514°84 14:3 2 0°54 39751°5
251438 14:1 6 0:28 39758°7
2513-94 2 397657
2513°33 13:2 2n 013 397754
2512-38 12:2 6 0:18 39790°4
12:0
2511-84 11°6 4 0:24 39799°0
2511°41 11-4 2 O01 || 39805°8
2511-05 ’ : (398115
2510°87 } ° 2 ye (398143
2509-43 *08'8 In 0°63 12°5 39837°2
2508-78 08°5 6 0:28 : 12°6 39847°4
2507-99 07°6 6 0:39 39860°0
2507-49 2 398679
2506°98 06°6 6 0:38 398760
2506°70 06:2 4 0°50 39880°5
2506°25 *05'8 2 0°45 39887°6
2505°64 05:2 8 0°44 398974
2505-09 04'9 4 0-19 39906:1
2503°89 *03°6 2 0:29 39925°3
2503-50 03:0 8 0:50 399315
2502°53 02-1 8 0°43 39947-0
2501°87 01-4 8 0-47 39957°5
2501-00 00:9 8 0:10 39971°4
2498-96 98-7 10 0-26 40004:0
2498°37 2 40013°5
2497-88 97°5 6 0:38 40021°3
2497-15 6 40033-0
2496-60 96:3 6 0:30 40041°9
2496:01 956 8 0-41 40051:3
2495°35 1 40061-9
2494°30 93°9 “1 0-40 40078-8
2494-10 93:7 4 0-40 40082-0
2493°34 92°9 10 O44 | 400942
240
REPORT—1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Kempf
Kayser and |Liveing and Intensity | yyiitler and
Runge Dewar d
(Rowland) Character
2492-72 1
2492-12 92:0 4
2491-50 91-0 6
2490-98 90°5 6
2490°50 4
2490-01 89:5 4
2489°63 *89°2 4
2489°04 88:7 6
2488-23 87-7 10
2487-44 871 it
2487-18 86°8 2
2486°77 86-4 2
2486°42 86:1 2
2486-04 85°7 2
248547 It
2485°21 84:7 1
2484°35 83°7 8
2483-34 82:9 10
2482716 81°8 4
2481-11 *80°7 1
2480°25 80-0 6
2480°01 6
2479°64 79°5 10
79°2
247867 783 2
247822 *77:9 1
2477-41 citi 1
2476-77 765 8
2476-40 75'8 1
2474°88 74:5 8
2473°30 *72°9 1
2473:15 12°7 6
247283 72°4 6
2472°40 71:9 6
2471:05 70°5 4
2470°78 *70°3 4
2470°01 1
2469°60 *69°0 1
2468°97 68'4 8
2468-41 *67°'8 1
2467°80 67:2 6n
2466°81 664 6n
2466:02 *65-4 2
2465°23 64-7 8
2465-05 G45 1
2464-09 *63°7 1
2463°86 63°4 4
2463°39 62°8 2
2462 81 62°3 6
2462-60 4
2462-30 61:9 4
2461-89 *61-4 4
2461-28 61:0 8
60'8
2460°37 60°2 6
Difference
Rowland
—Angstrém
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
12-7
12°8
40104-2
40113-9
401239
40132:2
40139°9
401478
40153'9
40163°4
401765
40189°3
40193°5
402001
40205'8
40211°9
40221°1
40225°3
40239°3
40255-6
40274°8
40291°8
40305 8 '
40309°7
40315°7
403315
40338°8
40352°0
40362°5
40368°5
40393'3
40419°1
40421°6
40426°7
40433°7
40455°8
40460°2
40472°9
40479°6
40489°9
40499°1
405091
40525°4
405384
40561°4
405543
4057071
40573-9
40581°7
40591:2]
40594°7
4)599°6
406064
40616°5
40631°5
—
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 241
JRON (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and Liveing and Intensity) yiiter and Differences Vacuum
unge Dewar and Kempf Rowland
(Rowland) Character —Angstrém) , 7 tL
2459°53 1
2458-78 585 8 0:28
58-2
2457-68 57-4 8 0:28
2456°67 *56°4 2n 0:27
2456°14 56:0 2 0-14 12°8
2455°66 55:3 4n 0°36 12°9
245455 *54-°3 2n 0°25 0-78
2453-57 53-2 8 0°37 O77
2452°67 ° 52:3 2n 0°37
245229 518 1 0-49
2451-80 51:3 2 0-50
245155 51:0 2 0°55
2451-28 50°7 2 0:58
2450°56 50:0 2 0°56
2449-93 *49°6 1 0:33
2448-88 48°5 In 0°38
2448°50 48-1 2 0:40
2447-81 47-5 8 031
2447-25 *47-1 1 015
244653 46°3 2 0:23
2446°30 *45°9 1 0-40
2445-68 45-4 4 0:28
244523 44-9 2 0°33
2444-58 44-3 6 0:28
2443-94 43°7 6 0°24
2442-68 42°3 10 0°38
2441°73 415 2 0:23
2440-25 39°8 8 0-45
2439°82 39°4 8 0-42
2439-36 #39:0 6 0°36 12°9
2438°27 379 6 0°37 13:0
2437°33 *36°9 In 0°43
2436°45 36:0 38 0°45
2435-93 35°6 4 0:33
2435-04 347 6 0:34
2434-86 343 4 0°56
33°9
2433-54 *33°2 1 0°34
2432-97 *32°5 2 0:47
2432°34 318 4 0°54
2431-38 30°7 4 0°68
2431-08 30°5 8 0:58
2430°16 29-7 6 0°46
2429°53 29-0 8 0°53 13°0
2429:00 28°5 1 0:50 13°1
2428-41 +27-9 4 051
2427-11 *27-0 1 O-L1
2426-46 25°4 In 0:06
2425°68 25°0 In 0°68
2425-04 *24°3 1 0-74
2424-22 23°'8 8 0°42
2423-25 22°9 2 0°35
2422-73 22-4 1 0°33
2421-79 21:3 8 0-49
1891.
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
40645°4
40657°8
406760
40692°7
40701:5
40709°3
40727'8
40744-0
40759:0
40765°3
407735
407776
40782°1
40794:1
408046
40822°1
40828°4
40839°9
40849°3
40861°3
40865-2
40875°5
40883-0
40893°9
40904°6
40925°7
40941-7
409665
40973°7
40981°5
40999°7
41015°5
41030°3
41039-1
410541
41057:1
41079°4
44089°0
41099°7
41115°9
41121:0
41136°5
41147°2
4115671
41166°1
41188-2
41199-2
41212°5
412233
41237°3
41253°8
41262°6
41278°7
REPORT— 1891.
Tron (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and Liveing and Intensity | \rijller and Difference pau
Runge Dewar | and Kempf Rowland
(Rowland) Character —Angstrém| 4. Ls
rx
2421-02 20:7 1 0°32
2420°39 20-0 1 0°39
2419-80 19-4 1 0:40
2419:49 18°9 4n 0°59
2419717 18-2 4 0:97
2417-94 17-5 4n 0-44
2417-58 17-1 2 0-48 O77
2416-68 16:3 1 0°38 0:76
2416-00 15-4 2n 0-60
2415-29 14:8 1 0-49 13-1
2414-50 13:8 u 0:70 13°2
2413°37 13:0 10 0:37
2412-45 1
2411-79 11°4 In 0°39
2411-16 10°7 10 0:46
2410°56 10-2 10 0°36
240813 O76 2 0°53
2407°66 07°3 2n 0°36
06-9
2406°72 063 10 0-42
2405°02 04:5 10 0°52
240448 04-2 8 0:28
2402-67 02°3 4 0°37
2402-23 01:9 ul 0°33
2401-60 01-4 2 0:20
2401°25 01:0 u 0°25
2400°39 00:0 2 0°39
2399°31 99:0 10 0°31
2398°29 98:0 1 0-29
2395°62 95-4 10 0°22 13°2
95°2
239433 94-1 1 0:23 13°3
92°8
2392°70 92°4 1 0:30
2391-53 91°3 6 0:23
2390:03 89°9 4 O18
2388-71 88-4 8 031
238842 *88-0 In 0-42
87-2
238603 85-8 1 0:23
238507 84-8 4 0:27
238448 84:2 6 0:28
2383°24 83:0 8 0:24
82:7
238215 81-7 10 0°45
2380°82 80°5 6 0:32 0:76
2379°38 79-0 8 0:38 0-75 | 13:3
2378°03 776 2 0°43, 13°4
2377°33 76-9 2 0-43
237654 | 762 1 0°34
2375:90 1 »
2375°30 749 8 0:40
237459 74-1 2 0-49
2373°79 734 10 0:39
2372°65 25th 4’. ap 0:05
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
41291°8
41302-6
41312°6
413179
413234
41344-4
41350°6
41366-0
41377°6
41389°8
414032
414226
41438°3
41449°8
41460°6
41470°9
41512°8
41520°9
41537-1
415665
41575°8
41607:2
41614°8
41625°7
41631°8
41646°7
41665°4
41683°2
41729°6
417520
41780°5
41800°9
41822-4
41850°3
418554
41897°3
419142
41924°6
41946°4
41965°6
41989-0
42014°5
42038°2
42050°6
42064°6
42075°9
42086°5
42099-1
42113°3
42133°6
ae
——_ = =
_ eee -o-
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 243
Iron (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
Reape 2°4 lrsvrig’ anal Tmtensty | grater ana | Dierenee |_ TAPE | Oeclatin
(Rowland) as Ohargater) ee |= Angstrom ee in Vacuo
A
2371°51 711 + 0-41 42153°8
2370-56 70°1 6 0:46 421707
2369°55 69-1 2 0:45 42188°7
2268:66 68-2 8 0°46 42204°6
2366°66 66-2 6 0:46 42240°2
2365°61 65-1 i 0°51 42259-0
236488 64-4 10 0:48 42272°0
2363°81 63°5 1 0°31 13-4 42291:2
2362711 *61°6 8 0°51 13:5 42321°5
60°3
2360°37 59-9 8 0:47 42352°7
2360:06 59-7 8 0°36 | 42358°3
59-2 4
2359°16 58:7 6 0:46 423745
55°6
2355°37 55-1 1 0°27 42442°7
2354-93 53°6 6 0:33 42450°6
54-1
51°5
2351°22 50°9 2 0:32 425176
2350°50 49°9 1 0 60 42530°6
2349-91 49°5 oh 0-41 13°5 42541°3
2348-28 48-0 10 0:28 13°6 42570°8
47°8
459
2345°29 44-7 2 0:59 42625°0
2344°37 439 6 0-47 32641°8
2344-09 43°6 6 0-49 0:75 42646°9
2343-52 43-1 6 0:42 O74 42657°3
2341°69 41:2 In 0-49 42690°6
2340°30 40:0 2n 0°30 42716:0
2339°62 39°3 2n 0°32 42728-4
39-0
2338:08 37°7 8 0°38 42756°5
34:8
2334°83 34:5 4 0°33 13°6 4281671
34:2
33-1 13:7
2332°87 32°5 10 0:37 42852°0
2331°38 30°9 8 0:48 42879°3
2329°67 29:3 in 0:37 42910°8
2327:40 26°9 8 0-50 42952°7
2321-48 il 43062°3
2320-42 UG 6 0°52 43081-9
19°6
19°2 13:7
2318-23 LET 4 053 138 43122°6
17°5
2317°32 16-7 4 0:62 43139°5
231410 13°6 1 0°50 43199°5
2313°17 12:7 6 047 432169
2312-40 12:0 1 0-40 432313
11:6
11-0
10°6
244 3 REPORT— 1891
Iron Arc SPECTRUM—(continucd).
Reduction to
Vacuum
Kayser and jiveing and Intensity Mutter and) Boyland, |———— Thee
(Rowland) Dewar Character oy —Angstrém a tes in Vacuo
09°3
2309-05 08°6 6 0-45 0-74 432940
2306°35 06:0 4 0°35 0:73 43344-7
05°8
2304-82 04:4 2 0-42 ioe 43373°5
03°4 ‘
2303°52 03:2 6 0°32 43397'9
2301:75 01:4 4 0°35 43431:3
‘01:0
2300°70 00:4 i 0°30 434511
2300-20 00-0 2 0:20 43460°6
99:2
2299-30 99:0 4 0:30 43477°6
98°6
2298-24 98:0 6 24 43497°7
2297°85 97:6 6 0-25 435050
2297:04 96'8 4 0:24 aoe
2296'23 1 3535°7
2294°45 94:2 2 0:25 43569-5
2293°90 93°6 6 0:30 43580:0
2292°56 92:3 2 0:26 43605°5
91:4
229118 90:9 6 0:28 436317
90°6
2290°61 90'3 + 0:31 43642°6
2290°05 89:9 1 0-15 43653°3
2289:05 888 8 0-25 43672°3
2288°19 87:9 2 0:29 43688'8
2287-70 87°4 0:30 13°9 43698°1
2287°37 87:1 0:27 43704°3
2284:12 84:0 0:12 140 43766°5
83:6
83:2
228315 83:0 n 0-15 43785:1
82:8
2282°17 81'8 0°37 43803'9
80:0
2280°05 797 035 43844-7
2277-73 IT5 0:23 43889°4
227712 76:9 0°22 43901'1
227607 TATEF n 0-37 43921°4
15°2
74:9
2274:09 73°8 0:29 43959°6
2272°83 72:5 0°33 43984:0
71:8
2271°84 WAS 0°34 14-0 440032
2270°87 705 | 0°37 0-73 | 141 44021°9
2270°47 | 0:72 44029°6
2268:96 688 | 0-16 44059:0
2267-51 67:2 0°31 440871
2267-06 66°8 / 0:26 440959
666 |
2266°37 657 | 0:67. 44109°3
2265-05 64:7 ] 0°35 441350
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 245
Iron Arc SPECTRUM—(continwed).
Reduction to
Kayser and |7 iveine and| Intensity | iter ana | Difference Vacuum Oscillation
Runge Wewrar an Kempf Rowland Frequency
(Rowland) Character —Angstrém) ,, | 1_ in Vacuo
ar
2264°51 64-2 0:31 44145-6
2263°37 63:2 017 44167°8
62°8
624.
60°7 :
2260°83 60°4 0°43 44217°4
2260715 59°8 0°35 44230°7
2259-50 59-2 0:30 44243°5
225594 55-4 0°54 14-1 14313°3
225315 52°8 0°35 44368°1
51-6 14:2
51:2
50°6
2250°82 50°5 0:32 sO 444140
2248-97 48°8 O17 | 0°72 44450°6
2230°01 29-7 0°31 0-71 44828°6
&e. &e
Tae Tetiuric Lines or THE Soran Specrrom.!
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
Becker = |_——_______ ee te in Vaeuo
Rowland Medium requene =
: : Horizon | ‘a ititude * | Vacuum Rowland Angstrém ?
6020°33 10? 9 166104 49 16605°5
6019°25 7 2 16613°4 16608°5
6016°56 62 — 16620°8 16613°9
6016-06 8 2 166222 16617°3
6015-88 3d) 3 166227 16617°8
6015-48 8? 1 166228 166189
601522 6 i 16624°5 16619°6
601464 d 2 16626-1 16621°2
6014-03 4 i 16627°8 16621°9
6012°93 6 2 16630°8 16625°9
6012°17 5 — 166329 166280
6011°83 5 —_ 16633°9 16629°0
6011°58 5 2 16634:5 16629°6
6011-18 5 2 16635-7 16630°8
6010-09 4 2 16638-7 16633'8
600953 9 2 16640:2 166353
6009°43 5 it 16640°5 16635°6
6008-50 5? — 16643°1 16638°2
6007-20 5 1 166467 16641°8
6006°81 4? 2 16647°8 16642°9
6006-08 5 1 16649°8 16644°9
6005-03 5 1 16652:7 16647°8
6004°82 8 2 16653°3 16648°4
6004-33 4 — 166546 16649°7
6003°96 8 2 16655°7 16650°8
600278 8 3 16659:0 16654:1
» Becker, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xxxvi. I. 1890. ? Cornu, Piazzi-Smyth, and Fievez.
246
REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Becker
(Rowland)
5996°67
5996°53
599539
599474
5994-08
5993°81
5993-27
5993°17
5992-17
5992-01
5991-03
5990°74
5990°50
5989-44
5989-06
5988°75
598867
598827
5987:°20
5986°25
598586
598537
5985:00
598441
598424
5983°55
5983-00
5982°47
5982°15
5981:89
5981°40
5980-96
5980°70
5980°31
5979°93
5979°33
5979-08
5978'18
5977°94
5977°55
5977-14
5976-94
597666
5976-04
597527
5974-40
5973°72
6972°95
Intensity
ee
. Medium requenc
Horizon | attitude a
tf 2 16660°5
6 1 166620
5 2 16662°8
7 2 16665°7
iy 4 16667:1
3? 2 16670°2
6d 2 16671:2
10 4 16673°8
5 — 16675°9
5 ca 1667673
5 i 16679°5
11 4 16681°3
6 2 16683'1
5 2 16683°9
8d 33 16685°5
4 16688°4
iid aa 16688°9
11 4 16691°6
10 3 16692°4
6 1 16693°1
11 4 16696°1
4 al 16697°1
10d 4 16698'1
8 2 16699°3
11? 8 16702°3
4 2 167050
5 2 16706°0
10 4 16707°4
8 — 167084
i 3 16710°1
6 2 16710°6
7 2 16712°5
6 2 167140
5 2 16715°5
8 2 1671674
if 2 167171
9 3 16718°5
4 1 16719°7
6 it 16720°4
8 3 16721°5
a — 16722°6
5 ~ 167243
6 2 167250
6 1 16727°5
12 4 16728°2
8 3 16729°3
12 5 16730°4
10? 7 16731°0
8 3 16731°8
cf 2 16733°5
12 ID) 16735°6
8 3 16738°1
4 2 16740:0
6 1 167421
Reduc-
tion to
Vacuum
4:9
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
Rowland Angstrom
16655°6
16657°1
166579
16660°8
16662°2
16665°3
16666°3
16668°9
16671:0
16671°4
166746
16676°4
16678:-2
16679°0
16680°6
16683°5
166840
16686°7
16687°5
166382
16691:2
166922
166932
16694°4
166974
16700°1
167011
167025
16703°5
16705:2
16705:°7
16707°6
16709°1
16710°6
16711°5
16712-2
16713°6
167148
16715°5
16716°6
16717-7
16719-4
167201
16722:0
16723'3
16724°4
16725°5
167261
16726°9
16728°6
16730°7
167322
167351
16737:2
r
er ee ee eee
> =
Se TP Sey = |
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 247
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continuced.
Becker
(Rowland)
597277
5972°71
5971-53
5970°87 |
5970:70 f
5970-24
5969-24
5968-64
5968-49
5967°87
5967-66
5967°39
5967°18
596681
596642 )
5966°33
5965°40
5965-05
5963-98
5963°71
5963:30
5962-65
5962°35
5961-89
596159
5960°82.
5960°38
5960713
5959-84
5959°39
5959-14
5958-98
595885
595848]
5958-42 f
5958-02
5957-95
5957°37
5957-27
5956°76
5956-50
5955-90
5955°10
5954-61
595388
595361
5952°81
5951-68
5951:50
5951-05
5950-91
5950-49
5950°35
5949-92
5949-80
5949-69
Intensity
Medium
Horizon | Ajtitude
—_
—
WO NWDAATHONWHURAOKHOROE
—t
ns
—
)
is
on | bo bo to ee | NWR ERD wh w ox | coe ores | Rot tor |
ov ot
Q
an
to no |
| btippeebo Hee: | oo to on | vo | ro orto |
Oscillation Frequency
Oscillation pone in Vacuo
ica Vacuum Rowland Angstrom
16742°6 49 | 16737-7
16742°8 16737-9
16746'1 1674-2
16748-0 16743'1
16748-5 16743°6
16749°7 18744:8
16752°5 16747°6
167542 16749°3
167547 16749'8 16752
16756-4 16751°5 16754
16757-0 16752'1 16755
16757°8 167529
167583 16753-4
167594 167545
16760°6 16755°7 16759
167633 167584 16761
167643 167594 16762
16767°3 16762'4
16768" 167632
16769:2 167643
167711 167662
167719 16767°0
167732 167683
167740 16769°1
16776-2 16771:3
16777-4 167725
167782 16773°3
16779-0 167741
16780:2 16775'3
16780-9 167760
16781°-4 167765
167818 16776-9 16779
16782°9 16778-0 16781
16784-1 16779:2 16782
167843 167794
16785°9 16781-0
167862 167813
16787°6 16782-7 16785
16788-4 16783'5 16786
16790°L 16785°2
167923 16787°4 16790
16793°7 16788°8
16795°8 167909
167965 167916 16795
16798°8 167939)
168020 67971 ¢ | 18797
16802°5 16797°6
16803°7 167988 16801
168042 16799°3
16805°3 168004 16803
16805-7 16800'8
16807-0 16802°1 16804
168073 16802'4)
16807°6 168027 f | 16805
248
REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM— continued.
Becker
(Rowland)
5949-42
5949°25
5949-18
5948-96
5948-78
5948-35
5947°54
5947°24
5947-02
5946-73
5946-18
5946:14
594581
5945°39
5944°84
5944-42
5943°58
5943°22
5942-73
5942-57
5942°35
5941-73
5941-19
5941-01
5940-54
5940-27
5940-03
5938-72
5938-41
5938-21
5938-01
5937°58
5937-37
5937-22
5936°85
5936-42
5935-96
5935-66
5935-38
593432
593414
5933°91
593316
5932°96
5932°51
593228
593213
5931-17
5930°77
5929-57
5929-25
5928-99
5928°69
5928°53
5928°43
5927-86
Intensity
Hori Medium
orizon | Altitude
Oscillation
Frequency
es
ou | Sb hemo moe co | roto | toto | eto wm | roo | mover | oobbanena | | cows | oo | an
lld
a
|
16808°4
16808°8
168090
16809°7
168102
16811°4
16813°7
168145
16815'1
16816-0
16817°5
16817°6
16818°6
16819°8
16821°3
16822°5
168249
16825-9
16827°3
16827°7
168284
16830°1
16831-6
16832°2
16833°5
168342
16834-9
16838°6
16839°5
168401
168406
16841°9
16842°5
168429
16844-0
16845°2
16846°5
16847°3
16848°1
16851-1
16851°6
16852:3
168544
16855°0
16856°3
16856-9
16857°4
168601
168612
16864°6
16865°5
168663
16867°1
16867°7
16869°5
Reduc-
tion to
Vacuum
4-9
Kk
S
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
Rowland Angstrém
16803°5
l680S-9,f 1". eae
16804:1 16808
168048
16805°3
16806°3
168087
16809°5 16811
16810°1 16813
168110
16812°5
16812°6}
16813°6 f a
168148 16817
168163 16819
16817°5 16820
16819-9 16822
16820-9
16822'3
16822'7 } Tee
16823°4 16827
16825°1)
1sBa66f | | sere
168272 16830
16828°5 16832
16829:2
168299 16833
16833°6
168345
16835°1 16837
16835°6
16836-9
16837°5
16837-9
16839:0
168402
16841°5 16846
16842°3
16843" 16847
16846-1 16849
16846-6
16847°3 |
1gso4s || Weer
16850-0
168513
16851-9 16855
168524)
IBBBBLs |. apes
16856-2
16859°6)
TEREOG S | meee
16861°3 16863
16862"1
16862°7
16864°5 16868
La
r ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 249
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
‘4
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
Bt aa _ 7 apeeat pom in Vacuo
owlan' : Medium requency | -
‘ ) | Horizon Altitude i Vacuumty Rowland Angstrém
: 5926-94 5 2 168721 5-0 16867°1 16869
4 5926°74 8 2 16872°7 16867°7
592629 4 1 168740 16869-0
592582 4 1 16875'3 168703
5925'19 12 5 1687771 16872°1
5924-96 6 : 16877°7 168727
5924-49 12 6 16879°1 168741 16877
5923:98 11 5 16880°5 16875°5
q 5923'82 11 5 16881-0 16876-0
5923°39 7 3 16882:2 16877°2 16881
5922-87 9 3 16883-7 168787 16882
5922'66 10 4 16884:3 16879'3
5922-54 8 4 16884:7 16879:7
5921°83 7 3 16886:7 16881°7 16885
5921°39
saptaas S 6a | 3 16888°1 16883'1 16886
5920-73 10 4 16889'8 16884°8 16888
5920°29 6 2 16891:1 16886°1
5919-83 12 6 16892°4 16887°4
5919°22 12 5 168941 16889:1 16893
5918°62 12 4 16895'8 16890°8 16894
. 5918-08 7 2 16897°4 16892°4 16896
591753 8 3 16898°9 168939
5917-29 5 SS 16899°6 16894°6
; 591693 6 2 16900°6 168956
5916-77 % = 16901:1 1689671 16900
5916-21 6 2 169027 16897°7 16901
5915-77 9 4 16904-0 16899:0 16902
591552 9 4 16904°7 16899°7 16903
. 5915-06 9 4 16906-0 16901-0
| 5914-64 4 1 16907:2 16902:2 | 16906
5913-92 4 1 16909:3 16904°3 J
5913-15 10 4 16911-5 16906°5 16909
5912'82 8 3 16912-4 169074
5912-70 8 3 169127 16907:7
5912-15 7 2 169143 16909:3
5911-99 7 2 169148 16909:8
5911:56 5 2 169160 16911-0
5911-33 5 = 169167 16911:7
5911-05 | 16917°5 16912°5
591095 4 16917°8 16912°8
| 5910:87 iid ae 16918-0 16913°0 16916
| 5910-79 4 = 16918-2 16913-2
q 5910-32 Sioa = 16919°6 169146
5910:25 lla 4 16919°8 169148 16918
; 5909°57 7 3d 16921:7 169167 16919
" 5909-14 10 5 16922°9 169179 \ 16921
5908'85 3 1 16923:8 16918'8 f
5908°36 9 4 16925:2 16920°2 16923
5907-98 9 5 16926:2 16921:2 16923
5907-58 8 3 16927-4 16922°4 16925
5907-42 8 4 169279 16922°9
5907716 6 = 16928°6 16923°6 16927
590653 6 2 16930°4 16925°4 nedas
590638 6 2 16930°8 16925°8 5
5905'68 5 = 16932°8 16927°8
250 REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
Becker |————~—————_| Oscillation pane in Vacuo
(Rowland) : Medium | Frequency Vanct ae tt ceaerr Sa a Gacacseces
Horizon | ‘A jtitude at Rowland Angstrém
5905°46 9 3 16933°5 5:0 16928°5 16932
5905°25 df 1 16934°1 16929°1 16932
5904:97 5 3 169349 16929°9
5904°53 5 3 16936°2 169312
590416 8 3 16937-2 169322
5904:04 8 3 16937°6 16932°6
590387 7 4 16938°0 16933:0 16937
590364 9 2 16938°7 16933°7
5903°34 (42) | 3 16939°6 16934°6 16938
5902-90 5 2 16940°8 16935°8
5902-73 4 — 16941°3 16936°3
590253 5 4 16941°9 16936°9
5902°25 10 3 16942°7 16937-7 16941
590213 8 3 169430 16938-0
5901-62 12 fh 16944°5 16939°5
5901-43 9 8 16945 0 16940:0 16944
5901-07 8 3 16946°1 16941°1
5900°60 7 2 16947-4 16942°4 16945
5900°22 11 6 16948°5 16943°5 16947
5900-06 10 5 16949-0 169440 16948
589917 10 4 16951°5 16946°5 16949
5898°94 6 1 16952°2 16947:2 16950
589856 6 2 16953°3 16948°3 16951
5898°33 ll 7 169540 16949:0 16953
5898-10 6 2 16954°6 16949°6
5897°90 6 -- 16955°2 16950°2
5897'58 9 4 16956°1 16951°1 16954
5897-22 6 — 16957°1 16952°1 16955
5896-97 10 4 16957°8 16952°8 16956
5896-72 4b a 16958°6 16953°6
5896°58 il 4 169590 16954-0 16957
5896°37 5b = 16959°6 16954°6
5895°89 5 2 169610 169560
5895°64 1b _ 16961°7 16956°7
5895°26 10 3 16962°8 16957°8 16960
5895-11 10 3 16963°2 169582 16962
5894-71 5 1 16964-4 16959-4 16963
589451 9 4 16964-9 16959°9
5893°88 4? — 169668 16961°8
5893-72 10 4 16967°2 169622 16965
589352 4 1 16967°8 16962°8
5893-24 9 4 16968°6 16963°6 16966
5892°88 6 4 16969°6 16964°6 16967
5892°59 10 5 16970°5 16965°5 16968
5892-40 (32) 1 16971:0 16966-0
5892-09 4? 2 16971-°9 16966°9
5891:87 11 5 16972°5 16967°5 16970
5891-73 10 4 16972°9 169679 16971
5891°37 8 5 16974:0 169690 16972
5891-11 6 1 169747 16969°7
5890°92 7 i 16975°3 16970°3 16973 |
5890°42 7 1 16976°7 16971-7
5890°34 14 — 16977-0 16972:0
5889°78 ll 5 16978-6 16973°6 16977
5889:23 5 2 16980°2 16975°2
5888:86 9 4 | 16981-2 16976°2 16980
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 251
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
; eed — ss Sanit Heine: in Vacuo
: owland . Medium requency =
; $ ' Horizon Altitude bee Rowland Angstrém
| I
5888-01 7 3 16983-7 5:0 16978:7
| 5887-82 9 5 169842 16979°2 16982
| 5887-60 4b 1 169848 16979°8
| 6887:36 10 5 16985°5 16980°5 16984
| 5887-10 3 1 16986'3 16981:3
: Bsa 34 6 1 16987-0 16982:0
5886°55
. EGREEI 9 4d 16987°9 16982°9 16985
5886°34 3b — 16988°5 16983°5
| 5886-12 10d 5 16989°1 169841 16987
P| 5885-77 6 2 16990°1 16985'1 16988
| 5885-68 6 2 16990°4 16985-4 tpant
| | 6885-02 3? 2 16992°3 16987°3
| 5884-68 4? 2 16993'3 16988°3
| «5884-34 8 2 169943 16989°3
| 5884-04 11 Fe 16995°1 169901 16994
| 5883-52 4 1 16996°6 16991°6 16995
5883°12 8 2 16997°8 16992'8
5882-92 8 3 16998-4 16993-4
5882°58 6 aif 16999°4 16994-4 16997
| 5882-51 6 ae 16999°6 16994-6 npdoe
| 5882-02 8 3 17001-0 16996-0
| 5881-91 8 3 17001°3 169963
5881°79 6 4 17001°6 16996°6 17000
peeLan (52) 4d 17002'5 16997'5
5881-21 8 3 17003°3 169983
5881-03 8 3 170038 16998°8
: 5880°84 8 2 170044 169994
5880°65 ) ' 17003
| 5880-59 5 6d 3 170050 17000-0
5879-98 6 4 17006°9 17001:9 17004
: 5879°77 9 4 17007°5 17002°5
5879-64 9 4 17007°8 17002'8 17007
| 587924 7 1 17009-0 17004-0 17008
5877-66 6 1 17013°6 170086
| 6877-43 6 2 17014-2 170092) trots
5877-21 4 1 17014:9 - 17009°9 f Za
5877-04 3 at 17015-4 17010°4 17013
5876744 9 3 17017°1 170121 iroik
| 5876-22 9 3 17017:7 17012-7
587571 9 3 17019°2 17014-2
| 5875-55 5 1 17019°7 17014:7
| ee 5 3 17020°6 17015-6 17019
587477 f
: Bare Ge 4d 2 170221 170171 17020
587437 4 1 170231 17018:1
| 5874-02 5 2 170241 17019-1
. 5873°71 7 2 17025:0 17020:0
5873-37 6 5 17026-0 17021-0
' | 5872:37 5 1d 170289 170239
| 6872-09 4 1 17029-7 17024-7
5871-85 4 1 17030-4 170254
5871-38 9 3 170318 17026°8
| 5871-26 5 | =4 17032'1 170271
9 3 17033°7 17028:7
. 5870°73
252 REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
aaa ———————— pees ere in Vacuo
owlan : Medium requenc,
‘ Horizon | altitude meny | Vacuum Rowland Angstrém
5869°94 6 3 17036-0 5:0 17031°0
5869°82 6 3 170363 17031°3
5868°89 if 2 17039°0 170340
5867°71 9 5 17042°4 170374
5866°31 4 2 17046°5 17041°5
5865°90 if 2 17047°7 17042°7
5865°66 7 2 170484 17043°4
5864:90 4 1 17050°6 17045°6
5864:38 6 3 17052°1 170471
5863°37 4 1 17055:0 17050-0
5863°18 4 — 170556 17050°6
5861°86 5 2 17059°4 17054°6
5861°77 6 2 17059°7 17054°7
5859-73 10 8 17065°6 17060°6
5859-04 3 _ 17067°6 17062°6
5857-13 4? 2 17073°2 17068°2 ©
5854:97 5 2 17079°5 170745
5854-52 t 2 17080°8 170758
5853-43 (4?) 3 17084:0 170790
5853-29 (42) 2 17084°4 17079°4
§851°52 8 3 17089-6 17084°6
585134 3 —_ 17090°1 17085:1
5851-05 | ~1091- :
5850-97 f 8 1d 170911 17086:1
5849-89 5 3 170943 17089'3
584882 5 1 17097°5 17092°5
5846-09 (4?) 2 171054 17100°4
5845-76 8 1 17106:4 17101°4
5845715 (42) 2 17108:2 17103°2
5844-00 3 2 171116 17106°6
5842-87 6 2 171149 17109°9
5842-63 5 2 17115°6 17110°6
5842-29 3? 2 171166 17111°6
5841°33 t 1 17119°4 171144
5841-02 6 1 17120°3 171153
5839°84 4 2 17123°8 171188
5839-61 5 2 17124-4 . 17119°4
5838-90 4 3 17126°5 17121°5
5838°64 6 3 17127°3 17122°3
5838-44 4 2 17127:9 171229
5837-46 4 1 17130°7 171257
5836-62 4 1 17123:2 5:0 17128°2
5835°80 5 3 17135°6 51 17130°5
5834-78 42 2 17138°6 17133°5
583420 8 4 17140°3 17135:2
5833°51 t 1 17142°4 171373
5832-64 4d 2 171449 17139°8
583207 4 1 17146:6 171415
5831°55 + _— 171481 17143°0
5831714 4a 2 17149°3 171442
5830°28 5 2 17151°8 17146°7
5830:06 4 2 17152°5 171474
5829-56 4 2 171540 17148-0
5828-90 4 2 171559 171509
5828-49 5 1 171571 171520
5827-89 if 1 17158:9 171538
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 253
a THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
Be ctnd) ———————— ee ep in Vacuo
owlan F Medium requency -
: Horizon | A jtitude |' Naaeaes Rowland Angstrém
5827:13 (32) 2 17161:1 51 171560
5826°47 (32) 2 17163:0 17157:9
5825°32 4? 2 171664 171613
5824-90 4 = 171677 17162°6
5824-61 4 2 17168°5 17163°4
§823°82 4 2 171709 17165'8
| 5823-53 5 = 17171°7 171666
| 5823-36 (32) 2 171722 17167-1
. §823°13 (32) 2 17172°9 17167'8
5822°56 4 i 171746 17169°5
5822-50 3 17174'8 17169:7
5822-27 4? = 17175°4 17170°3
5822°10 4 3 17175°9 17170:9
5821°51 3 2 171777 17172°6
5821-23 32 ae 17178°5 17173°4
6821-12 31 — 17178:8 17173°7
5820:98 3 1 17179:2 171741
5820-62 4 1 17180°3 17175'2
5820713 42 2 17181:7 171766
| 5819:51 3 2 17183°6 17178°5
| 5819-07 4 =e 17184:9 171798
| 5818°76 4 2 17185°8 17180:7
| 5818-34 6 2 17187:0 17181:9
: 5818-18 (32) 2 17187'5 17182°4.
5817°79 4 1 17188:7 171836
| 6817:59 4 i 17189-2 17184-2
5817-00 4 2 17191-0 17185:9
5815°80 4 2 171945 17189°4
5815-30 (51) 4 17196:0 17190°9
| 5814-96 (52 ba | 17197-2 17192+1
| 581487 )
5813°74 4 2 17200°6 17195°5
5813-13 4 2 17202°5 17197°4
| 5812-75 3 2 17203°6 17198°5
| 5811-61 3 1 17207:0 17201:0
| 5811-35 22 ms 17207:7 17202°6
: 5809-94 3 es 172119 17206°8
| 5809-70 4 1 17212°6 17207°5
| 5809-07 4 2 172145 17209°4
| 5808-84 3 = 17215:2 1721071
| 5807-86 4 2 17218-0 17212:9
5806°79 42 a= 17221-2 17216°1
580644 4 1 17222°3 17217°3
5806°14 3 1 17223-2 17218-1
5805°14 3 2 17226°1 17221:0
| 5804-07 32 = 17229°3 172242
| 5803-57 5 1 17230°8 172257,
580316 3 1 17232:0 172269
| 5802-91 4 1 17232:7 17227°6
5802°74 4 1 17233°2 17228°1
5802°53 32 2 17233:9 17228°8
5802-40 3 1 172343 17229:2
5802-03 3? 2 17235°4 17230°4
5801°39 4 2 17237°3 17232'1
5801-04 5 2 172383 17233°3
5800°78 5 1 17239'1 172340
254 REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
Becker ) ———— SS |) ORI pone in Vacuo
(Rowland . | Medium] Frequency -
Horizon | Aititude Vacuum |" Rowland Angstrém
5800717 3 — 172409 5:1 17235°8
5800-01 4 2 17241°4 17236°3
5799-49 5 1 17242°9 17237'8
5799-25 (32) 2 17243°6 17238 5
5798-66 CuI
5798-61 4d 1 17245°4 17240°3
5798-36 4) 6 17246°3 17241°2
579824 4A — 17246°6 17241°5
579803 9 6 172472 17242°1
5797-77 4 2 17248-0 17242°9
579763 3 — 172487 17243°6
5797-32 2 1 17249°3 17244-2
579699 A 2 17250°3 172452
5796-65 4 _— 17251°3 17246°2
5796-42 E =
5796-28 (42) 4d 17252°2 17247-1
579610 4 1 17253:0 17247:9
5795°77 3 1 17254:0 17248°9
5795-51 2 1 172547 17249°6
5795°31 3 2 17255°3 17250°3
5794-93 2 1 17256°5 172514
5794-71 2 — 17257-1 17252:0
579451 4 2 17257°7 17252°6
5794-02 5 _ 172592 172541
5793°67 4 1 17260:2 17255°1
5793°06 3 _ 172620 17256'9
5792-30 9 ; :
5792-15 f 4d 2 17264:5 17259°4
5791°84 4 2 17265-7 17260°6
579148 3 1 17266°7 172616
5791:01 4. _ 17268°1 172630
5790°33 5 3 17270:2 17265:1
5790:05 4 2 17271:0 172659
5789°80 2 — 17271°8 17266°7
5789°35 5 — 172731 17268:0
5789:°03 5 2 172741 17269:0
5788°87
578876 4d 2 172747 17266°6
5788°31 4 1. 17276:2 172711
5787°63 2? 1 172782 172732
5787:41 6 2 17278°9 17273'8
5787-19 5 3 17279°5 17273°4
5786°91
5786-76 3d 1 17280°6 17275°1
5782-67 4 1 17293:1 17288'1
578205 4 = 172949 17289°8
5780°34 5 1 173000 17294:9
577950 4 2 17302°5 17297°4
5778-11 3 1 17306°7 17301°6
5777-83 3 1 173075 17302°4
577656 6 — 17311°3 17306°2
577631 4 2 17312°1 17307:0
577619 6 -- 17312°4 17307°3
5775°82 3 1 173136 17308°5
577560 3 — 173142 17309:1
5774:65 4 2 173171 17312:0
,
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 255
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Becker
(Rowland)
577438
577415
B773°79
5173-34
5773-16
577288
5172-77
577181
5771-70
5771-53
5770°89
5770-41
5770-31
5769°60
5769-38
5768-71
5768-55
5767-84
5767-32
5767-13
5766-47
5766-08
5765-88
5765-70
5765-14
5764-84
5764-48
BT6415
5763-64)
BT63-55 J
5762-76
5761-75
5761°36
5759-72
5759-39
5759-04
5758'59
5758-08
5757-65
5757-41
5757-16
5756-68
5755°91
575564
575437
5754-13
5153-55
5753'13
5752'68
5751-99
5750-74
5750-56
5749-49
5748-12
5TAT-83
BTAT-45
Intensity
Medium
Horizon | a ititude
4?
4?
~
~
ES
HE 09 00 G9 “1. CO HF He LO LO LOL WOW WOW AAR ILO Or Go Io
A
=>
—
ww
~
Qs
pou.geen-no-l bone tocy to bobo ee | DOLEDLESTDS ALGO NOLES AEE RO | ro | roe to | eee Epo | vo to | bo bo bo Go op
CO AA CD HE WO OH OD OT OT OF We OT Ge CD He OT Or
Oscillation
Frequency
173179
173186
173196
17321°0
17321°5
17322°4
17322°7
17325°6
17325°9
173264
17328°3
17329°8
1733071
17332°2
17332°9
173349
173354
17337°5
178391
17359°6
173416
17342°8
17343°4
17343°9
17345-6
17346°5
17347°6
17348'6
1735071
17350°4
17352°8
17355'8
173570
17362°0
17363°0
17364-0
17365°4
17366°9
173682
17368°9
17369°7
1737171
17373°5
173743
17378°'1
17378°8
17380°6
17381°8
17383°2
17385°3
17389°1
17389°6
17392°9
17397-0
173979
17399-0
Reduc-
tion to |
Vacuum
5:1
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
°
towland Angstr6m
17312°8
17313°5
173145
17315°9
17316°4
173173
17317°6
17320°5
17320'8
173213
17323°2
173247
173250
17327:1
17328'8
17329°8
17330°3
17332°4
173340
173345
17336°5
173377
17338°3
17338°8
17340°5
173414
17342°5
17343°5
173450
173453
17347-7
17350°7
17351°9
17356°9
17357°9
17358°9
17360°3
17361'8
17363:1
17363'8
173646
17366:0
17368°4
17369°2
17373:0
17373°7
17375°5
17376°7
173781
17380°2
173840
17384°5
173878
173919
17392°8
17393°9
256
REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Becker
(Rowland)
5747-02
5746-67
5745-92
5745-44
5745-05
5744:37
5744-11
5743-94
5743°58
5742-72
5742-30
5741-49
5741°10
5740°19
5739°59
5739°14
5738°57
5738°30
5737-82
5737-53 \
737-38 f
5737-16
5736-49
5735'96
5735°74
5735°20
5734-66
5733°80
5733-27
5733°11
5732°77
5731-46
5731-02
5730°27
5729-95
5729°78
5729-30
5728-92
5728-58
5727-95
5727-76
5727-18
5726-98
5726°79
5726°16
5726-00
572470
5724-54
5724:12
5723°74
5722-98
5722°34
5722-07
5721-92
5721-05
5720°51
Intensity
Horizon
4s
~
“EPO CO TO POR EP RPE PROP DON WOROWW
—
WANQROOURER ©
—
o
9
Medium
Altitude
ho HE bots | eb bo toro webb toee nt | ell el eel SI ell ol
pu
bo wo bo bo | pmeom ee | WNWRDHNNNNrFNhe
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
tion to
Vacuum
174003
174014
17403°7
1740571
17406°3
17408°3
174091
17409°7
17410°8
17413°4
174146
17417°]
17418°3
17421:0
17422°8
174242
17426:0
17426°8
17428°2
17429°3
17430°2
17432°3
17433°9
174346
17436°2
17437°8
17440°4
17442°3
17443°6
17447°6
17448°9
17451-2
17452°2
17452°7
174541
17455°3
174563
174582
17458°8
17460°6
174612
17461°8
17463°7
17464-2
174682
17468°7
17469°9
174711
17473°4
174754
174762
17476°6
17479°3
174810
5:1
5:1
5:2
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
Rowland Angstrém
17395°2
17396'3
17398'6
174100
17401:2
17403:2
174040
17404°6
17405°3
17408°3
17409°5
174120
17413°2
174159
174177
17419'1
17420°9
174217
17423°1
17424°2
17425-1
17427°2
17428°8
17429'5
174311
17432-7
17435°3
17437-2
17438-4
17442°4
174437
17446-0
17447-0
174475
17448-9
17450:1
174511
17453-0
17453°6
17455°4
17456-0
17456°6
17458°5
17459-0
17463-2
17463°5
174647
17466-9
17468:2
174702
17471-0
17471°4
17472'1
17478°8
' ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF TIE ELEMENTS. 257
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
Br) —_ ae res in Vacuo
owlan F Medium frequency |" =
Horizon | aititude wecuays Rowland Angstrém
5719-94 5 2 17482°7 52 174772
5719-75 iii 2 17483°3 174781
5719°15 8 2 17485°1 17479°9
571851 4 2 17487°1 174819
571765 9 2 17489°7 17484:2
571713 4 2 1749173 174861
571616 (3?) 2 17494°3 17489°2
5715°87 3 1 17495:2 17490-0
5714:27 | ae Satan
| 5714-21 f 8 4d 17500°1 17494:9
571276 4 2 17504°7 17499°5
5711°69 5 1 175079 17502°8
5711°50 8 1 175085 17503-4
5710°97 5 1 175102. | 175050 |
5710:07 4 2 17512°9 L7a0T 8 |
5709°18 3 2 175156 175104
5707°26 7 — 175215 17517°3
5706°69 t 1 Via23'soae 175181
5705724 (3?) 2 175277 175219
5704-67 4 — 175293 | 175244
5704°42 7 2 175303 175251
5704-05 3 — 17531-4 17526°2
5703°44 6 1 17533°3 175281
5702°95 5 3 175348 17529°6
5702712 3 il 17537°3 17532'1
5700-90 9 2 175411 17535'9
5700-78 3? — 175415 175363
5700:17 2? 1 17543°3 17538'1
5699°52 10 4 175453 17540°1
5699°14 3 1 17546°5 175413
569893 6 — 175471 17541°9
5698°75 5? 5 17547°7 17542°5
seos-cos | 9 | 5 175482 175430
5698-31 10 2 175491 | 17543'9
5697:°92 4a — 17549°5 175443
5697°79 — 17550-4 17545°2
5697-51 4 1 175515 175463
5697-31 (32) 2 175521 17546°9
5696-96 8 1 17553°2 17548 0
569658 4 1 175544 17549°2
5696-06 8d 3 17556:0 17550°8
5695:65 3 1 17557°2 175522
569434 6 1 17561°3 17556'1
5693°76 8 -— 17565°1 175579
569338 4 2 175643 175591
5692791 8 2 17565°7 17560°5
5692°57 10 2 17566°8 17561°6
5692°35 f di 17567-4 17562-2
5690-81 4 — 17572:2 17567:0
5690°62 10 6 17572°8 17567°6
5690°42 8 — 17573-4 175682
5690-07 5 = 175745 17569°3
5689°74 i) 3 175755 17570:3
5689-20 4 1 175772 175720
5688°74 6 2 17578°6 17673°4
5687-80 5 2 17581°5 175763
1891. $
258 REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continucd.
18156°5
18160°1
18151-1
18154°7
5507°67 (32)
5506'57 (32)
4
Intensity rs Oscillation Frequency
(ete) sees eine in Vacuo
tow land : Medium requency Ts " 8
Horizon | Attitude Vacuum | Rowland Angstrém
5687°66 10 3 17581°9 5-2 17576°7
5686749 5 3 17585°5 17580°3
5686'38 (52) 4 17585°9 17580°7
5685'97 5 1 17587-1 17581-9
568561 8 2 17588°3 1758371
5685°55 4? — 17588°5 17583°3
5685°28 5 2 17589°3 175841
5684°05 9 3 17593°1 17587°9
5682798 6 — 17596°4 17591:2
5681°97 8 2 17599°5 17594°3
5681-74 3 — 17600°2 17595°0
5680'98 5 iL 17602°6 17597-4
5680°10 5 2 17605°3 176001
5679°79 5 2 17606°3 176011
5676°94 8 2 17615°1 17609°9
5674:79 4 1 17621°8 17616°6
5674°49 4 — 17622°7 176175
5674°42 4 1 17622°9 176177
567415 5 1 17623°8 176186
5672-07 4 — 17630°2 17625:0
5671°58 4 2 17631:8 | 176266
5670°50 5 2 1763571 17629°9
5668°70 3 — 17640°7 17635°5
566794 3 1 17643°1 17637-9
5666-03 4 2 17649-0 17643'8
5652-01 (32) 2 17692°8 17687°6
5634:37 (27) 2 17748°2 17743°0
5633'23 (22) 2 17751°8 17746°6
5631°02 (22) 2 17758°8 5:2 17753°6
5575°53 3 _ 17935°5 5:3 17930°2
5548°72 3 2 18022°2 18016°9
5529'92 32 2 18083-4 18078:1
6523-03 3 1 _18106°1 5:3 18100'8
5520°23 3 1 18115-2 5:4 18109°8
5519°95 (32) 2 181161 18110°7
5519-41 4 1 181179 18112°5
5516-49 3 2 18127°5 18122°1
5516-09 3 1 18128°8 18123°4
5515:52 4 1 18130°7 18125°3
5513-91 4 2 18136-0 18130°6
5511°37 5 2 18144°3 181389
5509°64 4 2 181500 181446
5509°11 2 a 181517 181463
2
5505°37 2 181641 18158:7
5502-00 3? — 18175:2 18169°8
5500°44 3 2 18180°4 18175:0
5499°70 3 1 181828 181771
5499°39 3 —_ 18183°8 18178:1
5499°05 4 2 18185-0 18179°6
549856 3 — 181866 18181°2
5496-98 5 2 181918 18186°4
5496°33 3 — 18194:0 18188°6
549565 4 — 18196:2 | 18190°8
6491-70 3 2 18209°3 | 18203°9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TIE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 259
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity f Oscillation Frequency |
Becker a — Oreilainon Redue- in Vacuo
(Rowland) : < Medium | Frequency sae to =
Horizon | ‘sititude aCnn ee Rowland Angstrém
? = =
"*} 6491-22 4 2 18210°9 54 18205°5
5491-04 (42) re 18211°5 182061
5485°20 3 2 18230°9 18225°5
5484-28 3 1 18233°9 18228°5
5482°76 4 2 18239-0 18233°6
) 5482-09 6d 4d 18241°2 18235°8
5480°52 (42) — 182464 18241:0
5479°51 3 2 18249°8 182444
5478°93 4 2 182517 18246°3
5478°32 7 2 18253°8 18248-4
5475-41 2 — 18263°5 182581
5473'54 5 3 18269°7 182643
5470°35 8 2 18280°4 18275:0
5466-90 6 2 182919 18286:5
5466:17 3 2 18294°4 18289:0
5465°47 5 2 18296°7 18291°3
5465°21 6 3 18297°6 18292-2
5464-84 (3?) 2 18298°8 | 18293-4
5462-59 (72) 7 18306°3 18300°9
546218 5 2 18307°7 18302°2
5459°54 7 -— 18316°6 18311-2
5459-05 (37) 2 18318:2 18312°8
545865 5 2 183195 | 18316:1
5457-62 i 4 18323-0 | 183176
5457°34 4 2 18323°9 18318°5
. 5456°58 8 4 18326°5 18321-1
5455:28 4 2 18330°9 18325°5
5452-54 3 1 18340:1 18334-7
5451-26 4 2 18344°4 18339-0
5450°43 4 1 18347°2 18341°8
5449°57 5 1 1835071 18344-7
5449-16 4 2 18351°5 183481
5449-07 4 2 183513 | 18348-4
5448-22 6 2 183546 18349-2
5446°25 3 1 18361°3 18355:9
5444-23 4 2 18368°1 18362°7
5442-51 U + 18373°9 18368°5
5439°91 3 1 18382°7 18377°3
5439-06 : ‘
5438-99 5d 2 18385°6 18380:2
5438-43 4 2 18387°7 18382°3
5438°16 4 2 18388°6 18383°2
5437:36 6 4 18391°3 18385:9
5437-23 6 4 18391°7 18386°3
5435-76 7 2 18396°7 18391°3
5435-49 3? _ 18397°6 18392°2
5434-92 6 1 18399°5 183941
5434°04 4 2 18402°5 18397°1
| 5431-82 5 3 18410:0 18404°6
| 5431-60 5 3 18410°8 18405°4
5431-25 3 1 18412°0 18406°6
5430°46 4 3 18414°7 18409°3
5428-88 Ta 3 18420°0 184146
5428-78 3 18420°4 18415-0
5428-09 bd 3 18422°7 18417°3
6427-89 a 3 18423-4 18418-0
s 2
260 rEPort—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SoLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensit. Oscillation Frequency
Becker - Oscillation oe in Vacuo
(Rowland) = Medium | Frequency ee 3
Horizon | altitude Rowland Angstrém
5427-17 5d 2 15425'8 54 18420°4
5426°85 (3 2) 3 184269 18421°5
5426-42 (8?) 3 18428-4 184230
5425'96 3 2 18429:9 18424°5
5425-09 4 1 18432°9 18427°5
5423°66 3 — 18437°7 18432°3
5423-06 2 29. Bye
5499-98 9d 3 18439:°9 18434°5
5421-31 7d 5 184457 18440°3
5420-71 7 2 18447°8 18442°5
5420-49 (82) 6 Pace 184431
5420-41 j | 18448°8 184434
541949 8 3 184519 18447°5
541843 5 2 18455°5 5:4 18450°1
5418-07 5 3 18456°8 55 18451°3
5417-39 5 if 18459°1 184536
5416°68 t 2 18461°5 184560
5416°47 4 — 184622 18456°7
5416°25 6 2 18463-0 18457'5
5415°66 4 1 18465:0 18459'5
5415718 4 — 18466°6 18461°1
5414°86 4 1 18467°7 18462°2
5414°50 8 3 18468°9 18463°4
5414-23 7 5 18469°8 18464:3
541330 8d 4 18473:0 18467°5
5413-00 7 4 184740 18468°5
5412°34 7 2 184763 18470'8
5411°92 5 1 18477:7 184722
; 5410°61 (3 2) 3 18482°2 18476:7
| 5409:80 he 3 18485:0 18479°5
5408°98 5 — 18487°8 18482'3
5408°40 6 2 18489°8 18484°3
5408-20 6 4] 18490°4 184849
5407°25 4 1 18493°7 184872
5402-43 4 2 185102 18504:7
5400/07 3 1 18518°3 18512°8
539866 4 — 185231 18517'6
5398°12 7 1 18525:0 18519°5
539131 (3 2) 2 18548°4 18542°9
539093 (3 2) 2 18549°7 18544°2
5386:02 5 1 18566°6 185611
5383'01 (3 2) 3 18577:0 18571°5
5367°85 (3?) 3 18629°4 185239
5366°95 (3.7) 2 18632°6 185271
5364:09 (32) 2 18642°5 18537:0
5362°32 4 3 18648°6 18543°1
5361-08 3 2 18653°0 18547°5
5360°51 22 — 18654:9 55 18549°4
535995 2? — 18656:9 5°6 18651°3
535410 3d 2 18677°3 18671°7
5353°07 (3 2) 2 18680°9 18675°3
5351°82 3 1 18685'2 18679°6
5351:28 4 —_ 18687°1 18681°5
5350°52 42 3 18689:8 18684:2
5349°23 4 1 18694:3 18688:7
5348-93 4? 3 18695°3 18689'7
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 261
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
ae Intensity Mee Raitt Seen Rtg Ersaneey
ecker scillation - =i 1
Rowland) ; Medium | Frequenc ae
: Horizon | ‘Attitude men) Vacuum | Rowland Angstrém
j 2. Se ps. 3 | ae Se Ae
5347°62 ay 2 18699°9 56 186943
6342-21 32 3 18718°8 | 18713:2
5340-42 3? 2 18725:1 18719°5
4 5322-64 (32) 2 18787°7 18782:1
{ 5316:19 ad 1 18810°5 | 18804:9
; 5314-02 3? 1 18818:2 | 18812°6
5290°52 4 2 18901°7 | 18896'1
5288-00 5 3: 18910°7 | 189051
5283°58 (7?) 5 18926°6 | 18921-0
5277°19 1 18949°5 18943'9
5275-40 (72) 6 18955°9 18950°3
, 5275-11 (7 2) 6 18957:0 18951:4
5251°66 4? 2 19041°6 19036°0
f 5251°52 3 1 19042°1 56 19036°5
5205-40 4 2 19210°8 57 19205°1
; 5205712 4 2 19211-9 5 Tl 19206°2
514394 5a = 19440-4 58 19434-6
5142-10 (22) 2 19447°3 19441°5
5132-25 (32) 2 19484°6 19478°8
512520 | (107) 8 19511-4 19505°6
5117:02 (5 2) + 19542°6 10536°8
5116-72 (5 2) 4b 19543°8 19538°0
511116 4 1 19565°0 19559:2
’ 5110:20 3 1 19568°7 19562°9
5105°07 4d il 19588-4 19582°6
5 . 587:
B10377 f (32) 2a | 195932 met ’
5102-57 8 3 19598-0 ani
5101-90 6 2 19600°5 195947
5097°40 5 3 19617°8 19612°0
5096-23 5 1 19622-4 19616°6
-5095:95 7 2 19623-4 19617°6
5094°52 8 5 19628:9 19623°1
5094-20 6 -— 19630:2 19624°4
5094-04 6 2 19630°8 19625-0
5093°78 2 — 19631°8 19626:0
5092°58 8 4 196364 19630°6
5092°37 7 5 19637°2 196314
5091:32 + 2 196413 19635°5
5090°39 ; :
5090-25 4a 2 19645°1 19639°3
5089°92 4 2 19646:7 19640°9
’ 5089°36 (42) 4 19648°8 19643:0
5089°23 (42) 3 19649°3 19643 5
6086-75 6 2 19658:9 196531
:. 5086-21 6 _ 19661:0 19655°2
| 508539 4 2 196642 19658-4
: 5085°11 3 —_ 19665°3 19659°5
5084°64 5 2 19667°1 19661°3
5083°91 fi 2 19669°9 19€64:1
5083°12 5 2 19673-0 196672
5080°53 8 5 19683-0 196772
5079°70 a 1 19686:2 19680°4
5078-57 6 3 19690°6 19684:8
507818 3 1 19692°1 19686:3 |
507757 a | 3 196945 | | 9688-7
262 REPORT—1891.
THE TELLURIC LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency
Becker ee Mectletion aie in Vacuo
(Rowland) : Medium Frequency ; maT TS. a
Horizon | ‘attitude Vacnuar Rowand. ||» Anectrom
5076°65 9 2 19698°0 5'S 19692-2
6075:98 5 2 19700°6 19694°8
5074:43 31 1 19706°6 19700:8
5073:89 41 2 19708°7 19702-9
5073-09 7 6 197118 197060
5072-06 4 --- 197158 197100 |
6071-40 5 1 19718:4 19712°6
6071:21 5 2 19719:2 197134
5070-35 5 -- 19722°5 19GUG: (a
5070-04 5 3 19723°7 USA) ||
5069°53 4 3 19725'3 19719°5
5069°26 5 7 19726°7 19720°9
5068'88 Lavy 9 19728°2 197 22-4
506845 5 4 19729°9 19723:
5067:29 11 8 197344 19728°6
5066:49 6 3 19737°5 197317
5066-04 9 6 19739°3 19733°5
5065-85 (32) 3 19740°0 197342
5063°74 + 1 19748°2 58 19742°4
506244 (3?) 2 19753°3 59 19747-4
5061-18 6 2 19758°2 19752°3
5060°56 5 2 19760°7 197548
5060°19 10 8 197621 19756:2
5059°58 - 3 1 197645 19758°6
5058°32 6 2 19769-4 19763°5
5057°69 9 — 19771°9 197660
5056°95 5 5 197748 197689
505658 10 3 19776°2 19770°3
5056-44 5 2.7 | (TOTES 197709
5055:28 4 2 ol Mar eles: 19776°4
5054:52 4 — | 19784:3 19778-4
* 505392 6 3 19786°6 19780:7
505364 5d > | Moterey, 197818 |
5052°52 6 lt |} -d9792a 19786:2
5052°31 62 3 19792°9 197870
5050-49 4 2 19800°1 197942 |
5049-72 5 1 19803°1 19797:°2
5047°56 (42) 3 19811°5 198056
5047-14 (42) 3b 198132 19807:3 |
5046°65 3 — 19815:1 19809°'2 |
5046°35 3 2 19816°3 19810-4 |
5045°76 4 — 19818°6 L9812:7 =F)
5044'73 3 2 19822°7 198168 |
5044-08 8 3 | 19826:2 198193 |
5043°13 8 3 19829:0 19823°1
5042°97 8 3 19829°6 19823°7
5042-62 3 2 19831:0 1982571
5041°46 8 4 19835°5 19829°6
5040-67 4 3. | 198386 19832°7
5040°39 5 3 | 19839-7 19833-8
5039°86 7 2 | 19841°8 19835:9
5039-03 5 — | 198451 19839°2
503891 5 2 | 19845:6 19839:7
5038-42 9 T | 19847-5 19841-6
5038-23 (EXD TE — 19848°3 198424 |
5038-00 5 2 19849°1 19843°2 |
z
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 263
; THE TreLLuRic LINES OF THE SOLAR SPECTRUM—continued.
Intensity Oscillation Frequency |
Becker ed OSA ATION eine in Vacuo
(Rowland) . Medium | Trequency
Horizon | Attitude | | Vacuum) Rowland Angstrom
mares, | 9 | 4 198499 5-9 19844-0
5037°43 8 | 3 19851°4 19845°5
5035°83 8 2 19857'7 19851'8
5035°19 5 — 19860°2 19854°3 |
6034°80 8 1 19861°8 19855:9_—|
5034-69 (i 19862-2 198563 |
508445 + 5 2) |= Osb52h 19857:2
5034-23 5 2 | 19864:0 198581 |
503317 5 2 19868:2 19862°3
5031°34 6 2 19875-4 19869°5
5030°52 4 1 19878°7 19872'8
5029-82 8 —_— 19881:4 19875°5
5028°98 6 2 19884°7 19878'8
, 5028-72 6 1 198858 | 19879:9
: 5026°26 6 a 19895°5 19889°6
5025°94 6 3 198963 19890°9
r 5024°81 6 2 | 199013 18895°4
5024°39 6 3 19902°9 19897:0
: 5019-49 4 _- 19922-4 19916°5
5019-26 4 a 199233 | 19917°4
5018°65 ae — | 19925:7 19919°8
5018755 11 9 19226°1 19920°2
; 5018-00 5 Le 19928-3 19929°4
5017:23 5 2 199313 19925°4
5016:07 5 1 19935°9 199300 |"
5015°33 4 | 2 19938-9 19933:0
5006-90 4 2 19972-4 19966°5
5004-48 5 3 19982:1 199762
5002:75 + 2d 19989:0 19983°1
4998°14 5 3 20007°4 20001'5
4996-713 3 1 20015°5 20009°6
4988:50 (32) 2 20046-1 20040:2
4984:91 4 1 20060°5 200546
4983°69 a ut 20065°5 20059°6
4981-48 6 2 | 20074°4 20068°5
4975°95 3 2 | 20096-7 5-9 20090°8
; 4969°61 (32) 2 20122°3 6:0 20116°3
4969-41 (372) 2 2012371 20127°1
; 4964-80 (42) 2 20141'8 20135'8
: 4913°10 2 — 20353°7 20147°7
4902-52 4? 3 |. 20397-7 20191°7
4902-21 4? 3 20399-0 20193:0
_ Interim Report of the Committee consisting of Professor THorrr,
Professor Hummrn (Secretary), Dr. Purxin, Professor Russet,
Captain Anny, and Professor Stroup, on the Action of Light
upon Dyed Colours. Drawn wp by the Secretary.
Tue primary object of the work of this Committee is to determine
accurately the relative fastness to light of all the various colours at
present employed by the dyer of textile fabrics. This is to be attained
264 REPORT—1891.
by exposing to direct sunlight and the ordinary atmospheric influences,
patterns of silks, wool, and cotton, specially dyed with the various
natural and artificial colouring matters.
The work of purifying these colouring matters, dyeing the patterns,
recording the dyed and faded colours of each pattern, &c., &c., must
necessarily require much time. Moreover, owing to the very large
number of colours to be examined, the long exposure needed to give
useful results (one year at least), and the limited capacity of the exposing
frame employed, the work will naturally proceed but slowly, and will
extend over a period of some years,
During the past year the Secretary of the Committee has been
engaged in collecting samples of the colouring matters required for the
investigation, and in making preliminary exposure experiments with the
view of determining the best method of procedure to be adopted.
Having decided to expose the patterns in groups according to colour,
the work of purifying and dyeing with the red colouring matters has
been begun, and is now in progress in accordance with a scheme in the
hands of members of the Committee.
Of the 20/. originally granted to the Committee at the last meeting
of the Association in Leeds, the sum of 17/. 10s. has been expended in
the purchase of the necessary silk, wool, and cotton material, also an
exposing frame, which has been erected at Adel in the neighbourhood of
Leeds.
Particulars of this expenditure have been forwarded by the Chairman
of the Committee to the General Treasurer.
Report (provisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors
M‘Leop and W. Ramsay, and Mr. W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary),
appointed to investigate the Inflwence of the Silent Discharge
of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases.
Tue Committee regrets to state that, owing to various circumstances,
very little further progress has been made during the past year. The
necessary means for securing assistance in part of the work have, how-
ever, lately been secured, and its continued progress may therefore now
be looked for; and it is recommended that the Committee be reappointed.
No grant is asked for, as the necessary apparatus is at the command
of the Committee.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors H.
M‘Leop (Chairman), Roperts-AusTEN (Secretary), and REINOLD,
and Mr. H. G. Mapan, appointed for the Continuation of the
Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
THE collection and verification of the titles of papers on spectroscopy
have been continued during the past year, but there is not yet sufficient
matter for publication.
The Committee desire to be reappointed.
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 265
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor TILDEN and
Professor ARMSTRONG (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
investigating Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives. (Drawn wp
by Professor ARMSTRONG.)
The isomeric dichloronaphthalenes.—Since the publication of the pre-
vious report Mr. Wynne and the writer have completed their examination
of the dichloronaphthalenes. As mentioned in the third report, no
fewer than twelve isomerides were reputed to exist ; one of these, however
—strange to say, the a-modification, the oldest member of the set—has
proved to be non-existent as a distinct isomeride, being a mixture of two
others inseparable by the ordinary methods of crystallisation; while
another has been shown to have been improperly ranked as a dichloro-
derivative, being a trichloronaphthalene. The remaining ten have been
characterised and their constitution determined by logical and consistent
arguments, which leave no doubt that they actually are the ten dichloro-
naphthalenes which, according to theory, can exist if the simple double
hexagon formula for naphthalene be adopted.
The formule of the ten dichloronaphthalenes are given in the table
below, those of the acids into which they are converted on sulphonation
being given in the second column of the table, and those of the corre-
sponding trichloronaphthalenes in the third. In this table S is printed
for SO,H; the melting points of the chloride and amide of the acid are
indicated below the symbol of the acid.’
aa-Di-chloronaphthalenes.
Cl Cl Cl
ha a aN aa
Ss 3 ee sry te ag
4 wee N\A
Cl Cl Cl
Lik jo5 = CAGE SOC], mp. = 132°. M. p. = 66°.
SO,NH,, m. p. = 244°.
Ci Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl
AN, ANAS
1S eget ey a ae eae ad
NZS
hs) Cl
Meips = 82°. SO,Cl, m. p. = 114°. M. p. = 131°
; SO.NH,, m. p. = 228°.
Cl. Cl Cl
Tae. axes
ee Se ee oe eee
SNS aa
he Ol ' Cl Cl
M. p. = 106%5. SO,Cl, m. p. = 139°-5. M. p. = 103°
SO,NH,, m. p. = 204°.
1 Cf. Chen. Soc. Proceedings, 1890, pp. 77-84.
266
| i cla
ee
M. p 119°°5
Sh eet
BT Aas fi
M.p. = 114°
| | [
a A}
M. p. = 135°
Cl
Si
aT <7
cl
| A
hee
M. pa— sole
REPORT—1891.
BB-Dichloronaphthalenes.
SO,Cl, m. p.
sO. NH,, m. p.
80,Cl, m. p. = ‘
SO,NH,, m. p. = 218°.
A\4\c\
> ) | | >
aaa
SO,Cl, m. p.
SO,NH., m. p.
36?:
369°.
aP-Dichloronaphthalenes.
Cl
NANG
Folin
‘DG
SO,Cl, m. p. = 104°.
SO,NH,, m. p. = 217°.
Cl
SO.NH,, m. ts = 160°
80,Cl, m. p. = ;
SO,NH., m. p. = 272°,
SO,Cl, m. p. = 121°.
5O,NH,, m. p. = 228°
>
M. p. = 1095.
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES, 267
Cl Cl Cl
C ‘fia a G7 NS a“~/“\
JRereG ta fees
A WAY VY
S
M. p. = 62°5—63°5. SOL mp) = ltS?: M. p. = 66°
SO,NH., m. p. = 226°.
Cl Cl Cl
aS AS
Bhi old dinates 9 thalingisi 2 4 vole Lead
Cl Cl Cl
wav Ohne’ Nites
S Cl
M. p. = 48°. SO,Cl, m. p. = 161°. M. p..= 66°.
SO.NH,, m. p. = 216°.
The establishment of the existence of such a series of ten isomerides
formed by the introduction of but two atoms of chlorine into a hydro-
carbon is in itself remarkable; it is still more remarkable when the
diversity of properties which the isomerides manifest is taken into con-
sideration ; moreover the identification of ten isomerides and the recog-
nition of their constitution afford striking testimony to the completeness
of modern methods of inquiry and the truth of our theory of constitution :
however much our symbols may differ from actuality, there cannot be a
doubt that they afford a most accurate presentment of intramolecular
relationship.
It may be added that the facts now established place it beyond ques-
tion that the hydrocarbon naphthalene has a symmetrical structure such
as is indicated by the conventional double hexagon formula; it remains
to solve the far more difficult problem involved in the determination of
its exact inner structure.
The opportunity afforded by a series of ten isomerides for the com-
parative study of physical properties in their relation to constitution is
obviously very great, and it is intended ere long to enter on this branch
of the inquiry.
The isomeric dibromonaphthalenes—With the object of securing the
data necessary for the exact comparison of the chloro- and bromo-deriva-
tives of naphthalene, and especially the behaviour of naphthalene towards
chlorine and bromine, much time has been devoted by the writer and Mr.
Rossiter to the study of the dibromonaphthalenes. The results are not
yet sufficiently complete to render their publication desirable.
The isomeric trichloronaphthalenes.—Theoretically fowrteen isomeric
trichloronaphthalenes can exist. As the determination of the constitu-
tion of a large number of naphthalene derivatives—including many of
technical importance—is dependent on a knowledge of the trichloronaph-
thalenes, Mr. Wynne and the writer have paid much attention to their
study ; besides the seven already known, they have succeeded in preparing
six others, and are at present endeavouring to prepare the only modifica-
tion which remains to be discovered. The melting points of the thirteen
known trichloronaphthalenes and their probable constitution are indicated
in the following table, in which also are given the letters by which they
have been distinguished.
268 rEPoRT—1891,
_ Constitution | Melting Point _— Constitution | Melting Point
[a] Ter 81° [n] WSIS ee 113°
a 124 92° [0] IS BSH 80°
— 1 Pepe unknown Ly] bor 3s 4? 103°
— Liepa see ae | [8] gape = It 131°
= Wer eioy 92°°5 [e and ¢] a aa 66°
= NPS gia 78°°5 | — 22.a)2*1! 109°°5
?[B] Iveedus at 90° | — 220 2! shite
It will be noticed that three modifications melt at about 80°, and four
near to 90°; hence it is important to ascertain the distinctive properties
of the several modifications, so that their identification may be rendered
easy and certain. This difficult and wearisome task will, it is hoped, be
completed during the coming year.
Naphthalenedisulphonic acids —By eliminating the NH, group from
beta-naphthylaminedisulphonic acid G, Mr. Wynne and the writer, since
the publication of the last report, have succeeded in preparing naph-
thalene 1:3 or meta-disulphonic acid; the same acid has been inde-
pendently prepared in this manner in the laboratory of the Badische Anilin
und Soda Fabrik. It is noteworthy that although in a measure the
analogue of benzenemetadisulphonic acid, which readily yields resorcinol
on fusion with alkali, naphthalene 1 : 3 disulphonic acid is converted by
fusion with alkali with remarkable facility into a trihydroxynaphthalene.
Five of the ten possible disulphonic acids are therefore now known.
Their properties are summarised in a table in the ‘Chemical Society’s
Proceedings,’ 1890, p. 14.
Naphthylamine-, naphthol- and chloronaphthalene-disulphonic acids —A
large number of disulphonic acids of the naphthylamines and naphthols
are now in technical use,! and both on this account and in order to obtain
the material for a discussion of the comparative influence of NH, and
OH, the constitution of these acids has been determined by Mr. Wyune
and the writer, and they have also prepared disulphonic acids by sulpho-
nating the chloronaphthalenesulphonic acids in order to compare the
influence of what may be regarded as a neutral radicle with that of the
alkylic NH, and acidic OH; the results have been recorded during the
past two years in nine communications to the Chemical Society, and
appear in the ‘ Proceedings.’ One interesting result of the examination
of the disulphonic acids, to which attention may be called, is that ap-
parently there is an ‘invincible objection’ on the part of two SO,H
groups to remain in either contiguous or para- or peri-positions. The
expression ‘remain in’ is used advisedly, as it appears probable that
initially such positions are not infrequently taken up by sulphonic groups.
The formation of beta-derivatives.—In previous reports emphasis has
over and over again been laid on the fact that in the majority of cases
naphthalene gives rise to alpha-derivatives, beta-derivatives being formed
only when a group is present which determines the entry of the new
group into the contiguous beta-position or owing to the occurrence of
secondary change. Attention must now be called to certain important
exceptions to this rule.
} A very complete description of the various naphthalene derivatives which are
used technically will be found in the art. Naphthalene by Mr. Wynne in the recently-
published vol. ii, of Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applicd Chemistry (Longmans).
a
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTILALENE DERIVATIVES. 269
One of these exceptions is that afforded by the formation from naph-
thalene 1 : 3’ disulphonic acid on nitration of a nitro-acid of the formula
8
TaN ON
Es
A
oO
a
(cf. ‘Chem. Soc. Proceedings,’ 1891, p. 27); this acid, however, is but a
subsidiary product, the main product being an acid of the formula
NO, 8
e aN
S| | |
ee
It has long been known that when the 1: 4’ disulphonic acid is
nitrated, it yields an a-nitro-acid ; recently Mr. Wynne and the writer
have found that the product also contains the isomeric (-nitro-acid.
Other exceptions are afforded by the production of beta-chloro- and
bromo-naphthalene on chlorination and bromination of naphthalene;! and
by the presence of a certain proportion of beta-naphthylamine in com-
mercial alpha-naphthylamine—a proof that naphthalene yields some beta-
nitronaphthalene on nitration; the writer’s attention has been called to
_ this last fact both by Dr. H. Caro and by Professor Noelting.
Lastly Mr. Rossiter and the writer have found that beta-naphthol
_when brominated yields a dibromo-derivative of the formula
ES ———————_—
and in this case there appears to be no alpha-compound formed, so that
the departure from the alpha-law is complete.
But the explanation of these results is not difficult. In no case
probably is the substitution derivative the direct product of change; but
its formation is preceded by that of an addition compound. ‘This is
generally admitted in the case of chloro- and bromo-derivatives, but
evidence of the formation of addition compounds has not hitherto been
forthcoming in other cases. Mr. Rossiter and the writer, however, have
recently given proof that a compound with nitric acid is initially formed
in the process of nitration.2 Obviously, in the case of a symmetrical
molecule such as that of bromine, either an alpha- or a beta-derivative will
result, according as either the beta- or the alpha-atom of bromine becomes
eliminated from the bromide, thus :—
C\ war 8
* Cf. Chem. Soc. Proceedings, 1890, p. 85. * Tbid., 1891, p. 89.
270 ; REPORT—1891.
The alpha-law in this case is expressed by saying that in the main the
tendency is for the beta-bromine atom to be removed.
In the case of a dissymmetrical molecule, such as that of nitric acid,
the formation of the one or the other derivative will depend on the
nature of the addition compound—.e., on the distribution of the radicles
of the acid—assuming them to be ‘distributed’ when addition takes
place, thus :—
NO,
ee + HONG, = ee HO
WA KZ
HO
foie HON, = thie. se
ie he se thin «fs
In this case the alpha-law is expressed in the statement that in the main
the tendency is for the acid radicle to assume an alpha-position in the
addition compound first formed.
This question has already been discussed by Mr. Wynne and the
writer with reference to the tetra-chlorides of naphthalene and of its
derivatives, naphthalene tetrachloride affording the three possible di-
chloronaphthalenes, but the 1: 3 compound in largest and the 1 : 2 in least
proportion, thus :—
HCl Cl Gl
200:toes
a Waa Ae Aiea ee OAPs:
HCl Cl
The behaviour of the substituted chlorides is as follows :—
Chief product of action
Chief chloride. of potash on chloride.
cl Cl, cl
a HCl el
PgR: | a ee
be Ao at
HCl M. p.=81°.
HCl Cl
A\“N aa ner 7 61 LYN c1
a eines, et 8
Ne WOW VAY
HCl M. p.=113°.
S0,Cl HCl S0,C1 S0,K
“~ HO cl
| | eat | ! | ‘ig | | |
bg A a
SN
ee
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES.
bo
=]
—
Chief product of action
Chief chloride. of potash on chloride.
HCl Cl
ae ) 80,cl_ HCI ( a 80,C1, f ne SO,K
COG BON SIV,
HCl Cl
The influence of the substituent both as affecting the addition of
chlorine and the elimination of hydrogen chloride is especially note-
worthy. It will be seen that the sulphochlorides behave alike, but the
two chloronaphtbalenes dissimilarly towards chlorine, and that each
compound decomposes in a manner peculiar to itself on treatment with
alcoholic potash.
As yet no evidence has been obtained that a beta-bromo-, chloro-, or
nitro-derivative may result by isomeric change from a previously formed
alpha-derivative.
With regard to the swiphonic acids, on reference to the previous
table in which the constitution of the acids formed on sulphonating
the ten dichloronaphthalenes is indicated, it will be observed that in some
cases an a- and in some cases a £-sulphonic acid is formed, or a mixture
of both. Mr. Wynne and the writer have expressed the opinion that the
a-acid is always initially produced, and that in some cases this is so
unstable that it spontaneously passes over into the f-isomeride and
escapes observation, while in others it is partially preserved. They base
this conclusion on the fact that in all cases hitherto studied in which both
acids are formed it is possible to convert the a- into the f-acid by heating.
Thus 1 : 2-dichloronaphthalene affords about two-thirds a- and one-third
B-acid ; but when the product is heated the latter is practically the sole
product. In like manner the initial product of sulphonation from
1 : 3-dichloronaphthalene contains about one-fifth B-acid; but if it be
heated at 160° during eighteen hours complete conversion into the B-iso-
meride is effected.
Should this conclusion with reference to the manner in which beta-
sulphonic acids are formed be ultimately established it would follow that,
unlike nitric acid, sulphonating agents regularly act in one way, and that
the formation of the addition compound takes place in such a manner
that the sulphonic radicle always attaches itself in an alpha-position.
Tsomeric change in the case of sulphonic acids.—The problems which
this subject presents are of extreme interest ; some idea of their character
is afforded by the following example. When heated at about 150-160°
1: 4 a-chloronaphthalene sulphonic acid undergoes a change into the more
symmetrical alpha-isomeride, while 2 : 1’-@-chloronaphthalenesulphonic
acid is converted in a similar manner into the more symmetrical beta-
isomeride—results which may be regarded as indicative of a tendency to a
final state of symmetry, thus :—
cl Cl SO,H
| ae - ry Cl ac ~ Cl thal
VA) ee ee uae Ae
SO,H SO,H
In the case of the dichlorosulphonic acids it is noteworthy that the
272 REPORT-—1891.
position ultimately taken up by the SO3H radicle appears to be deter-
mined by the beta-chlorine-atom, perhaps because the (-sulphonic acids
are the most ‘ degraded’ products, thus :—
Cl Cl Cl Cl
PI Xa (ye ae YS
WV Ne a \/
With reference to these examples it may be pointed out that the
apparent passage of the sulphonic radicle in the one case from one
nucleus into the other, in another from an alpha- into the contiguous beta-,
and in a third from an alpha- into the more distant beta-position, are
remarkable variations of the phenomenon of intramolecular mobility.
There is a striking difference in the behaviour of the 1 : 4, 1: 4’, and
1 : 2 aa-dichloronaphthalenes, to which attention may be directed, the non-
formation of the acid containing a chlorine atom and the sulphonic radicle
in the 1 : 1’ position being noteworthy, thus :—
Cr Cl Rie
/ ey
| | yields L
Kae pe!
Cl Cl
as ea
i] ! Ss i 1
VY VY
Cl Cl
fe ene:
Ses 2 piss: wae
Cl Cl
In the case of the 1 : 4 and 1 : 4’ compounds the sulphonic radicle is
obviously influenced in two directions, and may be said to take up a
mean position.
A case of isomeric change which at present appears altogether para-
doxical is that which is said to occur on heating sodium naphthionate
(NH, : SO;Na = 1: 4) at 200-250°, whereby it is converted into the
isomeric 1 : 2-compound.
The foregoing brief reference to the work of the Committee will
suffice to show that the study of naphthalene derivatives is fraught with
interest, more especially as it is to be anticipated that results of general
application will be obtained in the course of the inquiry.
ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOLUTION. 273
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TILDEN,
McLezop, PICKERING, Ramsay, and YounG and Drs. A. R. LEEDS
and Nioou (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the Bibliography of Solution.
Durine the past year no progress has been made with the work of
cataloguing the papers on Solution in the few remaining selected
journals.
The Committee invite the co-operation of members who have access
to large scientific libraries and are willing to take an active part in the
work.
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors TILDEN
and Ramsay and Dr. Nicon (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Properties of Solutions.
Tur Committee have to report that, owing to the pressure of other work,
but little progress has been made with experiments on the atomic
_ volumes of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen when substances containing
these elements are dissolved in water or other solvents. A preliminary
research on the volume of oxygen in the oxy-acids of chlorine, bromine,
and iodine has been completed with somewhat startling results, which
lead the Committee to hope that valuable data will be obtained when
the work is complete.
Third Report of the Comiittec, consisting of Professor ROBERTS-
AusTEN (Chairman), Sir F. ABEL, Messrs. E. Ritey and J.
SPILLER, Professor J. W. LancLey, Mr. G. J. SNELUs, Professor
Tiwpen, and Mr. Tuomas Turner (Secretary), appointed to
consider the best method of establishing an International
Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)
‘In the two previous reports of this Committee the objects of the
. Committee were defined, and an account was given of the preparation
_ and distribution by the American Committee of four out of the five
~ international steel standards which Professor Langley had been requested
and had kindly undertaken to prepare. A year ago it was hoped that a
_ final report would be presented at the Cardiff meeting, but, unfortunately,
_ this hope has not been realised, and the completion of the work has been
deferred. In the second report mention was made of the fact that the
American Committee had entered upon an investigation of the relative
accuracy of different methods of analysis, particularly in connection with
he estimation of carbon in steel. This work was not considered within
the a of the British Association Committee when its objects were
91. T
274 REPORT—1891.
defined in accordance with the discussion which took place at Bath and
with subsequent correspondence with Professor Langley.
The British Association Committee have during the past year care-
fully considered the course of action taken by the American Committee
and the position of British analysts now that the scope of the inquiry
entered into by the former has been thus enlarged, and it has been
considered advisable to publish the results of the determinations of the
British analysts as soon as their work is completed. This view was
communicated to Professor Langley, who in a letter received on August 7,
1891, endorses the proposed publication of the results hitherto obtained
by the British Association Committee.
Owing to the very short time which has elapsed since the receipt of
Professor Langley’s letter and the fact that two of the British analysts
have not yet forwarded their reports to the Committee, it has not yet
been possible to institute a comparison of results obtained, but no time
will be lost in completing the examination of the four standards at present
in hand and in then preparing a report on the English results. Dr.
Wedding has informed Professor Langley that the work of the German
Committee is now nearly completed.
The fifth standard has not yet been prepared, some difficulty having
been met with in obtaining so large a quantity of mild steel of perfectly
uniform composition. It was originally proposed to make the standard
of basic steel, but it was urged that greater uniformity could be obtained
with crucible metal. Professor Langley states that he has made several
attempts to make crucible steel sufficiently low in carbon, but finds it
This matter is now under consideration, and it is hoped the fifth standard
will be prepared shortly.
impossible to do so in the plumbago crucibles used in the United States. |
;
Report (provisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors H. E. ;
ARMSTRONG and W. R. Dunstan and Messrs. C. H. BOTHAMLEY —
and W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary), appointed to investigate the
direct formation of Haloid Compounds from pure materials.
Havine confirmed Wanklyn’s early observation that carefully dried
chlorine was practically without action on sodium, R. Cowper in 1883
(‘Chem. Soc. Journ.’ 1883, pp. 153-155) made a number of experiments
on the behaviour of dried chlorine towards other metals, and in several —
cases found that if dried by contact with freshly-fused calcium chloride
it was without action. Thus Dutch metal was apparently still unacted
on after three months’ exposure in the dried gas ; and zinc, in the form of
foil, and magnesium wire were also unattacked. Silver and bismuth,
however, were slightly acted on, and tin, antimony, and arsenic were
rapidly attacked ; mercury appeared to be acted on as rapidly by dried
chlorine as by the moist gas.
Pringsheim has since shown that, even in the case of hydrogen and
chlorine, the interaction is affected by the presence of moisture.
These, and similar observations by H. B. Dixon and others with
reference to the formation of oxides from dry materials, render it desirable
to more fully elucidate the conditions which determine the formation of
ON THE FORMATION OF HALOID COMPOUNDS. 275
metallic and other chlorides and analogous compounds; and it is in this
direction that the Committee are working.
Mr. Shenstone has already obtained results which are both interest-
ing and suggestive. Chlorine prepared in the ordinary manner dried by
exposure in contact with phosphoric oxide during several months was
found to very readily attack mercury—a result in accordance with
Cowper’s observation. Nevertheless chlorine prepared in another
manner was found to behave differently. With the object of testing the
quality of chlorine prepared by heating platinous chloride in vacuo, tubes
of such chlorine, dried by contact during several hours with phosphoric
oxide, were opened under highly-purified recently-heated mercury :
although the surface of the mercury in contact with the gas was very
quickly tarnished, no sensible absorption occurred during many hours in
daylight, but afterwards absorption took place, at first gradually, and
subsequently with tolerable rapidity. Several such experiments were
made with chlorine prepared from different specimens of platinous chlo-
vide, and in every case a colourless gaseous residue, not exceeding 5 per
cent., was obtained, which proved to be partly soluble in water, partly in
alkaline pyrogallate, and partly insoluble. (? Nitrogen.) The fact that
absorption at first took place with exceeding slowness, and subsequently
proceeded at a more and more rapid rate, is apparently a significant
indication that the interaction of chlorine and mercury is conditioned by
the presence of some third substance, and the importance of continuing
the enquiry is unquestionable.
It is probable that the impurities in the gas from platinous chloride
are derived from a basic compound. Mr. Shenstone finds that platinous
chloride is to a slight extent volatile—a fact which is ordinarily overlooked,
although it has been noticed by Mr. G. Matthey ; hence the analysis of
the substance by the ordinary method of ignition is liable to afford falla-
cious results.
Nearly 20/. has already been expended, chiefly in the purchase of
platinum and platinum apparatus. The Committee desire to be re-
appointed, witha grant of 50l.,as the experiments are now being extended
to a number of other compounds.
Provisional Report of the Committee, consisting of General FESTING,
Captain Asnry, and Professor H. E. ArmstronG (Secretary),
on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds.
Tue determination of the spectra of the compounds which the Committee
have fixed upon as essential has been continued, and several have been
measured and classified. The work is very laborious and can only
progress slowly owing to the difficulty of obtaining absolutely pure
compounds, and other difficulties in the photographic method employed
have also arisen. The Committee wish for reappointment to continue the
investigation.
276 REPORT—1891.
Nineteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Prest-
wicu, Dr. H. W. CrosskEy, Professors W. Boyp Dawkins, T.
McKenny Huaues, and T. G. Bonney and Messrs. C. E.
DE Rance, W. PENGELLY, J. Puant, and R. H. TIDDEMAN,
appointed for the purpose of recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Characters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking
measures for their preservation. (Drawn up by Dr. CROSSKEY,
Secretary. )
In their last report the Committee gave some of the general results of
their survey of the erratic blocks in the Midland district of England ;
they are unable, however, this year still further to address themselves to
the task of giving a scientific arrangement to the vast number of fasts
that have been collected in consequence of the number of new facts
which have been reported to them, and which it is necessary to record
before any more systematic generalisations can be attempted.
The destruction of erratics, moreover, is going on so rapidly that
already many of those described in the reports of this Committee have
disappeared, and in a few years these reports will be the chief evidence
of the very existence of a large series of phenomena of great importance
in glacial geology.
During the past year a N.W. of England Boulder Committee has
been formed, with Mr. C. E. De Rance, F.G.S., as President and Mr.
Percy F. Kendall, F.G.S., as Secretary, which has already done valuable
work, and promises to accomplish a survey of the erratics of the district
it has undertaken to explore, so thorough, as ultimately to render a
scientific arrangement of the facts possible and enable their meaning to
be understood.
The Committee have to thank the N.W. of England Boulder Com-
mittee for the following communications, which contain several features
of especial interest :—
(1) The group of boulders reported from Hest Bank (Lancashire) is
of importance. The stones are exclusively such as might have been
derived from the country at present draining into the internal angle of
Morecambe Bay. Account must be taken of this fact in any attempt to |
explain their origin.
(2) The area occupied by drift containing Lake District erratics is .
extended and help given towards defining the area of their distribution —
on the western slopes of the Pennine chain.
(3) The remarkable sporadic grouping of large boulders is shown; —
for example, in the group in the river Tame when taken in connection —
with the records of Cheshire groups.
(4) Evidence is given of the transport and glaciation of local blocks ;
e.g., by the discovery of a large angular block of Ardwick limestone at
Haughton Green, the nearest known outcrop of the rock being about
three miles to the N.W., as well as many other angular blocks of the
same limestone.
(5) The mode of transport of some erratics and their behaviour
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 277
towards the solid rocks over which they have been carried are illustrated,
the account given of the Levenshulme group furnishing evidence of ice
in motion.
Many noteworthy boulders and groups of boulders are also described.
LANCASHIRE.
Reported by Mr. Tuomas Ransome.
Bolton-le-Sands.—On eastern shore of Morecambe Bay, 1 mile north
of Hest Bank Railway Station; 12 ft. 6 in. x 8 ft. x 8 ft.; oblong ;
moved; mountain limestone ; fallen from boulder clay to the sea beach.
Group.
This is a series of specimens representing all the varieties met with in
an examination of the boulder clay exposed in the cliffs at Hest Bank.
The determinations are by Mr. P. F. Kendall, F.G.S.—
1. Shap granite.
2. Breccia; red base with large fragments; ? Brockram.
3. Grit; greenish grey ; very fine and micaceous; ? Silurian.
4. Limestone ; red base with many white encrinite stems ; Carboniferous.
5, P black with lithostrotion; Carboniferous.
6 5 pale buff with ochreous markings; Carboniferous.
vf a pale buff with encrinite stems; Carboniferous.
8 a earthy buff with mollusca; Carboniferous.
SE Ks dark buff with dendrites; Carboniferous.
n earthy red with Spirifera glabra; Carboniferous.
11. Chert with many microzoa ; Carboniferous.
12. _,, black with cuboidal jointing; Carboniferous.
13. Grit; very coarse, dark red, with quartz and other pebbles the size of a
pea; ? origin.
14. Sandstone, buff, speckled with brown; Carboniferous.
15. nt dark brick red; micaceous ; ? Carboniferous.
16. Grit; coarse quartzose with felspar ; ? Millstone grit.
17. Breccia; andesitic with rhyolitic fragments; ? Yewdale breccia.
18. ‘ Hilleflinta’; buff greenish; Borrowdale.
19. Rhyolite; liver-coloured; flinty with few felspars and no quartz; Borrowdale.
20. 1 Volcanic rock, stained with copper ; ? Borrowdale.
21. Breccia ; andesitic with rhyolitic fragments ; Yewdale.
22, Ash; greenish to purple; Borrowdale.
23. Mica trap. Cf. those of Sedbergh and Kendal.
24. Granite ; a small fragment grey, with a portion of felspar crystals contain-
ing inclusions of quartz; ? Shap.
{All these rocks appear to have been derived from the area immediately
to the northward.—P. F. K.]
Reported by the Rev. C. R. Barxer, S.J., B.A.
A group of boulders from Stonyhurst College, near Whalley, Lanca-
shire. Stonyhnrst lies four miles to the west of Whalley Station, at a
height of 360 feet above O.D., on the gentle south-eastern slope of Long-
ridge Fell. The whole district is made up of Yoredale limestones and
shales beautifully exposed on the banks of the river Hodder to the
north-east, and of the Yoredale grits which form the Longridge Fell and
all the neighbouring hills ; and up to a considerable height the country
is covered with a uniform coat of boulder clay, from which (except when
278 REPORT—1891.
otherwise specified) the erratics in question have been extracted.
Glacial stris may be seen on the mountain limestone at various points
some five to six miles to the north-east, near Clitheroe: these strix, as
shown by the geological survey map, point a few degrees west of south.
The two rocks which seem to be most abundantly represented among
the erratics found near Stonyhurst are—first, a compact, deep, purplish
red Permian marl, which is slightly exposed four miles to the north-east,
near Clitheroe ; secondly, a compact yellow sandstone, very persistently
characterised by speckles of brown iron-oxide. I have coupled this rock
with the one first mentioned because I think it likely that it, too, is
Permian or Triassic. The erratics composed of these two rocks all seem
to be of quite small size.
Almost as numerous as the above mentioned, and far exceeding them
in size, are boulders composed of various andesitic rocks, showing a strong
family likeness, perfectly fresh and hard, of a grey colour, slightly varied
in different specimens by greenish and bluish tints. Many of these
measure a full cubic foot or more, and show well all the characters of
ice-borne boulders. Most of them are certainly identical with rocks in
Borrowdale (andesites of the well-known Borrowdale series).
Next, perhaps, in frequency of occurrence come small rounded or
flattened boulders of a fine-grained rose-coloured rock of syenitic aspect.
Of another rock, also of syenitic aspect, but much larger grained, I
procured a single boulder, the size of an infant’s head, from a field-drain
close to the college.
[Mr. Kendall is of opinion that both of these are varieties of the
Buttermere granophyre. |
A single piece of a compact, homogeneous pink rhyolite, picked up
within a mile or two of Stonyhurst.
This specimen seems to me certainly identical with a similar pink
rhyolite, composing a remarkable group of large boulders a mile or two
west of Dungeon Ghyll Hotel, near Grasmere, by the side of a broad
path or cart-track leading up the valley to the west from the back of
the hotel. Some of the boulders measured two or three cubic feet.
A few hundred feet above the college, on the slope of Longridge Fell,
boulders of other than local rocks become very rare ; at a height of 1,100
feet, or so, all drift has disappeared, while on the top, at a height of
some 1,300 feet, I have often walked for miles, examining ground, walls,
and cairn, and have never been able to find a single worn pebble or
boulder—nothing but angular fragments of the local sandstone. On
Fairsnape Fell, to the north, at about the same height, I have noticed
the same fact.
Reported by Mr. G. J. C. Broom, F.G.S.
Group.
St. Helen’s.—New Street, on east side of borough between Lancaster
Street and Coburg Street. Largest, 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. x —; Smallest,
6 in. diam. ; the majority were of small size ; all water-worn. [? Rounded.—
P. F. K.] They occurred in boulder clay about 10-20 ft. beneath the
surface in a trench 600 ft. long and 6 ft. wide. About two cartloads
were found. One specimen examined was of Buttermere granophyre.
[P. F. K.] 6 in. x 43 in. x 2 in.; flat; egg-shaped; water-worn
[P Rounded.—P. F. K.]; finely scratched and grooved upon two faces;
» er.
7 ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 279
_ grey sandstone or grit. [? L. Silurian of Lake District or Galloway.—
2. L. K.
al Street, Central Ward. 1 ft. 4 in. x 10 in. x 7 in.; angular;
seratched obscurely on the top side, which is flat; grey granite. [Gallo-
way.—P. F. K.]
Water Street, Central Ward. 2 ft. x 1 ft. 10 im. x — ; water-worn ;
grey granite.
Oxford Street, South Windle Ward. 7 ft. x 2 ft. x —; lying at
present north and south, widest end north; andesite, L.D.! ; 160 ft. O.D.;
Pif it has been moved by man.
Norman’s Road, Sutton. 3 ft. x 2 ft. x 1 ft.; long axis north and
south; water-worn; red granite [? Eskdale]; embedded in boulder clay
at about 12 ft. deep.
Group.
St. Helen’s, between Vincent Street and Charles Street, Hardshaw
Ward.—This group consists of red granite and blue (trap) rock varying
in size from 3 in. diam., egg-shaped, to about 27 in. diam. and 10 in. to
20 in. deep. They occur in the space of every 20 yards square, in
about equal proportions as to rock; if anything the blue predominates.
But few show scratches and all are water-worn [? rounded]. [The
specimens, eleven in number, accompanying this report comprised the
following :—
°
Andesites (L.D.) - A ° . . . . . =o
Buttermere granophyr 0 - ‘ : : Patt
Eskdale granite ? : c ° ° . . ° ot
Galloway granites . - : ° 5 ° . 3
11
=P. Ky
The following list was of the larger sizes taken at random :—
(a) 2 ft. 3in.x2 ft. 3in.x1 ft. 8 in.; angular; flat on top ; red granite,
(b) 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 9 in. x 10 in. ; angular; flat on top; well-defined scratches,
though not deep; blue [? andesite].
(c) 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 3 in. x 9 in.; angular ; blue [? andesite].
d) 2 ft. 11 in. x 3 ft.x —; angular; blue [? andesite]; in situ.
is 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6in.x9 in.; angular; blue [? andesite].
- These cover an area of about an acre. The smaller sizes are given
as about 50 cartloads to about 70-100 square yards superficial.
(f) Three boulders, each about 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 2 in.x 8 in.; angular; red
granite.
(g) 2 ft. 1 in.x1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft.; angular; coarse-grained grey granite
[? Galloway].
(h) Three others of like size, but not accessibie.
Reported by Mr. S. S. Puarr, Assoc.Mem.Inst.0.E.
All the following are from the neighbourhood of Rochdale :—
Facit.—At top of incline in H. Heys & Co.’s quarry— °
(1) 2 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 2 ft.; subangular; striated at top; granophyre,
Buttermere.
(2) 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft.x 10 in.; rounded ; weathered.
1 L.D. = Lake District.
280 REPORT—1891.
(3) 8} in. x 6 in, x 7} in.; rounded; granophyre, Buttermere.
(4) 8 in. diam.; rounded.
(4A) 5 in. x5 in. x 5 in.; rounded.
Mean Hey Quarry—
(5) 5 in.x 4in.x4in.; angular; rhyolite ; L.D. [= Lake District, and below].
(6) 1} in.; pebble; quartzite. (Found near Nos. 5 and 7 in drift under peat.)
(7) 3in.x3 in. x3 in.; angular; andesite; L.D.
(8) 53 in. x 3} in. x 33 in.; subangular; andesite; L.D.
(9) 9 in. x6 in. x 7 in. ; rounded ; granite.
Near Butterworth and Brooks’ office in quarry—
(10) 10 in. x 6 in. x 4 in.; subangular; faintly scratched in direction of long
axis; ? Needle’s Eye ; syenite.
[I think it probable that this and other specimens so named may be
abnormal varieties of the Buttermere granophyre.—P. F. K.]
(11) About same dimensions as 12; andesite; L.D.
(12) 1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft.; weathered; andesite; L.D.
(13) 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 11 in. x 1 ft. 8 in.; subangular; polished on top but not
scratched. (This lay just under the peat, which is here 8 ft. thick.)
(14) 4 in. x 4 in. x 2 in.; flat ; quartz.
(144) 1 ft. 3 in.x9in.x6in.; slightly scratched in direction of long axis;
granophyre, Buttermere.
(15) 9 in.x 43 in. x 4 in.; flattened ; polished; granophyre, Buttermere.
(154) 9 in. x 7} in. x 5} in. ; subangular; polished; granophyre, Buttermere.
‘Hall Cowm Quarry—
(16) 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. x9 in. ; scratched in direction of long axis ; marks 3. in.
deep; chert.
(17) 63 in. x 4 in. x 2} in.; subangular; scratched in direction of long axis.
(18) 105 in. x 7 in. x 5 in.; subangular.
Ditto, on Cowm side—
(19) 12 in. x 9 in. x 6 in.; rounded ; porphyritic andesite ; L.D.
(20) 8in. x6 in. x 4 in.; rounded; granophyre, Buttermere.
“Ditto, above Cowm—
(21) 8 in. x 6 in. x 5 in.; slightly scratched in direction of long axis; andesite ;
Group.
Heywood.—Hopwood brickworks, about 1 mile south of the centre of
Heywood. The section shows a bed of purple boulder clay 7 feet thick,
covered by drift-sand about 6-7 feet thick. Where unspecified the
boulders are from the clay. About 460 feet above O.D.
(58) 8 in. x 4 in. x5 in. ; angular ; Carboniferous limestone. ;
(59) 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x9 in.; subangular; weathered; ? variety of Cree-
town granite ; from drift sand. :
(60) 7 in.x6 in. x3in.; subangular; longitudinally scratched; porphyrite ;
L.D
(61) 10 in. x 9 in. x 8 in. ; rounded ; granite ; Eskdale.
(62) 9 in. x 6 in. x 6 in. ; rounded ; andesitic agglomerate ; L.D.
(63) 8 in. x 5 in. x 3 in, ; angular ; andesite ; L.D.
(64) 9in.x6in.x5in.; flattened; slightly scratched at ends; granophyre,
Buttermere.
(65) 1 ft. x 9 in. x 8 in. ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
(66) 1 ft. x 9 in. x 8 in. (in two pieces) ; andesite ; L.D.
es
—
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 281
(67) 10 in. x 7 in. x 6 in.; subangular; crossed scratches on flat face; ande-
site ; L.D.
(68) 1 ft.x 1 ft. x § in. ; ellipsoidal ; scratched longitudinally ; quartzose rock.
(69) 8 in. x 10 in. x 8 in.; rounded with one flat face ; a little scratched near
ends ; variety of granophyre, Buttermere.
(70) 1 ft.x 10 in. x 7in.; rounded with flattened faces; scratched on faces ;
quartzose rock.
(71) 1 ft. 3in.x 9 in. x5 in.; subangular; well scratched longitudinally and
some cross scratches ; quartzose rock.
(72) 1 ft. 2 in. x 10 in. x 9 in. ; rounded ; granite, Eskdale.
(73) 10 in. x 8 in. x 5 in. ; subangular ; scratched on flat side; quartzose rock.
(74) 10 in. x 8 in. x 5 in.; subangular ; much striated ; quartzose rock,
(75) 6 in. x5 in. x 4 in. ; angular; rhyolitic ash ; L.D.
(76) 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. lin. x 9in.; longitudinally scratched ; red-brown grit-
stone.
(77) 6 in. diameter ; rhyolite ; L.D.
(78) 8 in. x 6 in. x 5 in. ; purple gritstone.
(79) 1 ft. x 9 in. x 9 in. ; subangular; scratched ; andesite with epidote; L.D.
(80) 9 in. x 6 in. x 4 in. ; subangular ; quartz porphyry.
(81) 6 in. x 8 in.; quartz porphyry.
With these are many limestones and andesites 3 in.—6 in. in diameter.
Many of them are scratched.
Heywood.—In hedge on west side of road—
(82) 1 ft. 5 in. x1 ft. 4 in. x 10 in.; subangular; flattened ; granophyre, Butter-
mere.
(83) 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. x 1 ft.; subangular ; granite.
(83A) 1 ft. x 10 in. x 10 in. ; subangular ; andesite; L.D.
Near Heber’s toll-gate—
(84) 1 ft. 6 in. diameter ; andesite ; L.D.
Rochdale.—King Street South, Grove Street—
(97) 9 in. diameter; granite. Cf. Dalry, New Galloway. O.D. 470 feet; out of
gravel about 6 feet below surface.
(98) —x5 in.x 4 in. ; granite, Galloway.
Between Burn Edge and Knot Booth, 2} miles south-east of centre of
Rochdale, above side of road—
; (99) 4 ft. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 9 in.; subangular; sandstone or grit.
Near Haugh Hey, in field above Wood Mill—
(100) 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft.; very much rounded with hummocky ends;
andesitic agglomerate ; L.D.
(101) 1 ft. 2 in. x 11 in. x 10 in. ; subangular ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(102) 2 ft. 3in.x1 ft. 9 in.x1 ft. 3 in.; subangular with flattened sides;
scratched longitudinally ; quartz felsite with epidote.
Group.
Sparth’. Bottoms, Norman Road, half a mile S.W. of Town Hall,
Rochdale. The section (which is for brick clay) shows above 16 ft. of
strong purple boulder clay surmounted by 9 ft. of drift sand and gravel.
The gravel is at the top, and is about 4 ft. thick. The bottom of the
cutting is at about 400 feet O.D.
(105) 8 in. x 6 in. x 4in.; subangular ; granite, Galloway.
(106) 8 in. x 6 in. x6 in.; subangular; andesite ; L.D.
(107) 9 in. x 8 in. x 4 in.; flattened; scratched longitudinally ; grit.
2 REPORT—1891.
(108) 2 ft. 4 in.x1 ft. 9 in.x1 ft.; subangular; scratched longitudinally ;
Clitheroe grey limestone. [? Locality.—P. F. K.]
(109) 6 in. x 4 in. x —; rounded; granite, Galloway.
(110) 7 in. x5 in. x 4 in.; rounded ; granite ? Cairnsmore of Fleet.
(111) 2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft.; rectangular; scratched longitudinally, and
on one side diagonally ; sandstone grit.
There are many like this about 5 ft. x 2 ft., and many andesitic and
breccias or agglomerates about 3 in.—4 in. diameter.
(1114) 2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft. 4in.; ‘cank,’
(112) 6 in. x 4 in. (broken) ; granite with red felspar; Galloway.
(113) 7 in. x6 in. x5 in.; scratched longitudinally and at rounded corners;
limestone.
(114) 5 ft. x 2 ft.x 1 ft. 9 in.; long and angular; well scratched and grooved
longitudinally ; ‘cank.’
(115) 1 ft. 2 in. diam. ; nearly spherical; subangular; sandstone grit.
(116) 3 in. x 2 in. x —; granite ? var. of Eskdale.
(117) 3 in. x 2 in. x —; granite, Eskdale.
(118) 1 ft. 7in.x1 ft. 2 in.x7in.; subangular to round; much scratched
longitudinally and diagonally ; flag-rock.
(119) 43 in. x3 in. x3 in.; oval; purple quartzite.
(120) 10 in. x 7 in. x 6 in. ; rounded; rectangular; granite ? var. of Eskdale.
(121) 7 in. x 5 in. x —; subangular; granite, Galloway.
(122) 7in.x7in.x4in.; andesite; L.D.
(123) 7 in. x 6 in. x4 in.; subangular; ? var. of granophyre, Buttermere.
(124) 4 in. x3 in. x —; subangular; rhyolite; L.D.
(125) 35 in. x 23 in. x 24 in.; subangular; granite ? Cairnsmore of Fleet.
(126) 5 in.x 4 in x—; rounded; grey granite ? var. of Creetown.
(127) 13 diam.; subangular; scratched; hematite. [There were several of
these. |
(127A) 4 in. x 2 in.; triangular; hornblende-andesite ; L.D.
(127B) ——; well scratched; red variety of Carboniferous limestone. [This
much resembles the rocks exposed in the bed of the Ribble, near
Mytton Bridge.—P. F. K.]
Group.
Greenbooth, Naden Valley, two miles N.W. of the centre of Roch-
dale—
(128) 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.; subangular; granophyre, Buttermere.
(129) 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in.x 1 ft.; subangular; broken; granophyre, Buttermere.
(130) 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. x 1 ft.; subangular; quartz porphyry.
(131) 2 ft. 6 in. x2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in.; rectangular with rounded corners; under
side flattened and scratched longitudinally ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(132) 3 in. x 2 in.x —; rectangular; quartzite.
(133) About 1 in. cube ; hematite.
(184) 1 ft. 4 in.x 9 in. x 8 in.; subangular; granite, Eskdale.
(435) 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. x 8 in. ; subangular; smoothed; ? syenite, Needle’s Eye,
Colvend [see No. 10].
(136) 1 ft. 6 in.x 8 in. x4 in; flat; angles very little rounded; quartz felsite
with epidote.
(137) 1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. lin. x7 in.; subangular; granophyre, Buttermere.
(138) 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 3 in. x 10 in. ; rectangular ; bedded ash; ? Borrowdale ; L.D.
(139) 1 ft, 2 in. x 9 in.x 7 in.; subangular; hornblende-andesite; L.D.
(140) 1 ft. 3 in. x 9 in. x 10 in. ; irregular; rhyolite; L.D.
Group.
Heywood Waterworks Reservoir, 675 ft. O.D., near by-wash of
lowest reservoir pear Meter House; many andesites and syenites, about
2 ft. diameter and upwards.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 283
Heywood Waterworks Reservoir, in bottom of lowest reservoir near
iron-pipe outlet—
(141) 2 ft. x2 ft. x1 ft.; subangular; scratched at sides; granophyre, Butter-
mere.
(142) 5 in. x 3 in. x —; oval; quartz vein-stuff ; L.D.
(148) 2 ft.x1 ft. 6 in.x1 ft.; subangular; sides smoothed; granophyre,
Buttermere.
(144) 2 ft.x1 ft. 4 in.x1 ft. 2 in. ; irregular ; subangular ; smoothed and
weathered ; ? syenite, Needle’s Hye, Colvend [see No. 10].
(145) 3 ft. x 2 ft.x —; smoothed; weathered; granophyre, Buttermere.
(146) 1 ft.x 9 in. x 6 in.; granophyre, Buttermere.
(147) 1 ft. 6 inx1 ft. 6 in. x —; volcanic ash; L.D.
(148) 2 ft. x 2 ft.x 1 ft. 2 in.; rounded; granophyre, Buttermere.
At foot of by-wash to middle reservoir.
(149) 6 in.x 6 in.x1} in.; flattened ; quartzose grit.
(150) 2 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 3 in.x 1 ft. 2 in. ; subangular; rounded ends; scratched
longitudinally ; ? syenite, Needle’s Eye, Colvend [see No. 10].
(151) 1 ft. 10 in.x1 ft. 10 in.x1 ft.; angular to subangular ; flattened and
rounded; ? syenite, with marked crystals of epidote [see No. 10].
(152) 2 ft. 6 in.x2 ft. 6 in.x1 ft.; subangular; smoothed; ? syenite, with
marked crystals of epidote [see No. 10].
(153) 3 ft. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. ; irregular; subangular ; smoothed and weathered ;
? syenite, with marked crystals of epidote [see No. 10].
Near Moorside, west side Spring Mill Reservoir, Rochdale Water-
works, about 850 O.D.—
(158) 4 ft. x1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft. 9 in.
(159) 1 ft. 6 in.x 10 in.x 5 in.; subangular; quartzose grit, with slaty frag-
ments. [Cf. ‘ Haggis Rock, Queensberry grits.—P. F. K.]
(160) 2 ft.x1 ft. 3 in.x 1 ft.; subangular, with rounded corners; ? var. of
granophyre, Buttermere.
Near Hill Top Farm, Castleton, 14 mile S. of centre of Rochdale,
500-550 ft. O.D.—
(169) 2 ft.x1ft.3 in.x1 ft.; irregular; subangular; flattened on one side ;
voleanic ash, L.D.
(170) 11 in.x10 in.x7 in.; angular, with flattened sides and ends; corners
rounded ; weathered ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(171) 1 ft. 1 in.x 10 in. x 8 in.; tetrahedral; three sides polished and grooved ;
granite, Galloway,
(172) 2 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x10 in.; subangular ; weathered ; millstone grit.
(178) 8 in. x7 in. x 6 in.; subangular, with rounded ends and flattened sides ;
andesitic breccia, L.D.
(174) 8 in. x 53 in. x 3 in.; subangular; weathered ; volcanic ash; L.D.
(174A) 10 in. x 7 in.x 5 in.; volcanic ash; L.D.
(175) 9 in. x 8 in. x 5 in.; rounded, weathered ; granophyre. Buttermere.
(176) 5 in.x 4 in. x 4 in.; rounded, and very much weathered; granite, Esk-
dale.
(177) 11 in.x 8 in.x4 in.; irregular; flattened side; scratched diagonally ;
‘cank,.’ (There are many grits and canks not enumerated.)
(178) 5 in. x 3} in. x 2 in.; oval; rhyolitic ash; L.D.
(179) 1 ft. 3 in.x10 in.x6 in.; flattened, with rounded corners; grooved a
little on flattened sides ; andesite; L.D.
(180) 2 ft. 3 in. (+)x2 ft.x1 ft. 6 in.; subangular; a little grooved at
rounded corner; Gannister, fine siliceous rock.
(181) 2 ft.x1 ft. 3 in.x1 ft. 3 in.; subangular, with rounded corners; red-
brown grit, like those ending N.W. of Rochdale.
(182) 1 ft. 4 in. x 10 in. x 3 in. (+); flat side up.
(183) 1 ft. 3 in.x11 in.x4 in.; oval; two sides, flattened and scratched
longitudinally ; andesitic breccia; L.D.
284
REPORT—1891.
(184) 1 ft. 2in.x 9 in. x 6 in.; subangular; quartz felsite with epidote.
(185)
(186) 6 in
— subangular; hornblende andesite.
.x 5} in. x 4 in.; rounded ; porphyritic andesite; L.D.
(187) 5 in. x 4 in. x 3 in.; rectangular; red devitrified rhyolite ; L.D.
(188) 9 in. x 7 in. x 5 in.; subangular; porphyritic andesite; L.D.
(189) Sin. x 5 in. x 4 in.; subangular; ? silurian grit.
(190) 8 in.x5 in. x5 in,; rounded; andesite; L.D.
(191) 63 in. x4 in. x3 in.; subangular; andesite, containing garnets (? Kes-
wick).
(192) 1 ft. 2 in.x 1 ft.x 8 in.; subangular; irregular; granophyre, Buttermere.
Facit Cemetery, in front of mortuary chapels—
(193) 7 fb.
x4 ft. x2 ft. 9 in.; oblong ; angular with rounded corners; scratched
diagonally to length; granophyre, Buttermere.
North end of mortuary chapels—
(194) 6 ft.x3 ft. 6 in.x3 ft.; rounded; flattened; one side hummocky;
granophyre, Buttermere.
(195) 9 in
.x 6 in.x 5 in.; ?syenite ; Needle’s Eye, Colvend [see No. 10].
Group.
Road from Hill Top by Grange Barn, Cowm Top, &c., to Hardy
Bridge, about
(196) 9 in
(197) 6 in
(198) 6 in
(199) 9 in
(200) 6 in
(201) 4 in
(202)
(203) 1 ft
(204) 8 in
h
12 miles south of centre of Rochdale. 550-600 ft. O.D.
.x 6 in. x —; rounded; grit.
.x3in.x2in.; flat; granite, Galloway.
. diam.; granite, Eskdale.
.x 6 in. x 4in.; irregular; rhyolitic ash; L.D,
.x 4 in. x—; oval; granite, Galloway.
.x3 in. x2in.; subangular; red rhyolite; L.D.
-— quartzite.
. 9 in. x1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft.; quartz porphyry or porphyritic rhyolite.
.x6in.x4in.; rounded; rhyolitic ash with well-marked crystals of
ornblende.
(205) 6 ft. Gin.x4 ft. 6 in.x4 ft. 6 in.; subangular; two sides smoothed,
flat and striated, one especially so, with long grooves lengthwise.
Also on rounded edge near the same. Above this on the top (as lying
at present), the striations are at an angle of about 60° divergence
from the last, and here it is rounded and polished. Flag rock. This
is a very well-marked local glacial boulder, and from authentic infor-
mation I learn that it was discovered about 1870 in driftsand about
4 ft. beneath the surface, 400 ft. O.D., and 25 yds. south of the river
Roch.
Reported by Mr, P. F. Kenpaty, F.G.S.
First field north of Peel Moat, Heaton Chapel, near Stockport—
3 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft. 7 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. ; subangular; moved grey Coal-measure
sandstone, weathering in a bright buff; source not determinable; the.
at present upper surface is striated longitudinally, i.e., in direction of
long axis ; adjacent hills are covered with glacial sand, but this stone
was found in the underlying clay; boulder clay.
Group.
The specimens were from a heap in the brickyard. They had been
obtained from very fine sticky clay containing very few stones and
occasional shells in fair preservation. The clay exhibits very compli-
cated folds and contortions. It is overlain by sands, and rests upon red
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 285
sandstone rock. This group is very noteworthy, as it contains so many
varieties of basic rocks (dolerites, &c.) of a type either absent or very
rare in other localities.
Heaton Mersey, near Stockport, Bailey’s brickyard—
Largest about 1 cub. ft., smallest about 3 cub. in.; some in each con-
dition ; all moved; several are well scratched longitudinally, especially
the limestones; Dalbeattie, Criffel, Eskdale (Cumberland), Butter-
mere ; ? Cairnsmore of Fleet (Galloway).
Specimens
Eskdale granite . .
Buttermere granophyre
Yewdale breccia
Bright pink micaceous por phyry_
Criffel granite. . :
Dark green rock with augite
Fine hornblende syenite
*
Granite ?Cairnsmore of Fleet . : : ; : : s
Yellowish quartz be a
Rhyolite . - :
Andesite . . 3 d : 3
Dalbeattie granite
Dalbeattie granite 2 : Z _
Dolerite (fresh) . : 5 : .
Dolerite (coarse) : é , :
Dolerite 5 : 5 3 5
Peridotite (much decomposed) 2, ; é
Andesitic ash : : 7 .
Millstone grit .
Coal-measure sandstone 3
Coal-measure sandstone (red)
Gannister :
Carboniferous limestone 4
Silurian grit : 5 ‘ E F ‘ 5 : z 5
New Red sandstone . A : F ; : : 5 s
La | WWW SRW WR Re Oe RE Qe eR eee bt to
Manchester.—Stretford Road, opposite No. 530—
4 ft. x 4 ft.x 3 ft.; scratched on all visible faces, mostly parallel to long
axis; scratches on one flat surface are parallel to but in opposite
direction to those on the other; Coal-measure sandstone; in boulder
clay, about 30 ft. from the surface; boulder clay.
Stretford Road, junction with Chester Road. About three tons of
broken-up Coal-measure sandstone—relics of a great boulder found in
a sewer-heading. It was finely striated, but no direction could be assigned.
Barton-upon-Irwell. — Manchester ’ Ship Canal, 200 yards west of
Barton Hospital—
3 ft. 10 in. x 3 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. ; subangular; well scratched on visible
face; grey Coal-measure sandstone. 2 ft. 6 in.x2 ft.x1 ft. 6 in.;
rounded, triangular in section; longitudinally scratched; granite,
Eskdale.
50 yards from east end of Sticking’s Island—
3 ft. 6 in. x 3 ft. x 2 ft. 6 in. ; river-worn; andesite; L.D.
2 ft.9in. x 2 ft. 4 in.x 1 ft. 2in.; river-worn; andesitic ash; L.D.
Irlam, in Railway Goods-Yard—
2 ft. 3 in.x 2 ft. 3 in.x 1 ft.; subangular; Coal-measure sandstone.
286 REPORT—1891.
Reported by Mr. J. W. Gray, F.G.S.
Group.
Levenshulme.—New railway cutting about 200 yards east of Slade
Lane. A large boulder of Coal-measure sandstone is to be seen having
a group of smaller stones packed in front of it, the whole resting on the
soft purple shales associated with the Ardwick limestone. The large
stone was separated from the underlying Coal-measures by a thin layer
of brownish boulder clay, and (immediately in contact with the boulder)
a film about 3 in, thick of worked-up shale, which was also massed in
front (ie., to eastward) of it, and formed the nidus of the smallest
stones before mentioned. In this case the evidence wis held to be con-
clusive as showing the direction of movement. The packed shale and
fragments of stone were on the easterly side of the large boulder, and the
largest subangular fragment, 2 ft. x 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 2 in., consisted of
Ardwick limestone of a kind which cropped out 50 yards to the west-
ward. The dimensions of the sandstone boulder are 5 ft. x 4 ft. 3 in.
x 2 ft. 4 in. Long axis about N. 50° W. magnetic. It is scratched upon
all visible faces. The principal scratches upon the upper surface are
from N. 50° W., z.e., in the direction of the long axis. They clearly
originate at the north-westerly end, and finish at the south-easterly end.
[A boulder of igneous rock, resembling rocks from the Lake District,
weighing 21 tons, found in Coronation Street, Reddish, has been described
by Mr. Gray in the ‘Annual Report of the Stockport Society of Natu-
ralists,’ 1889. It has been removed for preservation to the Vernon
Park. |
Reported by Mr. THomas Axon.
In river Tame on Lancashire side, about 100 yds. below Arden Paper
Mills, near Woodley, Cheshire—
8 ft. 3in.x7 ft. 8 in. x 6 ft. 6 in.; subangular; has fallen out of some
glacial deposit ; no distinct striations ; volcanic rock, probably rhyo-
litic, and from the Borrowdale series of the Lake District ; about 10
yds. to northwards of boundary between Lancashire and Cheshire;
isolated from any glacial deposit ; river silt.
Haughton Green, about 200 yds. below the river Tame from Arden
Paper Mills, near Woodley, Cheshire—
6 ft. 6 in.x7 ft. 3 in. x 4 ft. 2 in. (visible), A great mass lies beside the
stone which has been broken from it. This would make the length 9 ft.
6 in. instead of 6 ft. 6 in. ; rounded ; has fallen out of the river-bank ;
well scratched on the side which is now uppermost in direction of long
axis; a rather coarse andesite, from Borrowdale series, L.D.; 5 yds.
on Cheshire side of Lancashire and Cheshire boundary ; isolated; on
bed of river Tame.
5 ft.x 2 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 3 in.; none of these is full measurement, as the
stone is partly under water; rounded; fallen out of river bank;
probably andesite, Borrowdale series, L.D.; 5 yds. on Cheshire side
of Lancashire and Cheshire boundary ; isolated ; bed of river Tame.
In the bank of the river Tame, under Arden Paper Mills, near
Woodley, Cheshire—
4 ft. 6in. x3 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. (visible); rounded; has been moved ;
isolated ; river silt.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 287
Near Woodley, Cheshire, Mill Lane, Bredbury, at corner of lane lead-
ing down to the bridge and quarry—
2 ft. 5 in.x 2 ft. 2in.x8 in. (visible) ; rounded; moved; granite, Esk-
dale, Cumberland; isolated ; doubtful, but probably boulder clay.
In river Tame on Lancashire side, 160 yds. below Arden Paper Mills,
near Woodley, Cheshire—
3 ft. x 2 ft. 4 in. x8 in.; rounded; granite, Eskdale, Cumberland.
Haughton Green, 20 yds. on Lancashire side of Gibraltar Bridge—
2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 9 in. ; rounded; flat; andesite; L.D.
Burrow’s farmyard, opposite Conservative Club, Haughton Green
Road—
2 ft.x 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6in.; rounded; andesite; L.D.
1 ft. 8 in.x 1 ft. 3in.x1ft. 3in.; angular; Ardwick limestone. Both
came out of the main sewer excavation.
Farmhouse, opposite Prospect Place, Haughton Green Road—
2 ft. 2 in. (visible) x1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. (visible) ; well rounded ; scratched
longitudinally ; andesite; L.D.
Vaudry Lane, corner of Twotree Lane—
2 ft. 8 in.x 2 ft. 4in.x1 ft. 9 in.; rounded; black-mica granite, Gallo-
way.
Group.
Tib Street, corner of Stockport Road—
(1) 2 ft. 2 in. x1 ft. 4 in.x 1 ft. 2in.; rounded; andesite; L.D. ;
(2) 2 ft. 3 in. 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft..2 in. (visible) ; rounded ; granite, Eskdale.’
(3) 2 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. x 10 in. (visible) ; subangular; granophyre, Buttermere.
(4) 1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft. (visible); subangular; andesitic breccia.
(5) 1 ft. 10 in.x 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. (visible) ; rounded; andesite; L.D.
Corner of Clayton Street—
2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft. 6 in. (visible) ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
Corner of Town Lane—
2 ft. x 1 ft. x 11 in. ; subangular ; andesite or rhyolite ; L.D.
Corner of Acre Street and Town Lane—
2 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft.x 11 in.; subangular; granophyre, Buttermere.
2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft ; rounded; andesite ; L.D.
Hyde Hall—
2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 2 in.; andesite ; L D.
2 ft. 4in.x1ft. 6 in.x1 ft. 1 in.; rhyolite ; L.D.
100 yards west of Hyde Hall—
1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 8in.x1 ft. 2 in.; subangular, cuboidal; "granophyre,
Buttermere.
288 REPORT—1891.
CHESHIRE.
- Hazel Grove, beside gate leading to Mill Hill, Norbury—
1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 7 in. x 2 ft. 1 in. (visible) ; rounded; andesite; L.D.
Reported by Mr. Tuomas Kay, J.P.
Tabley House, near Knutsford.—At south-west side in Ryde Wood, east
of Tabley Pool—
5 ft.x 4 ft. 6 in. x 2ft.; scratched on side which is now towards east ;
grey granite [Galloway ?—P.F.K.}. This stone is set on end.
3 ft. 6 in. x 3 ft. x 2 ft. 6 in. ; rounded ; red granite.
3 ft. 6 in. diam. ; triangular ; rounded.
These boulders, with a few smaller ones, were probably dug up when
the lake was enlarged.
Reported by W. R. Dampri-Davies, Surgeon-Mojor.
Wilmslow.—Lindow Common, in the centre of Common—
4 ft. x 3 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. (visible) ; angular; andesite ; L.D.; the stone
protrudes through peat which is underlain by glacial sand.
Near the old workhouse—
4 ft. 4 in, x 2 ft.x—; almond-shaped; andesite ; L.D.; removed from
the Common.
Mr. Henshall’s field—
3 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in. x —; andesite; L.D.; removed from the Common.
Near W. Worth’s pig-cote—
3 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 9 in. x 2 ft. 3 in.; rounded; granite, Eskdale ; removed
from the Common.
Potts’s turf-field—
2 ft, 3 in. diam. ; almost perfectly spherical ; granite ; has been moved.
Macclesfield.—Birtles. of-the-Hill on H. Bostock’s farm—
Nearly 4 ft. in diam. ; somewhat triangular; granite ; has been moved.
Reported by Mr. W. Brocxpayk, F.L.8., F.G.S.
Northen Etchells—Heyhead Farm, Woodhouse Lane—
12 ft. x 6 ft. 6 in. x 6 ft. (visible) ; very sharp and angular ; bean-shaped ;
8. 80° E. geographical ; andesitic rock from L.D.; 226 ft. O.D.; Dr.
Ashworth, of Heaton Moor, Stockport, has photographed it; the
boulder protruded through the turf for many years. It rests on
reddish buttery boulder clay, containing L.D., Scottish, and otherrocks
and flint.
The stone has now been removed to the grounds of Sir Edward Watkin
at Northenden.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 289
Reported by Mr. P. F. Kenpatt, F.G.S.
Heyhead Farm, Woodhouse Lane—
Two boulders of similar composition to the above, but weighing only
about 2 ewt. each.
Woodhouse Lane, 50 yards east of above—
3 ft.x 2 ft. 10 in.x 1 ft. 6 in.; well rounded and weathered; moved;
andesitic ash ; L.D.; 226 ft.
1ft. 10in.x1 ft. 2in.x1ft.; well rounded and weathered; moved;
andesitic ash ; L.D.
Woodhouse Lane, half a mile south from Heyhead Farm—
1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 10 in.; rounded; Eskdale granite, Cumberland.
1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. x 10 in. ; rounded ; grey granite, Galloway.
1 ft. 6in. x 1 ft. x 9 in. ; rounded ; rhyolite with much iron pyrites ; L.D.
1 ft. 6 in. x 11 in. x 8 in. ; subangular ; vesicular andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. Gin. x 1 ft. 2 in. x1 ft. ; rounded ; ? felsite ; L.D.
1 ft. x 9in. x 6 in.; rounded ; andesitic ash ; L.D.
1 ft. x 10 in. x 10 in. ; rounded; dolerite.
1 ft. 3 in. x1 ft. x 1 ft. ; rounded and much weathered ; grey granite with
much black mica; Galloway.
2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. ; rounded ; Buttermere granophyre.
1 ft. 2in. x 1 ft. x 10 in. ; subangular ; grey granite, Galloway.
1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. x 10 in. ; subangular ; cherty felsite ; L.D.
2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 2in.; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
2ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. ; subangular ; striated ; andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. ; rounded; andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. x 1 ft. x 9in. ; rounded; andesite ; L.D.
_ These have all been moved ; they are lying by the roadside.
Siyal.—Beside footpath, 300 yards west by north of ‘ Ship’ Inn—
2 ft. 10 in. x1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 6 in.; rounded; probably moved; Eskdale
granite ; rests on boulder clay.
Group.
Macclesfield Setter Dog’ Inn, 3 miles on Buxton Road. Largest,
2 ft. x 1 ft. x P; smallest, 6 in. x 6 in. x 6 in.; all rounded.
ANALYSIS.
Nature Source No. of Specimens
Granephyre . j : é Buttermere . ; : 6
Granite . u - E Dalbeattie? . : 1
Andesite ; 3 : 2 EEDi 5s - 5 4
Agglomerate . F 3 ahs F : 1
b Rhyolite with much biotite » (1) 1
Quartz porphyry . . . » (2) asus th Ah 1
Brick-red porphyry : - Dee above Tongland (?) 1
Granite . : 5 : F Criffel . : : : 3 2
Quartzite A 5 : A — P 1
18
aS boulders have all been moved. Altitude about 1,400 feet above
100 yards east of ‘Setter Dog’ Inn—
3 ft.x 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 2 in.; subangular; andesite from L.D.; 1,400 ft.;
7 has been moved.
1891. G
290 REPORT—1891.
Cheadle Village.—Just behind the church—
2 ft. 3 in.x1 ft. 3 in.x9in.; rounded; striated obliquely across the
visible face; andesitic ash; L.D.; 130 ft.; has been moved.
Woodley.—Back Lane—
2 ft. x 2 ft.x1 ft. 1 in.; rounded; andesite; L.D.; has been moved.
2 ft.x 1 ft. 2in.x1 ft. 3 in.; rounded; Yewdale breccia, Cumberland ;
has been moved.
Group.
Behind Buckley’s lower mill—
Largest, 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft.; small, 6 in. cube; gannister ?; granite,
Eskdale; hornblendic granite, Galloway; granophyre, Buttermere ;
Coal-measure sandstone ?; rhyolite, L.D.; Carboniferous limestone ?
‘The boulders were embedded in soft buttery boulder clay resting on
the shales of the middle Coal-measures. The Coal-measure sandstone.
Reported by Mr. P. F. Kenpaut, F.G.S.
Group.
Hyde.—Clay-pit on bank of canal, near Apethorne Mill—
1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. Lin x10 in.; cuboidal; scratched; andesite; L.D.
2 ft. 7in.x 1 ft. 5 in. x1 ft. 3 in.; triangular in section ; well striated on
two faces; andesitic agglomerate; L.D.
2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 1 in.; obscurely scratched ; andesite; L.D.
1 ft.5in.x1 ft. 3 in.x1 ft.; cuboidal; well scratched, the scratches
upon upper surface parallel to but originating at the opposite end to
those on the lower surface; andesite; L.D.
2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 4 in. x1 ft. 3 in.; subangular; scratched ; Coal-measure
sandstone.
1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.; well rounded; andesite; L.D.
2 ft. 6 in.x 2 ft. 2 in.x1 ft. 11 in; cuboidal and slightly rounded ;
andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft.x 1 ft.; angular; Ardwick limestone, South-east Lanca-
shire.
10 in. x 8 in. x 8 in.; rounded ; Carboniferous limestone.
1 ft. 6 in. x 11 in. x8 in.; well rounded; granite, Eskdale.
1 ft.x 10 in. x8 in.; Ardwick limestone, brecciated variety, South-east
Lancashire.
1 ft. 4 in. x1. ft. 2 in.x9in.; very weil scratched in many directions;
andesite; L.D.
2 ft. 2in.x 1 ft. 4 in. x 8 in. (visible); rounded; andesite; L.D.
1 ft. 2in.x10in. x9 in.; not much rounded;.scratched ; granite.
9.in. x 8 in. x 8 in. ; very coarse granite, Eskdale.
1ft.x 10 in. x 9 in.; well rounded; granophyre, Buttermere.
1ft.4in.x1 ft. 4 in.x1 ft. 2 in.; rounded; red black-mica granite,
Galloway.
3 ft. x 2 ft. 10 in. x 2 ft. (visible) ; well scratched longitudinally ; Carbo-
niferous limestone. .
1 ft. 8in.x 1 ft. 4 in.x1 ft. 2in.; rounded; scratched; yellow quartz-
porphyry (? origin).
8 in. x 6 in. x6 in.; angular ; Ardwick limestone ; South-east Lancashire.
11 in. x 10 in. x 6 in.; ? Permian limestone.
6 in. x 4 in. x 4 in.; ? Permian limestone.
1 ft. 2 in. x 9 in. x 9 in.; rounded; andesite; L.D.
1 ft. x 9 in. x 8 in.; much exfoliated; grey black-mica granite, Galloway.
1 ft. 2 in. x 8 in. x 8in.; well scratched longitudinally ; rhyolite; L.D.
7 in. x 5 in.x 5 in,; angular; Ardwick limestone, South-east Lancashire.
es
nlp
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 291
11 in. x 9 in. x 8 in.; rounded, but one end subangular; andesite; L.D.
1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 1 in. x 8 in. (visible); rounded ; andesitic ash; L.D.
1 ft. 2 in. x 10 in. x 10 in. ; rounded ; granophyre (coarse var.), Buttermere.
> 1 ft. 2 in.x10 in.x8 in.; rounded; granophyre (fine var., drusy),
Buttermere.
1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft.x 9 in.; rounded; granophyre, Buttermere.
1 ft.x 1 ft.x 9in.; dark grey porphyrite with tinge of red; L.D.
1 ft. 3 in x10 in.x9 in.; well rounded; longitudinally scratched ;
banded grey grit ; ? silurian.
% | Reported by Mr. J. Reuves.
Hazel Grove, Brook House Farm—
2 ft. 3in.x1 ft 10 in.x1 ft.; rounded; moved; scratched longitudin-
ally on two faces; andesite; L.D.
Corner of Dean Lane, Norbury Moor—
2 ft. 4in.x1 ft. 2in.x1ft.; subangular; andesite; L.D.
| 2 ft.x1ft.x10in.; subangular; granophyre, Buttermere,
Reported by Mr. J. W. Gray, F.G.S.
Offerton, Stockport. Field in front of ‘ Woodlands ’—
4 ft. 3 in.x 4 ft. 5 in. x2 ft. 6in.; subangular; granite, Eskdale; 286
feet O.D.; embedded in boulder clay.
2 ft. 6 in.x2 ft.x1 ft. 5 in.; rounded; granite, Galloway; 286 feet
O.D.; embedded in boulder clay.
—= oe
_ These two stones were touched by the plough, and subsequently were
dug out and removed to the entrance to the stables, where they now lie.
Daw Bank, Stockport—
4 ft. 8 in.x2 ft. 6 in.x2 ft.; subangular; andesite; L.D. (Has been
washed out of some glacial deposit.)
1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. x 1 ft. 3 in. (visible); rounded; granite, Eskdale. (Has
been washed out of some glacial deposit.)
Cale Green, Stockport. In garden of house at corner of Beech
Road—
3 ft. 5 in. x 2 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. (visible) ; subangular; andesite; L.D.
Portwood, Stockport. In excavation for new gasholder—
4ft.x 3 ft. x 1ft.; waterworn; Yewdale breccia: L.D.; about 120 feet
O.D.; embedded in river gravel, which extends below the present
river level.
agen
This stone has been placed at the entrance to the Vernon Park
- Museum.
Reported by Messrs. Ghorck SHAw and ALBERT TaYLor.
Bramall.—50 yards E. of Bramall Gates—
3 ft. 3 in.x2 ft. 2 in.x1 ft. 6 in,; triangular section; coarse grey
granite [? Eskdale].
Huxley’s Tenements, Robin’s Lane—
2 ft. 7 in.x2 ft. 1 in.x1 ft. 2 in.; upper and lower sides polished ;
rhyolitic breccia [L.D.].
u 2
1)
REPORT—1891. :
Group.
Robin’s Lane—
1 ft.-1 ft. 6 in. diam. ; andesite, syenite [? granophyre], granite.
Pepper Street Farm—
2 ft. Gin, x 2 ft, 1 in.x1 ft. 4 in.; upper side scratched; granite, Esk-
dale.
Adswood.—Lady Bridge Farm—
2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 8 in.x 1 ft. 5 in.; upper side scratched; white granite.
100 yards W. of above—
1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft.; upper side scratched ; fine red granite.
Offerton.— Bed of stream 250 yards below Toll Gate, at Dan Bank—
6 ft.x 4 ft. x 3 ft.; subangular; breccia [? L.D.].
In bed of brook below Dooley Lane—
5 ft.x 4 ft. x2 ft. Gin.; rather angular; shape irregular; white granite.
Offerton Lane, near Bleach Works—
1 ft. 6 in. diam. ; granite, Eskdale.
3 ft. x 2 ft. 6in. x1 ft. 6 in.; andesite; L.D.
2 ft.x 1 ft.x 1 ft.; granite.
Stream at Wilson’s Bleach Works—
2ft x1ft.6in.x1ft.6in.; scratched; andesite; L.D,
Offerton Lane, about 50 yards W. of Wright’s Arms—
2 ft.x 1 ft. 3 in.x1ft.; andesite; L.D.
1 ft. 10 in.x 1 ft, 3in. x1 ft.; andesite; L.D.
Bradley’s Farm, Lisburne House, off Dial Stone Lane—
2 ft 9in.x2 ft. 2in.x1 ft. 8 in.; andesite; L.D.
Group.
Bradley’s Farm, Lisburne House, off Dial Stone Lane—
1 ft. 3 in.—1 ft. 6 in. diam. ; red granite; white granite and andesites,
Group.
Mile End Lane. Dug out of boulder clay while repairing the road—
2 ft. 2 in. x1 ft. 4 in. x1 ft. 4 in.; hornblendic granite [? Galloway].
1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. x 9 in.; hornblende-andesite ; L.D.
2 ft. 5 in. x1 ft. 7 in. x1 ft. 7 in.; andesite; L.D.
2 ft. 8 in. x2 ft. 2in.x1 ft. 1 in.; andesitic breccia (sheared); L.D.
2 ft. 8 in.x1ft. 4 in. x1 ft. 4 in. [granite-porphyry ?]
1 ft. 4 in.x 1 ft. 2in.x 10 in.; white granite.
1 ft. 8 in.x 1 ft. 1 in. x 7 in. ; Coal-measure sandstone.
2 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft, 5in. x1 ft. 7 in.; andesite; L.D.
2 ft. 2in.x1 ft. 7 in.x1ft. 1in.; breccia?
1 ft. 1 in. x 10 in. x 10 in. [fine red rhyolite].
2 ft. 2in.x 2 ft. 2in.x1 ft. 8 in. [granophyre, Buttermere].
2 ft. 2 in.x1 ft. 6 in.x1ft.1in.; granite [? Eskdale].
1 ft. 7in. x1 ft. 1 in.x1 ft. Lin.; andesite; L.D.
1 ft. 7 in,x1 ft. 7 in.x 1 ft. 1 in.; andesite ; L.D.
—
ae
-
is =— &
7
6 eee ee Pee
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 293
Norbury.—Mill Lane—
2 ft. 6in. x 1 ft. x 1 ft.; white granite.
2 ft.x1ft. 6 in. x2 ft. 6 in.; andesite.
Group.
In bed of stream from mill to colliery ; 100 yards from bridge—
(1) 1-2 ft. long; andesites and granite.
(2) 2 ft. 2in.x1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 6 in.; white granite.
200 yards below colliery—
2ft x2 ft.x1 ft. 6 in.; scratched andesite; L.D.
Hatherlow, near Romiley—Bunker’s Hill Road—
2 ft..3 in. x 1 ft. 9 in. x1 ft. 6in.; andesite; L.D.
2ft.x1ft.5in.x1ft.4in.; andesite; L.D.
Junction of Bunker’s Hill Road and Chadkirk—
2ft x1ft.3in.x1 ft. 3 in.; granite [Galloway ; ?Cairnsmore of Fleet].
Field opposite cottages, Chadkirk—
2 ft. 4 in.x 1 ft. 10 in. x1 ft. 10 in.; granite [Galloway ; ? Cairnsmore of
Fleet].
Marple Aqueduct—
2 ft. 3 in. x1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.; white granite,
Group.
Brabbin’s Brow, Canal Bank—
1-2 ft. long; breccias and andesites
2 ft. 3in.x1ft.4in.x1ft.; andesite; L.D.
Conservative Club, Marple—
2 ft. 6 in.x 1 ft. 4 in.x1 ft. 4in.; breccia; L.D.
1 ft. 6 in. long; red granite.
Marple Ridge.—100 yards south of Mount Pleasant Chapel—
2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.; fine buff granite with large quartz.
Longson’s Farm, Marple Ridge—
2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in.; white granite.
Between Longson’s and the Fold—
1 ft. 8 in.x1 ft. 3 in.x1ft.; andesite; L.D.
Marple, near Corkwell Farm.—Lombray Lane—
3 ft. x 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in.; ? andesite,
Windlehurst Lane——
1 ft 6 in. diam. ; bluish granite [? Galloway].
1 ft, 8in.x1 ft. 3 in.x 9 in.; white granite [? Eskdale].
Horse Shoe Inn, High Lane—
~ 3ft.x1 ft. 10 in. x1 ft. 8 in.; white granite.
294 REPORT—1891.
Royal Oak, High Lane—
2ft.6in.x1ftx9in.; andesite; L.D.
Threaphurst Lane—
1 ft. 8 in.x1 ft. 6 in.x1 ft. 6 in.; granite?
1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. ; white granite [? Cairnsmore of Fleet].
3 ft.x 2 ft. 10 in.x1 ft. 8 in.; andesite; L.D.
Reported by Mr. J. H. Grunvy.
Parish of Mottram.—Township and Manor of Stayley, in field on
Shaw Moor Farm—
7 ft. 6 in.x3 ft. 11 in.x —3; subangular; very irregular in outline;
circumference of part exposed, 20 ft. 6 in.; long axis about N.W. and
S.E.; andesite (or felsite), L.D.; 1,000 ft. O.D.; is partially covered
by peat.
The stone is mutilated, a portion having been used to mend an adjacent
wall. ‘Two shot-holes can be seen.
In lane leading from Shaw Moor Farm to Roe Cross, opposite Round
Hill Poultry Farm—
2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft, 4 in. x1 ft. 3 in.; rounded.
Matley Township.Matley Lane, near Wrigley Fold Farm. Counted
over thirty boulders here ; varying in size, mostly over 2 ft. long.
DERBYSHIRE.
Reported by Mr. P. F. Kuypatn, F.G.S.
Little Hayfield, corner of road to Park Hall—
1 ft. 8 in.x1 ft. 6 in. x 8 in.; rounded; moved; no striations; grano-
phyre, Buttermere; 723 ft. 9 in. above O.D.
1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. (visible); rounded; moved; no striations ;
granite, Eskdale ; 723 ft. 9 in. above O.D.
Reported by Messrs. J. W. Gray, F.G.S., and P. F. Kunpatt, F.G.S.
Bugsworth.—First house on high road E. of railway station—
2 ft.x 2 ft.x 1 ft. 3 in.; rounded; moved; volcanic agglomerate; L.D.;
617 ft. 7 in. above O.D.
At the same place two smaller stones, one being Criffel granite and
the other a Lake District andesite.
Group.
Bugsworth.—Ballast pit opposite signal post at N. end of tunnel on
Midland Railway. The deposit is a gravel in which the largest stones
do not exceed a 9-inch cube. The bedding is very high, and dips to the
S. or S.W. Altitude above O.D., 600 ft. and upward. The 600 ft.
contour passes across the floor of the pit.
_ as.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 295
Analysis of Stones.
The stones consist of about 98 per cent. or upward of the local mill-
stone grit, inclusive perhaps of a small proportion of Coal-measure sand-
stone. Of the remaining 2 per cent., shales of local origin form part;
and of undoubted foreigners there were :—
Borrowdale Series of Lake District—Agglomerate, rhyolite, andesite,
and vein-quartz.
Granites—Buttermere, Eskdale, and Rig o’ Burnfoot (or some other
Galloway granite), flint, quartzite from Triassic Pebble Beds (F,),
Carboniferous limestone, chert, ochre, gannister.
STAFFORDSHIRE.
Reported by Mr. Frep Barks, of Stoke-upon-Trent.
Madeley, Staff. In vicar’s garden, Newcastle-under-Lyme—
4ft.x2ft 6in.x 2 ft. 6in.; angular; ‘trap.’
3 ft.x 2 ft 9 in. x 2 ft.; rounded; granite.
The vicar said these had been brought from a field at Stoney Low, a
few hundred yards 8.H. of its present site, out of boulder clay.
Tittle Madeley.—-Gravel pit at point of bifurcation, close to ‘e’ in
‘Little’ (Madeley) on Ordnance map, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staff.
Small boulders of granite not exceeding 12 inches diameter.
The gravel pit is in grass land. Its extent not ascertained. Beds of
sand and gravel alternate, and contain fragments of shells and chalk
flints. Base of series not exposed.
YORKSHIRE.
The following reports of erratic blocks and groups of erratic blocks
have been furnished by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee :—
A square block of whinstone. The length is 2 ft. 7 in. by 2 ft. 4in. by
2 ft. 3in. above ground. In the parish of Folkton, near Filey, on the
estate of J. Woodall, Esq., Scarborough. The farm is called West Flot-
manby Hall farm. Folkton is situated about five miles to the west of
Filey. West Flotmanby Hall is east of Folkton about halfa mile. No
striations or marks of any kind, but upon the N.E. face of the boulder is
the mark of the Government broad arrow. The nearest district from
which it could have travelled is Kildale, in Cleveland, about forty miles
west. About 150 ft. above the sea. It is situated nearly on the top of a
ridge of gravel running N.H. by S.W., and rests upon gravel-sand and
beds of clay.
In the parish of Folkton, on the estate of J. Woodall, Esq., Scar-
borough, round a spring head at the N.H. side of West Flotmanby Hall,
near Hiley, there are several boulders which have been collected from the
Carrs ; the largest is— '
2 ft. 6 inx1 ft. 11 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.; Mountain limestone.
eri Ce aie un re ashlee) Ls -5 4s) Dionines
Uc epee, WI BO) aah Oalsat 5 ”
Nees ah OO uO a scO) 25) S138 Wininstone,
1,0, x0, 9 , x0,, 8 ,, ; Sandstone.
An are subangular to rounded. They have all been moved to their pro-
296 REPORT—1891.
sent position. The whinstone and diorite may have come from the west
and the sandstone from the north-west; probably about forty miles dis-
tant. Height, about 150 ft. above sea-level.
Group of boulders, 0° 25’ 15” W. longitude; 54° 16’ 30” N.
latitude. Falsgrave, near Scarborough, where Stepney Road turns
sharply to the right at Falsgrave. One 3 ft. 8 in. x 2ft. 6in. x 2 ft.8 in.
basalt; one 3 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 6in. x 1 ft. 6in. red granite. Two of
nearly the same size of lias, and numerous others down to the smallest
sizes. About 150 tons have been carted away for road metal. Generally
rounded, but a few aresubangular. All have been moved. Striations in
larger boulders in all directions. They are from all directions and differ-
ent distances, and represent different formations, but many are igneous
or metamorphic. Say 27 per cent. various; 12 per cent. some twenty
kinds of granite and syenites of different colours; 4 per cent. gneiss ;.
12 per cent. basalts, various ; 8 per cent. quartzites; 2 per cent. green-
stones ; 4 per cent. volcanic ashes; 12 per cent. mountain limestone ;
1 per cent. millstone grit; 6 per cent. has; 5 per cent. oolite; 5 per
cent. pisolite; 1 per cent. chert; 1 per cent. chalk flint. Height,
200 ft. above the sea and covering an area of 150 yards x 20 yards.
They are embedded in glacial drift, evidently slightly pervious. Some
water must have percolated through the clay acting chemically on some
of those most easily thus acted upon. In some cases the iron has been
turned brown, but there has not been a free passage of water through.
In levelling the road in question in no case have they gone more thaa
6 ft. deep; thus all were near the surface.
Boulder of Shap granite; measuring 2 ft. 11 in. long, 2 ft. 6 in. broad,
2 ft. lin. thick. In the parish of Ganton, near Scarborough, on the
estate of Sir C. Legard, Ganton Hall, now forming the corner-stone
on the premises belonging to the Greyhound Inn. Is a large Shap
boulder. It is from subangular to rounded and is oblong in shape.
There are no indications of any strie or grooving. It has been a sort of
trysting stone for generations. An old man remembers when he first
came to the village sixty-two years ago; this stone was then at the junc-
tion or angle of the road, and from this position anyone could be seen
approaching the village by the highway. It was removed across the
road to its present position in 1853. It formerly stood at the north
corner of the village lane joining the highway. Height, about 60 ft. above
the sea. The formation on which the boulder rests is composed of beds:
of sand to a great depth; there is occasionally a band of rough angular
flint intermixed, but generally speaking the whole district about here is.
a huge sand-bed.
At the west end of the same house are two boulders measuring—
2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 3 in.; Whinstone.
1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 2 in.x 1 ft. 0 in.; Oolitic sandstone.
The one composed of whinstone is angular, the Oolitic sandstone subangu-
lar. Both have been moved to their present position. The sandstone
may have come across the valley about six miles north. Height above
the sea, about 60 ft.
Boulder of grey granite; length, 3 ft. 8 in, 1 ft. 8 in. broad,
1 ft. 6 in. thick, occurs in the parish of Lund, at the north end of the
village of Lund, near Beverley, East Riding of Yorkshire, and about 150
yards to the north of Lund Church. Subangular. There isno doubt but
—_—— ys
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 297
that this boulder has been removed to its present position, although a long
time ago. No striw or markings. Probably the nearest source would be
about 200 miles north. Height, about 150 ft. above the sea.
Inthe parish of Lund, at the north end of the village, principally
in the village street, at the north side of the church, there are about
100 boulders, which are to be seen in the footpaths, foundations of
old houses, banks of the road, &c.: these are composed of whinstone,
diorite, hard compact sandstone, and granite, but the majority are whin-
stone. -The largest is about 2 ft. long, 14 in. broad, and 9 in. thick; the
smallest is about 9 in. thick, 8 in. broad, 7 in. deep. Besides these are
several hundreds not more than 6 in. by 6 in. by 6 in., which have been
used for paving footpaths. They are all rounded to subangular. The
whole have been moved to their present position. The nearest rock of
the same nature would be about Cleveland in the north; probably 100:
miles north. Height, about 150 ft. above the sea. Boulders, more or less
small, of all sorts of foreign rocks are being continually cleared off the land
about here, and broken up for roads. There seems to be only a thin
covering of boulder clay in some parts, and underneath a great thickness:
of rounded chalk gravel with flints, &c.
Boulder of Shap granite at Barton (Yorkshire, N.R.), between
Darlington and Richmond; | ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft.; rounded.
About 250 ft. above the sea, and resting on Keuper sandstone.
Boulder of Shap granite in the village street of Sand-Hutton, near
Thirsk ; 3 ft. x 1 ft. 10 in. x 1 ft. 10 in.; subangular; direction of
longest axis N.N.W. and §.8.E.; no striz; about 98 ft. above the sea ;
isolated ; resting on Keuper sandstone.
Boulder of millstone grit, at Rainton, near Thirsk; 2 ft.6 in. x 2 ft.
3 in. xX 1 ft. 10 in.; subangular; no strie; a block of the same nature
occurs fifteen miles (west) ; about 150 ft. above the sea; isolated, and
resting on Kenper sandstone.
Iste or May.
Reported by the Rev. 8. N. Harrison.
Port Lewaique Shore.—From Ballure to Gob-ny-Roina—
(1) 3 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 6 in.; granite; subangular.
(2) 3 ft.x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in.; trap.
(3) 1 ft. 8in. x1 ft. 4 in. x 10 in. granite; subangular.
(4) 3 ft.x2 ft.x1ft.6in.; granite; subangular.
(5) 2 ft.x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in.; round.
(6) 2 ft. 8 in. x (16 ft.?) x 1 ft.; trap; oblong.
(7) 3 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 10 in.x 1 ft.; granite; subangular.
(8) 3 ft. x 3 ft.x 2 ft.; granite; subangular; square.
(9) 3 ft.x3 ft.x 2 ft.; granite; round.
(10) 3 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft.x 2 ft.; granite; round.
(11) 3 ft. 2 in. x 3 ft. x 3 ft.; subangular.
(12) 3 ft.x 2 ft. x 2 ft.; grey granite; rounded.
(13) 8 ft.x 5 ft. x 5 ft.; granite; rounded.
(14) Several 2 ft. x 2 ft.; granite; rounded.
(15) 3 ft.x 3 ft. x 3 ft.; grey granite; rounded.
General direction of long axes, E. and W.
Port-e-Vullyn Gob-ny-Roina to Corna—
(1) 2 ft. x 2 ft.x 1 ft. Gin.; granite ; subangular.
(2) 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 6 in.x 1 ft.; granite; subangular.
298 REPORT—1891.
t. 6 in. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 8 in.; grey granite; rounded.
t. longest diam., 9 ft. circumference ; round.
t. diam. ; pitchstone; round.
t.x 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft.; granite; round.
t.x 2 ft.x 2 ft.; granite; subangular.
t. 8 in. x 2 ft. x 2 ft.; granite; subangular.
(9) 3 ft.» 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6in.; granite; rounded.
(10) 3 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. x2 ft.; granite; subangular.
Traie-na-Feeinney—
(11) 7 ft.x 4 ft.x 4 ft.; long axis N.E.; granite; angular.
(12) Several small 1 ft. x 1 ft.x 1 ft.; granite; rounded.
Port Moar Shore—
(1) 2ft. 6 in. x 2 ft.x 1 ft. 4 in.; granite, coarse, grey; round,
(2) 2 ft. 2 in. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 2 in.; granite, coarse, grey; round.
(3) 2 ft.x 2 ft.x 1 ft.; granite, red; subangular.
(4) 2 ft.x 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft.; syenite; subangular.
(5) 2 ft.x1 ft. 2 in. x1 ft.; syenite; subangular.
(6) 2 ft. x 1 ft. 2 in. x1 ft.; granite; round.
(7) 8 ft. circumference; granite; round.
(8) 8 ft. circumference; granite; round.
(9) 9 ft. circumference; granite; round.
(10) 5 ft. 3 ft. x 4 ft. granite; subangular.
(11) Near Cronk Scarron, a few 1 ft. x 10 in. x 10 in.
Port-e-Bloggan—
(42) 2 ft. 4 in. x2 ft. x2 ft.; granite; round.
(13) 5 ft. circumference ; basalt (decomposed) ; round.
(14) 5 ft. circumference ; granite ; round.
(15) 2 ft.x 2 ft.x 1 ft.; granite; subangular.
Port Moar—
(16) 3 ft. x2 ft.x1ft.4in.; granite; subangular.
(17) 2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft.; granite; subangular,
(18) 3 ft. x 2 ft. x 2 ft.; granite; subangular.
(19) 3 ft. x 2 ft. x 10 in.
(20) Several; granite.
(21) 2 ft.x1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 4in.; granite; subangular. .
(22) 3 ft. 4 in. x 2 ft.x 2 ft.; granite; round; broken in two. .
(23) 3 ft. x 2 ft. x 2 ft.; granite; round. |
(24) 2 ft.x 1 ft.x1ft.; granite; oval.
(25) 3 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft.; granite; round. |
(26) 9 ft. circumference ; granite.
(27) 5 ft. circumference; granite ; round.
(28) 5 ft. circumference; granite ; round.
Norr.—During the past ten years about 800 tons of small boulders
have been carted away.
Port Moa to Corna—
(1) Various sizes; porphyry ; subangular.
(2) 3 ft. 6 in. x 3 ft. x 2 ft.; granite; subangular.
(8) 2 ft. 5in. x 2 ft. 3 in.x —?; granite; round.
(4) 1 ft. 2 in.x 8 in. x8 in.; granite; subangular.
(5) 1 ft. 3 in. x 10 in.x 8 in.; granite; subangular.
Nore.—Quartz porphyry occurs in situ on the shore.
Traie Uanaigue.—Nearly all porphyry, various sizes. Further south
on to Traie-na-Halsal a few white limestone, porphyry, and quartzites.
On the Clay on Ballajora—
(1) 1 ft.x10 in. x9 in.; granite; rounds
(2) 1 ft.x 10 in. x 8 in.; granite; round.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 299
(3) 1 ft. 2in.x1ft.x 10 in.; granite; round.
(4) 1 ft. x 10 in. x 10 in.; granite; round.
(5) 1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft.x 1 ft.; granite; subangular.
(6) 1 ft. 4 in. x1 ft. 2in.x10in.; granite; round.
(7) 1 ft. 2 in. x —— x 10 in.; granite; round.
(8) 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6in.x10in.; granite; round.
(9) 2 ft.x 2 ft.x1 ft. 2in.; granite; subangular.
(10) 1 ft. 2 in.x 1 ft.x 10 in.; granite; rounded.
11) 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. x 2 ft.; granite ; rounded.
Ga 1 ft.x 10 in. x 8 in.; granite; rounded.
(13) 1 ft.x 10 in.x 8 in.; granite; rounded.
(14) 1 ft. x10 in. x 8 in.; granite ; rounded.
(15) 1 ft.x 10 in. x 8 in.; granite ; rounded.
(16) 2 ft.x 10 in. x 10 in.; granite; oval.
(17) 2 ft.x1 ft. 6 in.x 1 ft. 6 in.; granite; subangular.
(18) 2 ft.x 1 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 4 in.; granite; round.
Ballafayle, above Gob Garvane—
(1) 1 ft. 11 in.x1ft.x 10 in.; granite; subangular.
(2) 1 ft. 10 in.x 10 in. x 8 in.; granite; round.
(8) 1 ft.x 10 in. x 8 in.; granite; subangular.
(4) 1 ft.x 8 in. x 8 in.; granite; subangular.
(5) 1 ft.x 11 in. x8 in.; in fence; granite; subangular.
(6) 2 ft. x10in.x 10 in.; in fence; granite; round.
(7) 1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 2 in.x1ft.; in fence; granite; subangular
(8) 1 ft. 2in. x1 ft.x10in.; in fence; granite; subangular.
(9) 1 ft.x 10 in. x 8 in.; granite; round.
(10) 1 ft. 10 in. x 11 in. x 1 ft.; in fence; granite ; rounded.
(11) 2 ft. 6 in. x1 ft. 8 in. x1 ft.; red sandstone.
12) 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. x10 in.; granite.
os 1 ft. 2 in. x 10 in. x 8 in.; ‘granite.
(14) 3 ft.x 2 ft.x 1 ft. 8 in.; granite; striated.
(15) 1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft.x 10 in.; granite; round.
(16) 1 ft. 2 in. x1 ft.x 1 ft.; granite; round.
(17) 1 ft.x 10 in. x 10 in.; granite; round.
(18) 1 ft.x 8 in.x 8 in.: granite; round.
(19) 1 ft.x 8 in. x8 in.; granite; round.
(20) 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft.x 10in.; granite; round.
(21) 2 ft.x1 ft. 6 in.x1ft.8 in.; granite; round.
(22) 1 ft.x 10 in.x 8 in.; granite; round.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp
(Chairman), Rev. G. F. WHIDBORNE, Messrs. R. ETHERIDGE, R.
Kinston, J. E. Marr, C. D. SHERBORN, and A. S. WooDwaRD
(Secretary), for the Registration of all the Type Specimens of
British Fossils.
Tur Committee have to report that, after some preliminary delay, copies
of the circular and letter mentioned last year have been issued to the
majority of the British museums and owners of private geological collec-
tions, and several valuable lists have already been received. It is pro-
posed to complete the distribution of the forms immediately, and there is
thus some hope that the majority of the lists may be available for
classification before the next meeting of the Association, In the opinion
of the Committee it is inadvisable to attempt a detailed report until some
such classification has been made ; and it has been decided to append to
300 REPORT—1891.
the list of types an enumeration of the principal specimens which have
been described and figured.
Owing to the infiuence to some extent of members of the Committee,
it is gratifying to be able to state that several of the larger museums
have decided to publish separate lists of the type and figured specimens
in their respective collections. Those of Bristol (by Mr. Edward Wilson)
and York (by Mr. H. M. Platnauer) are already published ; while those
of Bath (by Rev. H. H, Winwood and Mr. EH. Wilson) and Cambridge
(by Mr. H. Woods) are nearly ready for issue. Separate lists are also
promised for the Museums of Edinburgh, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and
Brighton ; and it is hoped that a catalogue of type specimens of fossil
Invertebrata in the British Museum will shortly be prepared. So far as
the British fossil Vertebrata are concerned, Messrs. Woodward and
Sherborn’s catalogue (London, 1890) contains a nearly complete enumera-
tion of the types.
Seventeenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. HULL and
H. W. Crosskey, Sir DouGLas GALTON, Professor G. A. LEBOUR,
and Messrs. JAMES GLAISHER, E. B. Marren, G. H. Morton,
J. Parker, W. PENGELLY, JAMES Pant, J. Prestwicu, I.
Roserts, C. Fox-Stranceways, T.S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W.
TOPLEY, TYLDEN-WRiGHT, E. WETHERED, W. WHITAKER, and C.
E. De Rance (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of inves-
tigating the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Perme-
able Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and
Character of the Water supplied to various Towns and Dis-
tricts from these Formations. (Drawn up by C. E. DE Rance,
Reporter.)
EtcuTren years have elapsed since your Committee were appointed
with their present Chairman and Secretary in their respective positions ;
since then your Committee have not only recorded the wells and borings
already in existence, but they have annually given much information to
engineers and contractors, which they believe have materially aided
towns and districts being supplied with pure water. The value and
importance of underground water, both from its purity and the absence
of expensive law costs and compensation to riparian owners, are daily
more and more realised, and with the utilisation of these stores comes
the necessity of recording their character, quality, and local conditions.
Your Committee, therefore, seek re-election.
Your Committee would again call the attention of the Delegates of
the Corresponding Societies to the importance of local observers giving
special attention to the date at which the springs of their neigh-
bourhood diminish in yield and subsequently increase ; the date at which
any springs cease to flow, and that on which they recommence; the
amount of flow of any springs either daily, weekly, or monthly; similar
records of the heights of the water in wells and borings, whether for long
or short periods. The value of such observations would be much en-
hanced if descriptions be given that will enable the locality to be identi-
fied on the one-inch map of the Ordnance Survey and the levels in regard
to the Ordnance Datum line.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 301
YORKSHIRE.
Boring at The Brewery, Skipton.
Information from Messrs. Scott and Robinson. Boring carried out
by Diamond Boring Co., London, 1890.
Feet
Dark bituminous limestone with compact black shale bands. 500
A plentiful supply of water was met with, of a pure character, but
unfortunately strongly impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas,
which was freely given off when the water was agitated. It is worthy
of note that sulphur springs occur at various points along the anticlinal
axis ranging through this boring ; amongst them is the sulphur well or
Craven Baths, at Skipton, on the opposite side of the valley, and the
well-known sulphur springs of Harrogate to the east ; while to the west
of Clitheroe one occurs at Standen Brook, to which a bath-house is
attached, also south of Worsaw, in Twist’s Brook, in Holden Brook, and
in the bed of the river Hodder, north of Longridge Fell. The Skipton
boring commences 340 feet above the mean sea-level; the sulphur bath is
at 420 feet above the same; the shale and thin bedded limestones there
are vertical.
LINCOLNSHIRE.
The following is a list of the strata found on the surface, or proved
in borings, in descending order; the strata printed in italics are of a
pervious nature :—
Ft.
Middle chatk ; - - : « 164
Chalk : .{ Loam chalk . - : - : -
(Red chalk 11 feet, Carstone 36 feet . 47
Cretaceous Tealby limestone . ; : : a0 6
Tealby clay . : ; 4 : . 50
dealby beds | Claxby ironstone F . . a LO
Spilsby sandstone ‘ : oy NY,
Kimeridge and Oxford clays ; - 800
Upper, . .| Kellaway’s rock : c ot) LOL@)
Basement clay . : . : =) LEE):
Cornbrash . ° - - : : 5
Oolitic Great oolite Great oolite clay . F ; : Ae25
series . . | Great oolite limestone . : : sya
Upper estuarian beds . : . 35
. : ( Lincolnshire limestone .« : c . 60
SRE ohn (Basement beds (Northampton sands) . 30
Upper lias. : : 5 ° - 100
Marlstone rock bed, represented by clay,
© act . not porous . : c : aye)
Bie, se adie lias clays 2. srw. ce), pa IAQ)
Lower lias. : é 3 . 814
Rhetic . é : a : 5 a * 22
Keuper marls : 5 . . « 125
Keuper sandstone . : : 0 . 249
Triassic . Trias .\ Upper soft sandstone . - : - 206! 79)
Pebble beds . : : : : ; La
Lower soft sandstone . - : . 223
Upper marls : 3 ‘ - 118
Upper magnesian limestone : . 44
Permian Permian . .4 Middle marls : . : - 140} 521
Lower magnesian limes tone ° Ae Le,
Marlslate . ; 2 e . 193
Upper Coal-measures . * * ‘ 10 (+)
302 REPORT—1891.
The following are the revised figures of the South Scarle (or Colling-
ham boring), Nottinghamshire, on the border of the Lincoln county
boundary, and nine miles to the south-west of that city :—
Ft.
Deep deposits . ° ‘ . . . . . spre
Lower lias 5 . . . . 29
Ete n yé vilka Sahl, Veen a |?
Keuper marls C - : A : - 688
Keuper sandstone and shale . : : - - - : - 2053
Upper soft sandstone . . 4 ° - e : - 2055
Trias- (Blue shale ; - ; : f we)
Reddish brown conglomerate : : 5 > . ° Mae CRUE
Quartzite conglomerate , ° 5 . oo
Lower soft sandstones, marl]s in n the first 79 feet : : ; 223
Permian red marls . 3 5 3 c - 1183
Permi Magnesian limestone, light yellowish : - ‘ . . 433 519
oman [Marl red and blue gypsum, sandstone . - . 150
Thin bedded grey shale dolomite, basement breccia . . 118
Upper
Coal- | Dee red indurated marls with hematite nodules. . k
measures :
Springs at 834 feet, flowed 11 gallons per minute; at 950 feet, 50
gallons per minute, and are said to have risen 52 feet above the surface.
The temperature of the water was 69° F. at the base of the Keuper, and
73° at the top of the Permian. The beds have been studied by Dr. Hull,
F.R.S., Mr. Wilson, F.G.S., and Mr. Dalton, F.G.8.; the inforenntion
given above is drawn up from their united labours.
Information from Mr. H. Tracuet, C.E., City Engineer, Lincoln.
A trial borehole at Bracebridge, Lincoln, by Messrs. Bass and Co.
was discontinued at a depth of 320 feet, the base of the lower lias clay
not being reached. The water obtained at that depth contained—
Grains per gallon
Sodium chloride E F 5 ‘i 3 é . 549:00
Sodium bromide . 3 F 3 . F : perL00)
Sodium carbonate 3 P F 5 ; f - eet 1 LoL00
Calcium ; : ‘ . ‘ 5 : 2 = a A 2ebO
Magnesium ‘ 5 i : - : - 4 4:58
Calcium sulphate : : : . 5 : : 4 1:13
Silica . . : ' ‘ : : ' “ *B5
Tron oxide, alumina, &e. ‘ . . 5 ‘ : 21
Suspended matter - & : 5 c c - : O04
59381
The discharge from springs in the Lincoln area has been taken by
the City Engineer at various points at Tealby on the Wolds. The
discharge on May 25, 1891, was 109,440 gallons per day. At Welton
these springs yielded 2,800,000 gallons on June 22, 1891; in August
1878 they only yielded 105,000 gallons; and in June, 1887, 163,000 per
24 hours, proving the extreme variability of oolitic springs. The maxi-
mum discharge was after a rainfall of five inches in the previous five
weeks. A borehole,at Deneholme, 106 feet in depth, yielded 20,000
gallons per 24 hours; its height and quantity were affected by rainfall.
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 303
Information from Messrs. Juxes-BrownE and Datron, of the Geological
Survey.
Scothern Grange Well.
Feet.
Boulder clay . . - = : . . . Ou
Gravel with water 2 ‘ : : 2 ’ . : - (+)
Langworth Farm, + mile 8.W. of Station. :
Feet.
Boulder clay ) s
Oxford clay J sunk . : - : ° . ‘ ° . 30
Ditto, bored A ‘ : : - . . s ? . 30
60 Kellaway’s rock . F F 5 é ® ’ ‘ ~ C+)
The water rises to the surface.
Sudbrook Holine. Boring by Messrs. Lecranp and SuTcuier.
Water rises to level of top of the house; yield, 7,000 gallons per day of
10 hours.
Ft. in Ft. in
Soil 3 5 ’ 2 0 2 0
te Stone . A . opr O 7 0
LE sag : | Grey sand . Fell 0, 20 O
Blue clay Bong Cai XO) 27 (+0
Cornbrash Stone » 4 6 31 6
Great Green clay op Ler 6 43 0
oolitic clay | Dark clay «l4s0 57 0
Stone . 4 0 61L 0
Peak Clay. ibe Od 62RD
Shell rock lt1G 76 6
Green clay 4 gouto 80 2
ae Stone sails O tue $5 6
Clay -15 O 100 6
Lincolnshire I
ee t Btoneske dg: —e Pae ae Blecheg Cig, 6
HORNCASTLE.
Tn the shafts and borings made at Kirkstead and Woodhall, near
Horncastle, in 1819, in a futile search for coal, no water appears to have
been met with, except the saline spring, now known as Woodhall Spa,
which occurred at a depth of 530 feet, and is believed by Mr. Jukes-
Browne, of the Geological Survey, to have issued from the inferior oolite.
He thinks it probable that the beds passed through were as follows :—
Feet. ; : Feet.
10 Gravel and boulder clay . . . . d 7 20
.360 Kimeridge and Oxford clays : . ‘ . « 350
Kellaway rock, clays, cornbrash 110
500 Great oolite, upper estuarines
640 liincolnshire oolite and Northampton sands . . - 140
1020 Ihias (upper, middle and lower) . . . . . 380
The temperature of the water in 1883 was 59°6 F., and the water
Contained, in 1863, in grains per gallon :—
304 REPORT—1891.
Chloride of sodium. : . ; 4 5 A « L21b 17
Chloride of potassium 5 2 Fi a : é 2°45
Chloride of magnesium : 5 ¢ . : : . 86°84
Chloride of calcium . : ; : . 5 F . 105:°00
Bromide of sodium . fi . 5 3 : : 5 5:14
Iodide of sodium s 5 c : : A F : 2:73
Sulphate of soda ; 5 4 5 3 : : . 30°62
Bicarbonate of soda . oe. wee : : A ‘ . 45°76
Carbonate of lime- . F s ee . 5 ¢ z 9°38
Carbonate of iron i ; : : ; . : ; 0:27
Silicon : 4 . : : 5 ; 2 ; ‘ 0°33
Organic matter . trace
At Stamford, the Marquis of Exeter had a futile boring for coal put
down which commenced in the Kimeridge clay, and was discontinued at
500 feet still in the lias, as might have been anticipated.
NOTTINGHAMSHIRE.
OwrHorre, Quarter Sheet 71 S.E.
Borings for coal, 1876-80. Information from Mr. Harrison :—
Ft. in. Ft.
in.
12 0 Lower lias . - : “ 5 - : a2) 0
46 6 Khetic beds - , - : ; + SEG
679 6G Keuper marls (gypsum) : ° . : . 633 0
Ft. in.
ee sandy marl and sandstone F 15 0
a ed sandy marl A 44 0
(MMe Reddish and white gritty sandstone, see
with pebbles . = 34 0
Firm white micaceous sandstone 6 22 0
Sie. 6 {White and pink gritty sandstone - 10 o a
941 6 Coarse-grained gritty sandstone, pass-
ing into quartzish conglomerate . 137 0
Red and white marl . ; : - 2 0
Sandstone and conglomerate. é 56 0 264 0
Firm white micaceous, sometimes <=
gritty sandstone . y : 36 0
Dark and coarse sandstone : 16 0
1,068 6 Red and grey sand, and conglomerate Li 0
Red, and banded grey and red marl
and white clay . 14 0 29 0
1,097 6 Red, grey, and white fine-grained mi-
caceous sandstone . = : 15 0
1,342 0 Coal-measures and coalseams . : . . 244 6
In abstract :—
Ft, in. Ft. in.
46 6, Lias and Rhetic - ; : : : - 46 6
679 6 Keupermarls . : 5 é € - . 633 0
772 6* Kenper sandstone 5 4 Q : 5 - 9 0
804 6. Soff sandstone . . . 3 * E i; SZ ae
1,068 6, Pebble beds (Bunter) . : ; - oe, 26LTEO
1,097 6 Permian marl, &c. a , ; : E ae, 229) an0)
1,342 0 Coal-measures . . : : : - 244 6
ON THE CIRCULATION OF
UNDERGROUND WATERS. 305
Particulars of well-boring, given by Mr. Henry Metuisu, of Hodsock Priory,
Worksop, carried out at the same.
1. Situated at Hodsock Priory, Work-
sop (Notts), on the formation marked f 1
_ on the map of the Geological Survey.
1a. Bored March, 1891.
- 2. 55 feet.
. 3. Six in. borehole; depth, 94 feet;
no well.
4. Water stands about 3 feet from
_ surface; permanent pump not yet fixed,
: but on completion of bore we tried it
_ with a centrifugal pump, which we
worked for the best part of a day anda
half. It raised the water at a rate
estimated at from 110,000 to nearly
150,000 gallons per 24 hours; when
running at the higher rate it lowered the
‘level in the bore from 3 feet to 18 feet
{below the surface ; the level recovered in
a few minutes on stopping the pump.
Total solid residue
Containing—
Oxidisable organic matter.
Nitric acid as nitrates
The water also contained—
Free ammonia 5
Albuminoid ammonia
blacken at all on heating strongly.
domestic purposes.
then boring.
A 1891.
Copy of Analysis.
Chlorine (equal to chloride of sodium, 1-48)
Hardness according to Clark’s scale .
[For questions see Appendiz.]
5. See 4.
6. No data.
7. Water in the bore stands about
1 foot higher than the water-level in the
surrounding soil. A mill-dam a few
yards away has its level some 6 feet
above water in the bore.
8. Copy of analysis enclosed.
9. About 6 feet of soil above the
rock, the rest all in red sandstone, with
a little marl in places, apparently in beds
a few inches thick.
9a and 10. Water throughout ; stands
abot 4 feet from surface.
21. Surface water kept out by iron
tubing to a depth of 55 feet.
12. Not to my knowledge.
13, 14, and 15. No.
Grains per gallon.
f ; : : . 18-48
c 0005.
13
The water was bright and clear, and quite free from colour and
deposit ; it left on evaporation a residue which was white, and did not
The water has a mere trace of organic matter in solution, and hardly
any ammonia, and it is a beautifully pure supply for drinking purposes.
‘It not being excessively hard makes it also serviceable for general
(Signed)
J. AUGUSTUS VOELCKER.
LANCASHIRE.
Borings at the Widnes Alkali Co.’s Works.
Information from Messrs. E. Timmins and Sons. Shaft, 45 feet deep;
Ft. in. Ft. in.
TiO Soil oy haO
14 0 Clay ci ° ad
26 6 Quicksand . ; 12 6
46 0 Strongelay . - . 19 6
51 6 Quicksand ; ee 0 96
147 0 Strongelay . ; . : . . 19-96). 6
152 0 Sand and gravel : = . hy LO
600 0 Red sandstone (4 in. boring) . ; - 152 0
Yield, 114,300 gallons in 24 hours at bottom of the well.
306 REPORT— 1891.
Another boring gave—
Ft. in Ft. in.
10 O Filled up material ; 4 . , : 7 ORO
20 0 Clay - : : : : : : 3 « Loe
27 0 Quicksand . : : : : 2 : 5 She
32. 0 Graveland boulders. Z : : : oo) BOW
43 0 Strong clay with stones . ¢ 4 : . «) SOR)
75 O Quicksand c G 3 ; ‘ : -, 32.60
Well at Wildgreave Farm, opposite Thelwall, near Warrington, by Messrs.
Timmins and Sons, Runcorn.
Ft. in. Ft.
24 0 Sand ; ; : e ; - 5 : os
Fine gravel, rusty . : ; : :
Blue river clay
Coarse gravel .
Strong clay
Coarse gravel -
Clay
Sand
Clay
Sand
Clay
Fine sand
Clay :
Silky sand
Clay
Sand
Clay
Quicksand
Clay
231 0 Sand
This boring discloses the greatest trough in the valley of the Merscy,
the rock not having been reached at a depth of 231.
ico)
bo
ONO UDO DEAR AEN oAN
Soe osooSc oS eC SO SOON O AAA OF
~
Boring on Lancashire shore of River Mersey at Vyrnwy Waterworks tunnel,
west of Warrington, by Messrs. CoCcKRANE.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
6 0 Soil and peat : : : | 5 : -o. 268O
15 0 Loam . : : : ’ : : : > eS
25 0 Fine sand : ; 5 ‘ : : Z - LOMO
52 0 Gravel . = ‘ : 5 A A « iene
61 0 Sandyclay . : : : ; é : SOE
75 O Red sand 4 : - : ; : ee dae)
59 0 Silky clay ; : ; F 5 4 : - de 20
93 0 Sandyclay . : : é : : : > hageO
98 0 Red sand : ; : c 3 5 ° a, -goMat
118 6 Sandyclay . : ; 5 5 p : > 20RN6
122 0 Salt and clay . ; é ; - : - 13 6
135 O Red sand : é : : a : . Bae
Red sandstone ‘ : - < 4 : . Gy
Borings were made at either end of the proposed Vyrnwy tunnel to
convey the water-pipes under the Mersey from Cheshire into Lancashire
on the margin of the river in those counties by Messrs. Timmins and Sons,
Runcorn. Rock was reached, and artesian water at once rose with great
violence to the surface and overflowed at a height of 20 feet above
ordinary datum, The samples obtained are preserved in the Liverpool
Corporation Water Department, but probably, from lenticular porous
beds being then dry, they do not correspond to the subsequent shafts
-
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS, 307
follows ; water had been admitted to the beds, between the completion of
the borings and the execution of the shafts, by the withdrawal of the
lining tubes of the bore-holes. The case is of great interest as showing
the care that must be exercised in dealing with borings not to induce
artificial conditions.
| sunk on their sites. The actual sections met with by the shafts are as
‘
Lancashire Shaft.
ies)
co
E
by
cor
. . in.
2 0 Soil 210
12 0 Loam clay 10 0
13 0 Fine sand rad
32 0 Coarse sand 19 0
37 O Blue loam : 5 0
44 0 Silt sand and loam (oY)
47 6 Coarse gravel. 3.6
49 0 Stiff red clay. 1 6
50 O Coarse sand 10
57 O Stiff red clay. 7 0
61 O Red silt . 4 0
62 0 Clay and sand 1 0
66 O Brown clay 4 0
71 O Red silt . : 5 0
80 0 Brown silt and clay 9 0
86 0 Running sand 6 0
97 0 Clay and sand ll 0
98 0 Sand and gravel 5 110
106 0 Marlyclay . : : 8 0
The red sandstone occurred at a depth of 133 feet 6 inches, sandy clays
and loamy sands intervening.
CHESHIRE.
Cheshire Shaft.
es]
eT
ey
hy
cr
A n.
1 0 Soil. 1 0
10 O Clay. - : i : ‘ ‘ : oe foun”
20 0 Peat. ; ‘ : : : : ; i . 10 0
25 0 Clay and loam. : E ‘ : ; : a OPO
39 0 Running sand . 3 % : - : . 14 0
43 0 Loam : : : : é . z - Paice
49 6 Finegravel . ; : F : F ‘ 7-616
63 6 Running sand . 3 : A ¢ 3 . 14 0
66 0 Clay and sand. 4 : : ; ; t +) Br >6
84 3 Stiff clay. 5 : 7 sees
In the boring the clay continued to 97 feet, marly sand to 105 feet, then
red sandstore.
The following analyses are interesting, as showing the effect of
natural springs of brine issuing at pressure, and mixing with the fresh-
water in the Glacial Drift overlying the Keuper marls at Calveley, near
Tarporley, Cheshire. The analyses were made by Mr. J. Carter Bell :—
1. Well in Mr. Jos. Jink’s field, Calveley. 2. Brook in Mr. James
Trickett’s farm, Calveley. 3. Well at new kennels, Calveley. Stated
in grains per gallon :— .
— 1 3
Total solid at 212° F.. 3 - 126°0 700:0
Mineral, ditto : A F - $8°5 650°0
Chlorine 4 , i : 11°62 207°55
_-.... _)
308 REPORT—1 891.
Macclesfield County Asylum, 1873-5.
(Surface level 538 feet above Ordnance Datum.)
WELL.
Ft. in. Ft. in.
36 0 Brick clay, three or four thin beds of quicksand. 36 0
BORING.
63° 0 Quicksands, shells, boulders ZI270
7 O Soft brick clay . 34. 0
141 O Very stiff brown and blue boulder ee 44 0
163 0 Brick clay 22 0
165 O Brown sand, pebbles, s shell fragments . 2 0
166 0 Loam : i 7 (4)
180 0 Loose running sand. 14 0
183 0 Hard stiff brown and blue boulder clay 3.0
184 0 Very sharprunning sand . - 0
186 0 Stiff clay, brown boulder clay pebble ; 20
192 0 Loamy gravel . ; 5 6 0
193 O Very tough boulder clay iy 9)
197 O Sand and fine gravel, shells 4 0
216 0 Brown sand . IRS) x0)
220 0 Gravel, erratic and local rorks : ; 4 0
344 0 Upper red mottled sandstone : : ‘ ELPA PO
Water level, 174 feet from the surface, or 364 feet above O.D. The
rock-surface was 318 feet above O.D. The bottom of the pump-barrel
is 207 feet below the surface.
Messrs. Henry Evans ond Co., Star Brewery, Macclesfield.
Carried out by Messrs. Mather and Platt, Salford Ironworks.
Be.) ane Ft. in
SU eG) ADhshin 5 ; : : A ‘ ; ‘ . 1340
203 0 Sandstone . : Fi 5 , A ; » L698) 70
Wrought-iron tubes to top of rock, 10 inches diameter.
Macclesfield Brewery.
WELL.
It; in. Ft.. in.
33. 0 Sand and gravel . : : : ; ; . 830
BORING.
37 0 Sand, fine 4 0
Brick clay. 18 0
Boulder clay . 13 0
Gravel (boulders and pebbles) LEO
Fine gravel, shell fragments +, ja
Gravelandclay . 5 . <. / Ul)
Finesand . 5 . \GFNO
Coarse gravel é « S2@
Clay and gravel 14 0
Brick clay . : tO
Sandy clay shells . 4 0
Boulder clay, large boulders . » le
138 0 Gravelly clay : é : 2 tbe
Trias, red sandstone : : ea
Water plentiful.
raze"
eee ee
Ft.
75
180
ON
in.
0
0
THE CIRCULATION
OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
Brewery near Railway Bridge, Sutton.
Boulder clay .
Sand and gravel
Boulder clay .
Quicksand
Red sandstone
Water plentiful.
me
=
i]
NONAONAIABS
Brewery, Park Green, Macclesfield.
Details unknown
Very rough gravel.
Compact boulder clay
Rough gravel, small pebbles .
Tough boulder pa
Fine sand
Fine running sand
Coarse local gravel
Red and mottled sandstone ’
cowl hw Kew bd
He bo
Bollington Church Rectory, near Macclesfield.
Boring close to churchyard, made by Messrs. E. Timmins
Bridgwater Foundry, Runcorn.
309
ecooos
NATH AMNOFAaOD
and Sons,
Fé. in. Ft. in.
21 O Red clay 21 0
27 O Sand and gravel 6 0
28 0 Coarse clay 10)
30 0 Strong clay 2 0
34 0 Coarse sand 4 0
40 0 Strongclay . 6 0
45 6 Sandy gravel. 5 6
50 O Marly clay é 4 6
65 0 Brown sandstone . 15 0
84 0 Brown marl oO)
$7 0 Brown sandstone sy)
133 0 Mottled marl 46 0
Surface level 600 feet above O. D. Water stands 15 feet from the surface.
Total solids, 197 grains per gallon.
Lymm Waterworks.
Boring made by the Diamond Boring Company, under the superin-
tendence of Mr. Easton, C.E. Surface level 60 feet above O.D.
The following notes are made by Mr. De Rance, from the cores pre-
served in the water-tower.
The following occurred at :—
Rough hackly sandstone (Lower Keuper).
Fine hard-grained sandstone.
Hard marly micaceous partings. ~
Rough hackly sandstone.
Fine-grained micaceous sandstone.
Fine sandstone.
Very fine-grained sandstone.
Rough compact sandstone.
110-250 Purple fine-grained sandstone.
1000 Soft red sandstone.
Weak brine occurred at the bottom of the borehole which was plugged up.
310 REPORT—1891.
Boring at Messrs. Battersby and Co.’s Offerton Hat Works, Stockport.
Carried out by the Executors of the late E. Timmins, Runcorn.
Communicated by Mr. Percy Kendall, F.G.S.
Ft. in. Ft.
in.
15 0 Sandy clay (well, 13 feet ; rest a 3 ee ls
17 0 Small gravel . : ; . ; : 2 sa
36 O Brown clay . : : - ; . «(2 Or
51 0 Loamy sand . : : 5 5 A 4 «, Lond,
70 0 Brownloam . a0)
79 0 Brown clay, and mixed gravel (wat: er level, 74 feet
from the surface) . : : i ORO
84 0 Mixed sand, gravel, and brown clay : - =f SeR@:
91 0 Gravel (base ‘of drift) (mW)
152 0 Permian sandstone (suction- pipe, 135 feet from
surface) . : ‘ : - - - - (GLO.
152 9 Permian marl P 5 : - - : - Orne
154 9 Permian sandstone F : : ; : > | 2mO
156 9 Permian marl > 2a
177 6 Permian sandstone (perforated 10 in, tubes) 5 tr 8)
219 O Permian marl (tubed out) . 41 6
300 0 Permian sandstone (tubed, perforated to 229, feet ;
83 in. boring below 229, no tubes) = = ollie
SHROPSHIRE.
Information from the Rev. Cooper Woon, Clive Vicarage, Shrewsbury.
Well levels from which the town of Wem is supplied.
August 14, 1887. Fall off, 17 inches; time required for return, 40 minutes.
October 31, 1887. Fall off, 26 inches; time required for return, 70 minutes.
March 20,1888. Fall off, 32 inches; time required for return, 92 minutes.
April 2, 1888. Fall off, 42 inches; time required for return, J50 minutes.
May 21,1888. Fall off, 46 inches; time required for return, 360 minutes.
October 9, 1888. Fall off, 49 inches; time required for return, 720 minutes.
Total result of drought, 49 inches.
January 31,1889. Return, 1 inch; time not observed.
February 28, 1889. Return, 2 inches; time not observed.
March 28,1889. Return, 3 inches; time not observed.
April 5, 1889. Return, 5 inches; time not observed.
Total replacement to date, 5 inches.
Total depth of well. 67 feet.
Height to which water rose before August J887, 31 feet 6 inches.
Pump will lower this by 13 feet 6 inches in 60 minutes, pumping at 28 strokes a
minute.
WARWICKSHIRE.
Tn last year’s Report the Coventry Waterworks borings were described
as executed in the Permian sandstone, and delivering a very pure water
at artesian pressure at the surface, without pumping. Since then a trial
boring has been executed at Whitley, of which the following are the
details :
Ft. Ft. in.
10 Surface soil . : A Fs 5 - 106
Lower Keuper sandstone 40 0
50 White with red streaks r ; i i j
Permian sandstone 150 0
200 Dark red “A
Your Committee regret to note that the trial boring is only 1,130 yards —
|
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. old
- from the filter-beds of the Corporation Sewage Farm; it is not proposed
to pump from the boring, but from a shaft about 100 feet nearer the farm;
the dip of the very jointed and open Lower Keuper sandstone is about
south-east or from the farm towards the shaft, which is, moreover, 16 feet
below the filter-beds, which are 9 acres in extent, and receive no less
than two million gallons per day of sewage.
GLAMORGANSHIRE.
Information from Mr. J. Storr, The Museum, Cardiff’.
Cogan Brickworks Boring, 1885.
Ft. Ft.
201 Red marl, grey bands : 201
202 Green marls. : 1
312 Red marls 110
313 Green marl 1
338 Red marl . 20
Coarse grit - (+)
Water at 358 feet.
The Dumballs Boring, near Cardiff.
Ft. Ft. in.
456 Red marls . 456 0
502 Conglomerate 46 0
Old Brewery, Cardiff.
331 Marls : 2 : ¢ : : : : ool) 0
Conglomerates - . . - (+)
Water 326 feet, stands at 40 feet from the surface before pumping,
pump placed at 120 feet from the surface.
The Ely Brewery Co., near Cardifi Station, 24 miles from Cardiff.
Ft.
186 Marls 5
190 Conglomerates
Water at 181 feet.
Sebiiee uas
. 186 0
=e)
APPENDIX.
List of Questions circulated.
1. Position of well or shafts with which
you are azquainted.
1a. State date at which the well or shaft
was originally sunk. Has it been
deepened since by sinking or
boring, and when ?
2. Approximate height of the surface of
the ground above Ordnance Datum
(mean sea level)?
3. Depth from surface to bottom of shaft
or well with diameter. Depth
from surface to bottom of bore-
hole, with diameter.
3a. Depth from the surface to the hori-
zontal driftways, if any. What
is their length and number?
4. Height below the surface at which
water stands before and after
pumping. Number of hours elaps-
ing before ordinary level is restored
after pumping.
4a: Height below the surface at which
the water stood when the well was
first sunk, and height at which it
stands now when not pumped.
5. Quantity capable of being pumped
in gallons per day of 24 hours.
Average quantity daily pumped.
312
6. Does the water level vary at different
seasons of the year, and to what
extent? Has it diminished during
the last ten years ?
the ordinary water level ever
affected by local rains, and, if so,
in how short a time? And how
does it stand in regard to the level
of the water in the neighbouring
streams, or sea?
8. Analysis of the water, if any. Does
the water possess any marked
peculiarity ?
9. Section with nature of the rock passed
through, including cover of Drift,
if any, with thickness.
9a, In which of the above rocks were
7. Is
REPORT—1 891.
10. Does the cover of Drift over the
rock contain surface springs ?
11. If so, are these land springs kept
entirely owt of the well?
12. Are any large faults known to exist
close to the well ?
13. Were any brine springs passed
through in making the well ?
14. Are there any salt springs in the
neighbourhood ?
15. Have any wells or borings been dis-
continued in your neighbourhood
in consequence of the water being
more or less brackish? If so,
please give section in reply to
query No. 9.
16. Kindly give any further information
springs of water intercepted ?
you can.
Report of the Commvittee, consisting of Messrs. H. Baverman, F. W.
Ropter, and J. J. H. Treaty and Dr. Jounston-Lavis, appointed
for the investigation of the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius
and its Neighbourhood. (Drawn up by Dr. Jounstoy-Lavis.)
[PLATE I.]
Tue reporter has, during the last year, carefully and continuously
investigated all new sections of the rocks of the Neapolitan area. The
great main sewer which is in course of construction, as mentioned in the
last report, crosses the whole of the volcanic district to the west of
Naples and terminates near the Monte di Cuma in the Gulf of Gaeta.
This tunnel, of considerable section, is about 20 kilometres in length,
and is being constructed from nineteen points of attack. In many places
the materials traversed are of a very friable nature, and consequently the
masonry lining progresses with the cutting. It will be therefore seen
that most careful and constant attention and frequent visits are necessary
for keeping a record of the geology. Most of this tunnel is through
rocks at a high temperature, so that numerous thermometric observations
were made. So far most of the different portions are not yet joined, and
therefore any description would be very incomplete if given in this
report; it is therefore proposed to postpone it till the next meeting of
the British Association. Several observations, however, of considerable
importance as bearing on this district as well as on vulcanological
phenomena in general, have come to light.
For upwards of a year the remaining portion of the reporter’s spare
time has been spent in the compilation of the bibliography of Vesuvius
and the Phlegroean fields, as well as of the other volcanoes of Southern
Italy. In this he has had the able co-operation of his wife, Madame
Antonia Lavis. This long, tedious, but very necessary work is now
complete, and the reporter hopes to present a copy to the Association.
To show the amount of toil necessary, it may be mentioned that the
number of entries have been more than double those published in the
Report of the International Geological Congress of 1881.
UVIUS, 1891 Plate I
Illustrating the Report of the
mittee for Investigating the Voleanic Phenomena of Vesuvius,
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. ae
The reporter has much gratification in presenting to the Association
the great geological map of Monte Somma and Vesuvius, which has
been now published some months, and in the construction of which
much substantial help, and above all moral encouragement, has been
given by the British Association. The reporter hopes that his colleagues
in the science of geology will be satisfied that he has done his utmost to
win their confidence.
: During the latter part of 1890 and the early part of 1891, the central
q activity of Vesuvius has very slightly varied, except about the new year,
_ when it was considerably increased, rising to the third or fourth devree,
' simultaneously with the stoppage of the lateral outflow of lava that had
been going on since August 7, 1890. Since then, up to the present
outburst, the central activity has been generally at the first degree, and
the cone of eruption has slowly grown in height (see Plate).
4 On June | there was a crater within the central cone of eruption, of
— about 50 m. in diameter, near the centre of which was the eruptive vent,
_ surrounded by another embryonic eruptive cone. On that day, four
_ small eruptive mouths opened around the embryonic cone in the bottom
of the central crater, the smallest being to the east.
Thus the volcano remained till June 7, at 10 am., when activity
stopped, only a small quantity of vapour escaping from central vents.
At midday a radial cleft opened at the north toe of the cone of eruption
(May 1889, June 1891), traversing towards its east end the little sickle-
shaped ridge, the remnant of the 1885-86 crater, but, as yet, gave out
little vapour. At 4 to 4.30 p.m., shocks of earthquake commenced,
_ limited only to the upper slopes of Vesuvius, and simultaneous with the
extension of the radial fissure down the side of the great Vesuvian cone
for nearly half its way opposite the Punta del Nasone of Monte Somma,
from which, at about 5.30 p.m., issued a little lava, whilst from the upper
extremity of the fissure at the toe of the cone of eruption much
vapour escaped, so that as seen from Naples the smoke-plume arose from
this point. From 5.30 to 7 p.m. the fissure still extended lower, accom-
panied from time to time by local earthquakes, noises, and the elevation
of columns of black dusty smoke. Ata few minutes to 7 the floor of the
_ Atrio del Cavallo was reached, and a remarkably black column of smoke
had arisen.
My friend Dr. L. Sambon saw this column arise, and came to inform
me immediately. as I had left off watching the mountain at 5.30. After
_ photographing the mountain, we left Naples at 9 p.m., and spent some
time in inquiries at Resina and near the Observatory. Everything was
now dark, as the volcano had calmed down at 8 p.m. At 2a.m, June8,
we were at the eastern extremity of the Observatory ridge, and com-
menced to wend our way across the lava surface towards Monte Somma.
We were at the lowest part of the depression at the west end of the
‘Atrio del Cavallo, where it joins the Fossa della Vetrana, and along
which some of the largest lava-streams have flowed (1855, 1872, &c.),
when suddenly on our right above us (2.23 a.m.) a vast quantity of
bright red vapour arose from the new outpour of lava. We hastened
our steps as much as the road and our lantern would allow us, so as to
reach the escarpment of Monte Somma, the foot of which was followed
till near the Punta del Nasone, and close to the theatre of eruption.
Here we ciambered up some distance above the level of the Atrio to
watch events whilst we ate our late supper or early breakfast. Along
314 REPORT—1891.
the slope of the great cone in the line of fissure were a few luminous
points from some pieces of still uncooled lava of the little that had oozed
forth from the lower half of the fissure. At about 60 or 80 yards from
the foot of the great cone two or three fountains of Java were throwing
up jets of molten rock for 2 or 3 m., and the lava was slowly spreading
out on the almost horizontal plain of the Atrio in several tongues. The
lava must have still been high in the main chimney, as the vapour that
issued at the top of the fissure showed a slightly red illumination. So
Fic. 1.—Great cone of Vesuvius, as seen from a little W. of the Punta del Nasone
of Monte Somma, showing the eruptive rift of June 7, 1891. (Photographed
by the author.)
C, crater plain and cone of eruption ; B, rift, marked half-way down by an irregular
crateriform pit produced by the explosion at 5.30 p.m.; L, tongues of lava
that issued from last-mentioned pit; F, main outpour of lava with fumaroles.
we remained till daylight, when we could see the fissure on the side of
the cone. The mouth that formed at 5.30 the previous day was still
smoking a little, whilst the fissure below it sent off several ramifications
at an acute angle like the branches of an inverted tree, from several of
which little streams of lava had been given out, where they had soon
consolidated (see fig. 1). We now followed the base of the great cone
to the lower railway station, where we found all the people up and
dressed, frightened by strong shocks and noises at 2.23 a.m., coincident
with the fresh outflow of lava that we had witnessed, but which shocks
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 315
we had not felt, although they were described as the most severe that
had been felt.
Having ascended to the summit of Vesuvius, we found the central
crater rapidly enlarging by the falling in of its edges. From the new
fissure at its summit was issuing much vapour under pressure, and rich
in sulphurous acid, which is, even in traces, intolerable ; and the hot air
coming from innumerable new fissures rendered approach very difficult.
We did, in fact, once jump across part of the fissure, but returned much
quicker on account of the hot irritant vapours. An approach from the
opposite side was equally unsuccessful. At some old fumaroles on the
1872 crater plain I collected some crusts of boric acid and alum, both
rare products at this voleano.
I then wrote that one of three terminations we may expect to these
phenomena, which are very characteristic of a lateral disruption, so
common at Vesuvius ! :—
1. Should the lava cool sufficiently to plug the radial dyke, no farther
phenomena will oceur, and activity will be restored to the central vent.
2. If this plugging only partially takes place, lava may dribble forth
for months, but probably the escape of vapour will soon be restored to
the central vent.
3. If the rent should widen, considering how low it extends, we may
expect a grand eruption which might rival that of 1872, which com-
menced near the same spot and much in the same way ; the mechanism
by which this occurs I have explained elsewhere. ?
The suggestion that I published in several newspapers has been fully
confirmed—namely, that the second alternative type of eruptive character
would be pursued by the voleano. Now, for a period of nearly two
months lava has continued to dribble forth, activity has returned to the
central vent, and no great changes have occurred.
The throat of the voleano commenced to be cleared on June 9, the
vapour forcing its way up from the crater bottom through the choke of
loose materials, and rose above as a column carrying with it much dust;
at the same time the powerful vapour blast issuing from the upper
extremity of the lateral rift soon stopped. Each day I was kept informed
of the state of the voleano by the kindness of Messrs. Ferber and Treiber,
the director and engineer respectively of the Vesuvian Railway.
On June 15 I considered it right to again visit the mountain, and had
the good fortune to be accompanied by Messrs. H. Elliot, A. Green,
Linden, Newstead, and Treiber, several of whom are excellent photo-
graphers, so that with two of my own cameras we were able to make an
extensive pictorial record of some very unique formations.
At the point of issue of the lava, at the junction of the foot of the
great Vesuvian cone and the Atrio del Cavallo, the first lava had cooled
sufficiently to walk over it, but beneath our feet could still be seen in a
few holes the flowing lava. At the foot of the great cone, and extending
for half-way across the Atrio, along the radius of the eruptive rent, as if
this had continned so far, were a series of driblet cone fumaroles. We
counted seven complete and well-formed examples, besides numerous
z 1 Nature, vol, xliv. June 18, 1891, pp. 160-161; Cuorriere di Napoli, Jane 10:
D’Ttalie, Jane 11: The Mediterranean Naturalist for July.
*4H.J J.L., ‘The Relationship of the Structure of Igneous Rocks to the Con-
A be their Formation,’ Scientific Proceedings Roy. Dublin Soe., vol. v., N.S.
Pp. —90.
he
316 REPORT—1891.
abortive ones. Most were giving out intensely heated vapour, which was
liberated from the lava flowing beneath, and which soon carbonised a
piece of wood placed in it. Around the lips of the upper opening,
(Photographed by the author.)
Fic. 2.—Fumaroles formed on the new lava at some distance from the base of the great cone in the Atrio,
as seen on June 16, 1891.
hematite with fused chlorides of potash, soda, iron, copper, &c., were
being condensed from the vapour, and trickling down the outer surface
of the fumarole, consolidated as curious vari-coloured stalactites of very,
deliquescent nature.
ON THE YOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. Slee
The lava had first flowed towards the escarpment of Monte Somma in
a fan-like manner, so that the eastern extremity reached that great
natural section just beneath the Punta del Nasone Still following the
natural inclination of the ground, it turned to the west, and on June 15
was opposite dyke 16 (as marked on my large geological map just pub-
lished, and on the dykes themselves), advancing at a very slow rate.
The lava is a vitreous and coarse-grained rock, especially in regard to
the included leucite as well as augite crystals, whilst the surface is, with
one exceptional tongue, of the corded or ‘pahoehoe’ type. This is due
to the magma being one that has been simmering since January in the
chimney of the volcano, so that most of its dissolved water has been boiled
off, and so allowing it to cool without the formation of scorize from the
F1G. 3—Fumaroles formed on the new lava close to its exit at foot of great cone in
the Atrio, as seen on June 15, 1891. (Photographed by the author.)
vapour that otherwise would escape after its exit. Leucite I have also
demonstrated to be formed while the magma is simmering under low
pressure with free escape for vapour in the upper part of the volcanic
chimney.!
At the summit of the great cone the crumbling in of the edges was
constantly going on, but the upper extremity of the lateral rift at the foot
of the cone of eruption and at the summit of the great Vesuvian cone had
nearly ceased to give forth vapour. Along the line of rent on the
mountain side no fumaroles or other signs of activity were visible except
quite at the foot, where those of which I have spoken commence.
Up till June 26 there was an effort to clear the upper part of the
1 See H. J.J.L., ‘Geol. M. Somma and Vesuvius,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x1. ;
and ‘ Relationship of the Structure of Igneous Rocks to the Conditions of their For-
mation,’ Scientific Proceedings Roy. Dublin Soc. vol. v. N.S.
318 REPORT—1891.
volcanic chimney of the impeding materials, which were constantly being
added to by the slips from the crater’s edge; but on that evening a dull
red glow was visible in the crater bottom, showing that a fairly clear
passage had been temporarily made for the continuous escape of vapour,
and also that the lava was at no very great depth from the summit of the
voleano. ‘This of course indicates that the lateral opening was insufficient
to drain off mach of the lava which occupies the chimney above the level
of the lateral outlet. Had such evacuation really taken place the eruption
would have assumed enormous proportions, from the actual amount of
lava above the tap, but more from frothing up of lava below that level, in
consequence of the relief of pressure which in that case would occur. Of
course, during all these days the ejection of dust with the smoke occurred,
giving the latter its peculiar dark grey colour. Further destruction of
the crater edge took place, so as to partly block the outlet, and it was not
till our next visit that it again cleared.
Gn June 30 I again visited the crater, accompanied by my friend
Mr. A. Green. All the summit of the great cone was covered by a thick
coating of dust and sand, upon the surface of which were the usual white
and yellowish-green chloride crusts seen on such occasions, so rich in
copper as to plate with that metal the iron nails of our boots. The crater
had considerably enlarged, the edges were in an extremely unstable state,
with often considerable strips marked off by cracks parallel to the free
edge, so that with a slight push by a stick it was possible to detach large
masses of the materials which form the sides of the crater in the recent
cone of eruption. So dangerous were the edges that it was but two
places that my experience indicated as being safe to approach and look
over, and that even with several precautions; so that the fatal accident
to Seftor Silva Jardim, who lost his life here but a few hours after our
departure, is not to be wondered at.
On looking down some 45 to 50 m. beneath us, we could see the glow
from a mouth some 2 or 3 m. in diameter. The walls of the crater were
concave, so that, although overhanging at the top, yet a plumb-line let
fall from the edge would strike the bottom of the cliff. The crater
bottom was roughly plain, due to the combination of a talus all round,
and an attempt at a cone encircling the main vent. It will be thus seen
that the crater cavity was of the form of a convex-sided cylinder, or more
simply barrel-shaped, with its upper diameter some 50 to 55 m.
With much difficulty we made our way around to the north side of
the cone of eruption, which did not show its usual loose scoriz surface,
as it was buried beneath a thick coat of sand and dust, covered with a
thin saline crust on its surface. The upper limit of the radial rift, which
we were prevented from examining three weeks previously, on account
of its giving out so much vapour as to constitute the temporary escape
aperture of the volvano, had now become quiescent, so that we could
fully examine it. Only a current of hot air was now issuing from it, but
I was able to collect some fine masses of crystallised molysite and
kremersite from its edges. Its average breadth was about 0°50 m. where
it traversed old compact lava, but of course it disappeared as soon as it
reached the looser materials. The real azimuth of its orientation, which
we could now determine with greater accuracy than when we were
walking over hot rock and enveloped in hot irritating vapours, proves to
be, as it radiates away from the axis of Vesuvius, about 15° west of
uorth. It curves then a little to the north, and near the foot of the
—
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 319
great cone it again assumes nearly the same azimuth as at starting, an
arrangement which is quite evident when the Vesuvian cone is regarded
from the Punta del Nasone. From that, the highest point of Somma,
the lower extremity of the rift lies a little to the right or west, and faces
that part of the Somma ridge which corresponds to the upper extremity
of the Vallone Cancherone.
In the forenoon of June 30 much dust had fallen at the lower railway
Fiaq. 4.—Plan of the summit of the great cone of Vesuvius, July 31, 1891.
N
" pee)
yh: Wi At
SR i ary ng 8,
SO Laie
TM Apps
Mii Mpr~r BEE
el LN a ps Sen
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TS; 2
Lyf i RET ER SS
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: ve LK
Ze pA Oe Ce :
YY, iAH \\
ia oN
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ries
Limits of the crater of 1872 ; where overflowed by mure recent lavas, a, and where
still uncovered, a’; remains of cone of 1885-86, b; part of crater edge of
May 1886, c; part of crater edge of May 1889, d; cone of eruption up to
June 7, 1891, ef; fissure of May 1889, g; yellow patches of decomposed lava,
scorie, and dust, h; fissures emitting hot vapour with HCl, 2; guides’
shelter, 7; numerous fissures at the S.E. edze of the crater plain and great
cone that the preceding days lad increased in size and number, 2; other
fissures on the N.L. of great cone, 7; fissures along the edges of the crater in
process of formation, 1 ; present crater, x ; dykes seen in section, 0 ; hol ow
dyke of the eruption of May, 1889-91, and of anterior ones, p ; same of erup-
tion of May 2, 1885, ¢; vapour culumn hiding bottom or crater, 7; fissure
of eruption of June 7, 1891, 2.
station, of which we collected some bagfuls. It is the usual fine sandy
material of these eruptions, and consists of the pulverised components of
the cone of eruption.
Having passed the night at the lower railway station, the next day we
erossed the Atrio, ascended to the western extremity of the ridge of
Somma, and followed it along so as to get a general bird’s-eye view of
the whole scene of the eruption, and take photographs of the more
important points. As one stands on the Punta del Nasone and embraces
320 REPORT—1891.
that magnificent view of Vesuvius and the Atrio del Cavallo, one sees
below the new lava-stream in the form of the letter bes, the horizontal
portion of which is still being prolonged down the Atrio towards the
Fossa della Vetrana. In the middle of the ridge we found a thin coating
of fine red dust which had reached thus far from the crater. Much of
the Atrio was also covered by the same material. Scaling the cliff face
just beyond the Cognulo di Ottajano to the Atrio del Cavallo, we again
visited the lower point of the outburst. Most of the beautiful fumaroles
were in a state of ruin, and lined by good-sized crystals of hematite and
mixed chloride crusts. Here the lava was quite solid, though at one
point was a hole, some 50 m. from the base of the great cone, where we
could see the molten rock flowing lazily along about a metre beneath our
feet. The lava at the end of the flow was making considerable progress
to the westwards, and stood opposite dyke 13.
During the month of July few changes took place in the mountain ;
the crater still got larger, dust was thrown out, and the lava descended.
These phenomena are capable of continuing for months if the drainage
opening does not enlarge.
After an interval of a month, during which by the kindness of Messrs.
Treiber and Ferber I was kept continuonsly informed of any change, I
again visited the volcano. The crater had considerably enlarged, but
chiefly in a south-easterly direction, in the line of the fissures that have
existed for a long time at the edge of the crater plain and the top of the
great cone. These fissures had also increased in size and number since
my last visit, so that altogether this seems to be, at present, the most
favoured direction for the next disruption of the great cone. The crater
has therefore an irregular oval form, with the major axis directed
N.W.-S.E. On this occasion [ could not see the bottom of the crater,
but on its walls were several dykes, which may be enumerated according
to their orientation :—N.H.; N.; N.N.E., probably the dyke of the last
eruption; N.W.; 8.W., probably the upper part of the fissure 7 below
which emits hydrochloric acid; the hollow dyke that has supplied the
eastern rift; the hollow dyke that supplied the eruption of May 2, 1885;
and a little solid dyke close to it. There may have been others, but the
perilous nature of the crater edge requiring great care, even in the only
two places one could approach, together with the abundant irritating
vapour, prevented a careful examination.
The lava, which had at one time extended down to nearly opposite
Messrs. Cook’s gate-lodge in the Fossa Vetrana, was now flowing very
slowly at the junction of the Fossa and the Atrio del Cavallo.
A few days previously four shocks of earthquake occurred, limited to
the great cone and felt at the lower railway station. These, combined
with the other phenomena above mentioned, show that the cone is in an
extremely unstable state, and want of confidence must be felt until some
time further has elapsed.
In conclusion, the reporter must thank Mr. G. M. Cook, of Messrs.
Cook, Son & Co., for granting free passage over the Vesuvian Railway,
thus greatly facilitating the investigation of the volcanic phenomena.
,
‘
q
}
The
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 321
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES
GEIKIE (Chairman), Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Dr. VALENTINE
Bau, Mr. JAMEs E. BeprorD, Professor T. G. Bonney, Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. James W. Davis, Mr. WILLIAM Gray,
Mr. Rogert Kipston, Mr. Artuur 8. Reip, Mr. R. H. TippEman,
Mr. W. W. Watts, Mr. Horace B. Woopwarp, and Mr. OsmMuND
W. Jerrs (Secretary), to arrange for the collection, preservation,
and sysiematic registration of Photographs of Geological In-
terest in the United Kingdom. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Your Committee beg to report that during the past year the work of
collecting photographs illustrating the geological features of our country
has been continued, with the result that 313 additional photographs have
been received and registered, making a total up to the month of August of
588. A detailed list of these additional photographs is appended herewith.
At the Leeds meeting of the Association upwards of 200 photographs were
arranged for exhibition in the room appointed for the use of Section C,
many of which illustrated sections of strata and other geological features
of considerable scientific interest. This collection attracted much atten-
tion, and it is proposed to continue the exhibition at Cardiff if convenient
arrangements can be made. By this means the Committee hope to
secure the aid of many photographers, who can thus form a better idea
of the kind of subjects which it is desirable to include in the collection of
geological views.
Special efforts have been made to induce the local societies in each
county to organise systematic surveys for the furtherance of the work.
This method has been pursued with great success in Yorkshire, the mem-
bers of the Geological Photographic Committee of the Yorkshire Natural-
ists’ Union having again contributed a large and valuable series of prints.
Many of these subjects refer to sections which cannot be reproduced, as,
for instance, fossil trees laid bare in quarrying and excavations for the
foundations of buildings now covered over.
The Hertfordshire Natural History Society and the East Kent Natural
History Society have also organised schemes for the photography of local
geological features, and some views have been sent in from these sources,
which, it is hoped, will be supplemented by a further series next year.
In the case of some local societies difficulties have arisen, which have
delayed the completion of similar arrangements proposed to have been
made. It is not always possible to obtain the services of a photographer
when desired, and it has been found difficult to arouse the interest of many
of the local photographic societies in geological work. Considering the
number of amateur photographers now to be met with in every centre of
scientific energy, it is hoped that a large number of photographers will be
induced in the future to co-operate with the local scientific societies in
the scheme instituted by the Committee. The numerous field-meetings
and scientific excursions, now so popular a part of the work of such societies,
would appear to afford convenient opportunities for aiding our scheme,
if arrangements could be made for a photographer to accompany the
aga oT the district to be visited offered suitable subjects for the
; ¥
322 REPORT—1891.
use of the camera. But it is very desirable that the work should be pur-
sued systematically in every county. A list should be drawn up by the
officers of the local societies, giving the localities of new sections opened,
besides particulars of old sections and other features worthy of reproduc-
tion and permanent pictorial record. Several photographers have inti-
mated their willingness to assist the Committee in this way, if they were
informed of the localities of which photographs are desired. The Com-
mittee would be glad to receive from geologists generally such particulars,
which would be duly noted, and endeavours would be made to secure
photographs when opportunity offered.
For the information of photographers, the following lists of desiderata
are given :—
Per Professor James Geixie, Hdinburgh.
Weathering of basalt-rock : old quarries, Salisbury Craigs, Edinburgh.
Volcanic agglomerate, penetrated by basalt-dykes: The Binn, Burntisland, Fife-
shire.
White trap (intrusive sheet) in sandstone and shales: Old limestone quarry,
near Oil Works, Burntisland.
Diagonally-bedded sandstone: Seafield Tower, near Kirkcaldy.
Unconformity between Silurian and Old Red sandstone: Siccar Point, near
Cockburnspath, Berwickshire.
Fault in carboniferous sandstones and shales: railway cutting, Craiglockhart
Station, Edinburgh.
Per Mr. Jonny Hopxiysoy, of St. Albans.
Chalk-pit at Boxmoor.
Chalk-pit between Rickmansworth and Harefield.
Chalk-pit on Reed Hill, near Royston (anticlinal), sections of Woolwich and Read-
ing beds and London clay exposed in brickfields near Watford.
Series of views of the chalk escapement through north of Hertfoxdshire and
adjoining counties.
Per Mr. D. Cracur, Liverpool.
Current bedded sandstones at Dingle Point on north bank of the Mersey.
Outcrop of coal seams at Doulton quarry, St. Helen’s.
These lists are, of course, capable of being largely extended, and are
inserted simply as examples of what is required.
While the actual number of new photographs sent in for registration
during the year does not greatly exceed the number acknowledged in the
last report, it is gratifying to state that, as a whole, the subjects have
been selected with greater care to include the most typical views. It has
not been wished to restrict too greatly the definition of what is a ‘ geo-
logical photograph.’ Views illustrating types of landscape scenery are
often extremely useful, though not perhaps enforcing any particular
geological feature. These will be simply described as: ‘ Landscape—
Silurian’ ; or, ‘ Landscape—Bunter Sandstone,’ &c., as the case may be.
But, as the collection grows in numbers, it will be more convenient to
confine it to views which are especially typical and characteristic. For
the guidance of amateur photographers and others who might not be able
always to refer to a geological authority, the following explanatory para-
graph was inserted in the circular of instructions issued by the Com-
mittee :—
Photographs are desired illustrative of characteristic rock-sections, especially
thos2 of a typical character or temporary nature; important boulders; localities
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 323
affected by denudation, or where marked physiographical changes are in operation >
_ raised beaches; old sea cliffs and other conspicuous instances of marine erosion ;
characteristic river-valleys or escarpments, and the like; glacial phenomena, such as
_ roches moutonnées, moraines, drums and kames, or any natural views of geological
interest. Photographs of microscopical sections, and typical hand-specimens of rocks
are also admissible.
Your Committee held a meeting at Leeds and discussed several details
_of the work, which has been principally carried out through the medium
of correspondence.
Regarding the question of the disposal of the photographs, it was
_ decided to defer any recommendation on the subject until the collection
was in a more complete form.
Reference was made in the last report to a proposed publication of a
series of the best photographs received by the Committee, reproduced
by a permanent process. The suggestion has received the careful
consideration of the Committee. It was decided, however, to defer the
subject until the next meeting of the Association, when, if any arrange-
_ ments with a publisher could be made, the Committee would probably be
ina position to select a series of approved photographs for the purpose
of authorising their reproduction, with the consent of the owners of the
negatives.
A desire having been widely expressed for facilities by which lantern slides
of the geological photographs included in the listissued could be procured, the
Secretary was instructed to endeavour to make arrangements to effect this
object. Owing to the fact of the negatives not being in the possession of
the Committee, the privilege of supplying lantern slides remains in the hands
of the various photographers. In the case of professional photographers,
there is usually no difficulty in supplying these to teachers and others
who may require them. Negatives taken by private persons are not un-
frequently handed over to a professional photographer, who has authority
to supply slides to the public. Applications for slides should, therefore,
‘as in the case of ordinary prints, be made to the photographer direct, whose
address is, whenever known, printed at the head of each local list, or else
to the local society under whose auspices the photographs were taken.
In order to meet the convenience of amateurs who do not make their own
slides, but who would be willing to lend their negatives for the purpose
of having slides made, the Secretary has effected an arrangement with an
experienced photographer, who will undertake to supply lantern slides, at
4 fixed price, from negatives with which he may be temporarily entrusted.
_ Itis understood that this arrangement only applies to those cases in which
the owner of the negative does not desire to supply them himself. Future
lists will contain the needful particulars as to obtaining lantern slides; in
the meantime persons desiring to avail themselves of the arrangement
above mentioned may communicate with the Secretary.
Your Committee are pleased to observe the spread of geological photo-
graphic schemes in countries abroad. The Société Géologique de Belgique
have, on the recommendation of M. G. Dewalque, adopted a form similar
to that of form ‘A’ issued by your Committee for recording the details and
registering the numbers of photographs contributed to their own collec-
tion, and a copy of this schedule is inserted in the ‘ Bulletin ’ of the Society
for July, 1890.
The Geological Society of America have also appointed a Committee
on Photographs, which has already made good progress, nearly 300
y2
324 REPORT—1891.
examples having been exhibited at the Washington meeting of this
Society in December, 1890. The American Committee purpose preparing
some lists for international exchange.
A paper by Mr. Arthur S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S., appeared in the
‘Photographic Quarterly ’ for January, 1891, in which the author advo-
cated the use of the hand camera in the field, and subsequent enlargements
on bromide paper to whole plate size.
In order to proceed with the collection of geological photographs and
bring the scheme to a more complete stage, your Committee respectfully
request reappointment and a renewal of the grant.
SECOND LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(to auGust, 1891.)
Norr.—This list contains the subjects of geological photographs,,
copies of which have been received by the Secretary of the Committee
since the publication of the last report. Photographers are asked to
affix the registered numbers, as given below, to their negatives, for
convenience of future reference.
Copies of any photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
either from the photographer direct or from the officers of the local
society under whose auspices the views were taken.
The Committee in no case has assumed the copyright of photographs
registered, which is presumed to be held by the photographer.
The price at which copies of photographs may be obtained depends
upon the size of the print and local circumstances, over which the
Committee has no control.
BERKSHIRE,
Per Rev. A. Irvinc, D.Sc., F.G.S., Wellington College, Wokingham.
(Photographed by Rev. P. H. Kumprnorns.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
Regd. No.
280, 281 Nine Mile Ride, Old Wind- Contortions in laminated brick clays
sor Forest, 1890
Photographed by R. C. McCuinrocx.
452 Nine Mile Ride,Old Wind- Section in clay diggings at Lawrence’s Pits
sor Forest, 1891
CHESHIRE.
Photographed by Cuaruns A. Derrevx, 25 Sandstone Road, Stoneycroft,
Liverpool. Size 6x4 inches.
460, 461 Leasowe Shore, 1891. . Blown sands, showing stratification and re-
sults of wind-erosion on sandhills
462 5 Dove Point . . Submarine forest-bed
463 “ 5 aa * (large tree stump 2 ft. diameter)
464-246 5 : : : . General views of forest-bed (3)
467 Hilbre Island . : . Fault in (7?) Keuper sandstone on west side
of island
ee ee ee
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 325
Photographed by J. Brrtues, Northwich. Size 6 x4 inches.
Regd. No.
$244-546 Witton Hall Rock Salt Three views of interiorof mine (photographed
Mine, Northwich, 1882 . by electric light)
CoRNWALL.
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo. Section). (Photographed
by Herpert Denison, 32 Clarendon Road, Leeds.) Size 6 x4 inches.
453,459 Durgan, Helford River, Fal- Coast scenery, Devonian
mouth Harbour, 1890
454 Cave, East of Falmouth Marine denudation
Harbour
455-458 The Lizard (4 views) . Coast scenery
Photographed by J. J. Corz, F.R.A.S., ‘ Mayland,’ Sutton, Surrey.
57L Norcot, Bude. . Carboniferous strata
572 Long Island, Trevalea . Slates; volcanic ash
573 Boscastle Coast . ” quartz masses embedded
CUMBERLAND.
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo. Section). (Photographed
by Lawrence Ricwarpson, Sedbergh School.) Size 4x8 inches.
291 Head of Ennerdale Valley, Mounds of glacial débris
1890
292 Borrowdale é . Glaciated rock surface
DERBYSHIRE.
Photographed by Witi1am Porrer, Matlock. Size 10 x8 inches.
276 Stevens’ quarry, Matlock Carboniferous limestone, with lead vein
Dale, 1890
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo. Section). (Photographed by
Goprrey Bineuery, 15 Cardigan Road, Leeds.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
#68 Matlock Bath, Scarthin Nick Gorge in Carboniferous limestone
477 Matlock, High ‘lor . . Carboniferous limestone
469-474 Dove Dale : F . Carboniferous limestone, effects of erosion
480,482-3 ,, Pillar Rock
#275 Miller’s Dale, Chee Tor
476-478 Chee Dale ;:
479 Monsal Dale
481 Ashwood Dale
” ” ”
Per Professor James Gurxte, LL.D., F.R.S. (Photographed by HErBert -
Botron, Manchester Musewm, Manchester.) Size 12 x10 inches.
$42,523 Darley, near Matlock, 1891 Cutting in boulder clay, with large boulders
Photographed by Evan SMaut, M.A., B.Sc., University College, Nottingham.
570 Miller’s Dale. : . Weathering of Carboniferous limestone
326 REPORT—1891.
DEVONSHIRE,
Photographed by A. R. Hunt, M.A., F.G.S., Southwood, Torquay.
Re various.
Regd. No.
417 Kent’s Cavern, Torquay Group of bone implements
(from)
418 ds 5 flint do.
419-421 " ay Nodule tools (breccia)
422 5 Be Bones: beaver
423 Tooth : cave lion
424 429 Torbay, ‘The eid ki 's N ose’ Raised beach
430 Torquay . ; . Natural arch: Middle Devonian limestone
Photographed by J. J. Coun, F.R.A.S., ‘ Mayland,’ Sutton, Surrey.
574 Dartmoor, Hounter Tor . Granite, fallen and shifted
575 ” ” . ”
576 5 Hey Tor . : A
577 _ Hey Clatter . Angular blocks of granite, fallen N. and W.
578 Blagberry, Hartland . . Foldings in Carboniferous strata
579 Holcombe Head. : - New Red Conglomerate
580 Brent Tor Cliff , e - Volcanic ash; remains of cone of Carbon-
iferous age
DORSETSHIRE.
Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens, Belfast.
Size 45 x 3} inches.
296-2992 Lulworth Cove . . . Chalk and Purbeck strata
Photographed by J. J. Coun, F.R.A.S., ‘ Mayland,’ Sutton, Surrey.
581 Lulworth, Stare Cove . Greensand, Purbeck and Portland beds
582 _ Stare Cliff. . Contorted Purbeck beds
583 55 Stare Hole . Portland stone
584 Cove. : Inclined Purbeck on ‘ Dirt beds’
585 Gad ‘Cliff, near Kimmeridge Portland stone on Kimmeridge clay
HAMPSHIRE.
Photographed by A. R. Hunt, M.A., F.G.S., Southwood, Torquay.
Size 6 x4 inches.
431 Freshwater, J.of Wight . Natural arch in chalk
Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens, Belfast.
300 Bournemouth , . Bournemouth sands
HERTFORDSHIRE.
Photographed by Joun Hoextyson, F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Size 4x3 inches.
525 Watford Heath Kiln, 1891 London clay on Reading beds
526 9 Bushey Kiln F 3 4)
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 327
Regd. No.
527 Chalk pit north-west of Upper chalk, with flints
Bushey Station, Watford
528 Do.north of Bushey Station, cf with ‘ pipe’ of gravel and sand
Watford
TIstze or Man.
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo. Section). (Photographed by
G. H. Ropwett, 44 Wade Lane, Leeds.) Size 4x3 inches.
301 Spanish Head and ‘Sugar Clay slates; sea ‘stack’
Loaf’ Rock, 1890
302 Douglas Head, 1890 . . Contorted clay slates
Photographed by F. N. Haron, 31 Highfield South, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.
Size 4x3 inches.
303 Port Erin, 1891 Contorted clay slates
304 = the Breakwater Effects of storm
: 305 Port St. Mary . : . Cambrian beds on shore (with fault)
306 Peel Castle P : . Quartz veins in slate
307-8 5 . Contorted strata
309 Douglas Bay, Port Jack . Stratification and jointing of rock
310 5 Lighthouse . Contorted clay-slates
311 Fs Port Skillion Vertical clay-slates
Per Chester Society of Natural Science (Photo. Section), (Photographed by
Dr. Hy. Srorrerroru, M.A., Chester.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
349 Langness, 1890 . : . Junction of Old Red sandstone and clay
slates
350 Be 1889 . Z . Old Red conglomerate
351 a 1890 . : : ” ”
352 Scarlett Point . : . Core of old volcano
Kent.
Photographed by Antuur 8. Rew, M.A., F.G.S., Trinity College,
Glenalmond, N.B.
344-347 Lenham, 1891 . 5 . Sand ‘ pipes’ in chalk
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo. Section). (Photographed by
Goprrey Brinetey, 15 Cardigan Road, Leeds), Size 8 x6 inches.
507 Tunbridge Wells : . The ‘Toad Rock’
Per Captain J. Gorvon McDaxiy, 15 Esplanade, Dover.
Size 12 x10 inches.
414 Dover, Shakespeare Cliff . Middle and lower chalk
215 », Hast Cliff : . Upper and middle chalk, showing coast
erosion
LANCASHIRE.
Photographed by R. G. Broox, St. Helens. Size 8x 6 inches.
285-290 Ravenhead, 1890 ‘ . Coal measures, with outcrop of ‘fiery mine’
seam exposed in clay pit
[The views form a connected series. |
328 REPORT—1891.
SHROPSHIRE.
Photographed by W. W. Watts, M. A., F.G.8., Geol. Survey of Ireland,
14 Hume Street, Gin. ’ Size gh x 64 inches.
Regd. No.
435 Hope Rectory, near Min- Contorted ash bed (Middle Arenig series)
sterley, 1889
436 Wenlock Edge, 1887. . Bedding and concretionary structure of
Wenlock limestone
437 East Hope, 1886 5 Wenlock limestone
438 The Wrekin, from Benthall General view
Edge, 1886
439 Corbett’s Dingle, near Coal measure sandstone: weathering
Broseley, 1886
440 Quarry near Walcot House, Lower Wenlock beds
near Chirbury, 1886
SoMERSET.
Photographed by Jas, D. Harpy, 73 Clarence Road, Clapton, London.
Size 8 x 6 inches.
277 Holwell, near Frome, 1890 Rhztic beds: Microlestes quarry
Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens, Belfast.
Size 8 x 6 inches.
278,279 Newbridge, near Weston White lias
Station, Bath
Photographed by W. H. F. Arzxanprr, 144 Chorley Old Road, Bolton.
Size 6 x 4& inches.
312 Cheddar Cliffs, 1890 . . Gorge in Carboniferous limestone
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. Per Rev. W. H.
Winwoop, W.A., £.G.S., Secretary. (Photographed by G. F. Pows11,
Bath.)
569 MidfordStation(near),1891 Inferior Oolite: Trigonia beds
STAFFORDSHIRE.
Dhotographed by A. Sopwitu, C.H., Cannock Chase, near Walsall.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
282-284 Cannock Chase Coal Mine Coal seams in interior of mine
WILTSHIRE.
Per J. Larpner Green, F.R.Met.Soc., ‘ Tintinhull,’ Milford Hill, Salis-
bury. (Photographed by W. Brooxs, Hiah Street, Salisbury.) Size
10 x 8 inches.
416 Teffont Mill, near Dinton, Contorted Purbeck beds
863
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 329
Photographed by R. G. Durrant, M.A., The College, Marlborough.
Size 8 x 6 inches.
Regd. No.
547-548 Marlborough. ‘The Devil’s Group of Sarsen stones
Den,’ 1891
549 Rs Road to Cliffe Lower chalk
Pypard
W ORCESTERSHIRE.
Photographed by C. J. Watson, Acock’s Green, Birmingham.
Size 8 x6 inches.
294 Bilberry Hill, The Lickey, Contorted Llandovery beds
1884
295 Tewkesbury(banksof river Keuper marls
Severn), 1889 (6 x 4 in.)
YORKSHIRE.
Per J. E. CxarK, 9 Feversham Terrace, York. (Photographed by
W. Esxett, Lendal, York.) Size 8 x6 inches.
354361 Foundations of Goods Sta- Boulder clay (8 sections)
tion, York, 1876-7
Per Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Geol. Photo.-Section). (Photographed
by W. H. Sawnon, Ingleton.) Contributed by C. D, Harpcastis, 31
Victoria Place, Leeds.
362,363 Ingieton . : . . @arboniferous limestone with band of coal
and shale
Photographed by G. H. Ropwett, 44 Wade Lane, Leeds. Size 6 x4 inches.
364, 365 Gordale Scar . : . Carboniferous limestone
366,509 Buttertub Pass, Upper Landscape: ,,
Swaledale .
367 Hardraw Scar, Wensleydale Gorge in Yoredale rocks
368 Middleton, High Force . River erosion; waterfall
510 Hell Gill, near Hawes
”
” ”
Photographed by H. Ricuarpson, Sedbergh School. Size 6 x4 inches.
369-372 Taith’s Gill, Sedbergh . Anticlinal in Carboniferous limestone
373,374 Crook of Lune . F . Bannisdale slates
Photographed by A. G. Ev, Sedbergh School. Size 6 x 4 inches.
375 NorGill, Sedbergh . . Carboniferous limestone
376,377 Taith’s Gill 5 “e =F
378 Garsdale . x Z . Silurian rock
379 River Rawthay . : . River valley: Silurian rocks
Photographed by H. H. Cons, Sedbergh School. Size 4x8 inches.
380 Uldale Force, Sedbergh . Horizontal beds of Carboniferous limestone ;
waterfall
381,382 Hebblethwaite Gill . . Conglomerate bed
383 Rawthay Bridge . . Vertical beds of Carboniferous limestone
330 REPORT—1891.
Photographed by A, Lampert, York Terrace, Harrogate. Size 4x3 inches.
Regd. No.
384 Ripon Park; Banks of Ure Contorted strata (? Yoredale)
385 Swaledale; Catrigg Force. River erosion (Carboniferous limestone)
386,388 + Kisdon Force . a aC
387 Fs East Gill Beck. FA ae
389 s, Mill Gill, near Askrigg 4 a
Photographed by Goprrey Briyetey, 15 Cardigan Road, Leeds.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
484 Ingleton, Thornton Force . Carboniferous limestone resting on Silurian
grits
485,486 ~ Baxendale Gorge Channel in Silurian grits
487-498 Harrogate, Brimham Rocks Millstone grit; weathered masses
499 “5 Birk Crag. , 5 sf
500 a Plumpton Rocks 3 FA
501-504 Meanwood, Leeds; Rowley’s Glacial débris lying on contorted Lower Car-
Quarry boniferous shales
505, 506 Pateley Bridge, High Stean Gorge in Carboniferous limestone
508 Baldersby Park,nearThirsk Large boulder of Carboniferous grit
Purchased by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union (Ceol. Photo. Section)—per
J. E. Beprorp, Secretary, 9 Cardigan Road, Leeds. Size 4x 3 inches.
511 Ilkley; ‘Cow and Calf’ Blocks of Millstone grit
Rock
Photographed by A. E. Nicwous, Borough Engineer’s Office, Leeds.
Size 8 x 6 inches.
512 Winterburn Reservoir, near Brecciated limestone in Bowland shales
Gargrave
513 . Striated boulder of limestone
514 Harrogate, Plumpton Rocks Millstone grit
518-520 Hunslet, Leeds (Gould & Lower coal measures
Stevenson’s brickyard
and quarry), 1891
[Showing the condition of the excavations photographed by
Mr. F. W. BRANSON in 1885. ]
521 Leeds, Boyle’s brickyard . Coal measures
522 Bradford, Cliff's clay pits . Glacial drift
515-517 Otley (Alm’s Cliff). . Kinderscout grit
523, 524 Scarborough, Castle Hill . Calcareous grit (oolite) with ‘ doggers’
Norra WaAtgEs.
Per Manchester Geographical Society, Ext Sowrrsvrts, F.R.G.S., Secretary.
(Photographed by members.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
313 Swallow Falls, R. Llugwy. River erosion
314, 315 Fairy Glen, Bettws-y-Coed 3 4
316, 317 Conway Falls, a5
328 Rapids, Conway River .
Per Birmingham Natural History Society. Contributed by C. J. Watson,
Acock’s Green, Birmingham. (Photographed by F. I. Witttamson,
Esher, Surrey, and G. W. Wiuus, Wylde Green, near Birmingham.)
Size 8 x 6 inches.
319-321 Llanberis . 4 ' - Perched blocks
322 Capel Curig : : ‘ +:
”
Regd. No.
323 Capel Curig (S.E.) . .
324 Cwm Tryfaen (W. side)
— =.
325 Trefriew . 4 A .
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.
Roche moutonnée
Large perched block, lying on glaciated sur-
face
Glaciated rock-surface on W. side of road
Photographed by Dr. Henry Sratrerrotu, M.A., Chester.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
353 Tremerchion, Vale. of
Clwyd, 1890
Exterior of bone caves in limestone; Fynnon
Beuno and Cae Gwyn
Photographed by W. W. Warts, M.A., F.G.S., Geol. Survey of Ireland,
14 Hume Street, Dublin.
441 Welshpool, Quarry at
442 Arenig, Railway Cutting .
443 ER Gena Cader Idris.
451
444 Llyn- y- -Cae (from N. side),
Cader Idris
445 Llyn-y-Cae (from E. side)
Cader Idris
446 Llyn-y-Cae (east of), Cader
Idris
447,448 Llyn-y-Cae, Cader Idris.
449 Y Foel Perfydd, Pen-y-
Gwryd
450 Pass of Llanberis, below
mouth of Cwm Glas
Per G. H. Morton, F.G.8., 209 Edge Lane, Liverpool.
Enlar gements from + plate.
Dyke of columnar diabase
Boulder clay, with boulders
Moraine dam
Lake dammed by moraine
Moraine dam
Perched blocks
Roche moutonnée
Rs and perched blocks
Perched block (figured by Sir A. C. RAMSAY)
Glacial moraines (described by Sir A. C.
RAMSAY)
(Photographed by
the late W. H. Witson, of the Liverpool Geological Society.) Size
12 x10 inches.
550 Llangollen, Tan-y-Castell
Ravine, Eglwyseg Rocks,
1876
551 Llangollen, Craig-yr-ogof .
552 Llangollen, Ty-nant Ravine,
facing Craig-yr-Ogof on
the North (Panoramic
view, 20 x 43 inches)
Carboniferous limestone
” ”
Carboniferous limestone
[Showing the subdivisions of the Carboniferous limestone series, described by
Mr. Morton in ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.,’ Vol. III., 1876.]
Photographed by J. J. Coin, F.R.A.S., § Mayland,’ Sutton, Surrey.
$86 Llanberis Pass
587 Spur of Snowdon
588 Cwm Glas, Snowdon.
Altered rhyolites, lavas and tuffs
Ordovician slates, &c.
Glaciated hollow; roche moutonnée
ScOTLAND.
Photographed by Joun Stewart, 32 Boyd Street, Largs, Ayrshire.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
348,349 Ness Glen, Doon Water
Dalmellington),
(near
1891
350 Loch Doon
River erosion
Glaciated surface (rock basin)
332
Regd. No.
351 Strathblane 5 :
352 ‘Spout of Balagan’
353 Cumbrae, ‘ Lion Rock’
REPORT—1891.
‘ Balagan beds,’ with fault in limestone
Valley erosion
Trap dyke
Photographed by Antuur S. Rein, Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perth.
408 Perth, 1891 2 .
Large glaciated boulder
Photographed by Wu. Norriz, 28 Cross Street, Fraserburgh. :
Size 8 x 6 inches.
390 Colonsay, W. Coast, 1888 .
391 S.Mull . : : :
392 Island of Mhurie, 1887
393 Pr Tiree, 1889 .
394 =) Rona, 1887.
395 “A of 4 .
396 s Treshuist, 1889
397 ” ” .
398 Whitenhead,1889 .
399 n a5, Ne
400 a
401 Island of Rum . t 2
402 i Mingulay, 1888 .
403 ” ” ” .
Wind-eroded rocks
Feathered fracture in basalt
Basaltic peak
‘Ring and Cupped’ stone
Wave tunnel
West horns of N. Rona
Summit of ‘ Dutchman’s Cap’
Sea ‘stack’
Contorted gneiss
N. end of great fault
Stack of Mharagach
S.W. cliff
Cliff on W. coast
Per A. R. Hunt, #.G.8., Southwood, Torquay.
(Photographed by Mr. A. J. Corrin.)
433 Ross Bay, Kirkcudbright-
shire
Roches moutonnées
(Photographed by A. R. Hunt.)
434 Rumbling Bridge, Dunkeld River valley, with pot-holes in bed of stream
IRELAND.
Photographed by W. H. F. Avrxanper, 14a Chorley Old Road, Bolton,
Size 4x3 inches.
341 Castle Connell, bank of
Shannon, 1890
342,343 Kilkee ;
344-346, Y ; :
347 Glengariff, Co.Cork .
Carboniferous limestone
Sea cliffs and stack
Marine denudation ; caves and headlands
Perched block on road to Berehaven
Photographed by Miss M. K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens, Belfast.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
326-328 Carnmoney Hill, Co. An-
trim, 1891
329-334 ” ” ”
337 Cushendun.
338 Whitehead.
339 The Corran, Lorne
530 Kinbane Head
$31, 532 Ballycastle ; -
533 x Colliery Bay .
$34-537 Whitehouse, Macedon Pt. .
335,336 Corr’s Quarries, Armagh
Old Volcanic neck
Sections in chalcedony quarry
Old Red sandstone
Trap dyke
Gravel beds on boulder clay
Chalk underlying basalt
White chalk
Dyke in Carboniferous strata
Dykes in Bunter sandstone
Trap dyke
q
—————— ll ee ee; hmm
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 333
Regd. No.
340 Copeland Island, Co. Down Lower Silurian
538 Holywood Shore 3 Lower Carboniferous shales
539,540 33 3 PP Dyke in Lower Keuper
541 ” (near Marino), Marine erosion of coast line
Co. Down
529 Downhill, Co. Londonderry Chalk underlying basalt
Photographed by Tempest AnpERsoN, M.D., 17 Stonegate, York.
(Hnlargements from 4-plate negatives.)
553,554 Garron Point, 1891 . . Great fault
555 =F 3.) Quarry. . Junction, basalt and chalk
556 Carrick-a-Rede . 5 . Old volcanic vent
557 3 : : . Sea stacks
558 Kenbane Head . : . Basalt on chalk; fault
559 Portnakillew . : . Intrusive basalt
560 Portnaboe. : : .’ Dyke
561 Giant’s Causeway . . Basalt; marine erosion
562,563 5 op and Columnar basalt
amphitheatre
564 Pleaskin . : i ; cf 46
565 White Rocks, Dunluce . Spheroidal basalt
566 9 ” . Natural arch in chalk
567 Garron; ‘White Lady’ . Weathering of chalk
568 Portmoon . . : . Marine denudation
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. C.
Davison (Secretary), Sir F.'J. Bramwe.., Mr. E. A. Cowper,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor Ewrne, Mr. Isaac Roserts,
Mr. Tuomas Gray, Dr. Jonn Evans, Professors PRESTWICH, HULL,
Lezour, MEtpoua, and Jupp, Mr. M. Watton Brown, and Mr.
J. GLAISHER, appointed to consider the advisability and possi-
bility of establishing in other parts of the country Observations
wpon the Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar to those now
being made in Durham. in connection with coal-mine explo-
sions.
Durine the past year the Committee have examined a large number
of instruments designed for the observation of earth tremors and other
small movements of the earth’s crust. They hope to be able, in their
next report, to report upon them and to recommend instruments specially
adapted for use in this country.
The Committee invite designs or suggestions for the construction of
the following instruments: (1) a seismoscope for recording the time of
occurrence of a tremor, either by stopping or preferably by not stopping
a clock; (2) a self-registering instrument for determining the time of
occurrence, the direction, amplitude, &c., of a tremor or series of tremors ;
and (3) a simple form of nadirane or other instrument for the observation
of slight earth-tilts. Communications on this subject should be addressed
to the Secretary (Mr. C. Davison, 38 Charlotte Road, Birmingham), who
_will be glad to answer any inquiries.
The Committee respectfully suggest that they be reappointed, but ask
for no grant.
334 REPORT—1891.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chuir-
man), Messrs. W. D. Crick, T. G. GrorGE, Wm. HuLL, E. A.
Watrorp, E. Witson, H. B. Woopwarp, and BrEsy THOMPSON
(Secretary), to work the very Fossiliferous Transition Bed be-
tween the Middle and Upper Lias in Northamptonshire, in
order to obtain a more clear idea of its fauna, and to fix the
position of certain species of fossil fish, and more fully investi-
gate the horizon on which they occur. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)
In 1863 Mr. E. C. H. Day published in the ‘Journal of the Geological
Society’ a paper entitled ‘On the Middle and Upper Lias of the Dorset-
shire Coast.’ In this paper, page 295 of the Journal, Mr. Day describes
‘The Marlstone with its Pleurotomaria Bed.’ From this description it
appears that the marlstone rock bed is capped by a remarkable bed of
small thickness, abounding in gasteropods and other fossils, which indicate
—particularly the ammonites—a passage bed between the Middle and
Upper Lias. Mr. Day considers that the Fish bed of Ilminster and
Dumbleton is absent.
In 1865-66 Mr. Charles Moore published, in the ‘ Proceedings of the
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History Society,’ a long paper
‘Onthe Middle and Upper Lias of the South-West of England,’ in which
he describes a zone situated between the Marlstone and Fish bed under
the name of the Leptena. beds.
In 1872 Mr. Thos. Beesley read a paper before the Warwickshire
Naturalists and Archeologists’ Field Club entitled ‘A Sketch of the
Geology of the Neighbourhood of Banbury,’ in which mention was made
of a passage bed between the Middle and Upper Lias. This paper was
published in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Society.
In 1876 Messrs. Tate and Blake published their ‘ Yorkshire Lias,’
in which they described a zone of the Middle Lias, under the name of
the Zone of Ammonites Annulatus, occupying the position of the Pleuro-
omaria bed of Day and the Leptzna beds of Moore.
Again, in 1879 Mr. Edwin A. Walford published in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Warwickshire Naturalists and Archeologists’ Field Club’ a paper
‘On Some Middle and Upper Lias Beds in the Neighbourhood of Ban-
bury.’ This paper describes a bed situated between the Marlstone rock
bed and the Upper Lias Fish bed, in the south-western parts of North-
amptonshire, under the name of the Transition bed.
Some few years ago two of the members of this committee—Messrs.
Thompson and Crick—detected the same bed in a rather large number of
widely separated parts of Northamptonshire, and as far north as Tilton,
in Leicestershire.!
As it seemed of considerable interest to more thoroughly investigate
this bed and those immediately above and below it, and there was much
difficulty in doing so owing to nearly all the Marlstone quarries being
closed, the British Association kindly made a grant of money for the
purpose. The present report gives the results of the investigation.
1 Mr. E. Wilson had previously described the deposits at Tilton, but did not
separate the Transition bed from the rock bed.
{!
ON THE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 335
By the date of delivering the report, July 25, it has not been possible
to thoroughly investigate all the material collected, but if anything further
of interest is found a supplementary report will be presented in 1892.
We particularly desire to thank Mr. S. §. Buckman, F.G.S., for
examining and reporting on the ammonites, and Mr. E. Wilson, F.G.S.,
the gasteropods.
SITUATION OF SECTIONS.
The sections that have been opened are situated respectively at Milton,
about 3 miles S.S.W. of Northampton ; at Bugbrook, about 4 miles almost
due west from the last named; near to Arbury Hill, and at Catesby,
about 8 miles further westward; and at Chipping Warden, about 6}
miles §.S.W. of the Arbury Hill one.
The list of fossils contains some collected over a rather wider area
and extending northwards as far as Watford (on the railway), 74 miles
N.E. of Catesby.
It will be noticed, therefore, that the investigation embraces places
situated 14 miles apart from N.E. to 8.W., and about 12 miles at right
angles to this.
GENERAL SECTION.
The section given below shows the sequence of the beds studied, in
its most complete form.
Ft. in.
Unfossiliferous clays of the Upper Lias . 70toi00 0
*Communis’ { A. Upper Cephalopoda bed. : é é 0 6
beds. Bb. Clay with numerous small planulate ammonites 3to6 0
‘Serpentinus’ { C. Lower Cephalopoda bed . : . - 0 6to9
Z beds. | D. Calcareous clay—few fossils. . : . dtod5 0
ER E. Cephalopoda bed—not constant : - 0 4
23 F. Shale—large ammonites and fish fragments On:
a8 G. Fish bed—nodular . : 0 2
a t H, Paper shale . r 0 4
See, Pish beds. {! Wah hed in loeoe elas 0 2
J. Paper shale : : ; ; : ; 0 5
Transition K. Red sand or sandy clay . ; . |1 O greatest
beds. L. Grey marl . ; F :
¢ . J thickness.
‘Spinatus’ zone. M. Marlstone rock bed - 6 0
In regard to the above section we may say that there is no exposure
giving the full sequence, and that where the upper beds are shown
the lower ones may differ somewhat from this, and vice versd.
With regard to E and F the evidence is about equally balanced as to
whether they should go with the ‘ Serpentinus’ beds or the Fish beds,
and so we prefer at present to leave it undecided. They may be regarded
as constituting a transitional zone.
The first section was opened in the spring of 1890 at Milton, about
3 miles §.S.W. of Northampton, but owing to the delay in procuring
permission, and other difficulties experienced, that was the only one that
conld be opened that year. In some respects, however, this was the
most interesting section examined. It has the advantage of being further
eastward than any other section exposing the same beds, and, as has
been pointed out elsewhere,! the beds seem to vary more at right angles
to the line of strike than they do along it.
" The Middle Lias of Northamptonshire, by Beeby Thompson, F.C.S., F.G.S.
336 REPORT—1891.
Section oF Mippie anp Upper Lias Breps NEAR TO Minton.
The letters A, B, C, &ec., refer to the position of beds in general
section.
Ft. in
1. Soil passing into marly clay. The clay, which is
nearly white, only occupies a few inches near the
base. A few fragments of Belemnites . 2 6
E.—2. CEPHALOPODA BED.—An argillaceous limestone,
hard, nearly white, very fossiliferous, chiefly large
ammonites of the falcifer group badly preserved. 0
Ammonites serpentinus (near to) Aptychi.
5 Strangwaysi (common).
5 exaratus.
ye cornucopia.
Cerithium gradatum ?
F.—3. A light-coloured, somewhat shaly bed, moderately
hard, scarcely to be distinguished from No. 2 in
appearance, and containing similar Ammonites of
large size. Numerous fish ae in lower
portion : : : - 3 ; tO
G.—4. Fish Brep.—A light-coloured oats eet not
continuous, resting on or in thin shale. ish
fragments common, also small Ammonites and their
aptychi . : : - : : | XO
H.—5, PAPER SHALE.—A shale splitting into very thin
laminz, of a colour almost ay, like No. 3.
Fish fragments common : see)
I.—6. FIsH BED in large slabs, most of wien split laity
into two or three thinner ones. Fewer fish frag-
ments and other fossils in this than in No. 4 0
J.—7. PAPER SHALE changing downwards into a more
clayey layer, and then a more sandy one, altering
to a reddish colour, and gradually losing its shaly
character - : : : : : janO
8. Bluish shale or clay, ee sandy, very thin, but
quite distinct and continuous throughout the sec-
tion. Less regular in a horizontal direction than
the other beds : : : - : - > 0
TRANSITION BEDS.
K.—9. Red sandy layer with a few pay Basewed se igs
chiefly Belemnites . 6 0
L.—10. Grey marl, or limestone, not very distinctly sepa-
rable from the sand above or the limestone below.
A great many Belemnites, perhaps six or seven
species, but much worn and often fragmentary.
Gasteropods less abundant here than in most
places where the same bedisfound . 0
Ammonites acutus (many) Arcomya vetusta (man y).
3 Holandrei (many) Lima punetata.
a Crassus. Astarte (two species).
“E annulatus. Rhynchonelle (many).
Gasteropods, Sc.
M.—11. Rock BED oF MrIpDLE L1As, very fissile at the top,
upper surface very like, and has on it similar
fossils to the Transition bed proper. Many small
flat pebbles, probably quite local, and fair amount
of crystallised carbonate of lime at the junction.
j=)
wiH
a oe ve
—
ON THE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 337
{
:
:
With regard to this section it miy be observed that in no other
locality in the county have we found the Fish bed so distinctly separated
into two layers.
Section at Buceroox.
(Mr. Ward’s farm, near the village, and south of the railway.)
Ft. in.
B.—1. Soil and blue clay, much disturbed, many little
planulate Ammonites lying about on the weathered
surface . : - : - : : 3 - 3 0
C.—2. LOWER CEPHALOPODA BED.—An irregular layer of
small water-worn stones of a ruddy yellow colour.
Oolitic in places, the broken surface across these
oolitic parts looking very like coral : 3 ae Oh iG
Ammonites communis ?
Nucula Hammeri.
Nautilus, Sc.
_ D.—3. Blue clay, rather darker colour than usually met
with on this horizon, red and sandy at the top,
also very ruddy and shaly towards the bottom.
Few fossils. : : : ¢ : : 74 6
Eand F.—4. CEPHALOPODA BED (INCONSTANT BED).—A hard
bluish grey stone, weathering quite red at joints
and exposed surfaces—called ‘Pendle’ by the
workmen. Many Ammonites of the falcifer group
and very few of the planulate, the former often
crushed quite flat, as they are in the shales below 0 8
Nautilus astacoides ? large and small.
Ammonites exaratus.
& Strangwaysi, Sc.
The fine ribbed variety of A. Strangwaysi seems
most often crushed.
H,—5. Paper SHALE.—A grey, finely laminated shale,
weathering to a much lighter colour, containing
jish fragments and a good number of flattened
Ammonites—chiefly the fine ribbed variety of A.
Strangwaysi . - - : : s 3 coe Ok ere
I.—6. FISH Bep.—A bluish-grey stone, laminated like the
shales, and weathering quite white on the exterior.
Comes out in large flat slabs—only nodular in one
part, and that just over a large fissure in the rock
bed below. 7 : - : - 6 = 80)
Fish fragments fairly abundant, only small Ammonites,
chiefly A. datescens.
Saurian rgmains more abundant here than elsewhere
in the same bed.
bo
J.—7. PAPER SHALE like No..5, though fewer Ammonites
probably 5 . ; * - <
L.—8, TRANSITION BED.—Not present as a distinct bed,
and no red clay ; nevertheless clearly shown by the
altered character of the top of the rock bed, and
by the presence in this of Ammonites Holandrei,
Cerithiwm ferreum, small Rhynchonclle, Se.
Nearly as hard as the rock bed itself.
No pebbles here.
1891. Z
338 REPORT—1891.
Ft. in.
M.—9. Rock BED OF MIDDLE LIAs.—An oolitic rock of a
greenish-grey colour internally, red at joints.
Masses of Tipe tetrahedra, many rather
small. : . : . reported tobe 5 O
Belemnites pa alias and others.
Lima punctata.
Pecten tunularis (many).
» dentatus (fair number).
The section just described was opened at what appeared to be the
most convenient spot; it was the site of an old brickyard worked many
years ago, and was left in a most convenient condition for reopening, but
as the results were somewhat disappointing, the Rev. J. Harrison kindly
gave us permission to make a section at the old Dryhurst pit, about a
mile further eastward, where the very fine fish Lepidotus gigas, now in the
British Museum, is said to have been obtained.! The depth of the Fish
bed at this spot made it impossible to work it without considerable
expense, as it exceeded 10 feet, and there was no open face to commence
at. The section made, however, shows the development of some of the
higher beds better than any other now to be seen in the district, and we
were able to get at the lower beds nearer the surface some half-mile
away. Thus the three sections in this neighbourhood enable us to get a
very much better idea of the character and succession of the beds than
we had before.
Section at Dryyurst Pit, Bucsroox.
Fi in.
1. Soil and clay ° ; ‘ ‘ . , ° 2to3 O
A,—2. UPPER CEPHALOPODA BrED.—A hard rather shaly
limestone, blue-hearted, not very homogeneous in
character, very ferruginous in places, and many of
the fossils bright red, Fossils very abundant, but
badly preserved . . . F . F 0 6
Ammonites bifrons
3 Hones Aton equally abundant.
5 communis
7 cornucopia (very large).
bs subcarinatus,
Nautilus (large).
Belemnites (long slender forms).
Lima (2 sp. ; large).
Coral.
Very few specimens of Harpoceras besides H. bifrons.
B.—3. Clay, dirty-looking, ferruginous, sandy, streaked with
blue. Same fossils as in bed above apparently, but
most fragmentary or small . . ; . . A 6
No specimen of A. bifrons detected.
C.—4, LOWER CEPHALOPODA BED.—A hard blue-hearted
stone, much more argillaceous than No. 2, purple
markings at fresh joints, ferruginous where
weathered. Some very large Ammonites—A.
Strangwaysi—but extremely difficult to extract . 0 6
} Figured in Agassiz’s Recherches sur les Poissons fossiles, vol. ii., p. 235; also in
Baker’s Northamptonshire, vol. i., p. 440.
ON TIE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 339
Ft. in.
D.—5. Dull grey clay or shale, blue towards bottom,
Bottom not reached : : 4 s - . 3 02
The continuation of this section is shown in a shallow opening some
half-mile away, and is almost exactly like that at the bottom of the first
section described (Mr. Ward’s farm), except that the Transition bed is
softer and more distinctly shown, and the Fish bed is more nodular, and
apparently more fossiliferous. It does not appear necessary to give a
separate section and list of fossils.
The next section opened was near to Arbury Hill, about 13 miles
almost due east from Northampton. In this neighbourhood the rock bed
is very near to the surface.
SECTION NEAR TO ARBURY Hitt.
1. Soil . . . . . . . . e . lto2 0
E to J ?—2. FisH Bep.—A yellowish, sometimes almost white
limestone, very irregular in composition, not in
the least like the Fish bed in the other sections
described. Crowded with Ammonites . A - 0. 3
Fish fragments (a few).
Euomphalus minutus.
Cerithium subliassicum (= Nerinwa lassica).
Cerithium gradatum ?
Ammonites cornucopia. Ammonites similis.
a serpentinus ? s cecilia.
S Saleifer. 3 exaratus.
7 Strangwaysi. + Crassus.
“ latescens. 5 N. SP.5 SC.
_L.—3. TRANSITION BEp.—A light grey marl, rather hard,
hence difficult to extract fossils from whole . , 0 3
Ammonites acutus Hinnites velatus.
eR CTASSUS Plicatula spinosa.
~ Holandrei Pecten textorius.
Turbo linetus Lthynchonella tetrahedra, Sc.
Phasianella turbinata
Acteoninia Tlminsterensis
Amberlya Holus
M.—4, Rock bed ° . . . . . . . rT 4 0 2?
Fortunately a similar section was opened at Catesby about the same
time, and worked for about a week for road metal. This gave us an
opportunity of examining the ruck bed of that district. The section
itself above the rock hed is so similar to the one at Arbury Hill that
it would be mere repetition to give it.
The rock bed is here calcareous, ferruginous, and very fissile. The
fossils obtained or noted were—
Pecten equivalvis (large form).
e dentatus.
a lunularis,
Lima sp.? (very large form).
Trigonia Lingonensis ¢
Rhynchonella tetrahedra (in masses).
Terebratula punctata.
Waldheimia resupinata, Se.
Z2
340 REPORT—1891.
It will be noticed that the last two sections, Arbury and Catesby, differ
greatly from the more easterly ones. The Fish bed is totally different in
appearance and composition, and has developed into a Cephalopoda bed.
There are no Paper Shales, and no red sandy clay between the Transition
bed and Fish bed. It is very probable that the Fish bed of this district
embraces the fauna of all the beds from E to J of the general section.
The fossils would seem to indicate this; indeed, we believe there is no
fossil from the beds E and F that is not included in the Fish-bed list.
No crushed Ammonites, and no Aptychi, have been found in the Fish
bed, where it has the abnormal characters just described.
The last section opened is situate about a mile north of Chipping
Warden. The richly fossiliferous condition of the Transition bed here
was made known by the investigations of Mr. HE. A. Walford some years
ago, when the quarry was in work. The Transition bed at Chipping
Warden is softer and more easily worked than at any other place known
tous. This may perhaps partially explain the reputed richness of the
bed. hg Dia
Section at CurppiInc WARDEN.
1. Soil . : - : : 4 : : nis a
D.—2. Light-coloured calcareous clay. A few Belemnites
and fragments of Ammonites : : :
Some fragments of whitish limestone in the upper
part are probably remnants of the Lower
Cephalopoda bed.
F? The lower portion is more shaly, and of a ruddy
colour, dark purple coloration at joints.
G, H, 1—3. Fish Brep.—A limestone in two bands, upper part
in small irregular pieces easily broken, lower in
large slabs, none of it nodular, blue interior . «0,
Ammonites Strangwaysi (very large).
i Holandrei.
” acutus? (somesmall forms differing
only a little from).
Fish remains (a fen).
Euomphalus minutus, Sc.
K, L—4. TRANSITION BED.—Clay and grey friable sandy marl,
very red in places, the marl only fossiliferous
apparently. Some small ironstone concretions and
crystallised carbonate, of lime in the lower part.
ost of the fossils from the Transition bed in the
list to follow have been at some time found at
Chipping Warden (see list) . 5 4 < op Ue
M.—5. Ferruginous limestone, similar to the rock bed, very
fossiliferous, particularly in lower part, mostly
broken shells. Large Belemnites, Pecten lunularis,
P. dentatus, Pentacrinus, Rhynchonella tetrahedra,
2 6
for)
xe. : : . : : - : «yl id
6. Sandy marl, much resembling the Transition bed,
but the fossils larger, many crushed and broken
shells, Rhynechonelle mostly as separated valves,
a few gasteropods . 5 . 0 3
7. A ferruginous limestone, very red exterior, usual fos-
sils, depth ?
The beds 5, 6, and 7 may collectively be regarded as the Marlstone
rock bed.
ON THE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 341
List or Fosstns.
< Nn
Pile lee | Ble
= : eS | 39 | ga] ea a3
Name of Fossil S| aa = : S38 z 3
Ichthyosaurus—vertebree or teeth . ma ea | * * *
Pterodactylus? (slender and apparently | | *
hollow bone).
Lepidotus gigas (British Museum) . 7 =
Pachycormus (Northampton Museum) | *
Leptolepis concentricus ? (abundant frag- | *
ments).
Amaltheus spinatus, Brug. (rare) . «| *
1. Stephanoceras commune, Sow... aI ae? * * *
2, % Holandrei, @’Orb mi | * * * *
3. ra crassum, Young and Bird . | * *
on annulatum, Sow. . peeks
4, »» (aig.) Grenouillouxi (near to)V ieee
‘i ? fonticulum, Simp. |
s Raquinianum, ‘Orb. . * *
:. semicelatum, Simp. ? .
ca n. sp. a | .*
Harpoceras acutum, Tate (abundant) se
5. A serpentinum, Rein. (near to) . z
a Frautzi, Reynes? . *
Es falciferum, Sow. . 5 : es
6. = Strangwaysi, Sow. (coarse i!
ribbed). x
cf is iin) *
i. fi lythense, Y andB. 3
8. a elegans, Sow. *
a; Po simile, Simp. ? *
o cecilia, Rein. (Tate and Blake) =
S boreale, Seeb. , a <
* exaratum, Y. and B. te He
. latescens, Simp. a
5, Levisoni, Simp. ; = 4
10. A ly mpharum, Dumort. (near to). *
3, primordiale, Schl. ? ; : os
a subplanatum, Oppel
a bifrons, Brug... bab ts ¥
mosp. 2 (2). aa F3
Phylloceras subcarinatum, Y. and B. me
Lytoceras cornucopia, Y. and B. ‘ = *
Aptychi (numerous, and of more than one) *
species). H
Nautilus astacoides, Y. and B.? 5 3 = Ee
Belemnites paxillosus, Schl. 4
2 tripartitus, Schl. Pe ihe i he
a (numerous species, much a
worn).
A apicicurvatus, Blain? . | *
ay vulgaris, Y. and B. | x
subtenuis, Simp.) | x
i I]minsterensis, Phillips? . | *? ¥
quactricanaliculatus Quenst. . | asi
* } *
Dentalium elongatum, ,Miinst.(= Dp. gracile,
Moore),
Beloteuthis ? DP ys | * |
342 REPORT—1891.
List OF FossiLS—continued.
| we
| es
| a
| Name of Fossil | x
| {RS
beg a
| Dentalium liassicum, Moore - : :
| Neritina, sp.? . 5 : : : : -
Neritopsis transvers a, Moore (near to)
i operculum =Peltarion unilobatum, |
Desl.
Cryptenia rotelliformis, d’Orb, : : an
5 consobrina, late? . 2 a fale
33 heliciformis, Desl.
Pleurotomaria helicinoides, Rom. (2 Trocius |
helicinoides)
a rustica, Desl. . ; : as)
i> anglica, Def... 3 : bel at
Hierlatzensis? Stol. 5 eat
Alaria semicostulata, Piette and Eu. Desl. . |
», Uunispinosa, Moore , 3 |
Monodonta Lindecolina, Wilson (near to) :
Euomphalus minutus, Schiib (abundant) :
Trochus Thetis, Miinst. 5 ‘ ‘
oF Pethertonensis, Moore 5 = =|
3 rotulus, Stol. . = : |
3 Mysis (near to) 2H
* Qgion, d’Orb. (=T. “Ariel, Dumort.
‘and T. lineatus, Moore ?)
a sagenatus, Wilson . 6 - a
a) duplicatus, Miinst. . 3 - a
Northamptonensis, Wilson ‘ a4
Amberlya Callipyge, Wilson . 5 :
As Gaudryana, d°Orb. : .
ei Vary = |
», Holus, @Orb. (=Trochus Emylius, |
d’Orb. ?)
os capitanea, Miinst. . : can
Bourguetia (Phasianella) i | Stol.
Turbo cyclostoma, Benz. : |
|, nudus, Moore ‘ 5 f 3 |
» varians, Moore . ; 5 A )
» bullatus, Moore ;
» Theodori, Miinst.? : . 3 :
» lineatus, Moore . : . : ‘
g Lapse p : ; i ‘ : - |
Pitonillus linctus, Moore ‘i 3 : aM
Eucyclus conspersus, Tate .. 3 F
Littorina sp.? . . : 2 : |
Cerithium liassicum, Moore : ‘ 3 aa
. pyramidale, Moore ; ‘ Ha
rf ferreum, Tate » 5 > st
i coronatum, Moore . : ‘ 2
Yh Ilminsterensis, Moore . ‘ ai
s gradatum, Moore? . ‘ F : |
reticulatum, Desl. ? : a
Cerithinella (Cerithium ) confusum, ‘late Are
Chemnitzia semitecta, Tate? . : : |
: Blainvillei, Miimster . . |
i; foveolata, Tate . . ° Oil
Actzonina Ilminsterensis, Moore . . =
ee *€
tee % * * * *
%
a *
KHER HH HH HK XK
~
Transition
Led
| Tish Bed and
|
|
Paper Shales
“
7
*
La?
mM
5 pe
ENE he
ez as
os 2
a4 =
EA io)
*
|
|
/
|
|
|
*
* ‘
(
* '
| | P
ee |
! = ‘
{
| ¥
:
*? f
.
j z
z
|
|
ON TUE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 343
List oF Fossti S—continued.
pee eres a a axe aes
ome | gei/2 te |
OF) Sajode | 2 5.2
‘f Rah; oa el SO FS 3
Name of Fossil | 3 ao 5 a | 5a as |
-S a ae i a rs)
| mA | mM |
Actxonina sp.? F ‘ | *
marginata . | #
Cylindrites Whitfieldi, Moore *
Orthostoma fontis, Dumort? . P ky |
Turritella Dunkeri, Terq. : =
Nerinza liassica, Moore (so called) = Ceri- x
thium subliassicum, Hudleston & Wilson, MS. |
Ostrea submargaritacea, Brauns. : ; = Lat |
» sportella, Dumort. : i ath Se * \
» ¢ymbium, Lam, var. obliquata vance
: x depressa R 3 *
Anomia numismalis, Quenst. . . * *
Pecten equivalvis, Sow. (large for m) é *
» dentatus, Sow. (a small var. of equi- i ra
valvis)
» lunularis, Rém.= P. liasinus, Nyst. hus * |
3» priscus, Schl. : A , 5 * x
5, calvus, Goldf. . ; : ’ 4 t
» textorius, Schl. é a E 7 be *
» Substriatus,R6m.? . ? ; x
» pumilus, Lam. . ae * x te *
strionatis, Quenst. (a. form n near to) : *
Hinnites tumidus, Ziet. oe Hi. ee Goldf. ) be fe |
Pr Daveei 3 i . e-4
Lima Hermanni, Voltz. * cet
», punctata, Sow. - F 4 aD tc: i
», eucharis, VOrb. . : F L cs *
; ap. ? (very large) . : Fi cunt Bas
» sp.?(2). yale Pe Meret, * *
Bites fratcosia, Dumort. : : : Aish eee *
Plicatula spinosa, Sow. . a here * *
Se sp.? (large, and large spines) . . be
i catinus, Des]. . a : c : *
Monotis inequivalvis, Sow. . : 5 Bale b
o ar : < : ‘ - Site =
o Sa 5 ¢ és he
TInoceramus substr iatus, Miinst, 5 : he * bal
b cinctus, Miinst. . ; : : ss *)
as dubius, Sow. (many) . é é | we
Modiola subcancellata, Buvig. ; ; Ap ay *
'Macrodon Buckmanni, Rich. . : 3 ‘ *
af undatus, Walford . ‘ é - ~
Cucullea Miinsteri, Ziet. a ; 3 s =
Arca liasina, Rim. . 5 . F : P| |e
| _,, interrupta, Moore . 3 : - F *
Nucula Hammeri, Def. . i ; 5 A *2 *
saa claviformis, Sow. Bhik doe : é *
Leda galathea, d’Orb. . 5 : ; >
| Trigonia Lingonensis, Dumort.? : ean
» pulchella. , F ‘
Astarte striato-sulcata, Rom. = AG amalthei, % =
Quenst.
Astarte Voltzii, Goldf. . “ : : : .
4 subcarinata, Miinst. . 3 e Y | # ) i
+ subtetragona, Miinst.. . } *
344
REPORT—1 891.
List oF Fosstns—continued.
Name of Fossil
Sane spi! =
Cardita multicostata, Phil.
Cardinia conciuna, Sow. =C. philea, a Orb. Salis f
Myoconcha decorata, Miinst.
Protocardium truncatum, Sow.
Lucina pumila, Miinst.
» Bellona, d’Orb.
Unicardium subglobosum, Tate
Arcomya vetusta, Bean ,
Goniomya sp. ? (many)
Opis curvirostris, Moore
Spiriferina rostrata, Schl.
Terebratula punctata, Sow.
” ” var.
Dav.
Terebratula subpunctata, Day.
3 Edwardsi, Dav.
Ss Walfordi, Dav. .
i curviconcha, Oppel?
spr . . <
Waldheimia resupinata, Sow. .
Ss indentata, Sow.
Lycetti, Dav. .
Rhynchonella tetrahedra, Sow,
” ”
Rhynchonella fodinalis, Tate .
A amalthei, Quenst.
Bouchardi, Dav.
Crustacean fragments
Serpula tetragona, Des].
* quinquecristata, Miinst.
Ditrypa circinata, Tate
es etalensis, Piette 5
Acrosalenia Banburiensis, Wright . 3
Millerocrinus Hausmanni, Rém.
Pentacrinus Jurensis, Quenst. 3
Diplocidaris Desori, Wright . 5
Thecocyathus tuberculatus, Tomes .
Nubecularia tibia, J. and P.
5 lucifugas
Wood
Radstockensis, | *
var. Northampton- *
ensis, Walker.
Transition
Bed
Fish Bed and
Paper Shales
Serpentinus
Beds
Communis
Beds
%
* eX *
*
* %
*¥ EERE EK KE RRR *X
~
*
=
Notres oN THE AMMONITES.
By Mr. 8S. S. Buckman, F.G.S.
*
*
~—
sats
Referring to the Transition-bed Ammonites Mr, Buckman says :—
he specimens of Dactylioceras are very good. They show one thing
contituously, namely, that it will not do to apply the term Commune
zone to the zone above the Falciferum zone, because, though no actual
specimens of commune are present, 7.c.,
identification, yet there are certain forms much too close.
if one be strict in regard to
*Your
researches, therefore, have settled that point, and another name must be
given to what is now called the Commune zone.
—— i Ae) te Ate ha,
-
ON TIE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 343
Another point these Ammonites show, at least so it seems to me, is
that our Upper Lias species of Dactylioceras are migrants. Several of
these species occurring at the bottom of the Upper Lias are so changed
from what I imagine to be their parent forms—Grenouillouxi and Pettos,
d’Orb.—that I think such changes must have commenced at least before
they came to us.
For fossils to which the numbers refer see list.
1. Transition-bed form between Communis and Annulatus.
2. Transition-bed form differs somewhat from that found in higher
beds.
3. Between Crassus and Desplacei.
4. Dactylioceras between Crassus and Grenouillouxi.
5. Hildoceras n. sp. (?), a form more or less of a passage between
Levisoni and Serpentinum; some of the specimens may be H. Frautzi,
Reynes.
6. The specimens of Harpoceras Strangwaysi are very variable in
ribbing, some very coarsely ribbed, others very finely ribbed. It is a
matter of opinion whether they should be all classed under one name ;
at any rate, there is no other name fur them.
7. Mostly young forms, narrow centred, otherwise very like H.
simile.
8. Harpoceras elegans, Sow., non Wright. Some forms between
exaratum and elegans.
9. Vary between simile and lythense, wider centred than true lythense.
Ribs not as coarse as in Blake’s figure.
10. Very much like Dumortier’s figure of A. lympharum, but the ribs
appear a little less sigmoid.
SumMARY oF OBSERVATIONS.
M. The Marlstone Rock Bed.—This is the most important bed of the
Middle Lias in Northamptonshire, and throughout the country from an
economical point of view. Its usual character in the area referred to in
this report is that of a hard, calcareous, and ferruginous rock, varying in
colour from a bliish-green, or grey, to a reddish-brown, according to the
amount of weathering it has experienced. Where it comes near the
surface, as at Arbury and Catesby, it is somewhat fissile, and so of little
value except for road mending. Where dug from a considerable depth
it may be obtained in large blocks suitable for building purposes, par-
ticularly if care be exercised in placing it in the building as it exists in
the bed.
In no portion of the area investigated is it rich enough in iron to be
used as an ore, though in the south-western portion of the county, at
King’s Sutton, it has been so used. The calcareous matter in it is con-
sidered an advantage, as the stone will flux itself.
Between Catesby and Chipping Warden the bed gets very sandy, and
this character is particularly ncticeable near to Byfield.
The thickness varies from 4 feet to 12 feet, the average being about
5 or 6 feet.
. The dominant fossils are brachiopods.
Ethynchonella tetrahedra occurs in masses, and Terebratula punctate
346 REPORT—1891.
more rarely in the same manner. Bands composed of ossicles and frag-
ments of shells sometimes extend for a considerable distance. The
characteristic ammonite, A. spinatus, is exceedingly rare.
K, L. The Transition Beds.—These beds in Northamptonshire usually
consist of a rather thin band of grey friable marl passing upwards into a
red sandy clay, though the latter is not unfrequently absent where the
former may be distinctly identified.
The marl, inits most typical form, appears to consist of a highly
porous, calcareous matrix containing numerous small rounded grains of
the same composition, which latter may be plentiful enough to give it
an oolitic character. It weathers reddish-brown on exposure. The
lower portion sometimes passes into a hard compact limestone, but even
then, apart from the fossils, it can usually be identified, though its exact
junction with the rock bed may remain doubtful.
The thickness, including the red sandy clay, seldom exceeds 6 inches,
but at Milton they together measure a foot.
The red sandy clay does not, as a rule, contain fossils, but at Milton
it contained a good many casts of belemnites and evidences of other
fossils.
The lower portion of the Transition beds may be described as a highly
fossiliferous bed, both as regards individuals and species, though, as the
fossils are mostly small, and require a good deal of patient searching for,
it would not always give a stranger to it that impression, and of course
it is not equally fossiliferous everywhere.
The most characteristic fossil is Ammonites aculus, and it is doubtful if
this species has been found out of this particular zone, though some of the
smaller specimens from beds above may be very close to it. The sudden
appearance of this ammonite in great numbers, and its equally sudden dis-
appearance or change are matters of considerable interest that require
further investigation. The other ammonites, of the genus Stephanoceras,
are nearly equally abundant, but some of these come fully developed, and
also occur in higher beds.
The striking fossils here, however, are the gasteropods, as will be
noticed by the list.
Another noticeable feature of the Transition beds is the generally small
size of the fossils (gasteropods excepted), and particularly of the brachio-
pods and other survivors of the Middle Lias period. Small specimens of
Rhynchonella tetrahedra are probably more abundant than any other
fossil.
G, I. The Fish Bed.—The Fish bed proper is mostly a single band of
argillaceous limestone or of flat limestone ‘nodules, both of which split
easily in a longitudinal direction after exposure to atmospheric influences
for some time, and in doing so nearly always expose a number of fragment-
ary fish remains.
The nodules with us are never concretionary, and in all probability
their particular condition has been brought about by water percolating
through joints in the bed, because the upper surface is mostly more
convex than the lower, and they all show the same horizontal stratification
(compare description of Bugbrook section).
The stone has characters which enable a geologist to readily identify
it when in its normal condition. It is yellowish or quite white on the
exterior, and bluish-grey, light-brown, or yellowish inside, according to
the amount of weathering undergone.
ON THE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTILAMPTONSHIRE. 347
The stone, which has got coloured light-brown throughout, nearly
always shows a large number of parallel, nearly microscopic veins, extend-
ing right across the stone. The veins look like, and probaby are, minute
cracks filled in with crystallised carbonate of lime, and on the weathered
surface of such stones these veins stand out in relief. Thesame character
was observed in the Fish bed of Alderton, Gloucestershire.
The above isa description of the bed as it occurs at Milton, Bugbrook,
and some other parts of the county, but at Arbury Hill, Catesby, Byfield,
Chipping Warden, é&ec., it is quite different. At.these places it is very
irregular in composition and difficult to describe ; it weathers rather yellow
than white, contains fewer fish remainsand more ammonites. The Paper
Shales have not been detected where there is an abundant ammonite fauna
in the Fish bed, hence the suggestion that this is an attenuated zone re-
presenting in time and in fossil contents more than one of the beds given
in the general section. Another reason may be found in the singular
absence of armmonites of the genus Stephanoceras from the Fish beds of
Milton and Bugbrook, although found above and below, and their great
abundance in the Fish bed of Arbury Hill and Catesby, &c.
The most distinctive fossils found in the Fish bed, besides the fish
remuins, are the Aptychi of Ammonites, cephalopods allied to the Loligo
and Sepia, Cerithium gradatum ? Huomphalus minutus, Inoceramus dubius
and a Goniomya.
H, J. The Paper Shales are finely laminated shales having a very
regular and clean plane of division. When exposed to a dry atmosphere
the thin layers often exhibit a tendency to spontaneous separation from
each other, and even curl up at the edges.
The shales at any place are closely like the Fish bed at the same place
in colour, &c., and there is no doubt that the Fish bed proper must only
be regarded as a more indurated portion of the shales. This easily
accounts for more than one hard layer at some places (cf. Milton).
So far as we can judge, the fossils in the shales and Fish bed are
identically the same, only that in the shales the ammonites are mostly
crushed quite flat. The crushing may perhaps be accounted for by an
abundance of organic matter in those beds, which, as it decayed, per-
mitted them to give way under the pressure of sediment above. Ammo-
nites e@wratus seems to have resisted compression better than the other
ammonites.
The sudden appearance and decline of fish is a matter deserving of
attention. Nota fragment of any kind appears to have been found in
the Marlstone, and scarcely any in the beds just above the Fish bed.
The shales are better developed at Milton and Bugbrook than else-
where in the county.
C, D. The Serpentinus Beds,—These beds form the upper portion only
of what is usually called the ‘ Serpentinus ’ zone; the latter would include
the Fish bed and shales. Mr. Buckman recommends that these beds be
called the Falcifer beds and the zone the Falciferum zone, because,
although many ammonites of the falcifer group occur, very few agree with
the type of A. serpentinus itself ; hence a more general term is desirable.
This would agree with the Continental nomenclature.
This sub-zone rests upon the Fish beds, and usually consists of a bed of
calcareous clay, capped by an argillaceous limestone containing some large
ammonites of the ‘ Falcifer’ group.
EK, F.—This investigation has brought out the fact that there is a
348 REPORT—1891.
distinct cephalopoda bed, or may be two beds, at the base of the clay, as
well as at the top, in some places (Milton and Bugbrook).
This bed had been previously noticed at Milton, but as the fossils
found in it are, on the whole, very similar to those found in what we have
usually called the Lower Cephalopoda bed, it was thought to be that bed,
and the usually intervening clay absent. This has been completely set at
rest now by the finding of a full sequence of the beds at Bugbrook (see
Bugbrook section).
It is at present doubtful whether this bed should be classed as the
lowest of the ‘Serpentinus’ beds or the highest of the Fish beds. There
is much reason for the latter course, as it contains many flattened amimo-
nites at Bugbrook like those in the Paper Shales, also Aptychi at both
Milton and Bugbrook, and these had never before been found ont of the
Fish zone. We prefer at present to leave it as a doubtful, or transitional
zone.
D.—The clay may be dark blue when freshly exposed, but gets very
light coloured on exposure, and when dry cracks into roughly cubical
masses ; the freshly exposed surfaces are often quite purple. In some places
it contains numerous little white concretions, as does also the Cephalopoda
bed above.
Thickness a few inches to 6 feet.
There are very few noticeable fossils in this clay, except just at the
base, where the bed often gets shaly, or develops into a distinct hard
bed (see sections at Milton and Bugbrook).
A small group of new forms of Foraminifera have been described by
Dr. Rudolph Haeusler! from clays above the Fish bed at Byfield, collected
by Mr. E. A. Walford, F.G.S—Ophthalmidium Walfordi, O. nubeculani-
forme, &c. An elaborate comparison is drawn between certain Jurassic
Miliolide of the Jura and those of the neighbourhood of Banbury, Oxon.
C. Lower Cephalopoda Bed.—The ‘Serpentinus’ beds are capped by an
argillaceous limestone containing some very large specimens of Ammonites
Strangwayst and others of the falcifer group ; hence the term Cephalopoda
bed. It varies from dark blue to light yellow colour, according to
nearness to the surface; but even the light-coloured pieces exhibit a
bluish or violet-coloured interior if sufficiently thick. It often appears
water-worn. Thickness about 6 inches.
The most characteristic fossils of this sub-zone appear to be Ammonites
subplanatus, Amberlya capitanea, Opis curvirostris ? and Onustus spinosus.
All of them rather rare.
A, B. Communis Beds—These also consist of a clay capped by a
Cephalopoda bed.
B. The clay is very irregular in composition, varying much, apparently,
in the amount of sand and calcareous matter. It generally contains a
large number of small white concretions, as does also the hard bed above ;
also small argillo-calcareous nodules, like larger ones found commonly in
higher beds, appear in this for the first time in the Upper Lias.
The clay is most easily identified by the presence in it of large
numbers of small ammonites, chiefly A. communis and A. Holandrei,
which are generally quite white.
Average thickness about 3 feet.
A. The Upper Cephalopoda bed, as the hard bed at the top is usually
1 «Bemerkungen iiber einige liasische Milioliden,’ von Rudolph Haeusler, V.
Jahrbuch f. Mineralogie, &c., Ba. I. 1887.
oe TS as
ON TILE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 349
called locally, is very variable in character, but almost always fissile.
The description of this bed at Bugbrook gives a fair idea of the bed over
the area embraced by this report. At Bugbrook it is very fossiliferous,
Ammonites communis, A. Holandrei, and A. bifrons largely predominating.
Singularly, in this bed the fossils seem to lie anyhow; many of the
specimens, particularly A. bifrons, stand quite upright in it, instead of
lying on their sides as is usual. :
The most characteristic fossils of this sub-zone, besides those men-
tioned above, are Belemmnites subtenuis, and other long, slender forms;
Lrochus duplicatus, I. Northamptonensis, Eucyclus acuminatus, a’Orb.,
Nucula claviformis, and Ammonites subcarinatus.
CONCLUSIONS.
Maps.—It may be noted here that over most of the area embraced by
these investigations there is a capping of Upper Lias, varying from a
couple of feet to 10 or 12 feet, where the maps show only Marlstone.
The hard beds near the base of the Upper Lias seem to have protected
the intervening clay beds from denudation, and these latter have largely
protected the Marlstone rock bed itself, making it thus a more valuable
stone than it would otherwise have been.
Horizon of Fossils—The fact noted above may account for the
incorrect determination of the horizon of a number of fossils collected
many years ago by Miss Baker, now in the British Museum and other
places. We would particularly call attention to the specimen of Lepidotus
gigas, Agassiz, now in the British Museum, which is, or was, labelled as
from the Marlstone of Bugbrook. This certainly came from the Fish
bed of that district, as did also another specimen now in the Northampton
Museum.
Of the other fossils, chiefly ammonites, labelled as from the Marlstone,
there can be little doubt that they came from the inconstant hard bed
just above the Paper Shales. It seems highly probable that all the beds
from this Cephalopoda bed to the base of the rock bed, which constitute
almost one continuous hard layer, were formerly regarded as Marlstone.
CoRRELATION OF THE Bens.
tock Bed.—There is probably no zone of the Lias more distinctly
marked, lithologically and paleontologically, than the Marlstone rock
bed. Right across the country from Dorsetshire to Yorkshire it is
scarcely ever absent, and it varies comparatively little.
The correlation of the beds above the rock bed is not quite so certain,
but we would submit some evidences of the contemporaneity of the beds
variously designated as below :—
Pleurotomaria Bed of Dorsetshire (Day).!
Leptena Beds of Somersetshire and Gloucestershire (Moore).
Transition Beds of Northanptonshire (WALFORD).
Annulatus Zone of Yorkshire (Tare and Buake),
1. The situation of each of these beds is the same, viz., just above
the rock bed of the Middle Lias and below the Fish bed of the Upper
Lias.
ivalent of the Transition bed of the Midlands.—E. W.
"
i ' Dr. Wright did not admit that the Pleurotomaria bed of Mr. Day was the
Sd ae
350 REPORT—1891.
2. With regard to the Pleurotomaria bed, it is characterised by the
mixture of Upper and Middle Lias fossiis, the ammonites in particular
being Upper Lias forms and nearly identical with those found m
Northamptonshire ; also gasteropods are met with of many species. One
of the lamellibranchs that Day particularly mentions as a rare form—
Sanguinolaria vetusta—is abundant at Milton in the Transition bed,
though not found elsewhere.
3. The Leptena Clays of Moore agree in position with our Transition
bed, but evidently include also the shales below the Fish bed, for Moore
both speaks of the Leptena beds as extending from the Marlstone to the
Fish bed at Dumbleton, and also refers! to the flattened impressions of
ammonites and their aptychi, and fish remains in the upper portion.
Not only does the description of the beds lead to the belief that they
are the representatives of the Transition bed and part of the Paper Shales,
but we have found between the typical localities of Ilminster and
Dumbleton, viz., at Stinchcombe Hill, in Gloucestershire, a red sandy clay
just above the rock bed with Ammonites acutus in it.
4. The Annulatus Zone of Yorkshire, of Tate and Blake, is so clearly a
Transition zone from the Middle to the Upper Lias that the contem-
poraneity of this with the Transition bed of Northamptonshire need
scarcely be insisted upon. It would appear that whilst there was a
period of rest, or actual denudation of previously deposited matter, at
the termination of the Middle Lias era in some parts of the Midland and
South-western counties, in Yorkshire from the first, and some few other
places after a time, a deposit was taking place.
Fish and Saurian Zone (Moorr).
Fish Bed and Paper Shales, or Fish beds.
Paper Shales with Fish and Insect Limestones—‘ Duinbleton’
Series (Jupb).
‘Animal’ Dogger and Jet-rock Series (Tate and Brake).
Here, again, we have a set of beds differently named, but which can be
distinctly recognised as the same, extending over an area from Somerset-
shire to Yorkshire, and very seldom entirely absent.
(1) It is exceedingly probable that the lower part of the Upper Lias
limestone on the south coast is the representative of the Fish bed, for,
according to Mr. Day’s description, it contains Ammonites serpentinus in
abundance, and does not differ more from the typical form than does the
same bed only a few miles apart in Northamptonshire (compare Bug-
brook and Catesby). The list of fossils given from the upper part is
consistent with this view.
(2) The Fish and Saurian Zone is certainly the same as the Fish bed
and Paper Shales of Northamptonshire, and this investigation shows that
it would be a not inappropriate name. ?
(3) Fish and Insect Beds would not be quite so suitable a description,
as insects seem to be very local.
(4) ‘Dumbleton’ Series does not seem a suitable term, considering
» The Middle and Upper Lias of the South-West of England, by Charles Moore,
F.G.8., pp. 7 and 56, 57.
* Mr. Charles Moore expressed doubt as to the Fish bed of S.W. Northamptonshire,
described by Mr. Walford, being the equivalent of that of Somerset and Gloucester,
ON THE FOSSILIFEROUS TRANSITION BED IN NORTHAMPTONSHIRE. 351
that the beds have such a great lateral development, and can be eppro-
priately named otherwise.
(5) ‘Animal’ Dogger and Jet-rock Series—There can be little doubt
from Messrs. Tate and Blake’s description of these beds that they are the
equivalents of the beds described in this paper as the Fish bed and
Paper Shales. The points of similarity are these :—
(a) The horizon is the same, viz., just above the ‘ Annulatus’ beds.
(b) Large numbers of fishes and reptiles occur, including of the former
Leptolepis, Lepidotus, and Pachycornmus.
(c) Aptychi of ammoniies are a peculiar feature of the series, being
found in no other member of the Yorkshire Lias.
(@) Cephalopods allied to the Loligo or the Sepia are only developed
here.
(e) The ammonites are similar, and compressed specimens of A. com-
planatus and A. serpentinus occur over all the beds.
(f) Huomphalus minutus and Inoceramus dubius are common, the latter
being the most characteristic fossil.
(7) Wood is abundant.
We cannot with certainty carry the correlation further, but probably
more complete investigations would show a similar correspondence until
the sands of the South-western counties began to form. It may be that
the ‘ Cheese’ dogger at Saltwick Nab in Yorkshire represents one of our
Cephalopoda beds.
The Committee desire to express their thanks to the British Associa-
tion for giving them the opportunity of investigating a set of beds of
great interest locally, and they hope of some interest to geologists
generally.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. W. Davis (Chair-
man), Rev. E. Jones (Secretary), Drs. J. Evans and J. G.
Garson and Messrs. W. PunGELLy, R. H. TrppEman, and J. J.
WILKINSON to complete the investigation of the Cave at Elbolton,
near Skipton, in order to ascertain whether Remains of Paleo-
lithic Man occur in the Lower Cave Earth.
Tue Elbolton Cave Exploration was continued under the direction of
your Committee until the end of December 1890. The entrance to the
cave is through a shaft or pot-hole 20 feet in depth situated at the
foot of a small limestone scar on Elbolton 1,000 feet above sea-level.
The chamber, before the exploration commenced, was 30 feet long, and
varied from 7 to 13 feet in width. The floor was fairly level, with the
exception of a heap of stones under the entrance. On the surface
nothing was observed but a few sheep bones of recent origin. The
upper stratum, which varied in thickness from 4 feet at the east to
1? feet at the west end of the chamber, is the only one wherein human
remains have yet been found. It consisted of loose angular fragments of
limestone interspersed with large quantities of bones of Bos longifrons,
the horse, the boar, dog, red deer, sheep, &c. The bones of the larger
animals were split and broken, and were evidently used as food. Burnt
352 rnerort—1891.
bones and charcoal were found in three places. Three human skeletons
were discovered buried 5 feet below the floor level, with the legs bent and
the knees drawn up close to the skull. The other human bones were
more or less scattered. Most of the skulls were shattered, though two,
obtained from the east end, are fairly preserved, and are dolichocephalic,
the index of one being 73°4._ Two skeletons in very bad condition were
also found at the other end of the chamber at a much lower level, 13 and
15 feet respectively below the floor (one lying but a few inches above the
clay cortaining bones of the bear and reindeer). The latter specimens
are more decayed than the others, and could not be measured. Associated
with them was pottery of different character to that which was found in
the other parts of the cave. It is thicker, ruder, and ornamented with
triangular-shaped characters made with an angular tool. The pottery
found near the other specimens at the higher level was marked with
straight lines, which in some cases cut one another and form a diamond-
shaped ornamentation, in others the lines go in and out without intersect-
ing, and form a ‘herring-bone’ pattern; others had impressions made by
some rounded bone tool. Both kinds of pottery were made from clay
similar to that found in the cave, and both kinds were hand-fashioned
without wheel, and charred and burned from the inside. No flints or metal
of any kind have been found in the cave. The only objects obtained have
been bone pins and a few other worked bones.
Nearly all of the upper stratum containing human remains had been
cleared away before August 1890, and the next layer had been worked
for some distance, especially in the second shaft at the west end of the
chamber. So far this lower stratum was composed of stiff clay, with
angular fragments of limestone and at times a thin bed of stalagmite.
No human remains or any of the animals associated with them have
been found. These are replaced mainly by bears, both Ursus ferox and
Ursus arctos, and great numbers of Alpine hares and foxes. The bones
in this layer show no evidence of having been gnawed by other animals ;
they either perished in the fissure or their bones were washed down
through pot-holes into the cave. The bones from the lower layer are
darker, much harder, and less porous than those from the upper one.
After the meeting of the Association at Leeds the efforts of your
Committee were first directed to the careful examination of the lower
clay bed in the centre of the chamber. A pot-hole, about 10 feet deep
and 8 in width, was cleared out. This contained a few of the limb
bones of a bear. A great part of the rock floor at the foot of the first
ladder was blasted. It consisted apparently of a quantity of rock fallen
from the roof and cemented by stalagmite. We were hopeful that
underneath it we should find an old deposit. So far, however, it is’
solid. Further west the excavation was continued, the difficulty of
working in the soft adhesive clay increasing. ‘he percentage of bones
was small, and in the next 6 feet not a single bone was found. The
cave has now developed into a deep fissure, and is from 4 to 6 feet in’
width at a depth of about 45 feet from the original level of the cave
floor. The attention of your Committee was next directed to find any
possible entrance to the cave in addition to the present one: the floor
was tested along the sides of the cave east of the first ladder, but the
miners report that there the ground was all solid rock.
Between the barren clay section and the second ladder there is a
quantity of unexplored material. Huge blocks of fallen rock are wedged '
a
ON THE CAVE AT ELBOLTON. 353
in the fissure, and it was found unsafe to remove them as they underpin
an immense overhanging side of the cave 60 feet in height. The second
ladder was then descended, and a level driven beneath the fallen blocks
at a depth of 45 feet measured from the first floor. For the first 6 feet
this level was as ossiferous as any of the material yet examined, and of
similar character, containing bones of the bear and hare. Beneath was a
barren clay, followed by beds of sharp quartz sand, until the level is barred
by solid rock. In the descent two or three stalagmitic floors were pierced,
but the material continued the same above and below the stalagmite.
The new chambers that were opened last year are extensions of this
fissure. The miners have put a steel rod 8 feet lower than present level,
forcing it through another stalagmitic floor. While the east part of this
level is sand, containing no bones, the western part and the passage up to
the new chamber is a brecciated mass of bones and stalagmite.
At the farther extremity of the new chambers, and about 60 yards
from foot of second ladder, there was a deep pool into which the roof
dipped. In the floor cf the passage leading to the pool a hole 8 feet deep
was dug. The material was comminuted limestone. Here also bones of
young bears were found. They had evidently been washed down from
the first chamber. By means of this excavation the pond was lowered 4
or 5 feet. A ladder was placed across it, and an entrance effected into a
further passage leading to a large natural chamber.
So far the cave has been interesting. What may be entombed in the
unexplored depths of the fissure is a matter of pure conjecture. Whether
a repetition of the finds in the fissure at Ray Gill, and in the lower cave
earth of the Victoria Cave, with the addition of paleolithic man, must be
left for future exploration to determine.
Your Committee request reappointment, and that a grant of 251, may
be made to assist in the further exploration of the cave.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joan Evans (Chairman)
Mr. B. Harrison (Secretary), and Professors J. PREstTWwIcH and
H. G. SEELEY, appointed to carry on excavations at Oldbury
Hill, near Ightham, in order to ascertain the ewistence or other-
wise of Rock-shelters at this spot. Drawn wp by Mr. B. Har-
RISON.
Owine to hindrances, the work could not be begun until August, 1890.
The first excavation, immediately below the exposed rocks, was unpro-
ductive ina great measure. This was owing to huge trees being close
by, the roots of which, forming a perfect network, offered serious obstacles,
as, though permission had been granted by the owner to excavate, yet
damage to the trees was strictly forbidden.
A section was first cut parallel with the face of the rock, but no true
floor was reached, the rock itself being too near the surface, and forming
merely a shoulder under the surface soil.
Many days at this being unsuccessful, another excavation was made
on the slope of the hill just below, and a considerable area was trenched
to a depth of about 3 feet.
1891, AA
354 REPORT—1891.
Here, however, only Neolithic flakes were found; and great blocks,
fallen from above, and deeply imbedded in the soil, presented obstacles
not easy to surmount.
Later on work was commenced lower down still, at a spot where, in
cultivating the ground in former years, relics of Paleolithic age had been
found.
Two implements were secured, but the rocky conditions tried my
labourers’ strength; and to do the work thoroughly horse-power was
needed, the blocks in many instances weighing more than half a ton.
A good large area, however, was here trenched to a depth varying
from 3 to 5 feet.
The slope of the bold projecting spur below Mount Pleasant, lying
about fifty yards south-east of the former digging, was next tried, and
here success crowned our efforts, for very soon immense numbers of flakes
were met with, and in such profusion that I was prompted to carry on the
work thoroughly.
Leave was asked for and granted for an area of some 9 or 10 rods to
be worked over, and ere long finely fashioned characteristic Paleolithic
implements were found daily, as well as flakes, some of these so minute
that it seemed as if the place of the actual workshop had been lighted
on.
Altogether 49 well-finished implements, or portions of them, and
648 waste flakes, have been found at this spot, leading to the supposition
either that this was the froutage of a rock-shelter, or that the material
had slipped down from above. We think that it would be highly desir-
able to make further excavations in this and the adjacent area.
The greater portion of these flakes were found at depths varying from
24 to 3 feet; and, as a rule, they lay at the base of, or immediately
overlying a gravelly wash. The implements are very similar to some of
those found in the rock-shelters of central France.
Similar conditions to those of this spur appear on the north-west side
of Oldbury Hill, near to an outcrop of rock; and at various times imple-
ments have been found near it.
Leave has been granted for work to be carried on here,
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLOWER
(Chairman), Mr. D. Morris (Secretary), Mr. Carrutuers, Dr.
Sciater, Mr. Tuisriron-Dyrr, Dr. SHarp, Mr. F. DuCanE Gop-
MAN, Professor Newton, Dr. Giintner, and Colonel FEILDEN,
appointed for the purpose of reporting on the present state of
our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India
Islands, and taking steps to «vestigate ascertained deficiencies
im the Fauna and Flora.
Tis Committee was appointed in 1887, and it has been reappointed each
year until the present time.
During the past year Mr. F. DuCane Godman, F.R.S8., has continued
to employ a collector in the island of St. Vincent, and owing to the valu-
able assistance thus afforded to the Committee it has been possible to
complete the exploration of this island. The collections in zoology are
ee ee ee ee
ee
{ ON THE ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 355
_ very extensive, and those in botany extend to the whole of the phanero-
_ gams and the vascular cryptogams. No expense has been incurred by
the Committee in regard to any of these collections in St. Vincent.
The services of Mr. R. V. Sherring, F.L.S., were accepted, as men-
tioned in the last report, to make botanical collections in the island of
Grenada. He left this country in October last and returned after seven
months’ absence in June last. Mr. Sherring has forwarded to this
country large collections, consisting for the most part of vascular crypto-
gams, and these are now in course of being determined at Kew. A
detailed report on the various collections in zoology and botany received
during the past yeur is given below.
At the present time Mr. Herbert H. Smith, the collector employed by
_ Mr. Godman, is making collections in zoology in the island of Grenada.
This is the most southerly of the chain of islands intended to be explored
by the Committee. When this island is completed the Committee will
have been engaged in investigating the fauna and flora of most of the
islands in the Lesser Antilles lying between Martinique and Trinidad.
‘ee
The islands in which collections have so far been made consist of Domi-
nica, St. Lucia, Barbados, St. Vincent, the Grenadines, and Grenada,
Zoouoay.
Since the last report collections have continued to be received from
St. Vincent by Mr. Godman. The work of sorting and arranging these
collections has been begun. The arthropods are already completed, and
_ the larger part of the insects is mounted and prepared for despatch to the
specialists who have been engaged to work them out.
For this purpose the Committee have been so fortunate as to obtain the
assistance of the following naturalists: Herr Hofrath Brunner v. Wat-
tenwyl for the Orthoptera; Professor Riley for the Rhynchota; Mr.
Howard for the parasitic Hymenoptera; Professor S. W. Williston for the
Diptera; Professor Aug. Forel for the Ants; Lord Walsingham for
Lepidoptera, part ; I’. D. Godman and O. Salvin for Lepidoptera, part ; D.
Sharp for Coleoptera; M. Simon for Spiders generally ; and G. W. Peck-
ham for Attide. ‘The Committee have undertaken to procure publication
of the memoirs that may be received from these savants.
A small collection of specimens made by Dr. H. A. Alford Nicholls,
F.L.S., local secretary to the Committee in the island of Dominica, was
received in May last. This consisted of nine mammals, one lizard, one
snake, five fishes, one Ascalaphus, twelve Longicornia, two Passalide, and
five Lamellicornia. Besides these Dr. Nicholls sent from the island of
Tobago four of the peculiar nests of the yellow-tailed bird of that island
(Cassicus cristatus). These birds usually build their nests depending from
isolated branches of the silk-cotton tree (Hriodendron anfractuosum), and
they look like huge fruits waving in the wind.
A small collection of Lepidoptera was received in November last from
Captain Hellard, R.E., local secretary to the Committee in the island
of St. Lucia. The mounted specimens in this collection arrived in bad
order owing to the pieces of camphor getting loose in the boxes and
breaking the greater part of them, including almost the whole of the
Sphingide.
Mr. John C. Wells, who has devoted attention to the ornithology of
Grenada, has kindly consented to act as a local secretary for that island.
AA2
356 REPORT—1891,
Botany.
Of the botanical collections received from St. Vincent the vascular
cryptogams have been determined by Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S., and an
account of them, with two plates, printed in the ‘Annals of Botany,’
vol. v. (April, 1891), pp. 163-172. Amongst the ferns the most striking
novelty is a new species of Aspleniwn, named A. Godmani, Baker (pl. xi.),
found in damp forests at the extreme top of Morne a Garou. Other new
species are Hymenophyllum vincentinum, Baker (pl. x.), and_Acrostichum
(Elaphoglossum) Smithii, Baker. The total number of vascular eryptogams
found recently in St. Vincent amounts to 168 species. Most of these are
widely spread through tropical America and only four are endemic. In
addition to the above a new species of Heputice, also from St. Vincent
(Kantia vincentina, C. H. Wright), was described in the ‘Journal of
Botany,’ vol. xxix. (April, 1891), p. 107.
Of the phanerogams from St. Vincent and some of the Grenadines
the work of determining these is being carried on as expeditiously as
circumstances permit. The collection is a very large one, and the results
so far attained are contained in the following memorandum prepared by
Mr. R. A. Rolfe :—
The flowering plants have been determined as far as the end of
Rutacez. Those from St. Vincent number slightly over a hundred
species, of which about thirty, consisting for the most part of common
West Indian plants, were not previously recorded from the island. The
most interesting plant is a species of Trigyneia (apparently new), a small
tropical American genus of Anonacez not hitherto detected in the West
Indies. A Clusia and a species of Tetrapterys, which cannot be identified,
may also prove new. The remainder have been fully determined. The
three most interesting of these are Norantea Jussicei, Tr. and Pl., pre-
viously known only from Guadaloupe and Dominica; Zanthoaylon micra-
carpum, Griseb., from Dominica and Trinidad; and Z. spinosum, Sw.,
from Dominica, Jamaica, and Cuba. The composition of the flora of
the Lesser Grenadines, situated between St. Vincent and Grenada, was
previously almost unknewn. The plants hitherto determined are as
follows :—From the island of Bequia, 34 species; from Mustique, 18;
from Canouan, 5; and from Union, the nearest to Grenada, 5. They are
without exception common West Indian plants, and are all also natives
of St. Vincent. From the results hitherto obtained it seems clear that
the flora of the Lesser Antilles is tolerably uniform throughout, although
the larger islands of Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, and possibly
St. Vincent, appear to have each a very small endemic element.
The collections made by Mr. Sherring at Grenada consist of nearly
6,000 specimens of vascular cryptogams and about 1,000 specimens of
phanerogams. The number of species of ferns is about 140, and of these
two are new, viz., Alsophila Elliottii, Baker, and Acrostichum Sherringit,
Baker. The phanerogams have not yet been worked cut. Sixty species
of ferns were previously known from Grenada from collections made by
Mr. G. R. Murray, F.L.S., and Mr. W. R. Elliott. Mr. Sherring has
increased this number to 140. The species of greatest interest, other
than those known to be new, are Aspleniwm Godmani, Baker, recently —
found in St. Vincent; Polypodium Hartii, Jenman, first described in
1886 and known only in the mountains of Jamaica and Dominica; and
ON THE ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 357
Acrostichum Aubertii, widely spread in continental America, but new to
the West Indies. Other interesting plants collected by Mr. Sherring are
Schizea fluminensis, Miers, new to the West Indies, but believed to be
only a shade variety of S. dichotoma, and Danca polymorpha, Leprieur, a
critical form of which but little is known.
An account of vascular cryptogams collected at Grenada is in course
of being prepared for the ‘ Annals of Botany.’
Mr. Sherring has prepared an interesting report on the flora of
Grenada, and this, with a valuable series of photographs, to be shown at
the Cardiff meeting of the British Association, will prove of great interest
to students of West Indian botany.
A collection of plants was received from Dr. Nicholls at the same
time as the specimens in zoology already noticed. These consisted of fifty-
six species of vascular cry ptogams—all of them were, however, well-known
West Indian plants—and a small number (175 numbers) of phanerogams.
The latter have not yet been determined. ’
The Committee recommend their reappointment, with the ‘following
members: Dr. Sclater, Mr. Carruthers, Professor Newton, Mr. Godman,
Dr. Giinther, and Dr. Sharp. The Committee also recommend that the
grant of 100/. placed at their disposal, but not expended during the
current year, be renewed.
Draft of Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLowsmr
(Chairman), Mr. D. Suare (Secretary), Dr. Buanrorp, Dr.
Hickson, Professor Newron, Professor Ritey, Mr. O. Satvin,
and Dr. Scuater, appointed to report on the present state of
our knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna.
Tue Committee beg leave to state that the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands has been only partially investigated. A very incomplete col-
lection of insects was made there some years since by the Rev. T. Black-
burn, and described by himself and others, showing that important results
as to the origin, or origins, of the fauna of the archipelago may be ex-
pected from the study of this group. The land shells of the islands are
very numerous, and are supposed to be fairly well known through the
efforts of the Rey. J. T. Gulick and Mr. Pease; but it is the opinion of
many zoologists that additional information as to the distribution of the
mollusca in these islands would be very valuable. The birds have
been within the last few years the main object of a visit made to the
islands by Mr. Scott Wilson, who passed about eighteen months upon the
islands without being able to complete a thorough investigation of their
ornithology. Some departments of the zoology have not been investi-
gated in any way, and there is strong evidence that the fauna is rapidly
disappearing.
_ Under these circumstances the Committee have been desirous of send-
ing a competent zoological collector to the islands; but the grant made
by the Association being insufficient for that purpose the Committee
decided to communicate with the Hawaiian Government to learn whether
it would in any way assist in the research. A very favourable answer
to the application of the Committee was made by the Foreign Minister of
358 REPORT—1891.
his Majesty the late King of the Hawaiian Islands, stating his belief
that additional funds would be forthcoming if a circular were drawn up
explaining the objects of the Committee, and he offered to make such a
circular known to those inhabitants who would be likely to co-operate,
provided that a portion of the collections obtained should be ultimately
placed in the Museum at Honolulu. As the rules of the British Associa-
tion prohibit, however, this committee from issuing such a circular with-
out the sanction of the General Committee, all operations have had to be
stayed, and the grant of 100/. made to the Committee has not been drawn.
Meanwhile a committee has been appointed by the Royal Society,
and 2001. from the Government grant placed at its disposal, for the same
purpose as this committee, power being given to the former to act in
concert with the latter, as was done with much advantage in the case of
the West Indian Exploration Committee..
The Committee respectfully beg leave to recommend their reappoint-
ment, with power to act in concert with the committee appointed by the
Royal Society, and to avail themselves of the help proffered by the Hawaiian
Government on the terms above mentioned; and as the estimated cost of
employing a proper zoological collector in the islands for about two
years will amount to not less than 600/., your committee solicit a grant
of 2001.
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FostTsr,
Professor BAYLEY BaLrour, Mr. THisELToN-DyrErR, Dr. TRIMEN,
Professor MArsHaLL Warp, Mr. CarruTHers, Professor HarroG,
Mr. WALTER GARDINER, and Professor Bower (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of taking steps for the establish-
ment of a Botanical Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon.
Tue Committee desire first to acknowledge the continued co-operation of
the Government of Ceylon, and of the Director of the Royal Gardens at
Peradeniya, in giving facilities for study in the Royal Garden, and in
assigning a room in the official Bungalow for use as a laboratory.
During the greater part of the year this room has been occupied by
Mr. J. Bretland Farmer, of Magdalen College, Oxford, and at the date of
writing the report he has not yet returned; it would therefore be prema-
ture as yet to ask him for a detailed account of his work. It may,
however, be stated that his attention has been specially devoted to the
study of the Bryophyta, and that a thorough investigation of these plants
in a tropical country such as Ceylon may be expected to yield most
valuable results.
The grant of 50]. voted at the Jast meeting has been for the most
part expended on apparatus, which will remain permanently in the
laboratory, the most important items being a photographic camera, a
balance specially constructed for a tropical climate, and a dissecting
microscope by Zeiss.
The Committee hope before the next meeting to receive a detailed
report from Mr. Farmer, and alsoa list of apparatus now in the laboratory
from Dr. Trimen. In the meanwhile, having full confidence in the value
of the results obtained, the Committee request that they be reappointed,
but do not at present ask for any further grant of money.
~
ON THE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE PLANTS. 359
Fourth Report of the Convmittee, consisting of Mr. A. W. WILLS
(Chairman), Mr. E. W. BapGer, Mr. G. CLARIDGE DRUCE, and
Professor HitLHouseE, for the purpose of collecting information
as to the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local
Habitats. Drawn wp by Professor HILLHOUSE, Secretary.
For the present report the Committee solicited details as to Wales, the
border counties from Shropshire southwards, and the south-western
counties of England. As no returns have been received from Welsh
correspondents, and of the border counties only Shropshire is represented,
the report must be considered as applying to the last-named county and
the south-western counties of England. Some details as to South Wales
will be found in the report for 1890. In drawing up the list the Com-
mittee have followed the same rules as in previous years, the numbering
and nomenclature throughout being that of the ‘London Catalogue,’
ed. 8, corrected reprint for 1890.
Lists have been received from ten personal correspondents whose
initials are appended, in addition to which the Bath branch of the
Selborne Society appointed a Committee to provide returns as to the
Bath district. The Committee feel compelled to refer to the admirable
work of this young but strong and active Society in promoting the object
which the Committee have in view, work which, of its kind, is beyond
raise.
; As will be seen, the diminution of our native ferns again plays an
important part in the list, and the ‘collector’ and ‘dealer’ figure
largely. It is a matter of common and everyday knowledge that ferns
have (with the exception of the bracken) disappeared from the local
floras of our large towns ; but the ravages of the dealer are carried on so
systematically, and with the aid of all the resources that money places at
his disposal, that the most out-of-the-way places can be stripped quite as
completely as those near at hand. All the Devonshire correspondents
bear common witness to the results of his depredations in that ideal home
of the fern. j
One of our correspondents, reporting upon the area of the Bristol
Coal-fields, writes :
Before coming to the few instances of partial or complete extinction upon
which I am reporting, I should like to say that my experience as a field-botanist,
familiar with most of the species native in the South and West of England, has
led me to receive with caution and distrust reported disappearances of rare plants
from their habitats in this part of the country. On investigation it has almost
invariably turned out that such reported extinctions were not well founded, and
had frequently been made by persons imperfectly acquainted either with the plants
themselves or with the localities where they grow. Not long since a letter was
ublished in the London ‘Standard’ which condemned the ‘wantonness of
botanists, in that they had compassed the destruction of the Euphorbia pilosa
near Bath, and the Cheddar Pink, My knowledge of both convinced me that the
writer had entirely missed the station for the former plant, and that he could not
have visited Cheddar when D. cesius was in bloom. Some other supposed extinc-
tions have proved to rest on the apparent disappearance of species (particularly
annuals) in an unfavourable season, or succession of seasons. But these plants have
been found to reappear when the depressing climatal influence has been withdrawn.
As examples may be mentioned Cicuta virosa and Rhyncospora fusca, ancient
360 REPORT—1891.
inhabitants of the peat-moors on the southern limit of this district. Both these
plants continue to be observed at intervals of a few years; but so uncertain are
they in appearance that I have never yet known anyone to go specially in search
of them and be successful in his quest. But it would be an error to consider
either to be in danger of extinction. A circumstance occurred only last week that
strongly confirms my contention. About twelve years ayo I found a large patch
of Crambe maritima on the Dorsetshire coast. A year or two later the plant had
entirely disappeared, and no trace of it could be found on several subsequent visits,
the last two years ago. But on Wednesday last I was greatly pleased to see at
least twenty five specimens growing upon the exact spot whence it had been
absent for nine or ten years. Here, with some show of reason and yet in error,
might have been reported a case of extinction of a rare species.
One of the best known of western botanists places his finger upon
what the Committee cannot help feeling to be a source of danger to
plants in the following extracts from his letter :—‘ In early life—that is,
before 1841—I botanised over the neighbourhood of , and unfortu-
nately, with the late of , drew up a list of the plants in that
district, since which many ferns have disappeared from the localities that
we gave, and I fear that ’s habit of giving them will lead to the
extirpation of many other plants ;’ and another correspondent (Devon-
shire), dealing with the same point, instances Leighton’s ‘Flora of
Shropshire’ as one ‘ by the aid of which a child might walk straight up
to any plant in the county.’ It is a matter, no doubt, of very grave
difficulty to determine to what extent it is desirable in a local flora to be
precise in the description of localities, and the Committee do not feel
that they are either competent or called upon to suggest laws upon the
subject. They do not see, however, that exactitude in defining locations
serves any really good purpose, and it certainly takes away somewhat
from the zest of a search, and removes an incentive to patient perse-
verance. ‘Two correspondents illustrate the opposite method to that
complained of, inasmuch as one will not state a locality from which
Osmunda regalis is disappearing, lest thereby he should spread the know-
ledge of its continued existence therein; and another writes :—‘ A few
days ago a very interesting discovery was made by a member of my
family, viz. a large patch of Maianthemum convallaria (L. C., 1394) in a
wild, out-of-the-world district; but such a dread I have of marauders
that even in my communication with Kew I have not gone beyond
naming the county in which the “ find” occurred.’
More than one correspondent draws attention to the mischief very
often done by field clubs, not merely in the reckless and often extensive
removal of rare plants during their periodical forays, but that in the
‘Transactions,’ in the local press, and privately, the exact ‘finds’ and
localities are indicated, so that further destruction becomes inevitable.
So long as field clubs themselves are such hardened sinners in this respect,
as many of them appear to be, it seems useless to invoke their assistance
in their respective localities for the purpose of urging upon the public
generally, and landowners particnlarly, the desirability of affording some
protection to the rarer of their local plants in their struggle for existence,
and of endeavouring rigidly to repress the loafers who gather the fern-
roots and hawk them for sale.
The attention of the Committee is again drawn to the unsatisfactory
condition of the law of trespass, and the consequent difficulty under which
magistrates lie when called upon to act in the interests of wild plants.
While the Committee feel that the time is not yet ripe for even
ON THE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE PLANTS. 361
taking into consideration the desirability of making any general appeal for
Government protection, they are strongly of opinion that, in one case, at
least, of special interest alike to South Wales and South-West England,
such an appeal is urgently needed, and would probably be successful, in
favour, namely, of Ponta corallina, Retz (L. C., 47), threatened with
extinction from its sole British habitat, the Steep Holmes. In this case
the Committee think that there is a special reason for an appeal to
Government, since they understand that the recent acquisition of the island
as Government property, and the consequent removal of the regulations
enforced by the previous proprietor, are the direct cause of the approach-
ing extermination.
40, 41. Helleborus viridis, L., and H. fetidus, L. Nearly extinct in
their stations near Bath, through the raids of dealers (S. 8. B.).
43. Aquilegia vulgaris, L. Formerly plentiful in a field near Melks-
ham, Wilts; disappeared through change of culture (B. 8.).
47, Peonia corallina, Retz. Steep Holmes; threatened with extinc-
tion from this, its only British habitat.
200. Silene nutans, L. Disappeared from its station at Hawkstone,
Shropshire; probably being destroyed by rabbits (W. E. B.).
209. Lychnis Githago, Lam. Diminishing near Plymouth, from
improved tillage (D. D. D.).
351. Trifolium Bocconi, Savi. ‘The only British habitat of this plant
is in Cornwall, at the Lizard, where it has become extremely scarce
through the ravages of a local guide and dealer, who collects and sells
the Lizard plants to all who apply for them. A wealthy lady member of
the exchange clubs pays this man freely, and is responsible for much
mischief’ (J. W. W.).
495. Potentilla Comarum, Nestl. Banks of Tamar, near Plymouth;
probably uprooted by steamboat trippers (D. D. D.).
612. Eryngium campestre, lu. Nearly extinct in its station near Ply-
mouth, where found by Ray in 1662, owing to the greater public use of
its site (D. D. D.).
1003. Lnthospermum purpureo-ceruleum, L. Nearly extinct on the
sea-coast near Torquay (T. H. A.-H.).
1018. Atropa Belladonna, L. Near Box, Wilts ; destroyed by a clergy-
man (R.C.A.P.). Near Plymouth; destroyed by excavations for a fort
(D. D. D.).
1020. Hyoscyamus niger, L. Near Plymouth; disappearing from un-
known causes ; attempts to grow it for commerce have failed (D. D. D.).
Wroxeter, Shropshire ; ‘ when the excavations on the site of Uriconium
began in 1858 or 1859, a very abundant crop of this plant appeared for
several years, but it has dwindled away, and is rare there now.’ It has
also become rare about Much Wenlock, where it was formerly common
(W.E.B.). [Compare the reports from Avoch, on the Moray Firth,
recorded in Second Report of the Committee. |
1228. Rumex maritimus, L. Has disappeared from its Ellesmere
station, Shropshire, probably being taken by a collector (W. P.).
1239. Daphne Mezereum, L. Nearly extinct in the Bath district ; used
for medicinal and other purposes (S. S. B.).
__ 1240. D. Laureola, L. Is now dug up in the woods round Bath by
dealers, and sold in Bath (S. S. B.).
362 REPORT—1891.
1251. Euphorbia pilosa, lL. Is still to be found in Bath station ; col-
lectors are its chief enemy (S. 8. B.).
1339. Cephalanthera paliens, Rich. Formerly plentiful near Bath, but
now being rapidly eradicated by dealers (8. 8. B.).
1358. Ophrys apifera, Huds. Plymouth ; extinct since 1875, in its only
local station, through railway extensions (D. D. D.).
1370. Iris foetidissima, L. Has disappeared from the vicinity of Ply-
mouth through building operations (D. D. D.).
1380. Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus, L. Is greatly diminishing through
the lanes and orchards of S. Devon, mainly through ‘ indiscriminate
purchase by nurserymen and others from persons who advertise and sell
them by the thousand’ (T. H. A.-H.).
1383. N. biflorus, Curtis. Gradually diminishing in the orchards of S.
Devon, from the same causes as 1380 (T. H. A.-H.).
1385. Galanthus nivalis, L, As 1380 (T. H. A.-H.).
1386. Leucojum cestivum, L. Until recently found on the banks of the
Dart, S. Devon, but now apparently quite extinct (T. H. A.-H.).
1474. Damasonium stellatum, Pers. Has disappeared from its Elles-
mere station, Shropshire, the site being covered by a garden (W. P. and
WB:):
1521. Cyperus longus, L. ‘ Weston-in-Gordano, North Somerset ; the
spot was anciently a fish-pond, but by gradual drainage it became a
marsh, and within the last few years has been ditched, ploughed, and
planted ; the sedge still comes up amongst the crop, but does not flower,
and probably will soon cease to exist’ (J. W. W.).
1659. Polypogon littoralis, Sm. St. Philip’s Marsh, Bristol ; destroyed
by brickmakers excavating the ground, and afterwards filling in the place
with rubbish (J. W. W.).
1761. Hymenophyllum Tunbridgense, Smith. Disappearing from neigh-
bourhood of Plymouth, through removal by people (D. D. D.).
1762. H. wnilaterale, Borg. As in 1761 (D. D.D.).
1764, Adiantum Onpillus-Veneris, L. Nearly extinct round Ilfracombe,
through collectors (W. P.H.). Formerly plentiful on the 8. Devon coast,
but ‘it has been wantonly plundered and is now nearly extinct’
Ca. Ho A:-H.).
1766. Cryptogramme crispa, R. Br. Apparently extinct near Linton,
N. Devon; exterminated by collectors (W. P. H.).
1769. Aspleniwm lanceolatum, Huds. A few years ago quite plentiful
on the coast of S. Devon, but now nearly extinct through collectors and
dealers (T. H. A.-H.). Has disappeared from Leycomhe, Ashburton,
through collectors (I. A.).
1770. Asplentum Adiantum-nigrum, L. Formerly not uncommon about
Haighmond Hill, Salop; now rare, no doubt through fern-gatherers
GW P:):
1771. Asplenium marinum, L. Trewornan, Wadebridge ; much sought
after, and large plants are now uncommon (D.S.). Becoming yearly
more scarce on the coast of 8. Devon, ‘through the greed of collectors,
and the thoughtlessness of those who ought to know better’ (T. H. A.-H.).
1777. Asplenium septentrionale, Hull, Porlock ; carried off by a Bristol
dealer (RK. C. A. P.). Apparently extinct round Lynton, N. Devon;
exterminated by collectors (W. P. H.).
1778. Athyrium Filiz-foemina, Roth. East side of Longmynd, Shrop-
shire ; much reduced by visitors (W. P.). :
ON TIE DISAPPEARANCE OF NATIVE PLANTS. 363
1782. Scolopendrium vulgare, Symons. Formerly abundant in some
stations near Bath, but being rapidly reduced by dealers (S. S. B.).
1789. Polystichum lobatum, Pres]. Roadside between Yorton railway
station and Clive, Salop; has disappeared (W. P.).
1790. Polystichum angulare, Presl. Disappearing from neighbourhood
of Plymouth through action of fern-collectors and dealers, and of persons
who transplant the roots into gardens (D. D. D.).
1792. Lastrea Oreopteris, Presl. Disappearing from east-end of Long-
mynd, near Church Stretton, Salop, through visitors (W. P.).
1793. Lastrea Filixv-mas, Presl. Far less plentiful round Bath,
mainly through dealers (8. 8. B.).
1802. Phegopteris Dryopteris, Fée. Light-spout Valley, near Church
Stretton, Salop; all but exterminated by visitors (W. P.).
1803. Phegopteris Robertiana, A. Br. (= Polypodium caleareum). Near
Melksham, Wilts; disappeared through building operations (B. 8.).
1804. Phegopteris polypodioides, Fée (= Polypodium phegopteris, L.).
Has disappeared from banks of river Dart, S. Devon, through collectors
(Ff. A.).
1806. Osmunda regalis, L. Disappearing from neighbourhood of Ply-
mouth, from action of fern-collectors and dealers, and of persons who
transplant the roots into gardens (D. D. D.). Now scarce in N. Devon,
through collectors (W. P. H.). A few years ago most abundant both in
N. and S. Devon, but now rapidly disappearing everywhere through col-
lectors (T. H. A.-H.). In Shropshire much reduced by collectors (W. P.).
1825. Lycopodium clavatum, L. Formerly plentiful on the Longmynd
Hills, Salop, but now scarce; ‘I have seen it at the hotel at Church
Stretton used to decorate the table’ (W. P.). [The same decoration is
very common at shooting-breakfasts in the Highlands. |
Report of a Conmittee, consisting of Professor Newron, Mr. JoHN
CorDEAUX (Secretary), Messrs. Joun A. Harviz-Brown, R. M.
BarRiInGton, W. EAGLE CLarKE, and the Rev. E. P. KNUBLEY,
appointed at Leeds to make a digest of the observations on the
Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels, which have
been carried on by the Migration Committee of the British
Association, and to report on the same at Cardiff.
Tue Committee have to report that, regarding the Migration Digest, very
considerable progress has been made during the past year with the syste-
matic tabulation of the facts collected during nine years by the Commit-
tee. These have been arranged underthe head of species for a given month,
and on a plan that shows at a glance the date and distribution, numbers,
time of occurrence of each movement, on all coasts and subdivisions of
coasts. Initiatory steps have been taken in the preparation and print-
ing of a schedule on which these results will be finally tabulated and sub-
mitted to the Association as the chief portion of the Final Report; also a
map showing the distribution on the British coasts for each species on
migration. These schedules and maps will form the most bulky portion
of the final digest, and when completed will show (for several species on
each sheet) the results already mentioned, and permit of a ready compari-
son of all the movements in every aspect and over a given time.
364 REPORT—1891,
Your Committee would respectfully solicit their reappointment as
before; and, while engaging to bring the enquiry to a conclusion with the
Jeast possible delay, they find it ‘impossible to pledge themselves to
any fixed date for popes the work.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Frowrer (Chair-
man), Professor M. Fosrrmr, Professor Ray Lankrster, Professor
Vines, and Mr. 8. F. Harwer (Seeretary), appointed for the
purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table at the
Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth.
THE Committee have followed the precedent of the previous year in not
employing the grant of 301. entrusted to them in taking a table for a
complete year; but they have made use of portions of the grant, from
time to time, as the occasion arose.
They have nominated the following persons to the use of a table at
Plymouth :—
Miss Florence Buchanan, for one month (July, 1891),
Mr. 8. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Sc., Fellow of Downing College, Cam-
bridge, for one month (from August 26, 1891).
Mr. A. Willey, for six weeks (from August 3, 1891).
No payment is made for one of these months, while the remaining
period is paid for at the rate of 51. per month. The Committee have
therefore to report that they have only spent 12/. 10s., leaving an unused
balance of 171. 10s.
The Committee are obviously unable to give any detailed information
with regard to the results of their employment of the grant. Miss
Buchanan is already working at Plymouth, and is engaged in the sys-
tematic study of the species of Polycheta occurring at Plymouth, with
a view to preparing a list of the Polychet fauna of that neighbourhood ;
she is also making observations on the regeneration of lost parts i in Nereis
and in Nephthys, and on the variation of Nereis diversicolor. Mr, Hick-
son proposes to investigate the development of Alcyoniwm ; and, if time
permits, to study certain points in its physiology and minute anatomy.
Mr. Willey expresses his intention of investigating the group of the
Tunicata.
The Committee believe that the nominations which they have made
are a sufficient evidence of the utility of the grant in assisting well-
qualified persons who are anxious to work at the Plymouth Laboratory ;
and they ask the Association to re-appoint them, and to place at their
disposal 171. 10s., being the unused balance of the grant made to them
at the Leeds ules
Experience has shown that applications for nomination are likely to
be made for the summer months only, as in the two preceding years.
The Committee wish to point out that, if this is the case, they do not
expect to be able to furnish at the ensuing meeting of the ‘Association a
detailed Report on the investigations undertaken with the assistance of
the new grant; but they hope to be in a position, if re-appointed, to give
a more complete account, in their next Report, of the results of the in-
vestigations which are in progress, or which are about to be made with
the assistance of the grant which has just expired.
wile.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 36
Or
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scrater, Professor
Ray Lankesrer, Professor Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Fosrrr,
Mr. A. Sepe@wick, Professor A. M. MarsHatt, and Mr. Percy
Staprn (Secretary), nominated for the purpose of arranging
for the Occwpation of a Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples.
[Ordered to be printed among the Reports. ]
Tun Committee regret to report that at the last meeting of the Association
held in Leeds the Committee of Recommendations did not sanction the
grant approved by the Committee of Section D for the use of a table at
the Naples Zoological Station. A communication, signed by the President
of the Section, was addressed to the President of the Association, by whom
it was read at the last meeting of the General Committee, expressing the
disappointment felt by the Committee of Section D at the decision of the
Comniittee of Recommendations, and pointing out that in their opinion the
cessation of the grant would act as a serious discouragement to biological
investigation, and would place British naturalists at a great disadvantage.
Fortunately the Committee have not been deprived of the privilege
of nominating workers to occupy a table during the past year at the Naples
Zoological Station, Captain Noble, the President of Section G, having
generously given 100/. for the purpose of maintaining a table as in previous
years, an offer which the General Committee authorised the Committee to
take advantage of. The Committee desire to express their high apprecia-
tion of Captain Noble’s singular liberality, and to place on record their
indebtedness to him for rescuing British biologists from the unenviable
position in which, but for his generosity, they would have been placed.
The Committee beg to direct the attention of the Association to the
fact that three applications from competent workers for permission to use
the table had been received by the Committee when they applied for the
renewal of the grant at Leeds; and that for the last four years applica-
tions have always been in the possession of the Committee to justify their
recommending the continuance of the grant, and they would, therefore,
respectfully submit to the Association that the grant has in no case been
applied for without a definite purpose, and to assist a specific object of
research.
The Committee trust that the Association will sanction the payment
of the grant of 100/., as in previous years, for the hire of a table in the
Zoological Station at Naples; and they strongly recommend the con-
tinuance of this grant as a means of affording to British naturalists advan-
tages for prosecuting research which are unobtainable elsewhere.
The Committee have received an application for permission to use the
table from Mr. Arthur Willey, who proposes to make a special series of
investigations on the Ascidians, which will occupy him from the end of
September, through the winter and spring of next year, and the Com-
mittee express the hope that the Association will enable them to sanction
this application.
Two gentlemen have occupied the table during the past year, “Mr.
William R. Melly and Mr. Edward J. Bles, and their reports upon the
nature of the work undertaken are appended. The Committee would
366 REPORT—1891.
direct attention to the remarks made by Mr. Bles upon the special advan- -
tages to be derived from working at the Naples Zoological Station.
The Publications of the Station.—The progress of the various works
undertaken by the Station is here summarised :—
1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel’ no monograph
has been published since the last report. The preparation of the mono-
graphs comprised in this series requires, on account of the complete and
exhaustive manner in which the subjects are treated, a considerable length
of time, which can only rarely be estimated beforehand. It becomes on
this account very difficult to publish regularly a yearly set of monographs.
The comparatively small number issued lately will, however, soon be
balanced by the publication of an increased number of works, as the
following monographs are now in hand, and the three or four first named
will soon leave the press :—
Prof. Della Valle of Modena, on ‘Gammarini.’ Prof. Spengel of
Giessen, on ‘ Balanoglossus.’ Dr. Giesbrecht of Naples, on ‘ Pelagic
Copepoda.’ Dr. Jatta of Naples, on ‘Cephalopoda.’ Dr. Vosmaer of
Utrecht, on ‘Spongia.’ Prof. Falkenberg of Rostock, on ‘ Rhodomelez.’
Prof. Apathy of Klausenburg, on ‘ Hirudinei.’ Dr. Biirger of Giessen, on
‘Nemertini.’ Prof. Chun of Breslau, on‘ Siphonophora.’ Dr. v. Davidoff
of Munich, on ‘ Appendicularia.’ Dr. Miiller of Greifswald, on ‘ Ostra-
coda.’ Dr. Schiemenz of Naples, on ‘Pteropoda.’ Prof. v. Koch of
Darmstadt, en ‘ Aleyonaria..’
2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
vol. ix., part iv. with 10 plates, has been published.
3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht ’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1889
has been published.
4, Of the ‘ Guide to the Aquarium,’ a new German and a new French
edition (illustrated) have been published. A new English edition (illus-
trated) is being prepared.
Liztracts from the General Report of the Zoological Station.—The officers
of the Station have courteously furnished lists (1) of the naturalists who
have occupied tables since the last report, (2) of the works published
during 1890 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station,
(3) of the specimens sent out by the Station during the past year. These
details, which will be found at the end of this Report, are the most con-
vincing evidence of the growth and efficiency of the institution.
I, Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. Witi1am R. Metry.
IT arrived at Naples on October 28, and was most kindly received by
Professor Dohrn.
I worked at the Station every day until December 7, when I was
anfortunately taken ill with rheumatic fever, and remained so unwell for
the rest of my stay in Naples that I was able to do very little work.
I left Naples on Saturday, January 3, as my doctor advised me to
return to England.
Specimens of various sponges, chiefly Esperia Lorenzii containing
Spongicola, were obtained for me almost every day during the first part
of my stay. But as this animal lives in fairly deep water, it was unob-
tainable except in calm weather, and unfortunately during the last three
weeks of my stay the weather was so bad that none were procured.
I kept my specimens in aquaria, through which a constant stream of
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 367
water flowed. .At first they seemed to thrive exceedingly well, but later
on they became very sluggish and hardly ever extended themselves.
Whether this was owing to the time of year, or to the weather, which
was exceptionally cold for Naples, or whether it was due to my having
overcrowded my tanks, I am unable to say.
Spongicola fistularis, I. 1. Schulze, inhabits several of the silicious
sponges, but most of my work has been on specimens inhabiting either
Esperia bauriana, O.S., or Esperia Lorenzii, O.S. In these two species,
so far as I can judge from the few specimens of each that I have as yet
been able to make sections of, although the internal anatomy is the same,
the form of growth is differeut. d
In EL. bauriana the chitinous tubes are straight, and do not generally
project more than ] mm. above the surface of the sponge, and are very
long, tapering as they go deeper into the sponge, till they join each other,
forming a network. In 2. Lorenzii, on the other hand, the tubes are much
shorter, that is, they form a network inside the sponge considerably sooner,
and they project often 2 or 5 mm. or even more above the surface, and are
generally curved. This may be due to their being different species
inhabiting different sponges, or it may be due simply to the different form
of sponges they inhabit. For whereas H. bauwriana is solid all the way
through, #. Lorenzi is hollow, and therefore of course the tubes would be
obliged to become curved and to join each other nearer the surface. I
myself incline to the latter view, and I am also far from sure that when
the Monactinellid group of sponges are thoroughly worked through it will
not be found that H. bawriana and L. Lorenzii are the same species living
‘under different conditions.
T have not studied these forms very closely, but from sections I have
of them (cut always for the purpose of obtaining sections of the enclosed
Spongicola) the anatomy of the two seems to me almost identical, as are
also their spicules.
Coming next to my methods of examining and killing my specimens,
the chief difficulty arose from the extreme shyness of these animals, as
they will only extend themselves under the most favourable circumstances,
and the slightest movement is suflicient to cause the whole colony to dis-
appear again within their tubes. To examine them alive under anything
_ like a high power is almost an impossibility. The slightest jar of the
glass containing them, or of the table, almost invariably causes the instant
disappearance of every tentacular crown in the colony.
I have often known them retract with nothing more than the jar
_ eaused by the lens entering the water in which they were lying.
When first taken from the aquaria in the morning, my specimens,
which I placed in glass boxes about two inches in diameter and one in
depth, full of water, would generally extend in from half an hour to an
hour, but if they again retracted they usually took much longer, and fre-
quently refused to extend themselves at all until they were again placed
in running water.
The opacity of the sponge is another source of difficulty.
Owing also to the fact of the Spongicola tentacles being white against
the Opaque and also light-coloured background of the sponge, it is almost
impossible to make out even the number of the tentacles.
With regard to killing them extended, I had practically no success
whatever. I have tried all the methods I could hear of, but with very
poor results indeed.
368 REPORT—1891.
The best results I got by pouring in very slowly, a drop at a time,
about one every minute or so,
96 per cent. methyl alcohol (CHs _ - 10 vols.
Salt water . . 90 vols.
Natrium chloride: . : a 4 06 vol.
After three-quarters of an hour or so, if they had not retracted, I
poured on quickly a large quantity of hot sublimate ; by this method I
succeeded in getting some specimens half retracted.
For preserving specimens for sections I found the best results were
obtained from specimens treated for two minutes in 1 per cent. osmic
acid, then passed for two minutes through alcohol of 5, 10, 20,30, 40 per
cent. up to 90 per cent., hardened in absolute alcohol, and imbedded in
paraffin. I found it best to leave the Spongicola in the sponge and dissect
it out after having hardened the whole in absolute alcohol.
For staining I used mostly borax-carmine and hematoxalin, stain-
ing the Spongicola whole after having dissected it from the sponge. I
did not obtain any good results from dissecting the Spongicola living,
as it seems capable of withdrawing itself to almost any extent inside
its tube, which in the interior of the sponge is very soft and easily
torn.
History.—Spongicola fistularis was first discovered and named by
Professor Allman in 1874 (Stephanoscyphus mirabilis, ‘ Nature,’ July
30, 1874, ‘ Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ 4th series, vol. xiv., 1874, p. 237).
He describes it as inhabiting horny sponges in shallow water on the
south coast of France.
From the fact that he could discover no hypostome or proboscis he
came to the conclusion it was not a true hydroid. He further made out
what he believed to be four longitudinal canals extending from the base
of the tentacle-crown some distance back and projecting into the interior
of the body-cavity. These, he says, are connected with a ‘circular
canal’ situated in the body-wall, ‘ which is wide, and easily admits a
needle.’ This, he says, is continuous and without septa, having a distinct
endodermal lining.
He failed to find an endodermal lining to the longitudinal canals,
though he thinks one probably exists.
He further states that the tentacles are placed in ‘two closely ap-
proximated and alternating series of 18 each, forming a single circlet,’
and that their structure is the same as that of a typical hydroid, that
when retracted the terminal orifice is closed over them, and that the
anterior part is thin-walled and very contractile, like a hydrarth in its
hydrotheca.
He divides the animal into a proximal and distal portion, and says
that the mouth is probably situated where the two join, and that the _
proximal cavity is the true digestive cavity, while the distal cavity is
homologous with the umbrella, and the tentacles with the marginal
tentacles of a medusa.
He also states there is no endodermal lining to the distal cavity,
while the axial cavity has a well-marked one.
Therefore, though the form and habit are those of a Hydroid Tropho-
some, its organisation is that of a medusa. So he says it is as far
removed from Hydroida as from Siphonophora, and he proposes therefore
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 369
a new order—‘Thecomeduse ’—‘ animals composed of composite zooids,
medusiform with circular and radiating canals, included in a chitinous
rooted perisarc, which forms the tube within which they are retractile.’
Genus Stephanoscyphus.
In 1877 Professor F. E. Schulze published an extensive paper on this
animal (‘ Archiv fiir mikroscopische Anatomie,’ vol. 13, 1877).
He failed to find either the circular or longitudinal canals described by
Professor Allman.
He gives the structure as being ectoderm, then a layer of longitudinal
muscular fibres, then a layer of supporting lamella, and then endoderm
throughout. He describes four ‘ Lingswille,’ which he says are made
by the endoderm folding round longitudinal ridges of supporting lamella.
There is also, he says, a hypostome which is simply a continuation of the
body-wall bent at right angles, and the four ‘ Lingswille’ continue along
the under side of this membrane and end at its free edge.
He gives the number of tentacles as being variable, probably a mul-
tiple of four.
He further describes four nose-like projections from the chitinous
tube into the interior, compressing the animal in the form of a Maltese
_ €ross.
The results he comes to are on the whole so very different from those
of Professor Allman that he leaves it an open question as to whether the
two animals are the same or not.
In 1886 Professor Metschnikoff in his ‘ Embryologischen Studien an
Medusen,’ Vienna, 1886, p. 87, suggests that this animal might be a stage
in the life history of Nausithoe, partly on account of the fact that when the
young Nausithoe reach the Scyphistoma stage they produce chitinous tubes,
into which they retract with extreme quickness, and partly relying on a
paper of Kowalewski’s (‘Untersuchungen tiber die Entwickelung der
Coelenteraten’ in Nachr. Ges. Fr. &c. Moskau, vol. 10, 2, Sep., p. 36)
in which that author says that he has seen Strobilation and also Ephyre
given off by Stephanoscyphus.
Professor Fol (‘ Die erste Entwick. d. Geryoniden Hier.’ Jen. Zeit., vii.,
p- 488) remarks that the larvae of Nausithoe swim about for some weeks
in his aquaria without changing, except that thread-cells appear in their
ectoderm, after which they always die. This fact Metschnikoff also
remarks, but without mentioning that such would probably be the case,
as no doubt the young Nausithoe cannot develop without entering a
sponge.
So far as I then knew, this was all the work that had been done on
Spongicola when, in the spring of 1890, in Professor Schulze’s laboratory
in Berlin, I took up its further investigation.
The points that seemed to me to want clearing up were :—
1. Were Stephanoscyphus mirabilis and Spongicola fistularis one and
the same animal, or different species of the same genus, or were they
altogether different ?
_ 2. What was the exact position of this animal in the Zoological
series ?
3. What was the exact significance of, Ist, the ‘ Langswalle’ of
Schulze; 2nd, the chitinous projections into the interior of the animal ?
I began my work on material which Professor Schulze very kindly
procured for me from Trieste, which consisted entirely of specimens of
H, hon well stocked with Spongicola. Unfortunately, although I
, BB
370 REPORT— 1891.
was enabled to make out some points with regard to the structure and
anatomy of the animal, the material was in too bad a condition to give
very good results.
Professor Schulze made several attempts to procure me living material
from Trieste, but the specimens on every occasion arrived in a half-
macerated condition. Finally, at the end of the summer, Professor
Schulze advised my going to Naples. This, owing to the great kindness
of the British Association in placing their table at my disposal, I was
enabled to do.
When I arrived at Naples and stated the object of my visit, Professor
Dohrn informed me that Professor Paul Mayer and Signor Lo Bianco
had during the summer made a discovery regarding Spongicola.
1 was immediately introduced to Professor Mayer, who, with the
greatest kindness, gave me full particulars of everything he had done,
and to whom my most hearty thanks are due for much kind assistance
and many valuable hints.
I also here wish to express my indebtedness to Dr. Hisig, Signor
Salvatore Lo Bianco, and all the other assistants at the Station, for their
extreme kindness to me during my stay in Naples.
While I was there in November, Dr. Mayer and Signor Lo Bianco
published (in the ‘ Zoologischer Anzeiger,’ No. 351, 1890) a short paper,
‘ Spongicola und Nausithoe,’ completely answering my No. 2 query.
On June 20 they saw the Ephyrez being given off from the Spongicola,
which were nearly all in Strobila stages.
These larvee were kept and fed until, at the end of four days, they
reached, without doubt, the stage which Professor Claus has described
and figured as a young Nausithoe (‘ Untersuchungen iiber die Organisa-
tion und Entwicklung der Medusen,’ Prag und Leipzig, 1883, Pl. 7,
Fig. 48), thus proving that Spongicola is the Scyphistoma stage of
Nausithoe.
From this, as Dr. Mayer pointed out to me, another question arose,
namely, as to whether Professor Haeckel is right in his work on ‘ Medusa”
(1879, p. 486), in saying that all the three species of Nausithoe hitherto
described, viz., N. punctata, Koll., N. marginata, KOll., and N. albida,
Gegenbaur, are the same species.
It seemed to me that this might be settled with regard to whether
there were more than one species of the Scyphistoma form. I therefore
turned my attention to this subject, and found that, 1st, there was the
difference in form already stated; 2nd, the tubes that grow in the solid
sponges, and are straight, are much lighter in colour than the more curved
ones in the hollow Esperie ; 3rd, that the Spongicola with the straight
tubes have generally the yellow crystals in their tentacles (I saw none in
the body-walls), described by Kolliker, in the walls of the bell of N.
punctata. These I have never seen in the curved-tubed animals, but the
difficulty of seeing them at all may account for this, as it is only when
the animal is in a certain light that they are visible.
Dr. Mayer and Signor Lo Bianco found them always present in the
Ephyre.
On the whole I am inclined to think that the differences I observed
are not sufficient to enable me to say with any certainty that there is
more than one species. I was, unfortunately, unable to study this ques-
tion from its other side, as only one specimen of Nausithoe was captured
during my stay in Naples.
ON TIE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. orl
With regard to question No. 1, it seems to me probable that the
_ animals described as ‘Stephanoscyphus mirabilis’ by Allman, and ‘Spongicola
fistularis’ by Schulze, are one and the same.
IT am enabled to endorse Professor Schulze in every statement he has
made, and have very little indeed to add to his work.
The only points on which I can as yet extend his excellent paper
are with regard to the way in which this animal retracts, and to the
structure of the ‘ Liingswiille’ or longitudinal ridges.
First, as to retraction. The entire body-wall for the first half mm.,
more or less, folds over inwards, like the finger of a glove when it is
pulled inside out, bringing the tentacles into the interior of the animal ;
the membranous hypostome, which is so difficult to see that it might
easily have been missed, even by such an excellent observer as Professor
Ailman, is pressed close against the sides of the body some way down,
leaving apparently a canal lined with endoderm, which appears to be in
the body-wall.
This I take to be what Professor Allman mistook for a circular canal.
The tentacles are much retracted, and either lie pointing outwards, or
can be again extended deep down into the interior of the animal, when
no doubt particles of food entangled in the thread-cells, with which the
tentacles are plertifully covered, are digested by the endoderm cells.
When a careful series of transverse sections are cut, first (as might
be expected) there is a solid ring of ectoderm, then there appears
endoderm in the middle between two circular layers of ectoderm, next
a circular space is seen dividing the endoderm into two layers, which
closely approximate to the two layers of ectoderm, forming an apparent
circular canal lined with endoderm. The interior space lined with
ectoderm is filled by transverse sections of tentacles. Still deeper
sections are reached showing the tentacles given off from the internal
_ layer of ectoderm with the approximated layer of endoderm running out
‘Into and forming the solid centre of each tentacle; below that, unless
the tentacles have been projected downwards into the body of the
animal, transverse sections of them cease, and the two layers of the
endoderm again come to be closely approximated ; a few sections further
on the internal layer of ectoderm ceases, and only an external layer of
ectoderm and a layer of endoderm, separated by a layer of supporting
lamella, remain.
Between the ectoderm and endoderm there is always a layer of clear
colourless supporting lamella, but in the upper parts it is very thin and
in many cases hardly to be distinguished. But after the limit of in-
‘Yagination is reached, the layer of supporting lamella becomes much
_ More distinctly seen; and here also two layers of longitudinal muscular
fibres make their appearance, one on each side of it. These layers of
muscular fibres, proceeding lower with the series of sections, join each
other at four places, forming, as it were, four oblong pieces of supporting
lamella surrounded by muscle fibres. These oblong pieces gradually become
more circular and draw away from each other, and their centres are
filled with peculiar long-shaped cells, which are apparently thread-cells
in various stages of development. Round these the endoderm lining the
Whole of the internal cavity makes four folds which project inwards
into the interior of the cavity, the space between the muscle fibres and
themselves being filled with the clear colourless supporting lamella.
_ These in transverse and longitudinal sections look very like longi-
BB 2
372 rrrort— 1891.
tudinal canals, and are probably what Professor Allman describes as
such.
The exact significance of these endodermal folds and the manner of
their attachment to the membrane forming the hypostome are points
which I had hoped before now to have cleared up from the material
which I preserved while in Naples, but, unfortunately, I have not yet
been able to find time since quitting Naples to continue my work on
Spongicola.
With regard to the longitudinal ridges formed of developing thread-
cells and surrounded by a layer of longitudinal muscular fibres, I think,
from my investigations, there can be little doubt that they are used, not
to cause the crown of tentacles to invaginate in the manner described, as
they are not continued high enough up for that purpose (which I believe
to be effected in some way by the endodermal folds), but to retract the
whole animal after it has invaginated itself into its tube.
The four chitinous nose-like projections, which are well described both
by Schulze and Allman, project inwards in such a manner as to cause
the four longitudinal ridges of developing thread-cells to become horse-
shoe-shaped round them, and are, I think, without doubt present to
enable the animal to use its muscles with greater effect.
Sometimes four smaller ones are present, placed between the four
larger ones.
The longitudinal ridges probably enable the whole animal to rapidly
expand again after contraction, owing to the extreme elasticity of their
contents.
These are the chief results that I was enabled to obtain while at
Naples, but I hope that in the future I may be able to continue my work
on the material I collected while there, as there are still several points I
should like to clear up.
In conclusion it is, I think, unnecessary on my part, after the articles
that have lately appeared, to say more in regard to the Naples Station,
but no praise could be too high for the excellent way in which everything
is managed, and the great facilities given to students for original research
of every description.
At the present moment I believe I am correct in saying that without
having been allowed the use of the British Association table I could not
possibly have obtained either the results I have obtained or those which
I hope still to achieve by further study on the material I was enabled to
preserve while there.
In conclusion I wish to express my deep obligation to the British
Association for the use of their table, and to Professor Dohrn and his
Staff for all their kind assistance to me while at Naples.
II. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. Kpwarp J. Buus.
Having been allowed, through the kindness of the Committee, to
spend three months at the Naples Zoological Station, I left England
towards the end of December 1890, and reached Naples on December 22.
I found a well-appointed table in readiness, and on the following day
living material began to arrive in more than abundance. My visit was
unfortunately broken during the eighth week by an attack of influenza,
immediately followed by complications which left me extremely weak.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 373
The illness and period of convalescence lasted four weeks, and seriously
- interrupted the course of my work, as I only remained at the Station for
little more than a fortnight after recovery. I left Naples on March 27,
It had been my intention to work at the development of the Polycheta,
but the only suitable form available at that season of the year (a Nereis)
was already appropriated by one of the workers at the Station. Hggs of
Spio fuliginosus and of Polymnia nebulosa were easily obtained in quantity ;
in both cases, however, minuteness and opacity detract from their value
for embryological research.
I was able to confirm Salensky’s account of the segmentation stages
in the egg of S. fuliginosus. I made unsuccessful attempts to fertilise
artificially the eggs of Arenicola marina, A. Grube’, and Lanice conchilega ;
the sexual products appeared to be unripe. The first fortnight was
occupied by these preliminary studies, and in examining the rich and
varied proceeds of the daily dredgings and tow-nettings. A fresh supply
of the wonderful pelagic life in the Bay was brought in every day with
very few exceptions, and I had many opportunities of examining numerous
forms of annelidan larve in the living condition, and of preserving a large
quantity of material. Still there seemed to be little probability of
obtaining a sufficient number of specimens in different stages of the
development of any one form, and I therefore took up, at the kind
suggestion of Professor Hisig, the study of the adult anatomy of the
Chlorhzmide, a family of polychet worms.
I received numerous specimens of Siphonostoma diplochcetos, Otto, and
of Trophonia plumosa, Clap.; further, specimens of Stylarioides monilifer,
D. Ch., and of Stylarioides Edwardsii (=Lophiocephala Edwardsii,
Costa). Sig. Lo Bianco kindly handed over to me a few specimens of a
Stylarioides new to science, which were found associated with Balano-
glossus on one occasion some years ago, and has not again been seen. I
also received alive a single specimen of each of two hitherto unknown
species of Trophonia.
Ihave given most attention to S. diplochetos, as this species is con-
venient for dissection, &c.,and common. The worm is 6-7 cm. long,
has 40-50 segments, and is about 1 cm. across the widest part of the
body, a third of the total length from the anterior end. From this point
backwards the animal tapers gradually to the hinder end; the anus is
terminal. More than half of the width of the animal is taken up by the
thick investment of a substance partly colloid and partly mucous.
Through this and the transparent epidermis the brightly coloured viscera
are sometimes very clearly visible. The soft sheath covers the whole of
the body behind the first pairs of sete. It is secreted by mucus-cells
borne in the heads of clavate, filiform, epidermal papille. The swollen
heads of the papillze just reach the surface of the sheath, and a secretion
from them replaces a thin mucous outer layer which is periodically cast.
To this layer adheres a continuous coating of the ooze in which the
animal lives. The fresh external deposits of mucus are soluble in a 5 to
10 per cent. solution of sodium carbonate, and are insoluble in acids.
The older internal layers are not affected by the alkaline solution, and
have probably undergone some chemical change. They are distinctly
colloid. The papilla are longer and more numerous on the dorsal than
on the ventral surface, and there is a crowded group of long ones inter-
spersed with each bundle of sete. These appear to be sensory. and bear
short sensory hairs at their tips. Below the mucous sheath lies a thin
374 REPORT—1891.
cuticle, in contact with both the sheath and the epidermis. The
epidermis is a single layer of squamous cells, and is devoid of mucus-
cells, with the exception of those in the heads of the papille and those
scattered in the ciliated region round the mouth, anterior to the first
pairs of sete. In this region the papille are absent. The sete of the
dorsal and ventral bundles of the first seement are more numerous and
longer than those of posterior segments ; they are directed forwards, and
form a fan-shaped chevaux-de-frise on each side of the head. Their
parapodia form a large continuous fold of the integument, within which
the head can be retracted, the sete then closing in and forming a sort of
cage. The posterior parapodia are not well developed; the dorsal and
ventral bundles of sets are set on widely separated conical protuberances
connected by a slight ridge. The ventral bundles are used for progres-
sion, the animal walking on the tips of the sete, which are inclined
forwards and then pulled back in succession from before backwards.
The alimentary canal, compared with that of other Polychaeta (except
Pectinaria), is abnormal in being bent on itself several times. The narrow
cesophagus opens near the hinder end and on the dorsal surface of a
large sac-like, thin-walled stomach, which is continued into an ®-shaped
‘duodenal’ part of the intestine. The stomach, the ‘duodenum,’ the
hinder ends of the pair of nephridia, and the posterior ovaries in the
female are enclosed in the septum between segments 9 and 10. This
septum forms a complete partition between the ‘ thoracic’ and abdominal
portions of the celom. It is distended by the viscera named into a large
sac, extending as far back as the 16th to 20th segment. It confines the
genital products, when they beccme free, to the anterior part of the
body-cavity. It is the only complete septum in the body; indeed, there
is in Siphonostoma no septum anterior to it, but in Trophonia there is
also one between the fifth and sixth segments. (I am throughout regard-
ing the first setigerous segment as the first behind the head.) The
musculature of the body-wall is slight ; there are well-developed retractors
of the head.
The vascular system has attracted attention on account of the dark
green colour of the blood in all the species of this family. Lankester
has shown that the colouring matter, which he calls chlorocruorin, isa
body which, like hemoglobin, is easily oxidised and, by suitable reagents,
reduced; it also gives a characteristic banded absorption spectrum.
Large quantities of blood are contained in the capacious lacune sur-
rounding the stomach and intestine. The lacunz have no proper cellular
walls, but lie between the basement membrane of the gustric epithelium
and a membrane below the peritoneal epithelium. Connected with the
enormous lacune at the hinder end of the stomach and running forward
dorsal to the cesophagus is a large contractile heart. It propels the
blood forward to the branchie, dividing in a right and left afferent
branchial vessel at the hinder border of the supra-cesophageal ganglion.
Each branch runs downwards to the inner side of the branchie and
sends an afferent vessel into each gill-filament. This afferent vessel is
directly continuous with an efferent vessel at the tip of the filament, thus |
forming a single vascular loop in each. The efferent vessels all open.
into a single large efferent trunk running parallel to and outside the
afferent trunk. The efferent trunks unite in the mid-ventral line some
distance behind the mouth, to form the sub-intestinal vessel. The heart
13 to be regarded as a gastric blood-lacuna, which has become independent
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 375
of the alimentary canal, but whether this applies to the anterior branchial
portion, as it does to the posterior portion, is doubtful.
The heart contains a cardiac body, similar to that present in the
Cirratulide, Terebellide, Amphictenidz, Ampharetide, and Hermellide,
all families with coloured blood. I can confirm the observations of J. T.
Cunningham on its anatomical relations and those of Jourdan on its
histological features ; but the latter has fallen into an old error by inferring
from its colour, &c., that it is a gastral cecum, In Siphonostoma there
is no connection and not even contact with the gut. Its cells are, in
bardened specimens, crowded with green granules, which also occur in the
clotted blood, and the organ is probably concerned in the formation of the
blood-pigment. The chloragogenic cells of other polychet worms are
peritoneal, and in Siphonostoma the manner in which different portions
of the cardiac body are attached to the wall of the heart gives reason to
believe that its cells are peritoneal in origin. At the hinder end of the
heart there are indications of the cardiac body being paired.
The ‘ glandes en tubes,’ ‘ glandes salivaires,’ of earlier writers have
been conjectured to be nephridia by Wirén, Cunningham, and Jourdan,
but these investigators failed to discover the nephridial funnel. This is
situated at the level of the hinder border of the supra-cesophageal gan-
glion. It resembles those nephrostomes in Aphrodite which serve as vasa
deferentia, in its being very wide and extending from dorsal to ventral
surface. The opening is directed forwards, inwards, and downwards, and
is close to the anterior end of the ccelom. It is lined by a single layer of
¢ells bearing long stout flagella. The funnel leads into a narrow tube
with an intercellular lumen, whose wall is composed of a single layer of
nephridial cells and an investing layer of peritoneum. This tube passes
straight back as far as the 12th segment, there bends on itself and runs
straight forward, becoming much dilated at the level of the esophagus,
in some cases filling almost the whole of the perivisceral space. The
external aperture of the nephridium is anterior to the first bundles of
sete on a conical papilla, one on each side, close to the protuberance
bearing the eyes and to the inner side of the branchial filaments. The
two limbs of the V-tube formed by the nephridial duct are closely apposed
along their entire length, and the investing peritoneum forms a simple
sac, as though it had been pushed inwards by the nephridium as a
whole ; there is no peritoneum between the apposed surfaces of the two
limbs. In their position and simplicity of structure the nephridia re-
semble the single pair of thoracal nephridia in the Serpulide. In the
Chlorhzemidx, however, abdominal nephridia do not occur. There are
no blood-vessels in the nephridia. Ova have been seen in the nephridia
of Chlorhema by Williams, and he concluded that the segmental organs,
as he calls them, were genital glands. Here, then, the same organ
functions as an excretory organ and as a gonaduct.
I was eventually successful in experiments on feeding with carmine,
and was able to keep the worms alive for a fortnight in filtered sea-water
containing finely-powdered carmine in suspension, by passing a constant
current of air through the water. As regards the nervous system and
Sense-organs and the reproductive organs, I can at present add nothing
to the descriptions of Grube, Jourdan, and Jaquet.
The zoological position of the Chlorhemidex has often been altered.
Grube, who is entitled to speak with authority, places them between the
Errantia and the Tubicola, but I am inclined to believe that they will
376 REPORT—1891.
prove to be modified Tubicola, which have secondarily acquired an errant
habit. I am continuing my work on this group, and hope to collect some
embryological material and complete the experiments on the excretion of
carmine.
I should like to mention here my deep sense of gratitude to Professor
Dohrn and the capable staff of the Stazione for all the kindness and
attention they gave me during my stay with them.
Having experienced the benefits which accrue to visitors at the Naples
Zoological Station, I feel very strongly the importance of the British
Association continuing to participate in the many advantages afforded by
this institution.
I will not dwell upon well-known advantages, such as the richness of
the fauna and flora; such as the possession of a large and growing
library, exceptionally complete in its acquisitions of current literature ;
such as the completeness and efficiency of the equipment, and the experi-
ence and matured advice of the staff; yet I venture to recall the fact of
the existence of comfortable and modern physiological and bacteriological
laboratories, which are well attended by forcign investigators. In Naples,
moreover, referring now especially to morphology, so many masters have
produced work which has become classical that specialists in almost
every group of marine animals and plants have there all the conditions
enabling them to follow in the concrete and control the results of researches
with which books have made them familiar.
The frequent opportunities for intercourse with the leaders of Con-
tinental schools of the biological sciences, and with some of their most
promising pupils, are of great importance. This applies more expressly
to Englishmen who, unlike most Germans, have not been educated at
two or more universities. In Naples there are brought to the student, in
many cases by their originators, the ideas prevalent and the theories in
course of development at a large number of foreign universities. One
can see carried out, in the daily course of practice, methods in vogue
abroad, and can at the same time observe the results of these methods,
form an independent opinion on their value, and be incited to suggest
improvements and new applications. Besides these mutual advantages
there is the further one, continually increasing in importance, which
consists in the obvious facilities for acquiring or improving a knowledge
of almost every European language.
So large a gathering of men engaged in original investigation cannot
fail to create what for their younger associates is a stimulating atmosphere
of research. The companionship of representatives of all the various depart-
ments in biology, with necessarily different trainings, will and does culti-
vate broader views and materially forwards the desirable state of things
in which one science aids in advancing another, and, like a symbiotic
organism, derives equivalent benefits in return. In no other Marine Biologi-
cal Station are all the above circumstances combined as they are in that
directed by Professor Dohrn, and in no other is the endeavour to make
the institution truly international in character so prominent a feature in
the programme, and so successfully carried out. This endeavour it is
surely incumbent on the greatest seafaring nation to support by all pos-
sible means, and an adequate amount of support ought surely to come
from the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
ee ee ee
Num-
ber on
List
559
560
561
| 562
563
564
565
567
|
566
568
569
570
| 571
872
| 573
574
575
576
577
578
579
580
581
582
583
584
585
586
587
588
589
590
591
592
593
594
595
596
597
. 598
599
600
601
602
603
. 604
605
606
607
608
609
610
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
i)
=I
bean I
III. A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station fron
the end of June 1890 to the end of June 1891.
Naturalist’s Name
State or University
whose Table
was made use of
Dr. J. Rioja y Martin
Dr. A. Messea
Dr. M. Verworn
Prof. A. Della Valle .
Dr. G. Valenti . :
Dr. F. S. Monticelli .
Sig. G. Mazzarelli
Dr. B. Rawitz
Dr. C. Crety
| Ten. Borja de Goy-
eneche.
Dr. V. Salvati
Dr. J. C. Konings-
berger.
Dr. T. Pintner .
Dr. C. v. Wirting-
hausen.
Dr. A. Looss
Mr. W. R. Melly
Dr. J. Loeb ;
Dr. M. v. Davidoff
Dr. G. Maurea .
Ten. Anglada y Rava
Mr. G. Bidder
Dr. P. Samassa .
Dr. N. Slunine .
Dr. M. Cazwero
Sig. A. Russo
Mr. E. J. Bles .
Mr. Marmier
Dr. G. Cano
Dr. S. Pansini
Dr. G. Jatta
Dr. F. Raffaele .
Mr. A. Newstead
Dr. K. F.Wenckebach
Dr. D. Bergendal
Dr. O. Biirger
Dr. C. Fiedler :
Prof. A. de Korotneft
Mr. M. Kaloujsky .
Dr. K. K. Schneider .
Dr. G. Guaglianone .
Stud. P. Schottlinder
Prof. W. His
Dr. W. His 3
Dr. F. v. Haberler
Prof. M. Holl
Dr. P. Kaufmann
Dr. E. Ballowitz
Mr. H. L. Russell
Prof. J. Riickert
Mr, 8. F. Harmer
Prof. A. Hansen
Dr. E. Rohde
Spain
Italy
| Prussia . :
Italy
”
” .
”
Prussia
Italy
Spain
Italy
Holland .
Austria
Prussia
Saxony
British Association .
Strasburg :
Zoological Station i
Italy Maat .
Spain ;
Zoological Station :
Austria
Russia (Nav y)-
Spain
Italy
British Association .
Zoological Station .
Italy
”
Cambridge
Holland .
Zoological Station . Fi
Hesse 2 c
Switzerland
Russia
”
Saxony . A
Italy ‘ -
Prussia . -
Saxony
” .
Austria .
” z
Prussia
ind Hamburg
Amer. ‘ Davis’ Table
Bavaria
Cambridge
Hesse
| Prussia
Duration of Occupancy
Arrival Departure
July 1,1890} Nov. 22, 1890
” 2, ” Sept.21, ”
iy OD ret Dec. 25, *,,
” 7, ” Nov. 4; ”
ary Sept.30, ,,
Aner hes; —_
” 1° ” oan
” 4, ” Oct. 15, ”
” 10, ” Nov. ie
Ae Seles Feb. 7,1891
Sept. 1, ,, | June 1, ,,
+. ae Dec. 25, 1890
” 4, ” Oct. 17, ”
Se lcsgh ss Apr. 9, 1891
Pye aay Oe de en
Oct. 29; --:; aris Bs) es
” 31, » Apr. 25, ”
Nov.16, ,, Feb. 28, ,,
” 21, ” June 1, ”
” 24, 5, com
” 24, ” ie a
SS USe has Mars27, "55
Dec. 3, ,, | May 23, ,,
” 15, ” Ses
” 22, ” eT
a3) aes Mar. 27, ,,
Jan. 1,1891] Feb. 4, ,,
” 1, ” hae
” 1, ” nant
” 1, ” wi
” 1, ” a
” 5, ” mnt
» 9, 55 Junel8, ”
” 22, ” re
HEeby 3525 —
sn Llyn ssn PADI Zanes
ty ESB Mar. 24, _,,
» 26, 5, | May 5, ,,
WERE cp —
» 7, » | June l, ,,
A ety es ae ieee
9 Ll, 3 ” 8,
” 11, ” ” 8 ”
” 12, ”
” 16, ” 3 6, ”
” 16, ” May 21, ”
» 20, » | Apr. 23, ,,
” 20, » a4
” 22, ” ” 10, ”
” 26, ” ” 18, ”
” 27, ” aa
378
REPORT—1891.
Il. A List oF NATURALISTS—continued.
Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist ’s Name whose Table
-List was made use of Arrival Departure
611 | Dr. S. Kistner . . | Saxony . Apr. 2,1891) Apr. 18, 1891
612 | Prof. Hoppe-Seyler Strasburg TOS ate, 35 “nese es
613 | Sr.8. Prado. Spain : 5 ee _—
614 | Miss Julia B. Platt Amer. ‘Davis’ Table| ,, 7, ,, | —
615 | Dr. R. 8. Bergh . | Zoological Station . 3 Dee J oned 4 MS:
616 | Dr. O. Maass . | Prussia 3. BODE! =
617 | Prof. W. Schimke- | Russia May 4, ,, lowo, 22
witsch.
618 | Dr. A. Jaschtschenko | Russia. : : 99 Es —
619 | Mag. L. Kundsin + : : ; 39) LAS eee | eT 2, ay
620 | Dr. A. Pasquale. Zoological Station .| June l, ,, =
621 | Mr. E. A. Minchin Oxford 73. Joos
IV. A List of Papers which have been published in the year 1890 by
the Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zoological Station.
Prof. J. Steiner :
Prof, C, Brandt
Dr. T. Boveri . -
”
”
Dr. F. A. F. C. Went
Dr. C. de Bruyne
Prof. 8. Apathy .
Dr.G. Cano .
”
T. Groom & D. J. Loeb
Dr. F. Sanfelice
W. L. Calderwood ;
.
Drs. Kruse, Pansini, and
Pasquale . :
. P. Mingazzini .
” »” ®
Die Functionen des Centralnervensystems der wirbellosen
Thiere. ‘Sitz.-Ber. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.,’ Berlin,
1890.
Neue Radiolarienstudien. ‘ Mitth. Verein Schleswig-Holst.
Aerzte,’ 1890.
Ein geschlechtlich erzeugter Organismus ohne miitterliche
Eigenschaften. ‘Sitz.- Ber. Ges. f. Morphologie u.
Physiologie,’ Miinchen, Bd. 4, 1890.
Zellen-Studien, Heft 3, Ueber das Verhalten der chromo-
tischen Kernsubstanz, etc. ‘Jena. Zeitschr. f. Naturw.’
Bd. 24, 1890.
Ueber die Niere des Amphioxus.
Wochenschr,’ No. 26, 1890.
Die Entstehung der Vacuolen in den Fortpflanzungszellen
der Algen. ‘Jahrb. f. wiss. Botanik,’ Bd. 21, 1890.
Monadines et Chytridiacées Parasites des Algues du
Golfe de Naples. ‘ Arch. de Biologie,’ t. 10, 1890.
Pseudobranchellion Margéi (Nova familia Hirudinearum).
‘Aerztl. naturw.* Bericht des lindl. Museumvereins in
Siebenbiirgen,’ 1890.
Specie nuove e poco conosciute di Crostacei decapodi del
Golfo di Napoli. ‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ 1890.
Morfologia dell’ apparecchio sessuale femminile, glandole
del cemento e fecondazione nei Crostacei decapodi.
‘ Mitth. Zool. St. Neapol,’ Bd. 9. 1890.
Der Heliotropismus der Nauplien von Balanus perforatus
u. die periodischen Tiefenwanderungen pelagischer
Thiere. ‘ Biol. Centralblatt,’ Bd. 10, 1890.
Contributo alla conoscenza di alcune forme nucleolari.
‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ 1890.
Contributo alla fisiopatologia del midollo delle ossa. Ibid.
On the swimming bladder and flying powers of Dactylo-
pterus volitans. ‘Proc. R. Soc. Edinburgh,’ vol, xvii.
1889-90.
Influenzastudien. ‘Centralbl. f. Bacteriologie u. Parasi-
tenkunde,’ Bd. 7, 1890.
Contributo alla conoscenza delle gregarine. ‘ Rendic. Acc.
Lincei,’ (2) vol. 5, 1889.
Sullo sviluppo dei Myxosporidi.
1890,
‘Miinch. med.
‘ Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’
——
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 379
Dr. P. Mingazzini . .
Dr. J. Loeb n
Dr. F. Raffaele
Prof, H. Ambronn .
Dr. G. W. Miiller
Dr. W. v. Schréder
Prof. G. v. Koch
Dr. A. Pasquale . a
»”»
Prof. N. ‘Kastschenko
Dr. F. 8. Monticelli
F. E. Weiss
_ Dr. 8, Pansini
Dr. M, v. Davidoff .
Dr. T. C. Cori .
Dr, A. Messea.
La parentela dei Coccidi colle gregarine. bid.
Weitere Untersuchungen iiber den Heliotropismus der
Thiere, etc. ‘Arch. f, d. ges. Physiologie,’ Bd. 47,
1890.
Untersuchungen zur physiol. Morphologie der Thiere; I.
Ueber Heteromorphose. Wiirzburg, 1890.
Sullo spostamento postembrionale della cavitad addominale
nei Teleostei. ‘Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 9,
1890.
Cellulose-Reaction bis Arthropoden u. Mollusken. JZbid.
Ueber das Leuchten der Sapphirinen. JZdid.
Das optische Verhalten markhaltiger u. markloser Nerven-
fasern. ‘ Ber. Siichs. Ges. Wiss.’ 1890.
Ueber Halocypriden. ‘ Zool. Jahrb.’ Bd. 5, 1890.
Neue Cypridiniden. Ibid.
Ueber die Harnstoftbildung der Haifische. ‘Zeitschr. f.
physiol. Chemie.’ Bd. 14, 1890.
Die systematische Stellung von Sympodium coralloides.
‘Zool. Jahrbiicher,’ Bd. 5, 1890.
Ulteriori ricerche sugli Streptococchi delle Mucose, etc.
*Giorn. intern. Scienze Med’ anno 12, 1890.
Sulla presenza di larve di Ditteri nell’ Intestino di alcuni
fabbricanti di Massana. Jbid.
Le tenie dei polli di Massana. bid.
Ueber den Reifungsprocess des Selachiereies. ‘ Zeitschr.
f. wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 50, 1890.
Di una forma teratologica di Bothriocephalus microcepha-
lus, Rud. ‘ Boll. Soc. Nat. in Napoli,’ 1890.
Note elmintologiche. did.
Excretory Tubules in Amphioxus lanceolatus. ‘ Quart.
Journ. Micr. Science,’ vol. 31, 1890.
Bacteriologisch2 Studien iiber den Auswurf. ‘ Virchow’s
Archiv,’ Bd. 122, 1890.
Untersuchungen zur Entw. Gesch. der Distaplia magni-
larva, etc. ‘ Mitth. Zool. St. Neapel,’ Bd. 9, 1890.
Untersuchungen iiber die Anatomie u. Histologie der
Gattung Phoronis. ‘ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 51, 1890.
Contribuzione allo studio delle ciglia dei Batterii, etc.
‘ Rivista VIgiene e Sanita Pubblica,’ anno 1, 1890.
VY. A List of Naturalists, §:c., to whom Specimens have been sent from the
end of June 1890 to the end of June 1891.
Lire c.
1890. July 1 Prof. Ch. Julin, Liége : Amphioxus . A ! 13°30
a 6 Physiol. Dep., University, Edin- Various . 2 ; 15°60
burgh.
of pe JT: Pp. Pelseneer, Ghent . . Mollusca. 6 E 12°05
: » Zool. Institute, Bale . A . Embryos. ‘ é 21:20
e » University College, Dundee . Pantopoda . : iB
E ,, Anatom. Institute, Strasburg . Embryos of Dog-fish § 20°40
BS s Dr. H. Fowler, Plymouth . . Idothea , 5 9:05
“ 10 Laboratoire de Zoologie, Vime- Cymothea, Squilla - 7:80
reux.
; é 11 G. B. Paravia & Co., Rome . Collection . : . 204°85
- » Musée Cantonal, Fribourg . Collection . 5 - 200°
a » M.A. Eloffe, Paris . A . Celenterata 5 : 39°45
“ » Anatom. Institute, Munich . Head of Heptanchus . is
of 15 Museum, Darmstadt. 5 . Orthagoriscus Mole . 34:95
7 19 Mr. P. Jamieson, Dunbar. . Amphioxus . , : 7-60
rr. 25 Zool. Institute, Bonn 5 - Collection . 4 - 600°
B » M.A. Eloffe, Paris . - . Cirripedia . ‘ ( 20°55
; ” » <A. Dall’ Eco., Florence . . Antedon, Hyales p 4:15
rr 29 Prof. Ciaccio, Bologna. . Embryos of Lophius . 26:15
380 REPORT—1891.
Lire c.
1890. July 29 Mr.G. B. Ridewood, Plymouth Engraulis . ; = 13:15
4 31 Faculté des Sciences, Nancy . Asterias : 6°95
Aug. 5 Zool. Institute, Berlin . . Eggs of Cephalopoda ; 615
: 21 Natural History Museum, Ham- Collection : - 434°30
burg.
os » Mr. H. Kreye, Hanover . . Collection . 232°05
a » Dr. P. Casanova, Valencia . Amphioxus, & Embryos 6°65
a » Polytechnikum, Zurich . . Collection . Z 757-90.
» “ool. Laboratory, Zurich . . Collection . : - 416795
SS », Veterinary School, Zurich . Collection . 7 7115
> » Dr. Killian, Freiburg - . Embryos of Tor pedo : 4:80
5s 26 Prof. R. Bergh, Copenhagen . Conus mediterr. . : 5°60.
Sept. 10 Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle. - Collection . eg ee eR OTOLE
35 » National Museum, Melbourne . Collection . : . 2124:50
=f », Morphological Laboratory,Cam- Amphioxus . : - 54°65
bridge.
‘5 12 Mr. F. Heydrich, Langenvalza. Algwe . 7:10
33 22 Zool. Instit., Berlin . : . Material for dissection 363:95
= 27 Mr. E. Halkyard, Knutsford . Dredging material 50°
Oct. 3 Eberbach & Son, AnnArbor . Collection . F sD (OD.
3 » Mr. G. Tagliani, Stuttgart . Sargassum . 5 5 5°55
re 7 Museum of Vertebrates, Pisces . : : ° 94:20 -
Florence.
x 8 Mme. Vimont, Paris . 5 . Sepia . 2 : 540
“1 14 Zoolog. Institute, Liége . . Siphonophora, various. 206-95
+5 15 Dr. H. Driesch, Zurich . . Antennularia : : 15°25
“fe 20 Prof. G. Vimercati, Florence” . Collection . : ‘ 41°45
ss » Mr. R. Damon, Weymouth . Amphioxus . 5 4 24°40
55 » Municipality, Berlin : . Collection . : oe OaLS
oo 24 Oberrealschule Sechshaus, Collection . : Bleed 110)
Vienna.
Nov. 4 Zool. Institute, Perugia . . Embryos of Torpedo . 10°65
-f) » Emb. Laboratory University, Palythoa, Astroides . 12°40
Edinburgh,
oF 5 Dr. Killian, Freiburg - . Embryos of Torpedo . 11:05
Bs 8 Gymnasium, Gorz . . Collection . . : 90°
= 10 Veterinary School, Dresden . Ccelenterata : Rename ae
5 » Indian Museum, Calcutta. . Collection . : ; 12°50
a » Dr. A. Hansen, Darmstadt . Corallines . ; : 6°50
5 19 Zool. Institute, Bale ‘ . Collection . - . 265:05
Bs » 2Dridaiober,.Bale. .. i . Various ‘ : 3 32°10
= » Zool. Museum, Berlin . Collection . ‘ . .207°65
oh 22 Zootom. Institute, Charkoff . Various . 5 n 72:70
35 26 Mr. H. Ayers, Milwaukee. . Amphioxus . - - 102°75
= » University College, London . Amphioxus . 3 S 24°30
be » A. Pichler’ss Wre & Son, Various ‘ : : 46°95
Vienna.
x »» Comp. Anat. Cab., Moscow . Balanoglossus . é 4:70
A » Dr. J, Beard, Edinburgh . . Embryo of Scyllium , 15:10
» Lab. physiol. Jardin bot., Brus- Living Styptocaulon
sels. Scoparium 3 6:10
a 27 Zool. Inst., Bonn 5 : . Echinodermata, Sepia 100:
i 29 Mr. V. Frié, Prague . ; . Corallium, var. . . 108°55
% » Mr. W. Schliiter, Halle a/S. . Various : : - 120°75
Dec. 9 MorphologicalLaboratory,Cam- Sipunculus . : . 19°30
bridge.
aa » Mr. G. Schlatter, Catania. . Various F 5 . 19°45
=A » Zool. Inst., Munich . ; . Ciona, &c. . i H 44°70
= 11 Zool. Inst., Jena : . Various : ‘ = LOT-10
G. 18 Palzontol. Inst., Munich . . Lithothamnion . é 10°
y » Mr. R. Damon, Weymouth . Amphioxus . : . 24:10
= » Mr. V. Hess, Schloss Waldstein Caulerpa_. F : 775
5 » Mr. V. Frit, Prague . : . Various ‘ ‘ 4 34:25
1890. Dec.
1891.
”
18
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL
Rev. A. M.
Rectory.
Owens College, Manchester
Zool. Inst. Freiburg i/B.
Norman, Burnmoor
University College, London
Mr. L. Loeb, Zurich .
Mr. A. Tiedemann, Kiel
Zool. Inst., Greifswald .
Université Catholique, Louvain
Morphological Laboratory, Cam-
bridge.
Zool. Inst., Breslau .
Zootom. Cabinet, Warsaw
Mr. J. Hornell, Egremont .
Mdme. E. Marie, Paris . :
M. Lesniewski, Geneva ;
Ministry of Marine, Madrid.
Zool. Cabinet, Moscow
Gymnasium, Hradec-Krélové
R. Holloway College, Egham .
Prof. Ambronn, Leipzig
Zool. Inst., Strasburg c
Univ. College, Aberystwith
Sac. G. Bibbia, Palermo . :
Univ. Museum, Oxford
Mr. G. Schneider, Bale
Dr. von Leudenfeld, Innsbruck
Museo Municipal, Ponta Del-
gada.
Museo Civico, Milan .
Prof. G. Berney, Chateau d’Aex
Prof. Rabl. Riickhard
Univ. College, London
Medical College, Madras .
Zool. Museum, Naples
Mr. G. Butler, Surbiton .
Mr. F. H. Butler, London .
Owens College, Manchester
Dr. Nisse, Frankfurt a/M.
Baron de 8, Joseph, Paris
Prof. A. de Korotneff, Kiew
Mr. A. Duncker, Hamburg
Lab. de Zonlogie, Lyon
Dr. W. Felix, Leipzig
Zool. Inst., Strasburg = 7
Prof. Trendelenburg, Bonn .
A. Pichler’s Wve & Son,
Vienna.
Zool. Inst., Berlin
British Museum, London . -
Anat. Inst., Bonn
Anatom. Inst., Groningen .
R. Ist. Tecnico, Rome
Anatom. Inst., Greifswald
Physiolog. ,, :
Mr. V. Fri¢, Prague : . .
Morphol. Labor., Cambridge .
Botanical ,, A
Mr. G. Berthel, Steinpleis
Zool. Inst., Strasburg 5
Zool. Inst., Freiburg’ i/B. .
Lab. de. Zoologie, Lyon
STATION
AT NAPLES. 381
Lire ¢
Collection . : - 860°85
Living Murex 25°
Hydroid Polyps, Cope-
pods , 53-05
Ciona . ; 80°25
Collection . t » 200:
Cerallium, &c. . - G2:75
Crustacea 44°95
Crustacea 3 15°80
Salpa . E : - + 30015
Mollusca 36°20
Embryos of Selachians 22°50
Annelida 13°10
Siphonophora 32°15
Skins of Dog-fish . 2-75
Collection . 948-70
Collection . § . 253°45
Collection 84:65
Collection ; : 90-
Bones of Sepia . : 5:
Salmacina . 4:05
Various 24°30
Rhizostoma. 10°
Amphioxus . : 41°95
Various a - “ 59°85
Abyla . -
Crustacea, Pisces . . 144-40
Pisces . : : Z 55°65
Collection . 84°55
Brains of Turtles 28:15
Collection 269-15
Various = j 197-95
Collection 108-35
Pristiurus d 3 16°60
Amphioxus . : « 24°76
Collection 2b Tab
Torpedo, Amphioxus 10°45
Annelida 14°85
Collection 50:
Lophius, Dactylopterus TAS
Collection . A . 648:
Amphioxus . 17°35
Salpa, Pyrosoma. 7-05
Various A 20°
Pelagia : : 31:65
Collection . 491:25
Collection . 4 1000:
Lepas . 11°85
Amphioxus . : 12°75
Collection . : 7 oo"
Collection . 1000:
Various j 5 » 130°50
Pelagia, Corallium 98:45
Sepia, Amphioxus, Pelagia 648°
Accetabularia : 11:
Collection - 100-
gineta, ASquorea 8:25
Various 19°85
Cucumaria, Petromyzon 29:
382 REPORT—1891.
Lire ec
1891 May 4 Marine Biol. Lab., Wood’s Holl Amphioxus . : = = TORSO
a 7 Mr. A. Tiedemann, Kissingen . Siphonophora, Xc. - 53:60
5 5, Dr. W. Schwabe, Leipzig. . Murex ‘ : Hy
4 , Mr. W.Schliiter, Halle . . Various : 4 - 152°85
es » Lyceum, Graz . : : . Various : 5 - 55°70
ss 9 Zool. Inst., Tomsk, Siberia . Various : ; 5 es
5 10 Prof. G. Sidler, Bern. - . Various : : 2 62°85
11 Anatom. Inst., Groningen . Embryos of Pristiurus 43°25
» 12 Mr. Jd-“Lempeére, Paris % . Various : : BSE)
pS » University, Edinburgh . . Various : - 35°30
;» 16 Kunstgewerbeschule, Karls- Collection . : . W245
ruhe i/B.
* 20 Zool. Inst., Moscow . ; . Collection . 5 - 160°90
» 30 Zool. Sammlung, Polytechnic, Collection . : . 1189-05
Zurich.
as » Mr. M. Kaloujsky, Moscow . Collection . é . 300°
3 ,» Zool. Inst., Gottingen ; . Arenicola . : ; 6°85
June 1. Prof. G. Sidler, Bern : . Collection . . 132°85
5 » A. Dall’ Eco., Florence . . Rhizostoma, Anemonia 12°30
an 5 Mr.58. Brogi, Siena . : . Collection . 3 - 10695
“p » Mr. I. C. Thompson, Liverpool . Collection . - . 160°50
a 6 Mr. J. Tempére, Paris ; . Various é . 3 60°25
» 14 ‘Linnea, Nat. Hist. Inst., Collection . 5 . 829-40
Berlin.
5 ,, Prof. H. E. Ziegler, Freiburgi/B Embryos of Torpedo . 13°80
5 ,, Lab. di Patal. Gen., Bologna . . Pristiurus
and Lacerta . 3 18:70
» 16 Dr. Killian, Freiburg i/B . . Embryos of Torpedo . 13°95
“6 18 Veter. Inst., Dorpat . 6 - Collection . : . 387°60
5 », A. Dall Eco., Florence . . Scyllium . : z 5:70
» 19 Dr. O. vom Rath, Freiburg i/B. Cymothoa, Anilocra . 6°20
5 ,, Palzontol. Instit., Munich . Ascetta : : C 8°55
‘ 21 Realschule, Nérdlingen . . Collection . : «=, AO:
=. 23 University College, London . Squilla, &c.. : - 70:05
5) 27 Zool. Inst., Halle. a . Cephalopoda : . 101:25
5 , Prof. R. Bergh, Copenhage . Conus medit. : 5 7:85
= 30 Zool. Lab., Utrecht ; . Torpedo ‘ é : 13°25
# ;, Anatom. Inst., Dorpat . . Emb. of Pristiurus . 39:90
21809°30
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. HaDpon,
Professor W. A. HerpMAN, and Mr. W. E. Hoy.e (Secretary),
appointed for improving and experimenting with a Deep-sea
Tow-net, for opening and closing under water.
Tur Committee have devised and had constructed an improved form of
the apparatus for opening and closing the tow-net by an electric current,
which will be exhibited at the forthcoming meeting of the Association.
Their efforts to obtain an opportunity for experimenting in deep water
have not been successful, and hence the money destined for the purchase
of an electric cable of considerable length has not been expended. The
Committee suggest that they should be reappointed, and a sum of 40/.
(including an unspent balance of 27/. 14s. 6d., which has been returned to
the Treasurer) should be intrusted to them.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 383
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLapsTone
(Chairman), Professor H. E. ArmstronG (Secretary), Mr. S.
Bourne, Dr. Crosskey, Mr. G. Guapstonr, Mr. J. Heywoop,
Sir Joun Luspock, Sir Puitre Magnus, Professor N. Story
MASKELYNE, Sir H. E. Roscor, Sir R. TEMPLE, and Professor
S. P. THompson, appointed for the purpose of continuing
the inquiries relating to the teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools.
Last year your Committee had to report very considerable changes in the
code of regulations issued by the Education Department which bore upon
instruction in scientific subjects in elementary schools, and also certain
additions to the Science and Art directory consequent thereon. As these
only began to take effect from September 1 last the returns of the
Education Department, issued this year, which extend down to August
31, deal entirely with the results of examinations under the old code.
They are therefore strictly comparable with those of the seven preceding
ears.
i The following table gives the number of departments of schools in
which the several class subjects have been examined by H.M. Inspector
during each twelve months :—
Class Subjects—Departments | 1882-3 | 1883-4 | 1884-5 | 1885-6 1886-7 1887-8 | 1888-9 1880-90,
| | |
English . . . . .| 28,363! 19,080/ 19,431 | 19,608 | 19,917 | 20,041 | 20,153 20,304
: a
Geography. . . . «| 12,823 | 12,775] 12,336 12,055 | 12,035 | 19,058 | 12,171 | 19,367
Elementary Science . * 7 48 5L 45 | 43 39 36 36 32
uRtonyi NG iis) lic 367 382 386) 375 383 390 386 414 |
one 6 == — — | 249} 505 — — — |
Needlework . . . .| 5,86] 5,929] 6,499 6,809 | 7,137 | 7,424 | 7,620) 7,758 |
The number of scholars examined in the scientific specific subjects
during the same period is as follows :—
Specific Snbjects——Children | 1882-3 | 1883-4 | 1884-5 | 1885-6 | 1886-7 | 1887-8 | 1888-9 | 1889-90 |
Algebra . . . . .) 26,547 | 24,787 | 25,347 | 25,393 | 25,103 | 26,448] 97,465 | 30,035
Buclid and Mensuration . .{| 1942] 2010) 1269} 1247] 995} 1.006| 928] 977
MechanicsA . . . .| 2,042| 3,174| 3,527| 4344] 6315 | 6.961| 9,524 11,453
Pemeeaets) roo Sip 22 206| 2939/| 198 33. | a3 127| 209
Animal Physiology . . .| 22,759 | 22,857 | 20,869 | 18,523 | 17,338 | 16,940 | 15,893 | 15,842
|Botany . . . . .| 3,280] 2604] 2415] 1992] 1589| 1598| 1.944] 1/830 |
| Principles of Agriculture | 1,357| 1,859 1,481} 1351] 1,137] 1151| 1199 | 1/298
Chemistry. . . | 1,183 | 1,047| 1,095] 1,158 | 1/488] 1/808] 1/531 | 2007
Sound, Light,and Heat . 630 | 1,253] 1,231 | 41,334] 1158} 978] 1076] 1,183
Magnetism and Electricity -| 3,643 | 3,244| 2864] 2951] 2250] 1,977| Ies9| 92'293
Domestic Economy . . . | 19,582 | 21,458 | 19,437 | 19,556 | 20,716 | 20.787 | 29,064 | 23,094
Total. . . . .| 82,965 | 84499 | 79,774 | 78,477 | 78,122 | 79,985 | 83,420 | 90,151
te ge ots in Stan-) 286,355 | 325,205 | 352,860 | 393,289 | 432,097 | 472,770 | 490,590 495,164 |
'___The first of these tables shows that, while during the year there were
151 more departments that took at least one class subject, there were 196
384 REPOoRT—1891.
more in which geography was taught; while, on the other hand, there
were only 32 in all that took up elementary science, the lowest record of
any of the years under review.
On comparing the figures for the several specific subjects in the second
table with the number of scholars qualified to take any two of them
under the rules of the Code, it will be found that there has been an im-
portant increase over the previous year in the study of algebra, mechanics,
chemistry, and magnetism and electricity ; but if the comparison be made
with the year 1885-6, or any of the preceding years, it will be found that
this year’s return still shows a relative, if not an absolute, falling off in the
study of every one of the subjects, except mechanics and chemistry.
The general result shows that the slight turn in the tide as to the
percentage of scholars tanght these specific subjects as compared with the
number that might have taken them, which was just remarked in last
year’s report, has been more than maintained. It will be apparent from
the following table :—
Tn 199228 4) 2) SRR =) 99*g pentdants
SBSEe D>) a) re “Day ange
naa PT NG EMER NES" opted MING
SCC ee IM ad at ods ac
ene eS) PRS pera
a c/s aaa |: SRM SY 55
PRT RBGLO y's 6 TUNE RR 66 “pel Sana
PB GB260, fei ae > a Sa
This result} is mainly due to the operations of the School Boards for
London, Liverpool, Birmingham, and Nottingham, which have given much
attention to the teaching of mechanics, in some cases under the peripatetic
system and in others in special schools.
The code of regulations which has been issued this year by the Educa-
tion Department contains only two alterations that call for notice.
The one consists of the following note to the work required under the
head of Arithmetic in Standard LV. (Schedule I.) :—‘ The scholars in
Standards V., VI., and VII. should know the principles of the metric
system, and be able to explain the advantages to be gained from uniformity
in the method of forming multiples and sub-multiples of the unit. As a
preparation for this it will be useful to give in Standard IV. elementary
lessons on the notation of decimal fractions.’ This reintroduces the study
of the metric system which was dropped in the year 1874.
The other is the addition of another alternative course of elementary
science (Schedule II., Course I.), called ‘lessons on common things.’ The
course laid down for the several standards is as follows : —
‘Standards I. and I.—Thirty object lessons on the chief tribes of animals
and their habits, and on common plants and their growth.
‘ Standard III.—Common inorganic substances and their properties.
‘ Standard IV.—Simple mechanical laws in their application to common
life and industries. Pressure of liquids and gases.
‘ Standard V.—Simple chemical laws in their application to common
life and industries.
‘ Standard VI.—Outlines of physiology in its bearing on health and
work.
‘ Standard VII.—Other simple physical laws, such as those of light,
heat, &e.’
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 385
It is doubtful whether this will prove acceptable, as it involves a wider
range of study than any of those going before, in which the same subject
is carried onward from year to year. In so far, however, as the title is
concerned, the institution of this Course marks an advance in views, and
is a valuable recognition of the principle that in teaching science in ele-
mentary schools it is important to base the instruction on common objects
generally. , ;
Last year the National Association for the Promotion of Technical
Education endeavoured to obtain some modifications of the alternate
courses of elementary science in Schedule I1., and your Committee also
drew especial attention to certain points of which they disapproved. No
alteration, however, has been made. They can only express the hope that
this important schedule will be carefully revised for the code of next
year ; and it seems highly desirable that the revision should be carried out
with the assistance ot some of the teachers who have given special atten-
tion to methods of teaching science.
It is stated at pp. 28, 29 of the Code that ‘it is intended that the
instruction in elementary science shall be given mainly by experiment and
illustration. If these subjects are taught by definition and verbal de-
scription, instead of making the children exercise their own powers of
observation, they will be worthless as means of education.’ It is here
clearly implied that the object of instruction in elementary science is to
lead the children to exercise their powers of observation; but it is much ta
be feared that the methods generally adopted in teaching the subject de
not satisfy this requirement, and it is highly important that ampler in-
structions should be placed before teachers. Valuable and instructive as
are class lessons, whether ‘ conversational object lessons’ or lessons freely
illustrated by experiment, experience shows that their effect is but too
often ephemeral ; and, above all, it is to be feared that they do little tewards
developing the power of independent observation, as in such lessons
children do not learn to do things themselves, but gain their information
from the teacher.
The Committee desire most strongly to urge that the time has now
come when every effort should be made to introduce experimental lessons,
especially measurement lessous, into schools; in other words, that the
children should be set to do simple experimental exercises themselves, not
merely to attend lessons, listening to and taking notes of whatis said. It
__ is now clearly recognised that even in the case of students of a far higher
_ grade than those in the elementary schools practical instruction should
_ always accompany lectures and demonstrations, and this must be all the
_ more necessary in the case of young children. In the higher standards
_ not only the observing faculties, but also the reasoning faculties, should
be brought fully into play in the practical lessons. It may be added that
in the course of the measurement lessons, even in the lower standards,
opportunity would be given to the children to compare the English with
the metric system, and thus the knowledge of this latter, which is now
required of the higher standards, would be easily acquired.
If attention be once directed in the Code to the necessity for instruc-
tion of the kind suggested being given, there can be no doubt that suit-
able sets of practical exercises will soon be devised and carried into
practice. The non-recognition of their importance is at present the chief
bar to the introduction of such practical exercises.
a demonstrators have recently been appointed by the School
91. ce
386 REPORT—1891.
Board for London, in addition to those referred to in former reports, who
are endeavouring to initiate practical work by the scholars in a number
of the schools under their charge. The results of their work are to be
awaited with interest, as there can be no doubt that when it is once
shown that children in elementary schcols can be taught to experiment
for themselves, and thereby acquire the habits of accurately observing
and later on of reasoning from observation, no great delay will arise in
introducing such teaching into schools generally.
There is little hope that any but specially trained teachers will be able
satisfactorily to conduct experimental teaching with the object of incul-
cating scientific habits of mind. Hence, bearing in mind the probability
that a revolution in methods of teaching is clearly foreshadowed, and that
the action of the Government in providing funds for technical instruction
is having a most important influence in encouraging applied science
teaching, it would seem highly desirable that the teachers in training
should be prepared to do what will be required of them. As it will be
their object to teach scientific method, it is all-important that their own
training in this direction should be as ample as possible, and that they
should be led to recognise more clearly than is done at present what is
the object to be gained in introducing elementary science into schools ;
that the use of facts—-not mere facts—is to be taught.
Though the scholars of clementary schools who are working in the
standards are excluded from participation in the grant out of the beer
and spirit duties, the application of this fund will have an indirect influ-
ence upon elementary education, and your Committee note with satisfaction
that throughout England and Wales only two counties have refused to
apply any portion of the grant to technical education, and that all the
rest, with the exception of eight, have applied the entire grant to that
purpose. This extension of technical instruction among the ex-standard
children, and the scholars in evening schools, will render the preparatory
work in the elementary schools all the more important.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. N. DouGuass,
Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS, Professor W. C. Unwin, and
Messrs. W. Toptey, E. LeaperR Wiurams, W. SHELFORD,
G. F. Deacon, A. R. Hunt, W. H. WHEELER, W. ANDERSON, and
H. Bamronrp, appointed to investigate the Action of Waves and
Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means
of Working Models.
[PLATES II.-XIV.]
Tut Committee held a meeting in the rooms of Mr. G. F. Deacon,
32 Victoria Street, Westminster (July 29, 1891), and considered the
results obtained since the last report. Professor Reynolds reported that
by the date of the meeting of the British Association the objects of the
investigation would be accomplished, and suggested that it would not be
necessary to continue the investigation beyond that date or to apply to
the Association for reappointment. These suggestions were adopted, and
it was resolved that the thanks of the Committee be communicated to the
|
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 387
Council of the Owens College for the facilities afforded for conducting the
experiments in the Whitworth Engineering Laboratory.
Having considered the disposal of the apparatus, which has no
pecuniary value, the Committee resolved to recommend the Association
to place it at the disposal of the Owens College.
At a second meeting held in the Committee room of Section G at
Cardiff the report submitted by Professor Reynolds was adopted.
On Model Estuaries.
By Professor Osnorne Rernoxps, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.L.
§ I—lInvropvction to Reporr ITI.
1. In accordance with the suggestions in the Second Report, read at
the Leeds meeting of the British Association, the investigation has been
continued with a view—
(1) To obtain further information as to the final condition of
equilibrium with long tidal rivers entering the head of a V-shaped
estuary.
(2) To obtain a more complete verification of the value of the criterion
of similarity.
(3) To investigate the effect of tides in the generator diverging from
simple harmonic tides.
(4) To determine the comparative effect of tides varying from spring
to neap.
Opportunity has also been taken :—
(5) To investigate the effect of prolonging the walls of the river into
the estuary through the bar which was below low water, with prolonga-
tions reaching up to low water, and others reaching up to half-tide—this
being done in both models, so that the similarity of the effects might be
seen; and
(6) To investigate the effect of rendering the estuaries unsym-
metrical by means of large groins, and so to test the laws of similarity
obtained in the symmetrical estuaries as applied to unsymmetrical estu-
aries.
2. The two models have been continuously occupied in these investi-
gations, when not stopped for surveying or arranging fresh experiments.
In this way each of the models has run 600,000 tides, corresponding to
$40 years. These tides have been distributed over six experiments in the
nee tank E, and four in the small tank F, in number from 50,000 to
000.
3. The experiments have all been conducted on the same system
as described in the previous reports.
All the experiments but one have been made in tanks E and F, with-
out further modification; and in all these land water to the extent of
0°5 per cent. of the tidal capacity per tide has been introduced at the top
of the river.
Initially, the sand has been laid to the level of half-tide from Section
13 up the river to Section 26 down the estuary. The vertical sand gauges
distributed along the middle line of the estuary have been read and
recorded each day. Tide curves have been taken at frequent intervals.
Contour surveys have been made, generally after 16,000 tides, and again
cc2
388 REPORT—1891.
after 32,000; while in the longer experiments further surveys have been
made. With the spring and neap tide, the rate of action being much
the slower, intervals between the surveys have been longer. In all 26
complete surveys have been made, and 20 plans showing contours cor-
responding to every 6 feet reduced to a 30-foot tide, together with sections
and tide curves Plate IJI., are given in this report.
The general conditions of each experiment, together with the general
results obtained, are shown in the table, while a description of each ex-
periment is given in § VI.
The Committee have been fortunate in retaining the services of Mr.
Greenshields, who has carried out the experiments, observing and record-
ing the results, besides executing such modifications as have been required,
designing the compound harmonic gearing for the spring and neap tides,
which has answered excellently.
Mr. Bamford has kindly continued his assistance in conducting the
investigations and reducing the results.
§ IL—Generat Resutts anp Conciusions.
4. The conditions of equilibrium with a long tidal river entering at the
top of a V-shaped estuary.—The experiments in tanks C and HE made last
year led to the conclusion stated in Art. 11 of the Second Report: ‘ that
the effect of a river 50 miles long, when reduced to a 30-foot tide, increas-
ing gradually in width until it enters the top of a V-shaped estuary, is
entirely to change ‘the character of that estuary. The time occupied by
the water in getting up the river and in returning causes this water to
run down the estuary while the tide is low, and necessitates a certain
depth at low water, which causes the channel to be much deeper at the
head of the estuary. In its effects on the lower estuary the experiments
with the tidal river are decisive, but as regards the action of silting up.
the river further investigation is required, both to establish similarity in
the models, and to ascertain the ultimate condition of final equilibrium.’
From this year’s experiments, III., IV., V., VI., and VII., in tank EH,
and V. and VI. in tank F, it appears that if the length of the tidal river,
reduced to a 30-foot tide, is 50 miles; or taking R for the length of the
tidal river in miles and h for the rise of tide at the mouth of the estuary im
feet, if
R=85/ h
the river will keep open so that the tide will rise to the top, the sand falling
gradually from the top of the river to the level of about mean tide at the
mouth.
That the depth of water in the river and at the top of the estuary increases
rapidly with the length of the river, and when
R=12V7h
the level of the sand at the mouth of the river will be more than h feet below
the level of low water and the bottom will be below low water level for more
than half the length of the river above its mouth.
5. The similarity of the results in the tanks HE and F'’.—The experiments
in the tanks E and F this year confirm those of last year in showing that
during the early stages of forming the estuary from sand at the level of
mean tide the action in the river is different in the small tank F from
ON THE ACTION OF WAYES AND CURRENTS. 389
what it is in the large tank E, although the value of the criterion of
similarity h’e ' may be but little below 0:09.
It was not found practicable to get the value of the criterion any
greater in tank F’, but it was found on diminishing the rise of tide in the
large tank E until the criterion had a value 0:09, that the results were still
similar, although the rate of action and the increase in the size of the
ripple indicated that the limit was being approached. That the dissi-
milarity in tank F' was only the result of a phase in the formation of the
estuary was also definitely shown by the effects of dredging out the sand,
which was above the initial level in the river during the early stages of
the Experiments V. and VI., after which the action in tank F resumed
the same course as that in E, and led to the same final condition of
equilibrium, showing by the rate of action and size of ripple that the
limit of similarity was approached.
It thus appears that with such arrangements as these tanks represent
there are two possible conditions of final equilibrium.
The one is that which has uniformly been presented by tank E, and
in Experiment V. in tank F after dredging ; namely, the tide rising up to
the top of the river and keeping the sand low in the estuary. The other,
that which was presented in Experiments I., II., III., and IV., in tank F;
namely, the sand at the top of the estuary rising to high water level, as it
would do if there were no river, choking the mouth of the river except
so far as necessary to allow the land water to pass, and so preventing any
tidal action from the river.
Which of these two conditions the river will assume during the process
of forming the estuary appears to be a critical matter, decided by whether
the tidal action of the river in lowering the sand at the head of the estuary
predominates over the tendency of the tide in the estuary to raise the
sand at the mouth of the river.
There is a possible condition of instability between the river and the
estuary. The emphatic difference in the action of the long tidal river and
mere tidal capacity at the head of the estuary in keeping down the sand
at the head of the estuary ; and, further, the very great effect which an
increase in the length of the river has on the depth of water in the estuary
and in the river are clearly shown.? In Experiments III. and V. in tank
E, an increase of from 50 to 70 miles in the length of the river in V.
causing the depih of water to increase from by 40 to 30 feet all down the
river and estuary, lowering the sand in the lower river and upper estuary
from the level of half-tide to 28 feet below low water. In neither of these
experiments was the condition of instability reached, but 50 miles was
very near the limit.
In such a state any diminution of the upper tidal waters of the river,
by shortening the river or by land reclamation, might well have caused
the critical stage to be passed and caused the river to silt up—just as in
the other way the increasing of the tidal capacity high up the river by
dredging in Experiment V., tank F, caused the Critical stage of silting
up to be passed and the river to open out. The sand actually removed
in this experiment by dredging was 8 per cent. of the tidal capacity,
; tie his the actual rise in feet, ¢ the vertical exaggeration as referred to a 30-foot
ide.
* See Plate IV. in which the sections of the rivers and estuaries in tank C,
Experiment IL., and tank E, Experiments III. and IV. are plotted to the same
vertical and horizontal scales.
390 REPpoRT 1891.
or 400 million cubic yards, removed at the rate of 7 million cubic yards
a year.
In most navigable rivers two processes have been going on—dredging
and land reclamation—the first tending greatly to improve the rivers and
estuaries, the second to deteriorate them so that any improvement has
been a question of balance. Where the rivers have improved they will
probably continue to improve so long as dredging goes on, but if the
dredging should stop, for example in the Thames, there would in all
probability be a gradual deterioration, possibly ending in the silting up of
the tidal river.
6. The effect of Tides deviating from the simple Harmonic Law.—One
attempt was made to study this question, when it was found that it would
require such modifications in the gearing as were not practicable in the
time, and so it was abandoned.
7. The action of Tides varying from Spring to Neap.—The rates of
action and conditions of final equilibrium in rectangular tanks, in V-shaped
estuaries with a long tidal river, and in each estuary rendered unsym-
metrical by large groins, have been investigated with tides varying
harmonically from spring to neap, and again to spring in 29 tides. The
ratio of these at spring and neap being 3 to 2 as compared with uniform
tides, having the same rise as the spring tides, also for uniform tides
having the same rise as the mean of spring and neap, the results showing
definitely :
(1) That the condition of Final Equilibrium in all cases with spring and
neap tides was the same as that with uniform tides having the same rise as
springs, and much greater, essentially different, from that with a uniform
tide having a rise equal to the mean rise of spring and neap tides.
(2) That the Rate of Action with the varying tide is much smaller than
that of a uniform tide having the rise of the spring tide. The ratios being
definite, about 2°5 to 1.
(3) That the limits of similarity obtained for all spring tides hold
approvimately for tides varying from spring to neap.
8. The effects of prolonging the rivers into the estuaries by walls below
high water. Experiments V. in tanks H and F having arrived at
similar final conditions of equilibrium (in which the depth of the rivers
for some distance above their mouths was reduced toa 30-foot tide, nearly
30 feet at low water, while the sand in the estuaries gradually rose from
the mouths of the rivers until it reached to within 12 feet of low water at
a distance of 14 miles below the mouth and then fell again, all the sand
being below this level, there being passes which formed a crooked deep
water channel), opportunity was taken to prolong the banks of the river
by walls at first up to low water and extending through the bar toa
distance of 44 miles from the mouths of the rivers. Then raising these
walls to half-tide, and finally carrying the walls forward slowly in tank
E at a rate of half a mile a year (700 tides), and in tank F dredging from
between the walls at a rate of seven million cubic yards a year (700 tides).
This was done in the first place as a further test of the similarity of
the action in the two tanks, and secondly as affording an interesting
study as to the effect of vertical walls in the direction of the current in
the bed of a tide-way. The effect of these walls at the level of low water
and at half tide were precisely similar in both tanks ; in neither case did
they produce any sensible effect at all on the level of the sand between
them. At the level of half-tide they caused in both tanks a slight silting
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 391
up outside the walls and also a slight silting up in the river above its
mouth, which effects were very much increased when the walls were
raised to half-tide. On the walls being removed in tank E and then
gradually carried forward, the silting up behind the wall and deteriora-
tion of the river increased, but there was no improvement in navigable
depth between the walls.
The dredging in tank F, so long as it was continued, added about 20
feet on a 30-foot tide or 10 feet on a 15-foot tide, to the navigable depth
between the walls, but there was the same silting up behind the walls
and the same deterioration in the river.
It thus appears that the similarity of the results in both tanks
supports the conclusion that vertical walls having the horizontal direction
of the current in a straight tideway and terminating well below high water,
produce but little effect on the distribution of the sand between them, so long
as the passage is freely open at both ends, but that if thé passage be blocked
at one end they form a bay in which the sand rises at the head.
9. The effects of the tide in estuaries not symmetrical. —Having so far,
in accordance with the original scheme of this investigation (First Report,
1889, p. 5), simplified the cirenmstances which influence the distribu-
tion of sand by maintaining the lateral boundaries perfectly sym-
metrical, and as nearly rectilinear as practicable, and having found
definite laws connecting the distributions of sand in the beds of the model
estuaries with the period and rise of the tide and the length of the
estuary, besides the laws connecting the period of the tide with the
horizontal and vertical scales under which the models give similar results,
there remained two questions :
(1) How far such discrepancies as appear between the general distri-
butions of sand found in the models and those observed in actual estuaries
are attributable to irregularities in the boundaries of the latter P
(2) How far the influence of these boundaries is subject to the same
laws of similarity as those already obtained P
The original experiments of the author in models of the Mersey which
led to the appointment of the Committee (B.A. Report, 1887) had to a
great extent answered these questions, showing that similar irregulari-
ties in the lateral boundaries exercise similar and predominating influences
on the lateral distributions of the sand in the modelsand in the estuaries.
It seemed, however, desirable, so far as time allowed, to confirm these
results of the author’s and make this investigation complete in itself by
carrying out experiments in both models similar to those already carried
out, except that the boundaries should be boldly irregular.
Such experiments also afforded opportunity for studying some general
effects of great importance. The relation between the depths of water
and the rise of tide had come out very definite in the symmetrical experi-
ments, and it was desirable to see how far these relations would be
disturbed by lateralirregularities. Forinstance: (1) Would bold irregu-
larities in the boundaries of the estuary alter the depth of water in the
river? Bold irregularities in the boundaries, causing the water to take a
sinuous course, would have the effect of virtually narrowing and in-
creasing the length of the estuary, and by causing eddies would obstruct
the passage of the water to some extent. Lengthening the estuary would
tend to increase its depth at corresponding points, and obstructing the
water would tend to diminish the tidal action in the river; at all events,
until the estuary had increased in depth.
392 REPORT—1891.
(2) At the mouth of the estuary the flow of water had so far been
straight up and down, and equal all across the estuary. By rendering
the mouth unsymmetrical, circulation would be set up which would render
the up-currents stronger at one part and the down-currents stronger at
another, an effect which would correspond to some extent to that of tidal
currents across the mouth of the estuary.
(3) The large tidal sand ripples below low water in the model estuaries,
with the flood and ebb taking the same course, constitute a feature which
it is impossible to overlook, yet the existence of corresponding ripples
had been entirely overlooked in actual estuaries until they were found to
exist when they were looked for, having been first seen in the models.
The reason that they were overlooked before is, no doubt, explained by
the fact that the bottom is not visible below low water in actual estuaries ;
but this is not all. In the estuaries these ripples, where found, have been
confined to the bottoms and sides of the narrow channels between high
sand banks, and they do not occur on the level sands below low water
towards the mouths of estuaries to anything like the same extent as in
the models. By rendering the estuary unsymmetrical and so causing the
ebb and flood to take different courses, this effect, as explaining the
greater prevalence of ripples with symmetrical estuaries, would be tested.
These considerations led to the repetition of Experiment V. in tank F,
at first with a single groin extending from the right bank into the middle
of the estuary at the mouth, and subsequently to the introduction of
three more groins from alternate sides of the estuary to the middle, up
the estuary, and then to the introduction of similar groins into tank E,
during Experiment VII., with spring and neap tides.
The result of these experiments is to show conclusively :
(1) That the laws of similarity found for symmetrical channels with
uniform tides hold with sinuous channels for uniform or varying tides.
(2) That the greater uniformity of the depth of sand on cross sections of
models with symmetrical boundaries than with actual estuaries, does not
exist when the banks are equally irregular.
(3) That the circulation caused by the unequal flow of the tide in model
estuaries tends greatly totake the sand out, and that the natural tendency in
an estuary to scarp the boundaries so as to increase its sinuosities tends
greatly to the deepening of the channels.
(4) That in the models with boldly irregular boundaries the tidal ripples
are much less frequent than in the symmetrical models, being confined to
places where there are no cross currents, as in actual estuaries.
10. Conclusion of the Investigation.—It seems that the objects of this
investigation have now been accomplished,
The investigation of the action of tides on the beds of model estuaries
has been found perfectly practicable. Two tanks have been kept running
night and day from June 22, 1889, to August 1891, and have each ac-
complished upwards of 1,200,000 tides, representing the experience of
2,000 years. Such difficulties as protecting the sand from extraneous
disturbance and keeping it free from fouling, regulating the levels of the
water, the tidal periods, the rise of tide, forms of the tide curve and the
supply of land water, observing and recording the results, have all been
fairly overcome, though none of the precautions taken could have been
safely dispensed with.
The limits to the conditions under which the results will conform to
the simple hydrokinetic law of similarity have been fairly established ;
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 393
while above these limits the applicability of the simple hydrokinetic law
to these experiments has been abundantly verified in models varying in
scale from six inches to a mile to an inch and a half to the mile, and with
vertical exaggerations, as compared with a 30-foot tide, ranging from 60
to 100.
The laws of the distribution of the sand in a tideway under circum-
stances of progressing complexity have been determined and have been
verified, not only by repetitions of the same experiment but also by pro-
ducing similar distributions under different circumstances, which circum-
stances, however, conformed to the laws of hydrokinetic similarity.
Thus the distributions of sand in simple rectangular estuaries, V-shaped
estuaries, and V-shaped estuaries with a long tidal river, have all been
investigated and found to be definite.
Investigations have also been made with definite results of the separate
effects of land water in moderate quantities, and of the length of the
tidal river on the depth of water in the river and estuary, and of the
effect of bold irregularities in the configuration of the lateral boundaries
of the estuaries, also of training walls in deep water. And, lastly, the
comparative rates and ultimate action of uniform tides and tide varying
from spring to neap have been determined.
It thus appears that this system of investigation has been tested over
a great portion of the ground it is likely to cover, and that most of the
difficulties that are likely to occur have been met and the necessary pre-
cautions found.
It wouid seem, therefore, by carefully observing these precautions, the
method may now be applied with confidence to practical problems.
§ IlI.—Tse Apparatus.
11. General Working of the Apparatus—All the apparatus has worked
well, although certain repairs have been rendered necessary by wear ; thus,
the motor has required new pins, not much, considering it has made over -
200 million revolutions. The knife edges, on which the generator of the
large tank rests, which are of cast-iron, and 2 inches long, and each carry
about 1,000 lb., were fonnd to have, after one million oscillations, worn
down +’; of an inch, until they had become so locked in the Vs as to stop
the motor.
12. The modifications in the Tanks have this year been confined to the
introduction of training walls and groins. These have been made of paper
saturated with solid paraffin (which gradually became warped by the
pressure), sheet zinc, and sheet lead or wood, as was most convenient, In
the last experiment the large tank was modified by taking out the parti-
tion boards and stopping the opening at the end so as to reproduce the
original rectangular tank A.
13. Gearing for the Spring and Neap Tides, Plate [[.—This arrangement,
designed by Mr. Greenshields, accomplished the result very neatly and
effectually with a minimum of new appliances. It admits of any degree
of adjustment in the ratio of maximum and minimum tides, and works
easily and well.
On commencing the work with spring and neap tides it was found
essential to have an indicator of the phase of the tide, which would be
easily visible without having to examine the gearing. For this a counter,
having twenty-nine teeth in the escapement wheel, which carried a long
394 REPORT—1891.
finger over the face, was constructed by Mr. Greenshields, and worked
well, proving a great convenience.
§ IV.—Descriprion OF THE EXPERIMENTS ON THE MoveMENT oF SAND
IN A TIpEWway, FROM SEPTEMBER 4, 1890, ro Auausr 1891.
14, Experiment III., Plan 1, Tanks E and F, Plate V.—These
experiments were intended as a repetition of Experiments I. (Second
Report, p. 528), which were only continued to 36,000 tides. The only
difference in the conditions being that, while in Experiment I. the sand
was initially laid up to the top of the river, Section 38, in Experiment III.
the sand was only laid up the river to Section 13. These experiments
were carried on during the vacation, Mr. Foster kindly keeping the tanks
running and reading the counters daily. In this way 47,000 tides were
run in tank E, and 66,000 in F, when the surveys for Plan 1 were taken.
These sarveys show a rather more advanced state than is shown in
Plan 2, Experiment I., but they present exactly the same characters.
In tank E the sand in the estuary is slightly lower in the longer experi-
ment than in the shorter, but shows the same distribution. In both
experiments in tank E the level of the sand at the mouth of the river is
that of mean tide, and in both experiments the level of the sand reaches
the H.W.L. in the generator at Section 11, or 13 miles up from the mouth,
and in both the tide continued to rise to the top of the river.
In tank F, also, both experiments show the same general distribution
of sand in the estuaries and river. In the estuary the phenomenon pre-
viously observed with a low value for the criterion, namely, the large
ripple, is more pronounced in the longer experiment; but in both
experiments the river has become barred at an early stage, showing that
the conditions in F during the formation of the estuary have been below
those essential for similarity.
The rise of tide observed at the end of the Experiment III. in both
E and F is below those observed at the earlier stages. In tank E the
rise of tide with the same rise in the generator has fallen to 0°125 foot at
47° tides, though it was 0°140 foot at 32,000, and 0:095 foot at 66,000 in F,
against 0°(196 foot at 32,000. This phenomenon, which becomes more
pronounced in some of the later experiments, is accounted for by the im-
proved tideway as the experiment gets older, allowing the estuary to
empty itself more completely. It requires notice, since it renders esti-
mates, such as the value of the criterion of similarity based upon the rise
of tide, difficult. The same quartity of water passes up and down the
estuary, but does not effect the same rise of tide at the generator, which
falls as the experiment gets older, while the rise of tide up the estuary
increases at the same time.
15. Experiments on Increased Length of Tidal River. Haperiments IV.,
E and F, with Land Water, Plates VI., X., and IV., October 22 to
November 17, 1890.—The sand laid 0°333 foot in E, and 0°187 in F from
Section 13 up the river to Section 26 down the estuary. Mean rise of
the tide, 0°310 in HE, 0197 in F. Rise of the generators the same as
before, periods 33°47 in EH, 22°21 in F.
The conditions were thus the same as in Experiment III., with the
exception that the tidal periods were reduced in the ratio 1 to./2. As
reduced to a 30-foot tide, this would have the effect of increasing the
horizontal scales in the ratio,/2 to 1. Thus, while in Experiment III.
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 395
the estuaries from generator to mouth of tidal river represented about
50 miles, and the rivers 54 miles; in Experiment IV. the estuaries were
70, and the rivers 76.
With the same tide at the mouth the elongation of the estuary would
cause the tide to rise higher at the mouth of the river, but as there was
only the same quantity of water from the generator the tides with the
longer estuaries were smaller at the generators, which would again
diminish the tides at the mouths of the rivers. The tides observed at
the mouths of the rivers were somewhat higher than in Experiment III.
And this fact must be allowed for in considering the results as represent-
ing the effect of increasing the lengths of the rivers on the distribution
of sand.
In tank E the effect was very remarkable. For the first 5,000 tides
the sand rose up the river as far as it was laid, the head of the sand
gradually going forward, and the sand falling at the top of the estuary
and in the mouth of the river. Somewhat the same appearances
appeared in tank F, though it soon became apparent that the advance of
the head of the sand was much slower in F, and also the lowering of the
sand at the top of the estuary. Sand was going up the river, but it ac-
cumulated in the lower reaches.
In E at 9,000 tides there was an almost sudden change; the sand in
the river was rapidly carried to the top, leaving the lower reaches empty.
After 11,000 tides the bottom of the river was swept clean from the
mouth to Section 15 (30 miles), and then a steady downward movement
of the sand went on all down the estuary until there was deep water all
the way down from 10 miles below the head of the river, The clearing
of the bottom of the river of sand evidently increased the action of the
river, increasing greatly the rise of tide.
In tank F the result was very different ; instead of the sand shifting
suddenly up the river, the sand reached Section 15, and then barred the
river at Section 11, the river then gradually filling up. At 38,000 tides,
when the second survey was made, the tide was still rising at the top of
the river, and the head of the sand still proceeding forwards. The
experiment was continued to 81,000 tides, and the head of the sand
reached Section 19, the tide still rising at the head very slightly. This
shows that the conditions of similarity were more nearly fulfilled in the
river in tank F in this experiment than in III. The values of the
criterion, however, given in the table are lower in IV. than in III. This
is because these values are calculated from the rise in the generators
which were in these experiments 0°110 in tank E and 0°081 in F, against
0-125 and 0:095 in Experiments III. With the same water going out
of the generator there must have been higher tides at the mouths of
the riversin IV., and as the vertical exaggeration in Experiment IV.
was ,/2 times larger than in I. and III., assuming the rise of tide in tanks
E and F, Experiments II]. and IV., to be as in Experiments I., the values
of the criterion in Experiments IV. would be at least 0°261 and 0:103.
This is in accordance with the observed results.
It seems therefore that in order to apply the criterion to the condi-
_ tions of similarity at the top of a long estuary with a tidal river the
actual rise of the tide at the mouth of the river should be taken in
estimating the value of the criterion for similarity at these points. It
‘appears however that in no case has the criterion estimated from
the tides in the generator exceeded the value 09, but what the condi-
396 REPORT—1891.
tions of similarity have been fulfilled, while in no case has it fallen
decidedly below this value without decided symptoms of dissimilarity
having appeared, so that this value for the criterion seems to be esta-
blished as a good working rule for the formation of an estuary from
sand at the level of half-tide.
If the bottom of the estuary is modelled the case is different, but the
occurrence of large ripples, in experiments in tank F and in Experiment V.
in tank EH, when the value of the criterion fell as low as ‘08, shows that
the similarity of the ripple depends on the same value of the criterion as
the formation of the estuary.
16. Experiments with Limiting Value of Criterion.—Haperiment V.
with Land Water, Tank EH, Plates VIL., VIII., and X1., from November 20 to
December 24.—The conditions of this experiment were designed to bring
the value of the criterion, estimated from the rise of tide in the generator
in the final condition of equilibrium, to 0:09, keeping the horizontal scale
as nearly as possible the same as in IV., and diminishing the rise of tide so
as to increase the proportional depth of sand in the river, and thus pre-
vent the bottom being swept clean when the final condition was reached.
The length of the crank working the generator in IV. had been 4°437
inches ; this was reduced to 3°77 inches in V., reducing the rise of the
tide in the ratio 0°85. To keep the horizontal scale the same the period
33°5 seconds was increased to 36 seconds, leaving the product p \/h constant.
This reduced the vertical exaggeration e in the ratio 0°85. Thus the
valne of 3e is reduced (0°85)* or 0°52.
Now the value of the criterion in Experiment IV. just before the
bottom was swept with sand was greater than 0:18, which, multiplied by
0°52, gives 0:093.
As carried out at the final condition shown in Plan 3, Plate VIII., the
period was 35°6 seconds, the rise of tide 0°107, and the value of the
criterion 0:0912.
This low value of the criterion showed itself in the rate of progress of
the experiment. It was 13,000 tides before the sand in the river reached
Section 19, against 4,000 in Experiment IV., and 25,000 against 9,000 in
iV. before reaching the head of the river. In the early stage of the ex-
periment it seemed doubtful whether the sand was going to bar the river
as in Experiment IV., tank F. Except in rate of action, however, the
motion of the sand followed the same course as in Experiment LV., taking
a sudden shift at about 20,000 tides, and then rapidly lowering the sand
at the head of the estuary. At the mouth of the river the bottom of the
tank was reached after 50,000 tides, but only between the ripple bars, so
that it was not swept clean.
The ripples in this experiment were very much larger than anything
before in tank E, showing that the criterion was approaching its critical
value.
The final condition of the estuary, as shown in Plan 3, after 36,000
tides, shows conclusively the effect of the upper tidal water in a long
river on the bed of the lower estuary. Below Section 19,32 miles from
the top of the river, there is no sand above the level of low water in the
estuary, and from this the sand falls uniformly to the mouth of the river,
where there is a depth of water, at low tide, of 30 feet. In the head of
the estuary there is a bar the top of which is only 12 feet below low
water; this is at Section 9, or 18 miles below the mouth of the river;
below this point the sand gradually falls to the generator.
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 397
Comparing this with the results in Experiments I. and ITI., where the
reduced length of the river is only some 50 miles, but in which the rise of
tide at the mouth of the river was somewhat greater, the effect of the
extra 20 miles length in the river is seen to have improved the general
and navigable depth of the river and estuary from the top of the river to
a distance of 40 miles down the estuary by from 40 to 30 feet.
17. The effects of dredging in the river, Huperiment V., in Tank P, from
November 19 to December 23, 1890, Plan 3, Plate VIII.—The initial con-
ditions of this experiment were the same as those of Experiment IV. in
tank F, except that the mean level of the tide was raised to 0°016 above
the initial level of the sand, and the period was increased from 22 to 23'3
seconds. The experiment was undertaken with the intention of ascertain-
ing (1) whether raising the mean level of the tide above the initial level
of the sand without altering the rise of tide would prevent the river
becoming barred; and, supposing this did not succeed, (2) to ascertain
whether, if the bar which had hitherto formed in the river during the
early stages of the experiments in tank F were kept down by dredging
out the sand as it rose above the initial level, the later stages would
follow the same course as in tank E.
The results were remarkable, and bring out the critical character of
the conditions at the mouth of the river.
The experiment was allowed to run 30,000 tides, during which the
progress of the sand was much more rapid than in IV., reaching Section 19
in 6,000 tides, as against 36,000 in Experiment IV. and 13,000 in Experi-
ment E, V., and reaching Section 23 in 16,000. At this point it stuck,
and the sand accumulated at the head of the estuary and in the river,
which became barred at Section 19, on reaching 30,000 tides.
It thus appears that lowering the initial level of the sand produced an
effect on the first action very nearly equal to increasing the rise of tide
by double the amount, but that as the sand distributed itself this effect
passed off.
At 30,000 tides the bar in the river was dredged down to the initial
level of the sand, and this level was maintained by daily dredging till
70,000 tides had been run, 0:08 cubic foot of sand in all being removed.
At this stage the sand in the river suddenly shifted up to the top as in
Experiments IV. and V., E. The sand at the mouth of the river and top
of the estuary falling until the bottom appeared, dredging was discon-
tinued. At 95,000 tides the final condition had been reached, which was
almost identical over the whole estuary with that of Experiment V. EH
after 60,000 tides, as shown in Plan 3, Experiment V., E and F.
The instability of the condition which may prevail at the mouth of a
river is thus clearly shown, as well as the useful effect of improving the
tideway by dredging in the upper reaches in the river. In three
experiments in tank F,I., III., and IV., the river became completely
barred, and the estuary became a bay with a stream of land water
entering at its top; in Experiment V. the bar again formed, but on being
kept down by dredging to the level of half-tide till the sand had fallen at
the head of the estuary, the river at length prevailed, and the sand was
washed out till there was 30 feet of water at low tide.
The time and amount of sand removed in producing this effect were
considerable. The tidal capacity of the river and estuary is 1 cubic foot ;
this reduced to a 30-foot tide is 21,700 million cubic yards, or on a 15-
foot tide is 5,422 million The amount of dredging, 0°08 cubic foot in
398 REPORT—1891.
all, represents 1,743 million cubic yards on a 30-foot tide, or 437 million
on a 15-foot tide. This was distributed over 40,000 tides, or sixty years,
so that even with the 15-foot tide it would represent 7 million cubic
yards a year.
After the dredging the rise of tide fell from 081 to ‘073 foot, which
would result from the lowering the sand which was above low water.
18. EBzperiments with Training Walls. Experiment V. (continued) with
Training Walls, Tanks E and F, from January 7 to February 20, 1891.
Plan 4, Plate XIJ.—Having arrived at similarfinal conditions of equili-
brium in tanks E and F, in which the sand was entirely below low
water from Section—19 up the rivers (82 miles from the top of the
river) to the generators, and in which there were bars in the estuary
below the mouths of the rivers, reducing the depth of water at low tide
from 28 feet in the river to a minimum of 12 on the top of the bars, it
seemed an opportunity not to be lost for testing the similarity of the
effect in the two tanks of prolonging the rivers by training walls through
the bars.
With this view walls of thick paper saturated with paraffin pushed
vertically into the sand and extending up to low water were run out
from the end of the river, preserving the same divergence as the walls of
the river to Section 22, or 40 miles on a 30-foot tide, the tanks being
stopped for the purpose.
These walls produced no apparent effect whatever on the depth of
sand between the walls, during 20,000 or 50,000 tides. They were then
replaced at the upper end by walls of sheet zinc extending to half-tide,
which did produce an apparent effect, inasmuch as the sand accumulated
outside the walls, forming an apparent channel within; also the sand rose
in the river, doing away with the appearance of a bar. These effects
were similar in both models after 40,000 tides had been run.
The old walls were removed in both tanks and replaced by walls
commencing at # tide at the mouths of the rivers, and falling during
the first 4 or 5 miles to half-tide, at which they were continued to
Section 22.
In tank E the walls were advanced gradually from the mouth of the
river at a rate of about half a mile in 700 tides (year). The result of this
is shown in Plan 4, Plate XII., tank E. There is no improvement in
the navigable depth of the river.
In tank F the walls were put in and then the tops of the ripple bars
were daily dredged off between the walls. This was continued for
100,000 tides, during which 5 per cent. of the tidal capacity was
removed, or about 1,000 million cubic yards on a 30-foot tide, or 250
millions on a 15-foot tide, which represents 7 millions annually on the
30-foot tide, or 1°8 millions on a 15-foot tide. The effect, as shown in
Plan 4, tank F, Plate XII., is to add some 20 feet to the depth on a 30-
foot tide, or 10 feet on a 15-foot tide.
The silting up behind the walls is the same as in tank H, and the
detriment to the navigable depth of the river is also similar.
19. Experiment V. (continued) with Tide deviating from the Simple Har-
monic in Tank H, February 23 to March 12.—This was meant as a pre-
liminary experiment. The balance of the generator was altered to give
a rise of tide in 17 seconds and a fall in 20. The experiment was run
for about 40,000 tides, and a survey taken, which showed little or no
effect. On carefully examining the tide curves it was found that they
ee ee
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 399
showed very little inequality in the rise and fall. On attempting to
increase this by further altering the balance, it was found that this could
not be done. To continue this part of the investigation it would have been
necessary to introduce complex gearing. Time did not suffice for this,
and the study was not carried further.
20. Hxperiments with Tides varying from Spring to Neap, Tank LE,
weve). Vill, Tank;A, XIV... Plates X., XI., XI.,; and, XIV.,
March 20 to August, 1891.—The gearing for tank E having been modified
so as to cause a rise in the generator, varying to over an interval of
29 tides, the variation being harmonic and adjustable, so as to admit of
any relation between the maximum and minimum rise.
These were adjusted so that the mean rise was the same as therise in
Experiment V., the spring and neap rises being in the ratio 3 to2. A
drain with an adjustable orifice was put in the bottom of the tank to
drain off nearly all the fresh water, and the scummer adjusted so as to
draw off the excess of land water at low spring tide level; this being
adjusted by trial until when running the mean tide level was the same as
before.
Experiment V. was then restarted without the sand having been
disturbed to afford a preliminary trial of the apparatus, the period
being that of Experiment V., 36 seconds. This was continued 18,000
tides, till the apparatus was completely in hand; then the sand was
relaid for Experiment VI., Plan 2, Plate X.,.in which the conditions
were the same as V., except the tide. The mean rise in the generator was
the same in VI. as in V., and the ratio of the spring and neaps 3 to 2.
This brought the rise in the generator at spring tides in VI. greater than
that in Experiment IV.,in the ratio of 1:1 to 1. The action on the sand
was much more rapid than in Experiment V. with the uniform tide being
nearly as quick as in IV. The sand reaching the top of the river in
13,000 tides, as against 10,000 in IV. and 25,000 in V., and the bottom
of the river being swept as clean in 17,000 tides in VI., as in 14,000 in IV.
In other respects the action in VI. very closely resembled that in IV.
The rate of action was a little slower, but the action itself seemed rather
stronger, as corresponding to a higher tide. Surveys were taken at
20,000 and 34,000 tides. The experiment was then stopped, in order to
make the conditions comparable with those of Experiment V : it being
quite clear that the action of spring and neap tides, having a mean rise
equal to that of a uniform tide, was not only much more rapid, but led to
a different state of final equilibricm.
Experiment VII., Plan 1, Plate XI—In this the tide was adjusted
until the rise of the generator at spring tide was the same as that for the
uniform tide in V., the other conditions being all the same.
The character of the action now became identical with what it had
been in Experiment V., but the rate was decidedly slower. Thus the
‘sand moving up the river reaches :—
Section 19 after 13,000 in V. and 39,000 in VI.
» 27 after 20,000 ,, » 51,000 in VI.
The survey taken after
18,000 tides in Experiment V , Tank BE, and
51,000,
” VIL, oe
are almost identical, the latter being a little the forwardest.
400 REPORT—1891.
It thus appears that spring and neap tides, having a ratio 3to 2,
produce the same result as two-fifths the same number of tides all
springs.
So far neither of these estuaries had reached the condition of final
equilibrium, but the similarity that the Plans 1, Experiments V. and VII.
present seemed sufficient assurance that this wculd be the same.
It was intended to repeat Experiment V., tank A, as soon as the
tank had been re-formed to its rectangular shape; in the meantime
groins were introduced in tank E similar to those which had been used
in Experiment VI. F, and Experiment VII. E was continued to ascertain
how far similar effects would be produced by varying and uniform tides
in estuaries with similar but boldly irregular outlines.
Experiment VII. H, Plan 4, Plate XIII. was continued with groins to
123,000 tides. Similar groins had affected the condition of the sand in
the estuary and river in Experiment VL., tank F, so that further com-
parison between Experiments VII. and V. cannot be made.
Ruperiment XIII, Tank A, rectangular without land-water, spring and
neap tides, Plan 3, Plate VIII, from July 10 to August 10, 1891.—In
this experiment the rates of spring and neap tides were 3 to 2, and the
rise of tide at spring tides was 0°176, the same as in Experiment V.,
tank A. The tank was reduced to its original rectangular form (Report
I.), namely, 4 feet broad, and 12 feet from the generators to the top.
The sand was laid as in Experiment V., tank A, at a depth of 2 in. from
Section 18 to the top of the tank, and the mean tide was adjusted as
in Experiment V., tank A. The period was 50 seconds, as in tank A.
Thus the conditions of Experiment XIII. and V., tank A, were precisely
the same, with the exception that while the tides in Experiment V. were
all springs, those in Experiment XIII. varied from springs to neap; the
object of Experiment XIII. being to compare the rate of action and final
condition of equilibrium with varying tides with the very detinite results
obtained as to the slopes of the sand obtained in the rectangular tanks
and recorded in Report I., B.A. Report, 1889.
These results are shown on Plate VIII. The period in Experiment
XITII., tank A, being shorter thanin V. The actual slope is greater but
the slopes reduced to a 30-foot tide agree.
21. Haperiments on Estuaries not Symmetrical. Experiment VI., in
Tank F, with large groins, Plans 1 and 4, Plates XII. and XIII, from
April 8 to June 16.—This experiment was started under conditions in all
respects similar to those in Experiment V., tank F’, with the exception of
a vertical groin extending from the right bank to the middle of the
estuary, with an inclination of 45° towards the generator, and rising from
the bottom of the tank above high water. This groin, which appears in
the charts to represent an artificial structure, is, in fact, out of all
proportion to anything of that kind which has yet been attempted. As
reduced to a 30-foot tide, it is 11 miles long, 100 feet high up to H.W.L.,
and half a mile broad. Thus it corresponds rather to such a natural
feature as Spurn Head, at the mouth of the Humber, than to a break-
water such as that at Harwich.
In starting the experiment, the end of the sand at Section 26 was 20
miles above the point of the groin at Section 36. The groin had deep
water on both sides of it, so that its only effect was to deflect the flood
on to the left bank of the estuary.
This effect was very decided, the strength of the flood on the right
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 40]
carrying the sand up the estuary in spite of the effect of the ebb to bring
it down. But this in itself was not so much; it was the large eddy
caused by the groin which produced the greatest effect. The water
entering on the left of the estuary crossed over to the right, and re-
turned along the right bank. In other words, during flood the right side
of the estuary for 30 miles from the generator was in back water. This
back water also gave the ebb a start down the right bank which rendered
the ebb stronger on this side.
The sand came down rapidly on the right side, and besides was carried
over from the left to the right, and formed a bank along the right middle
of the estuary, reaching the generator after a very few tides. Round this
bank the water circulated, carrying the sand with it up on the left and
down on the right, the bank growing all the time. The ripple round this
bank was very striking, arranged with the ripple heads all down on the
right side and up on the left. After about 3,000 tides the sand began to
pass from the point of this bar in a fine stream across the open channel,
dividing this point from the point of the groin, and commenced the
formation of a bank in the generator corresponding to that in the tank.
This bank had to be removed from the generator, and after 6,000 tides
4 lbs, of sand were so removed. In Experiment V. the first sand removed
from the generator was after 120,000 tides had been run.
The sand also went more rapidly up the river in Experiment VI.
than in Experiment V. But this was aceounted for by dredging in
the river having begun much earlier, after 20,000 tides as against
30,000,
In all 8 lbs. of sand were removed from the river in Experiment VI.,
against 10 lbs. in V., or about 0:004 of the tidal capacity in VI. against
0-08 in V. In both cases the dredging stopped when the sand began to
shift up the river after 70,000 tides.
At 100,000 tides a condition of final equilibrium had been arrived at.
The sand in the river was just the same as in V., Plan 3, Experiments V.
and VI. in tank F. There is deep water in VI. up to Section 21, 30 miles
from the generator, the levels of the sand being much the same from this
point up as in V.
A similar groin was then introduced at Section 16, extending from the
left bank to the middle of the estuary. This groin was 44 miles long and
100 feet high to H.W.L., and 50,000 more tides were run, the river all the
time slightly improving. Thus having brought deep water up to Section
14, or about 44 miles from the generator, a groin extending from the right
bank to mid-channel at Section 8, about 2°5 miles long and 70 feet high,
and another from the left bank to mid-channel at Section 5, 2 miles long
and 70 feet high, were put in.
The first effect of these groins was to raise the sand slightly in the mouth
_ of the river; but this improved again, and after 50,000 more tides there
_ Was deep water extending from the mouth of the river to the generator,
and the river was better than in Experiment V. with the training walls,
_ though not quite so good as before these were put in.
___. In the meantime the banks had risen in the estuary below the groins,
extending down from nearly H.W.L. to the point of the next groin,
where there was a pass with water nearly to the bottom of the tank.
The sand carried down into the generator during the experiment
amounted to 69 lbs., or 57 per cent. of the tidal capacity. In Experiment
if a a were removed in like manner, or 20 per cent. of the tidal capa~-
. DD
402 REPORT—1 891.
TaBLe I.—General Conditions
ay
3 Horizontal scale
i =
: E ———
= 3 Shortest Verti- | Rise of
ea os period cal | tide in
o .
a © a= in Trches scale feet
&s 2 2 seconds iis Ey ae
2 8 z vy w mile
a r) a =} is ney
= 5 w ie Nees eo
mn Ay & i) Ay Py
BY || DS AO ON BA ge 46°16 | 14,901 | 4:25 | 240] 0-125
el te ae ‘3 30°53 | 25,844 | 2:45 | 315] 0-095
ay en ex 33:47 | 20,550 | 3:01 | 240] 0-125
“s » | F] 1{ — | 22-20 | 38,256 | 1:65 | 365] 0-082
» la | | 2) VI |. 83:20 | 22,090 |. 2:78 | 273-] O20
” Pe a SZ aie 5; 22:03 | 38,788 | 1:63 | 370] 0-081
5 e Vi E| 1/].XI! 356 | 19,558 | 324 | 246| 0-122
2 » lo | F| 1] vir | 23-68 | 36,310 | 1-74 | 376 | 0-080
a ) PHS Bi ty, 35°6 | 19,972 | 3172} 256] 0-117
is 3 ' » | F]| 2! — | 23-32 | 36,890 | 1:718] 375 | 0-080
B 8 » |» | E| 38] VIIL}] 35-60 | 20,833 | 3:03 | 280| 0-107
Ses
ey | Ayia cord) eee eee 23:32 | 38,955 | 163 | 416 {| 0-072
FJ S|
>|la
3 |p f aa » » | E| 4] XII] 35-60 | 20,691 | 3:06 | -275 | 0-109
§ a » |» | FI] 4] » | 2332 | 39,700 | 1-60 | 435] 0-069
nm 4
k
a Quick} | |B] 8] — | 3660 | 21,285 | 297 | 291 | 0-103
es » |» lo» | 6{ — | 8860 | 19,095 | 3-318] 234] 0-198
a rm » | VL] » | 1| — | 35°78 | 18,230 | 3475) 215 | 0-189
; 3g
i es 5 ee Rath 2) eal 6 OX 35:25 | 20,000 | 3:168| 252] 0-119
£ a » |{VII| , | 1] XI | 35:10 | 19,756 | 3:207| 244 | 0-123
aA » io» |» | 2) SDI | 385-10' | 20,890 | S083) “Ars 40110
” ” ” 4 XIV ” ” ” ” ”
a8 » | VI| F | 1] XIII | 23-40 | 39,564 | 1-605} 434 | 0-069
oe : red ar rbel lea 4 o= 23-40 | 38,465 | 1-647] 411 | 0-073
o
=| 3% Pallet esi 23°40 | 39,854 | 1:589| 411 | 0-068
» | » | 4{ XIV | 23-40 | 39,280 | 1-613} 428] 0-070
a
= | Spring and é : . :
& | Neap Tides Yoo XI} A | 3] IX | 48-00 | 12,473 | 5:08 | 182] 0165
| Uniform |) E c ,
S| Vides [f” oe | Gre ike 50:00 | 11,758 | 545 | 170] 0-176
ON THE ACTION OF WAVES AND CURRENTS. 403
and Results of Experiments.
Criterion of
similarity
Excess
Height | Height | of mean | Number
2 of initial | of mean | tide over| of tides Remarks
> sand in tide in initial | from the
i> feet feet sand in start
2 a feet
= ar d
iD tl
dD o)
0-121 — 0:333 | 0°322 — 47,183 | Normal.
0:070 0-070 0187 | 0-187 — 66,369 | River blocked.
0°167 — 0333 | 0:310 — 18,530 | River cleaned.
0-057 — 0187 | 0-182 0:005 21,135 | River blocking.
0:108 — 0°333 | 0:308 — 37,755 | River cleaned.
0-056 = 0-187 | 0-179 0:008 38,719 | Rivernearly blocked.
07144 — 0-333 | 0:336 — 17,923 | Slow.
0-049 — 0-187 | 0-203 0:016 19,416 | Quicker.
0:124 — 0-333 | 0:321 — 37,359 | River cleaned.
0-050 0165 0-187 | 0-203 0-016 37,181 | Blocking—Dredged.
0-091 — 0:333 | 0-320 — 65,404 | River clear.
0:035 —_— 0187 0°207 0.020 95,558 | River clear.
0-097 = 0°333 | 0-306 — | 167,186}. gitar.
0-030 | — | 0-187 | 0-204 | 0-017 | 255,200 |4
0 080 — 0:333 | 0:335 — 208 264 | Failure.
0-170 — 0333 | 0328 — 226,930 | Preliminary.
0:2268 = 0-333 | 0:325 — 20,822 | Quick.
0:1336 — 0333 | 0:317 —_ 84,394 | River clear.
0:1507 —_— 0333 | 0°333 — 51,591 | Normal.
0:1017 —_— 0:333 | 0:332 — 101,799 ==
” ” » ” ” 122,989 ea
00299 — 0-187 | 0-192 0-005 18,972 —
0:0360 —_— 0-187 | 0-193 0-006 36,511 =
0:0284 — 0-187 | 0-193 0:006 99,558 _
0:0314 = 0-187 | 0-192 0:005 | 196,651 —
0°3084 — 0:250 — — 51,240
\ similar.
0:3769| — 0 28 _ | 16,282 |J
404 REPORT—1891,
city. 37 per cent. of the tidal capacity on a 30-foot tide would represent
a mean increase of depth over the entire estuary of 11 feet; and as the
increase was by no means over the whole estuary, the increase in the
channels and lower estuary was much more than this, and although by
this time the sand in the estuary had for the most part become quite
yellow, sand was still being carried down into the generator.
In the meantime, as already stated, groins similar to those in Experi-
ment VI. in tank F, had been introduced into experiment VII. in tank E,
after 64,000 tides had been run with spring and neap tides. 60,000 more
tides, which would be equivalent to about 27,000 spring tides, were run,
the effect being that, notwithstanding the difference in the initial condi-
tions, the state of the lower estuary was closely approximating to the
state of VI. in F after 36,000 tides (Plan 2, Experiment VII, tank
E; VI., tank F).
In the upper estuary in VII., tank E, the distribution of the sand is
precisely similar to that in VI., tank F, but there is rather more of it,
which is explained partly by the fact of the difference in the equivalent
tides run, 30,000 in E as against 50,000 in F, after the upper groins were
put in, and partly by the much greater amount of sand still left in the
lower estuary in tank E. Had it been possible to run 250,000 more
spring and neap tides in VII., tank E, there is every reason to suppose
the final condition would have been precisely similar to that obtained in
Experiment VI. in tank F.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLowER (Chaii'-
man), Dr. GARSON (Secretary), Dr. BEDDOE, General Pirt-RIVERS,
Mr. FrANcIs GaLTon, and Dr. E. B. TyLor, appointed for the
purpose of editing a new Edition of * Anthropological Notes
and Queries.’
Tue Committee has to report that during the past year material progress
has been made in the work of editing the new edition of ‘ Anthropological
Notes and Queries.’ The whole of the work is now in the press, and so
far advanced that it has been possible to present an advanced copy to the
Association along with this report,
The editors are of opinion that the value of the work would be
enhanced by the addition of some additional illustrations to the first
part—-Anthropography.
The Committee considers the plate illustrating the colour of eyes, hair,
and skin—also submitted to the Association—a decided advance upon any-
thing that has been hitherto done in that way, and has every confidence
that if a further sum is placed at the disposal of the editors for illustra-
tions it will be spent to the best advantage.
The Committee request to be reappointed, and that a further sum of
207. be placed at its disposal for illustrations.
The Committee in conclusion reports that best thanks are due to the
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (under the ,
auspices of which body the work is being edited) for undertaking
Plate If
Spottiswoode & CLlith London
' 61° Report Brit Assoc
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Iluatrating the Keport of the Committee for invcatigating the action of Waves and Currenta on the
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——
Plate Ill
a7 28 29
Carves.
: "8 and Currents : Spottiswonee kath Fondon
would represent
cet; and as the
increase in the
nd although by
+ become quite
or.
gent WIL, tank
a of the sand is
ther more of it,
| the equivalent
vper ery
[still left in the 7
2 250,000 more
som fo suppose
tbat obtained in
LOWER ( Chair-
al Prov-Rivens,
wanted for the
splogioal Notes
material progress
Repeeeeloe cal
and #0
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work would te
ons to the Grst
yar of exes, Lair,
[rane Dpor S2y-
‘eonfidence
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Tide Curves.
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ON ‘ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES AND QUERIES.’ 405
he publication of the work and defraying the expenses thereof, which
st be very considerably in excess of the contributions made by the
sociation.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor FLOWER (Chairman),
‘Dr. Garson (Secretary), Mr. BLoxam, and Dr. WILBERFORCE SMITH,
or the purpose of carrying on the work of the Anthropometric
Laboratory. (Drawn up by Dr. Garson, Secretary.)
az Committee has to report that at the Leeds meeting of the Associa-
ion last year excellent accommodation near the reception room was
provided by the Local Committee for the anthropometric laboratory.
The services of a clerk were, as previously, placed at the disposal of the
cers of the Anthropological Section, under whose supervision the
rk of the laboratory was carried on. By the kind permission of
», Francis Galton, F.R.S., the services of the superintendent of his
oratory at South Kensington, Sergeant Randall, were again available
carry on the work of the Association laboratory.
The measurements and observations made in the laboratory were the
ne as last year, except that the length of the hand was substituted for
tof the middle finger, and the form of the profile of the nose was
Jed. They consisted of the age, sex, birthplace, colour of eyes, hair;
file of nose; height when sitting, kneeling, and standing ; vertical
tance from vertex to tragus, mouth, and chin; length and breadth of
head ; length and breadth of nose; length and breadth of face (nasio-
ntal and bizygomatic respectively) ; length of cubit and of hand;
n of arms across the back ; weight in ordinary clothing; strength of
| with each hand; vital capacity of lungs; strength of vision with
h eye, and sense of colour; and in males the maximum and minimum
sumference of the chest during inspiration and expiration. A duplicate
m of these observations was handed to each person who was measured.
The total number of persons measured was 135, of these 95 were males
and 40 were females. The number of applicants for measurement was
atly in excess of those who could be measured, so that with a larger
f of assistants in the laboratory many more observations could have
mn obtained.
The Committee acknowledges with thanks the use of Stanley’s new
dical spirometer for testing the breathing capacity, which was kindly
sed at its disposal by the manufacturer, Mr. H. T. Tallack, of 28 Hatton
rden, London. After some preliminary comparison of results obtained
m Hutchinson and Lowne’s spirometers and those of the new instru-
at, it was resolved to use the latter exclusively during the meeting.
@ experience gained from its use last year was so satisfactory that the
Committee has arranged, by the kindness of the manufacturer, to use it
again this year. The statistics of the observations made at the Leeds
ting have been worked up during the year after the manner adopted
e last two reports. The work of amalgamating the whole of the
sties of observations made at meetings of the Association is being
eeded with each year with a view, as soon as a sufficient number of
406 REPORT—1891.
statistics have been obtained, to publishing the results in a more compre-
hensive form. It is also contemplated, when a sufficient number of cases
have been obtained, to publish the proportions of the different parts of the
body.
The measurements have hitherto been made as far as possible accord-
ing to the metric system, that being by far the most convenient and
universal form of measurement. As, however, many persons measured at
the laboratory ask what the equivalent in English measurement is of these
measurements a table has been drawn up which it is hoped will be of
assistance to those who have not yet made themselves familiar with the
more universal system of weights and measures.
Metrical Measurements and their equivalents in inches and half-inches.
mm. inch mm. inch mm, inch mm. inch mm. inch
Gaile ieSO4—n IGE. |, 800. = 312,-| 1,907 m= 472 ||, Ieee eae
13 = 406 = 16 813 = 32. 1,220 = 48° 1,626 = 64
io = ; 419 = 16: | 826 = 32: | 1,932 = 482 | 1,639 = 642
Tapa | 432 = 17 838 = 33 1,245 = 49 1,651 = 65
fees cee ae
— = = P| = 9 — )
ee WE eRe ce
89 = 34 | 495 — 198 | 902 — 354 | 1'309 = 514 | L715 = 67d
101 2", 4 508 = 20 915 = 36 1,321 = 52 1,728 = 68
114 = 42 | 521 = 202 | 927 = 362 | 1,384 = 522 | 1,740 = 682
197 = 6 534 = 21 940 = 37 1,347. =a58 1,783, =.69
ae Abed:
a= = 44 = ’ a = ’ = i
165 = 6} | 671: = 221 | 978 & 382 | 1,385 = 542 |’ 1,791 = 702
178" 7 BBL = 23 | 991 = 39 1,397 = 55 1,804 = 71
199 00r72 NY daSpe 28R4| 1004S -392 n| 11410. abn caine
208\ => 8+ >| 610: =.24 >|1,016 = 40 1,423 = 56 | 18299 = 72°
216 = 81 | 622 = 242 |1,029 = 402 | 1,436 = 562 | 1,842 = 722
228 = 9 Gn = 96 || 1048 2 at 1,448 = 57 1,855 = 73
241 = 92 | 648 = 252 [1,055 = 412 | 1461-4 572 | 1,867 = 732
254 = 10 661 = 96 | |1,067 = 42 1,474 = 58 1,880 = 74
267 = 103 | 673 = 262 |1,080 = 42: | 1,486 = 582 | 1,893 = 742
279 = 11 686 = 27 |1,093 = 43 1,499 = 59 1,905 = 75
292 = 112 | 699 = 272 |1,105 = 432 | 1,512 = 592 | 1,918 = 75%
305 = 12 ite Oe TALS sae 1,524 = 60 1,931 = 76
318 = 121 | 724 = 282 |1,131 = 442 | 1,587 = 602 | 1,948 = 762
330 = 13 737 = 29 |1,144 = 45 1,550 = 61 1,956 = 77
343 = 132 | 750 = 292 11,156 = 452 | 1,562 = 612 | 1,969 = 772
356 = 14 762 =.30 |1160 = 46 1,575 = 62 1,981 = 78
368 = 142 | 775 = 302 (1,181 = 464 | 1,688 = 622 | 1,994 = 782
381 = 16 788 = 31 |1,194 = 47 1,601 = 63 2,000 = 782
Age.—The males examined varied in age from 18 to 75 years. Of
these 2 were under 20 years, 24 between 20 and 30 years, 27 between 30
and 40 years, 13 between 40 and 50 years, 20 between 50 and 60 years,
7 between 60 and 70 years, and 2 from 70 years and upwards.
Birthplace and Residence——The greatest number of both males and
females from a single county were, as might naturally be expected, from
Yorkshire, and particularly from Leeds; they number 38°9 per cent. of
the whole number of males measured. Next in frequency come Lanca-
shire and Middlesex, each with 8:4 per cent.; the Midland counties 7:3
per cent. ; 3 per cent. from Scotland ; 3 per cent. from Ireland; and the
ie ta
ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 407
yemainder from various parts of England ; except 6 per cent. who were
from various parts of Europe. Of the females 42°5 per cent. were from
Yorkshire. As regards residence 80 per cent. of the males lived in towns
and 20 per cent. in the country. Of the females 75 per cent. lived in
towns and 25 per cent. in the country the principal part of their lives.
In the class of society to which the persons measured belong, the place of
residence has perhaps less importance than among working classes living
under less favourable conditions.
Ocewpation.—A considerable proportion of the males measured were
engaged in commercial pursuits, the others were chiefly professional men.
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tytor,
Mr. G. W. Bioxam, Sir DanteL Witson, Dr. G. M. Dawson,
and Mr. R. G. Hatisurton, appointed to investigate the
physical characters, languages, and industrial and social
condition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of
Canada.
t Inrropuction By Sir Danten Wrtson.
Tue report here presented is again the result of the work of Dr. Franz
Boas in the interesting ethnological field of British Columbia, It con-
sists of two parts, the first being devoted to the Bilqula, a people inhabit-
ing a limited tract in the vicinity of Dean Inlet and Bentinck Arms, the
cond dealing with the physical characteristics of the tribes of the North-
st Coast region.
In connection with the Bilqula it is important to note that they, by
reason of their position, have held the most important natural pass and
trade route through the Coast Range, from the ocean to the interior,
which exists between the Skeena River and the Fraser, a distance exceed-
ng 400 miles. This circumstance has rendered their situation a peculiarly
favourable one in some respects. It has induced them to engage in
intertribal trade, and evidently also affords a clue to some of the peculiari- _
es which Dr. Boas points out. From time immemorial, as the writer is
ormed by Dr. Dawson, who has geologically examined that part of the
eet. a route has been beaten out by way of the Bella Coola River,
thence northward to the Salmon River, and then along the north side of
1e Blackwater River to the Upper Fraser. This is commonly known by
the Tinneh of the interior as the ‘ Grease Trail,’ from the fact that the
chief article of value received from the coast in early times was the oil of
ae olachen or candle-fish, though dentalium shells and other things
rere also brought in. When trading vessels began to visit the coast,
esides the natural products of the sea, iron and various kinds of manu-
factured goods found their way into the interior by the same route;
while the fine furs of the inland region were carried back to the coast
and sold to the vessels. It was by this same route, well known to the
natives, that Sir Alexander Mackenzie was enabled to complete the first
raverse of the North American continent from sea to sea and to reach
408 REPORT—1891.
the shore of the Pacific in 1793. As a result of this intercommunication
between the Bilqula and Tinneh it is found that houses essentially similar
to those of the Coast Indians in mode of construction and ornamentation,
though smaller and less skilfully built, occur far inland on the upper
waters of the Salmon and Blackwater Rivers; while, on the other hand, the
practical identity of some points in the mythology of the Bilqula with
that of the Tinneh of the interior is a clear instance of reciprocal
influence.
The second part of the report will be found to contain the most com-
plete series thus far obtained of anthropological measurements relating to
the tribes of the North-West Coast, with a discussion by the author of the
data which these afford, in which several points of value are brought out
and important suggestions are made for further inquiry. In this connec-
tion it must be mentioned that the committee are much indebted to the
courteous and enlightened liberality of Major J. W. Powell, Director of
the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, who has permitted Dr. Boas to incorpo-
rate with the measurements obtained in British Columbia those made by
him in Washington and Oregon under Major Powell’s directions. It has
thus been possible for Dr. Boas to give to his treatment of this subject a
comprehensive character, which could not otherwise have been obtained,
by enlarging the scope of his discussion so as to include the more or less
intimately related tribes of the Pacific States with those of the Province
of British Columbia itself.
Third Report on the Indians of British Columbia.
By Dr. Franz Boas.
The following alphabet has been used in the report :—
The vowels have their continental sounds, namely: a, as in father ;
e, like a in mate; 7, as in machine; 0, as in note; u, as in rule.
In addition the following are used: d, 6, as in German; d=aw in
law; E=e in flower (Lepsius’s @).
Among the consonants the following additional letters have been
used: g', a very guttural g, similar to gr; i, a very guttural /, similar
to kr; q, the German ch in bach; H, the German ch in ich; a, between
q and H; c=sh in shore; ¢, as th in thin; tl, an explosive 1; dl, a palatal
1, pronounced with the back of the tongue (dorso-apical).
THE BILQULA.
The Bilqula, who are generally called Bella Coola, are the most north-
ern tribe belonging to the Salish family. They are separated from the
tribes speaking allied languages by the Chilcotin (of the Tinneh stock) in
the interior, and on the coast by the Kwakintl. Their language is—considered
grammatically—more closely related to the dialects of the Coast Salish than
to those of the tribes of the interior. A number of terms referring to the
sea and sea-animals.are the same in Bilqula and in the dialects of the Gulf
of Georgia; so that we may safely assume that the two groups of tribes
were at one timeclosely related, and that the Bilqula were differentiated from
this group. They inhabit the coasts of Bentinck Arm and Dean Inlet, as
shown on the map accompanying the sixth report of the committee, and
extend far up Bella Coola River. Since the end of last century they
To
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 409
have dwindled down in numbers, and a few only of their once populous
villages are still inhabited, namely, Satsq, at the head of Dean Inlet;
Nitl’n’l, at the mouth of Salmon River; Nuga/IkH (which embraces five
villages, at the mouth of Bella Coola River ; Sti/in, twenty-eight miles up
Bella Coola River; and Ta’lio, at the head of South Bentinck Arm. The
dialect of Nitl’n’l and Satsq differs slightly from that of the other
villages. The following is a list of their ancient villages, most of which
are still inhabited at certain seasons, although not regularly :-—
1. Satsq.
2. Nutl’n’l. The tribe of this place is called Sdtslemu.
3. Nuqa‘lkH, embracing the villages K-dmk6’tzs and Stské’etl on the
north side, Pé/istla and Nutué’intsk6né on the south side of the river.
4, SEngtl.
5. Tsdmd’otl.
6. Sni’t’rlé.
7. Nu’kuits.
8. Asn’nané.
9. Nuk:a’/aqmats.
_10. Tsqoagk'a'né.
11. Ni’sk’elst.
12. Nuatltlé’iq.
13. Sti/in, twenty-eight miles from the sea.
14, Sni’tVzlatl. Nos. 4 to 14 are situated along Bella Coola River,
and are given as they are met with in ascending the river.
15. Sla’aqtl, at the confluence of Bella Coola and Driver (?) Rivers.
16. Ta‘, at the head of South Bentinck Arm, embracing K’oa’pa,
Ta/lio, Nua’ik‘, A’séq.
17. Koa'tlna, at the bay of that name in the southern entrance of
Bentinck Arm. On the north entrance of Bentinck Arm were the
Kilté’itl, but it is doubtful whether they belonged to the Bilqula or to
the Hé/iltsuk. The latter call the people of Dean Inlet Ki/mkuitq.
Each of these tribes is subdivided into gentes, which appear to be
arranged in exogamic groups. I learnt the names of the following
gentes, which bear the names of their ancestors :—
Gentes of the Nuga/lkmu:
1. Tok-oa/is (=looking down on his family).
2. Spugpugd/leme ; Qé’mtsioa name: Ma’lakyilatl (see p. 415).
3. Siatlgéla/aq.
4. Ku’ltaqk-aua.
5. Po’tlas.
Gentes of the Nusk’’n’Istemu:
1. Tl’ak‘aum6’ot.
2. K-doqotla’né.
3. ?
Gentes of the Talio’mn:
1. Talo’stimét (=making good fire); Qé’mtsioa name; T’A’t’En-
tsait (=a cave protecting from rain).
2. Spatsa’tlt.
3. TumgQoa/akyas.
4, Ha/mtsit.
410 REPORT—1891,
The evidence which I can present regarding the laws of intermarriage
is the following: I inquired of Nusk’slu’sta (=cold water in face), a
member of the Jalo’stimédt gens, whether he might marry a Spatsa/tlt
woman; this suggestion he rejected with the greatest indignation.
Fic. 1.—House-front of the gens Tok-oa/is.
Members of the first two gentes, he explained later on, are not allowed
to intermarry, neither are members of the last two gentes, while the first
and second may marry among the third and fourth. He accounted for
Fig. 2.—House-front of the gens Tl’ak‘aumd’ot, representing the moon.
this by stating that Talo’stimét’s son married Spatsa’tlt’s daughter, and
that consequently the two gentes were related to each other.
The gentes have crests similar to those of the neighbouring coast
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 411
tribes. The crest is represented in paintings on the honse-front and on
dancing implements.
_ The gens Tok‘oa'is has a killer-whale (Delphinus orca) painted on the
house-front (fig. 1). The tradition says that the ancestor of this gens
} Fic. 3.—Crest of the gens Smod’nn, showing the mountain Suwa’kHH, with two
clouds near its summit; above a mackerel sky.
me day, when hunting in the mountains, found a house on which a killer
painted. The chief who lived in the house invited him and pre-
ed him with his crest for himself and for his descendants. The
consists of the killer-whale, eagle, swan, and heron.
he crests of all gentes were obtained in like manner.
412 REPORT—1891.
The gens Spatsa’tlt have breakers painted on the house-front, and use
in dances the mask of a large kind of whale (k’ents), of the crow, and of
the black bear. a
The gens Tumgoi/akyas use the mask of Onzstsit0’ma (=the sleeper)
and the eagle.
The gens Tl’ak‘aum0/ot of the Nusk”s'lstumH use the moon (fig. 2).
The gens Jalo’stimot of the Talio’mu use the raven, robin (atn’a'goné),
eagle, whale, the bird ¢’éutlala (genus ?), and s’atlsd/ots, the flood-tide.
They have sun, moon, and stars painted on the house-front, and the
nusge'mta suspended from the beams of the roof (see p. 420);
The highest gens of Nitl’s/l has the name Smo’en (=the north wind).
He has the mountain Suwa/kuH surmounted by a mackerel sky, and with
clouds on its sides, painted on his house-front (fig. 3). Another object
belonging to his crest represents waves.
The children belong to the gens of either father or mother, the deci-
sion being left to the choice of the parents.
Secret Soctevizs AND THE POTLATCH.
The social organisation, festivals, and secret societies of the Bilqula
are still more closely interrelated than they are among the Kwakiutl, and
must be considered in connection. We have to describe here the potlatch,
the Sisau’ku, and the Ki’siiit. The Sisau’ku corresponds to the Tloola’qa
of the northern Kwakiutl tribes, the Ki’siit to the Ts’étsa/ék-a. The
Bilqula believe that the potlatch has been instituted by ten deities, nine
brothers and one sister, the foremost among whom is Qé’mtsioa, to whose
care the sunrise is intrusted. He resides with the others in a beantiful
Fic. 4.—Mask representing Qé’mtsioa. Fig. 5.—Mask representing
Qémgémali’otla.
house in the far east, and cries 6! 6! every morning when the sun rises.
He has to take care that the sun rises properly. The first six of these deities
te
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 413
are grouped in pairs, and are believed to paint their faces with designs
representing moon, stars, and rainbow. In the Ki’siit these deities
make their appearance, and are represented by masks which I have copied.
Qé’mtsioa and Qémqémala’otla wear the design of the full moon, indi-
‘cated in the mask Qé’mtsioa (fig. 4) by a double curved line in red and
black, the black outside, passing over forehead, cheeks, and upper lip.
Qémgémala’otla has a double curved line in red and black, the red out-
side, which passes over forehead, cheeks, and chin (fig. 5). Aiumki'likya
(fig. 6) and Ainmala/otla (fig. 7) wear the design of the crescent, drawn
Fig. 6.—Mask representing Aiumki’likya. Fic. 7.—Mask representing
Aiumald’otla.
in red and black, with differences similar to those between the first and
second. The fifth, K’o6mk’’omki'likya, and K-’d'mtsioa have designs repre-
senting stars (fig. 8), both wearing the same style of mask. Theseventh
is K-ula’qawa, whose face represents the blossom of a salmonberry bush
(fig. 9). The next in order, Kulé’/lias (=who wants to have blankets
first), wears the design of the rainbow in black and blue (fig. 10). The
ninth, At’ama’k wears on the head a mask representing a kingfisher, and
is clothed in a birdskin blanket. The last of the series is a woman called
Tl étsa/aplétlana (=the eater), the sister of all the others. Her face is
painted with a bladder filled with grease (fig. 11). She figures in several
legends as stealing provisions and pursued by the people whom she has
robbed.
The Sisau’/ku, which is danced at potlatches and other festivals of
gentes, is presided over by a being that lives in the sun. A man who had
gone out hunting met the Sisau’ku, and was instructed by him in the
secrets of the dance. When he returned he asked the people to clean
their houses, and to strew them with clean sand, before he consented to
enter. Then he danced the Sisau/ku, and told the people what he had
seen. He said that the being had commanded them to perform this dance
and to adorn themselves when dancing with carved headdresses with
414 REPORT—1891.
trails of ermine skins, and to swing carved rattles. The man, later on,
returned to the sun. Ever since that time the Bilqula dance the Sisau’ku.
Besides this it is stated that the Raven gave each gens its secrets.
Fie. 8.—Mask representing Fie. 9.—Mask representing
K’omk’omki'likya. K-ula'qawa.
Each gens has its peculiar carvings, which are used in the Sisan’ku
only, and are otherwise kept a deep secret, 7.e., they are the sacred posses-
Fie. 10.—Mask representing Kulé'lias. Fig. 11.—Mask representing
TVetsa’aplétlana.
sions of each gens. All gentes, however, wear the beautiful carved
headdresses and use the raven rattles, regardless of the carving they
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 415
represent. Every time the sacred objects of a gens are shown to the
people a potlatch is given. The sacred objects, although the property of the
various gentes, must nevertheless be acquired by each individual. That
is to say, every free person has the right to acquire a certain group of
carvings and names, according to the gens to which he or she belongs.
Slaves and slaves’ children, also illegitimate children, could not become
Sisau’kH. A person cannot take a new carving, but must wait until it is
given to him by his relatives—father, mother, or elder brother. Nusk’s-
lu’sta, to whom I owe my information regarding the gentes, and who is
a member of the gens Ialo’stimoét of the Talio’mnH, stated that he had
received the raven when he gave his first potlatch. At his second potlatch
he received the eagle. He hopes that his mother will give him the whale
at his next potlatch, and will at the same time divulge to him the secrets
connected with it. In course of time, he said, he might get even others
from his brother; but if the latter’s children should prove to be very
good, and develop very rapidly, his brother would probably give his secrets
to his children. At festivals, when a person acquires a new secret, he
ehanges his name. Hach person has two names, a Ki’siiit name, which
remains the same throughout life ; and a Qé’mtsioa name, which is changed
at these festivals. Thus, Nusk’slu’sta’s (which is his Ki’siit name)
present Qé’mtsioa name is Atl’itlemnn’lus’ain, but at his next potlatch he
intends to take the name of Kalia’kis. These names are also the property
of the various gentes, each gens having its own names. In the list of
gentes given above, the names enumerated are the Ki’siit names of the
ancestors. In two cases only the Qé’mtsioa names have been ascertained
(see p. 409). When a man possesses several Sisau’ku secrets he will dis-
tribute them among his children. When a girl marries, her father or
mother may, after a child has been born to her, give one or several of
their Sisau’kH secrets to her husband, as his children make him a member
of the gens. When a person gets to be old he gives away all his Sisau/kH
secrets. After any secret has been given away the giver must not use it
any more. The crest and the Sisau’kH carvings must not be loaned to
others, but each person must keep his own carvings. The only exceptions
are the carved headdresses and the raven rattles, which are not the
property of any particular gens.
The laws regarding the potlatch are similar to those of the Kwakiutl.
The receiver of a present becomes the debtor of the person who gave
the potlatch. If the latter should die the debts become due to his
heirs. If the debtor should die his heirs become responsible for the
debt. Property is also destroyed at potlatches. This is not returned,
and serves only to enhance the social position of the individual who
performed this act. It is not necessary that all the property given
by a person in a potlatch should be owned by him. He may borrow
part of it from his friends, and has to repay it with interest. I was
told, for instance, that a man borrowed a large copper-plate and
burnt it at a potlatch. When doing so he had to name the price which
he was going to pay to the owner in its stead. Since that feast he died,
and his heirs are now responsible for the amount named at the potlatch.
The Ki’siiit is presided over by a female spirit, called Anailikitsai’n,
Her abode is a cave in the woods, which she keeps shut from February
till October, remaining all the while inside. In October she opens the
door of her cave and sits in front of it. A woman is said to have been
the first to find her. Anaitlikitsai’H invited her into her cave and taught
416 REPORT—1891.
her the secrets of the Ki’siit. She wore ornaments of red cedar-bark
around her head, wrists, and ankles; her face was blackened, her hair
strewn with eagle-down. She commanded the woman to dance in the
same way as she saw her dancing. The people should accompany her
dance with songs, and, after she had finished, they should dance with
masks. She said, ‘Whenever a person sees me your people shall dance
the Kia’sitt. If you do not do so I shall punish you with death and
sickness. In summer, while I am in my house, you must not dance the
Ki'siit.’
Ever since that time the Bilqula dance the Ki’siait. When a man has
seen Anailikitsai’H sitting before her cave he will invite the people to a
Ki'siat. A ring made of red and white cedar-bark is hung up in his
house, and the uninitiated are not allowed to enter it. Only in the
evening, when dances are performed, they inay look on, standing close to
the door. As soon as the dances are over they must retire from the
taboo house. Hach K2’siit lasts three days.
The various dances performed by members of the Ki’siiit are also the
property of the gentes, and the right of performing them is restricted
to members of the gens. They must not be given to a daughter’s husband,
as is the case with the Sisau’kn dances (see above), but belong to the
members of the gens alone. They may, however, be loaned and borrowed
by members of the gens, who have a right toa particular dance, but who
do not own it. Permission to use a mask or dance is obtained from the
owner by payments. The owner may reclaim the dance or the borrower
may return itat any time. Membership of the Kisiit is obtained through
an initiation. At this time the novice is given his Ki'siit name, which
he retains throughout life. Hach gens has its peculiar Ki’'siit names,
which are inherited by young persons from their parents or from other
relatives. Thus a young man who had the name of P6’pd until he was
about seventeen years old obtained at his initiation the name of Tl’akd’otl.
I have not reached a very clear understanding of the details of the initia-
tion; it seems that the dance is simply given to the novice in the same
way as the Sisau’kn, this initiation being connected with a potlatch. But
still it seems possible that he must ‘dream’ of the dance which he is to
perform. Only the highest degrees of the Ki’siit have to pass through a
religious ceremony of some importance. The highest degrees are the
Elaqo'tla (the Ha’mats’a of the Kwakiutl), the O/lnq (the °Nivtlmatl of
the Kwakiutl), and the Da’tia (the No’ntsistatl of the Hé'iltsuk). These
grades are also hereditary. A Ki’siit novice may acquire them at
once at his first initiation.
When the ztlaq6’tla is initiated he goes into the forest, where he
encounters his guardian spirit. It is believed that he goes up to the sun,
and formerly he had to take human flesh along for food. The chiefs held
a council the night preceding the beginning of the ceremonies, and any-
one who wanted to show his liberality offered one of his slaves to be
killed, in order to serve as food for the Elaqdé’tla. The offer was accepted
and a payment of from ten to twenty blankets made for the slave. The
latter was killed, and the members of the tlaqd'tla order devoured one-
half of the body before the departure of the novice to the woods. There
the latter is tied up and left to fast. He may stay there for twenty or
thirty days until the spirit appears to him and takes him up to the sun,
where he is initiated. Early one morning he returns, and is heard outside
the houses. He has lost all his hair, which, it is believed, has been torn
ee oe
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 417
‘out by the strong breeze blowing in the higher regions. He is quite
naked, and bites everyone whom he can lay hold of. If he cannot catch
anyone he will bite his own arm. It is believed that he has lost his soul,
which fled from the body when the spirit came to him. Therefore the
shamans must try for four days to recapture his soul. The night after
they have recovered it the rlaq6’tla dances clothed in a bear-skin and
wearing a large headring, heavy bracelets and anklets, all made of red
and white cedar-bark. Some Elaqd’tla do not bite people, but merely
devour raw salmon, or tear dogs to pieces and devour them. Those who
bite people will also eat corpses. The Blaqd’tla has to observe a number
of regulations. For four years after his initiation he must not gamble.
He must stay away from his wife for one year, but this period is being
reduced to one month. For two or three months he must not leave his
house.
The O’lrq (= the laugher) and the Da’tia (= the thrower) do not go
into the woods to be initiated, but both must fast three days before their
first dance. The O’leq ‘makes fun of everything’ and scratches people
ith his nails. The Da’tia carries stones and sticks, and breaks household
goods and canoes. If he has destroyed some object during the day he
pays for it at night when he dances. The Olnq and the Da’'tia must stay
for one month, after they have danced, in their houses.
If a person transgresses the laws of the Ki’siiit, for instance when the
laqo'tla gambles, or when a man performs a dance to which he has no
tight, also when a person derides the ceremonies or makes a mistake in
ancing, his punishment is death. The chiefs assemble in council and the
ender is called before the court. After his offence has been proved he
is asked whether he is willing to suffer the penalty of death. If he is not
illing, and one of his relatives is found willing to take the penalty on
mself, the guilty party is spared, and the substitute is killed in his stead.
The execution of the judgment is entrusted to the shaman, who bewitches
‘the condemned person by throwing disease into him, or by poisoning him
in some other (supernatural?) way. The object thrown by the shaman
is a shell, bone, or finger-nail, around the middle of which objects a human
hair is tied. If this object strikes the offender he will fall sick. Blood
collects in his stomach, and if it so happens that he vomits this blood, and
"with it the disease-producing object, he will recover, and is not molested
any further. The masks (not the whistles and other ornaments) used in
the Ki’siit are burnt immediately at the close of each dancing season.
Ovices must wear a necklet of red cedar-bark over their blankets for a
whole year. ‘The masks used in the dances represent mythical personages,
na the dances are pantomimic representations of myths. Among others
the thunder-bird and his servant Atlqula/tenum, who wears a mask with
‘Ted and blue stripes over the whole face from the right-hand upper side
to the left-hand lower side, and a staff with red and blue spiral lines,
ypear in the dances. Prominent masks are also Qé/mtsioa and his
brothers and his sister (see p. 412), Masmasala/niq and his fellows, the
rayen and the Nusqé’/mta, and many others.
Customs REGARDING Brera, Puserty, Marriage, AND Duara.
_ When the time of delivery approaches, the woman leaves the house
and resorts to a small hut built for the purpose. She is assisted by pro-
1891, EE
¢
418 REPORT—1891.
fessional midwives. The child is washed in warm water. For ten days
the mother must remain in this hut. Father and mother must not go
near the room for a year (according to Nusk’slu’sta, for ten days), else
the salmon would take offence.
The child is soon given its first name. On this occasion the whole
tribe is invited to a feast, the name is made public, and the guests receive
small presents. The child retains this name until it becomes a member
of the Ki’siit, when it is given its Ki’siit name. This ceremony takes
place after puberty has been reached. About this period the young man
gives his first potlatch and assumes the Qé’mtsioa name.
When a girl reaches puberty she must stay in the shed which serves
as her bedroom, where she has a separate fireplace. She is not allowed
to descend to the main part of the house, and must not sit by the fire of
the family. For four days she must remain motionless in a sitting pos-
ture. She fasts during the daytime, but is allowed a little food and
drink at a very early hour in the morning. After this term she may
leave her room, but only through a separate opening. She must not yet
come to the main room. When leaving the house she wears a large hat,
which protects her face against the rays of the sun. It is believed that
if the sun should shine on her face her eyes would suffer. She may
pick berries on the hills, but must not come near the river or sea for
a whole year. She must not eat fresh salmon, else she would lose
her senses, or her mouth would be transformed into a long beak. She
must not chew gum or eat snow (see Fifth Report of Committee,
1889, p. 838).
If a young man wishes to marry a girl he goes, surrounded by his
friends, to the house of the girl’s father and states his intention. His
friends carry food and presents, and if the father accepts the suit he
sends out a young man, who receives the food and presents and carries
them into the house. Sometimes the father does not accept the offer at
once. In such cases the young man may repeat the same ceremony until
he is finally rejected or accepted. Aiter the time of the marriage has
been agreed upon between the contracting parties, and the day preceding
the marriage has arrived, the young man invites all the people to a feast,
during which he states that he is to be married on the following day.
He asks a number of men, generally from twenty to thirty, and four
women to assist him. On the following forenoon they assemble, and
accompany the bridegroom to the girl’s house. They sing outside, and
four of the men dance. Allof them have their faces painted red. Finally
they enter, and the bridegroom gives a large amount of property to the
girl’s father. Then the girl leaves her parents and goes to the bride-
groom, bringing him also a large amount of property which has been
given to her for this purpose by her parents and relatives. He in turn
gives her blankets and other apparel of the best quality, and distributes
presents among her relatives. This is repeated after some time. All he
has given to his bride and her relatives is repaid to him with interest.
A rich girl will repay twice or three times the amount given by the man.
At the time of the marriage the bride’s father may promise the groom to
give him his Sisau’kH secrets as soon as the pair have their first child.
The children may belong to the father’s or mother’s gens, as the parents
may choose.
In case of a separation the wife refunds the amount of purchase-
money. The children may stay with either parent, or part of them may
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 419
go with the mother and part with the father. The decision is left to the
parents and children.
‘ When a person has died the corpse is washed, the face painted red,
e legs are doubled up, and the arms folded over the breast. The nose-
ament of the deceased is put into his nose; his shirt is put on, the
k part covering the breast and the front part turned backward. The
ay is placed in a box and the latter is either fastened on the lower
anches of a tree or placed in a little house, which is set on posts, above
the level of the ground. The face of the deceased is turned eastward.
% of his property and gifts from his friends are deposited near the
_ grave. The masks of the deceased are burnt. His crest is carved on a
_ memorial column, which also shows how many canoes, coppers, head-
_ dresses, and slaves he had given away at potlatches. These objects are
_ painted or carved on the columns, Formerly slaves were killed at the
burial of chiefs. The number of slaves killed was also indicated by so
_ tany human figures on the memorial column. After burial food for the
use of the deceased is thrown into the fire. This is repeated frequently
during a prolonged period after the death has occurred. Whenever the
friends of the deceased partake of a meal a little food is thrown down at
a place between the fire and the door, where the entrance to the lower
world, the home of the dead, is believed to be.
The bed of a mourner must be protected againt the ghost of the de-
sed. His male relatives stick a thorn-bush into the ground at each
jorner of their beds. After four days these are thrown into the water.
urners must rise early and go into the woods, where they stick four
m-bushes into the ground, at the corners of a square, in which they
mse themselves by rubbing their bodies with cedar-branches. They
} swim in ponds. After swimming they cleave four small trees and
p through the clefts, following the course of the sun. This they do
our subsequent mornings, cleaving new trees every day. Mourners
their hair short, The hair that has been cut off is burnt. If they
ald not observe these regulations it is believed that they would dream
the deceased. Women when mourning scratch their cheeks with
hells or stones.
The mourning regulations for a widower or a widow are especially
et. For four days he (or she) must fast, and must not speak a
d, else the dead wife or husband would lay a hand on the mouth of
offender, who would then die. They must not go near water, and
forbidden to catch or eat salmon fora whole year. For the same
gth of time they must not eat fresh herring or olachen. Widow and
_ Widower cleanse themselves in the same way as other mourners. Their
ows are considered unlucky, and must not fall on any person.
Some time after the death of a rich or influential person his nearest
live invites the whole tribe to a potlatch. On this occasion he sings
mourning song for the deceased and gives away presents to his guests.
# Was explained to me that this ended the mourning, and that it was
same as giving away the bones of the deceased.’
RELIGION AND SHAMANISM.
a The mythology of the Bilqula differs greatly from the mythologies of
the other tribes of the North Pacific coast. It is impossible to say to
= EE2
ba
* |
at
a tb
420 REPORT—-1891.
what cause this divergence is due. Mythology and religion are so closely
connected that a few words on the former must be added here. The
principal deity of the Bilqula is Snq, the sun-god (compare sdnq, sun).
The rays of the sun are his eyelashes. When prayed to he is called
Taat’au. In praying the Bilqula look heavenward. I obtained the fol-
lowing formulas: Atliu# itld'tlsug, Taat’au, ‘ Look on us where we are
going, Taat’au ;’ and Téat’au, atlknaltnomdo tlq, ‘ Take care of us, Taat’an.’
Sng is pre-eminently the ruler of the world, and does not interfere with
the actions and thoughts of men. These are given by Masmasala’niq.
According to the tradition of the Biiqula, before the liberation of the
sun, and before the world was made as it is nowadays, four deities lived
on the earth: Masmasala/niq, Yula’timot, Matlapé’eqoek, and Itl’itlu’lak.
The raven wished to obtain the sun, but he was unable to liberate it.
Then he went to these deities and asked their help. They ascended to
the sky, and tore the curtain, which up to that time had been expanded
between heaven and earth, hiding the heavenly orbs. The sun appeared,
but he shone dimly, as though darkened by clouds. The raven ascended
to heaven through the rift made by Masmasala’niq, and found there a
beautiful prairie country in which all the birds lived. Masmasala/niq and
his brothers painted them beautifully and sent them down to earth,
giving each his song and his arts. The raven was not content with the
sun, and resolved to try and find a better one. He flew to the house of
a great chief, who kept the nusqé’mta (nu-ta=place of, sqém=the
day is dawning). The nwsgé’mta was a small round receptacle closed all
around like an egg. The chief guarded it jealously, and kept it sus-
pended from one of the rafters of his house. The raven knew that he
could not obtain it by sheer force, and resorted to a ruse. He assumed
the shape of the leaf of a spruce tree, and let himself drop into the pond
from which the chief’s daughter used to take water. The girl drank
from the pond, swallowed the leaf, and thus became with child. She
gave birth to a boy, who was the raven himself. The old chief loved the
boy dearly, and allowed him to play with the nusqé’mta. This was what
he desired. He ran ont of the house, broke it, and flew away in the
shape of a raven.
After the sun had thus been obtained Masmasala’niq said: ‘ Let us
make man.’ He made the image of a man out of wood, but he was
unable to endow, it with breath. Matlapé’eqoek and Itlitlu’lak tried
likewise to carve human figures and to give them life, but they failed.
Finally, Yula’timot carved the figure of a man and endowed it with life.
He made a man and a woman in each country, and they became the
ancestors of all the numerons tribes. Then Masmasala/niq gave them —
their arts. He taught them to build canoes, to catch salmon, to build
houses. He made rivers everywhere, that man should have water to
drink, and that the fish might go up the rivers to be caught by man.
The Bilqula believe that Masmasala/niq and his brothers still continue
to give new ideas to man. They say that any new design of painting or
carving, or any other new invention made by a member of their tribe,
has been given to him by Masmasala/niq. ;
The religious side of the potlatch and of the secret societies has been
referred to above. ;
The soul is believed to dwell in the nape. It is similar in shape to a
bird inclosed in an egg. If the shell of the egg breaks and the soul flies —
away its owner must die. Shamans are able to see and to recover souls.
~
~
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 421
By laying their hands on the nape of a person they are able to tell
whether his soul is present or whether it has left the body. If the soul
should become weak they are able to restore it to its former vigour. If
a person swoons it is believed that his soul has flown away without
breaking its she]l. The shaman hears its buzzing wings, which give a
sound like those of a mosquito. He may catch and replace it in the nape
ofits owner. If the soul leaves the body without breaking its shell the
owner becomes crazy.
The art of shamanism is bestowed by Snq. It is impossible to obtain
it by means of fasting and praying, as is the case among the neighbouring
tribes, but it is a free gift from the deity. A person who is to become a
shaman will fall sick, and, during his illness, Snq will give him a song
which must be kept a deep secret. After this he is able to cure diseases.
if a person falsely pretends to have received the gift of shamanism, and
tries to suck out diseases from a patient, he will fall sick himself.
_- When asked more closely about the curious difference between this
method of obtaining the power and that of the neighbouring tribes my
informant said : ‘ When an Awiky’é/noq wishes to become a shaman he ma
yo to the mountain where the deity of their shamans resides (probably
Ma'tom) who will initiate him. No Bilqula can obtain the art in such a
way.’
Sickness is caused by a disease entering the body or by witchcraft
(see p. 417). The shaman is able to extract the disease by sucking. A
peculiar method of witchcraft, somewhat similar to the ‘eka’ of the
Kwakiutl (see Sixth Report of the Committee, p. 612), was described to
me as follows: The person who wants to bewitch his enemy endeavours
to obtain some of his old clothing, portions soaked by perspiration being
considered especially effective. After it is obtained a wolf is killed, and
the clothing is put into its mouth, which is then tied up. Then the wolf
is placed in a box. This procedure is called suak. Sometimes the
clothing or some hair is inclosed in the bone of a wolf or of a dead person.
No shaman can counteract these charms.
Ifa person has been murdered, and a string is tied firmly around the
neck of the corpse, the murderer’s neck will become diseased and he will
be unable to breathe and will die. If sand is strewn in the corpse’s eyes
and the lids closed over it the murderer will die. If a person has been
killed with a knife or arrow, or another weapon, to which some of his
blood adheres, the latter is brought into contact with a wolf’s head, deg’s
ir, or anything else that is bad, and then thrown into the fire or put ,
to a frog’s or snake’s mouth; then the murderer will die.
_ Tadd here a few current beliefs :—
_ Sneezing indicates that people are talking about one.
_ Slight ringing of the ears indicates rain, loud ringing good weather.
_ witching of the muscles of the left side of the body is unlucky; of
the right side lucky. Twitching of the skin under the eyes indicates
that one will cry.
Ifa dog dreams and howls in its sleep its owner will die.
_ The breaking of a box without an apparent cause is unlucky.
WARS.
When a war party was organised the warriors did not paint their
faces, but they put on headbands of white cedar-bark and strewed their
422 REPORT—1891.
hair with white eagle-down. Warriors when on a war party must not
drink more than four mouthfuls of water, else they would be killed. A
watchman was appointed in each canoe, who sat in the bow. On landing
near the village of their enemies they divided themselves into a number
of parties, one house of the village being assigned to each. Then, early
in the morning, when all were asleep, they rushed up to the village utter-
ing their war cry ‘wai!’ They took a stand at the fire which burns
in the centre of the house, and if any one of the enemies succeeded in
taking up his arms and came out of his bedroom they killed him. Then
they entered the bedrooms, killed the men, and took the women and children
along as slaves. The heads of the dead were cut off, the houses burnt,
and they returned home singing war-songs. The heads which they had
taken along were then scalped, and the scalps tied to each end of a pole.
When they approached their village one man stood up in the bow of each
canoe and swang the pole to which the scalps were attached, and they all
sang songs, in which their deeds were recounted. The scalps were
valued the higher the longer and fuller the hair. They were used in the
Sisan’ku.
The following tales of war expeditions offer some points of interest.
About thirty or forty years ago there was a famine at Bella Coola. The
people went overland to Knight Inlet, which belongs to the Tenaqtaq, a
tribe of the Kwakiutl, to fish there. The Tenaqtaq made fun of them,
took from them the fish they caught, tore the blankets from the backs of
the women, and seduced many of them. Finally the Bilqula returned
home. ‘There they held a council and resolved to make war upon the
Tenaqtaq. The Tinneh joined them in this expedition. They crossed the
mountains in four days. When they approached Knight Inlet they sent
two spies in advance, who were to count the number of houses in the
village of the Tenaqtaq. Early in the morning they attacked the houses
and killed a great many men. The Tenaqtaq could not escape, as they
were hemmed in by the river. The Bilqula slew them with knives,
lances, and stone axes. They took away the clothes of the women,
leaving them naked, and subjected them to shameful insults in revenge
for the disgrace put upon their wives and daughters. Then they burnt
the village.
About thirty-five years ago the Talio’mH were attacked by the
Kwakintl. Originally they intended to attack Nuga/lku, but the raven,
according to the narrator, changed their mind, as he always protects the
. village of Nugqa/lku. They came in many canoes, while most of the
Talio'mH were at the lake, which is situated above that town, fishing.
Four men were in charge of the village, and a number of old men and
women had also remained at home. The father of Nusk’Elu’sta, who told
me of these events, happened to be out picking berries, accompanied by
his wife. He saw the canoes passing by and kept himself hidden. The
village of Talio was at that time surrounded by a strong stockade, which
consisted of a double row of palisades crowned with thorns. At each
corner there was a strong box fastened on the stockade like a tower.
Here watchmen were stationed, who were able to shoot at the enemy
while being themselves protected. At that time the Talio’mH had only
four guns. The Kwakintl sent out two spies, who reported that the
village was well fortified. The Talio’mH had seen the canoes coming and
were on their guard. The Kwakiutl thought that they would not be
able to enter the village until after the stockade had been destroyed.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 423
They resolved to make an attempt to burn it and to break open the door.
On the following day they came up to the village, but the guard on the
towers used their guns to such good effect that the enemy had to retreat
with severe losses. They made still another attempt, but with no better
success. They had lost many men, while only two old men of the Talio’mH,
Tumua’akyas and A’lk‘ius by name, and one woman had been hurt. The
latter had been killed. When the Kwakiutl turned back a messenger
was at once sent up to the lake to call the young men, who then went to
Waga’lkx to ask for help. The Kwakiutl passed close to Nusk’ln’sta’s
father’s canoe, but they were so terrified by the losses they had sustained
that they passed by without so much as noticing it. Two of their number
were so ashamed of their defeat that they would rather remain in the
enemy’s country than return with their friends, and they stayed ashore.
Meanwhile the Talio’mH and the Bilqula were pursuing the fugitives.
They had reached the outlet of Bentinck Arm without overtaking them.
Then their chiefs resolved to return, as they believed that their enemies
had a long start upon them. Later on they learnt that the Kwakiutl
were at that moment only a few miles from them, about to continue their
homeward journey, after having encamped at the outlet of the channel.
Afterwards the Talio’mu found the two men who had remained ashore.
They called them and promised to send them back to their friends, saying
that the war had ended, and that they had no grudge against them. The
“men were, however, too much afraid, and finally starved to death.
__ Later on the Talio’mx and Bilqula organised an expedition against the
Kwakiutl to take revenge for the unprovoked attack. A chief named
Koani’la, whose father was a Talio’mu, while his mother was a Kwakiutl,
was their leader. They intended to attack the Lé’kwiltok’ and the
Kyé'k'sdt’énoq. When they approached the village of the latter they
sent a canoe ahead to search for the village, and to report the number of
houses. For two days they were unable to find the village, which lies in
a labyrinth of islands ; but finally they found it, and saw that it consisted of
Sixteen houses. On the next morning they attacked it. The tribe was
wholly taken by surprise and almost all of them were killed. Koani'la’s
mother lived at this place, and when she heard the Bilqula coming she
asked at once for her son, and was taken care of by him. Only five men
and four women escaped. The Bilqula allowed these to run away, as
they had killed as many as they desired. Anukni’tsem, a chief of the
Senqtle’mh, was the only man of the Bilqula who was wounded. He
died on the way home. They returned, but in the country of the
_Na/koartok: they were overtaken by four Kwakiutl canoes which pursued
them. The Bilqula were victorious, but Koani’/la induced them to desist.
During the fight two of the women, whom they had taken as slaves, and
One boy jumped overboard, and were rescued by the Kwakiutl.
MEDICINE.
Boils are treated by cauterisation with dry bark or with gunpowder.
Sometimes a series of parallel cuts is made over swellings or boils.
Fractured bones are set, and fastened between splints of cedar-bark.
_ Enemata of shark oil or olachen oil are given by means of a kelp tube,
with a mouthpiece made of the wing-bone of an eagle. Snake poison is
collected and used as a poison. Women wear tight anklets ‘to prevent
424 REPORT—1891.
the calves of their legs from slipping down.’ During their monthly
periods women place soft. cedar-bark in the vagina. The barkis afterwards
burnt in the woods. The smoke of this fire is believed to be poisonous.
It is evident that the culture of the Bilqula is very greatly influenced
by that of the Kwakiutl. The secret societies and the potlatch ceremonies
are almost a copy of those of the Héiltsuk’. This influence has been so
deep that names of even deities and of the mythical ancestors of certain
gentes are purely Kwakiutl words, or have at least Kwakiutl endings. Thus
the name Aiumki‘likya (see p. 413) is purely Kwakiutl, meaning ‘ good all
over the world.’ K’omk’omki‘likya is also a Kwakiutl word, meaning
‘the rich one of the world.’ The chief’s name, Ma/lakyilatl (see p. 409)
belongs to the same class of Kwakiutl names. On the other hand, the
religious ideas of the Bilqula are very curiously developed, and apparently
but slightly influenced by their neighbours. The whole Masmasala’niq
tradition is peculiar to them, but has been partly adopted by the Awiky’-
é’noq, with whom the Bilqula have intermarried.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TRIBES OF THE
NORTH PACIFIC COAST.
The following tables embrace a considerable amount of material which
I collected on a journey in Oregon and Washington, undertaken for the
U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, together with material which I collected in
British Columbia. Thanks to the liberality of Major J. W. Powell,
Director of the Bureau of Ethnology, I am enabled to present here
the results of all the measurements which I made on the North Pacific
coast.
The tribes of this region proved to be so heterogeneous that it was
necessary to subdivide the material into eleven groups, each embracing a
number of closely allied tribes. I have distinguished the following
groups :—
. Tribes of British Columbia, north of Dean Inlet.
. Kwakiutl and Nootka.
. Bilqula.
. Lower Fraser River.
. Harrison Lake and Lillooet.
. Tribes of Washington, including the whole coast of that State west
of the Cascade Range.
7. Columbians, including the tribes in the immediate neighbourhood
of Columbia River and in the Lower Willamette Valley.
8. Northern Oregon, including the Yakonan and Salish tribes between
Umpqua and Columbia Rivers.
9. Oregonian Tinneh and Coosan.
10. Crosses between Oregonian Tinneh and Northern Californians.
11. Northern Californians.
O Ot Cobo
Only a short series of measurements of each individual was made, such
as could be taken by the removal of only a small portion of the clothing.
Following is a list of the measurements.
fate
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 425
1. Stature. 10. Width of head.
2. Finger-reach. ll. Width between zygomatic
3. Height of ear. arches.
4, Height of 7th vertebra. 12. Distance from naso-frontal
5. Height of acromion. suture to chin.
6. Height of point of second | 13. Distance from naso-frontal
finger. suture to mouth.
7. Width between acromia. 14. Height of nose.
8. Height, sitting. 15. Width of base of nose.
9. Length of head. 16. Maximum width of nose.
In measuring the ‘stature,’ the subject was asked to stand erect, but care
was taken to avoid excessive stretching, as in these cases the stature during
the process of measuring would undergo material changes. The ‘ finger-
reach’ is the greatest distance between the tips of the second fingers, the
arms being extended horizontally. In this case the subject was encouraged
to make the strongest possible effort. The measurements of stature, height
of acromion, height of point of second finger, were taken in rapid suc-
cession, in order tu avoid changes of position as much as possible. In
measuring the point of the second finger the arms and hands were
stretched out downward, so that hand and arm formed as nearly as pos-
sible a straight line. A glance at the tables will show that the results of
the measurements of ‘height of ear’ (being the difference between the
stature and the height of ear above the ground) as obtained by this
method are very unsatisfactory. In most cases it was difficult to obtain a
sufficiently level surface for a satisfactory comparison of the two measure-
ments. Only among the Bilqula and the last three groups this difficulty
did not present itself. But even in these cases I do not consider the
results very accurate, mainly on account of the unavoidable movements
of the subject. I should prefer, at another time, to measure the distance
directly by Topinard’s method. The difference between the heights of the
acromion and of the point of the second finger gives the length of arm
_ with greater accuracy, because I was able to take these two measure-
“ments without moving the scale. The length and width of the head are
maximum measurements; the former is always taken from the glabella ;
the vertical measurements of the face were taken from the naso-frontal
suture.
The indices require little explanation. The cephalic index is the
Proportion between length and width of the head, the latter being
expressed in per cents. of the former. The index of ti.e height of ear is
‘the proportion between the length of head and the difference in height
ofthe ear and vertex. The facial index is the proportion of the naso-mental
line to the width of face, the index of the upper part of the face the pro-
portion of the naso-oral line to the width of face. I have given two
nasal indices, the proportions of the basal width and maximum width of
the nose, the former being measured at the insertion of the ale, to the
height of nose. The last three columns contain finger-reach, height sitting,
and length of arm, expressed in per cents. of the stature.
_ Before discussing the measurements I give the tables. The descrip-
tions are withheld for the present, as it is desirable to gain some new
426 REPORT—1891.
1. Various Northern Tribes.
== Males
Number . A $ A 1 2 3 4 5 6 T
° ‘ |
2 a 3 ie | | 1D
3 ‘ep r= re 3 s S| & é
Name je uarty amides incr) Bh |e | Be 105g Slee, So dimer
SS Ke on | > Fa
Ris a 5 & Fis | Sean eran
= | |
Zz a8 «8 3
= (al et steal == pees = = =
| 62/28/45 \a2|22| 2/5
Tribe. 5 * c ° Se che 25 ad | ae s re
‘aa “| me | ao | 2S Ps ia
fae] wR ia 2 = s a s | Oo ob
epee Yi eor 2a Legere i ooo |oegglybogo | 32 | 28 | 25 | 21 | 20
mm. | mm. | mm.| mm. | mm. | mm. | mm
Stature. s (3 . - 1,689 | 1,603 | 1,637| 1,649 | 1,589 | 1,628 | 1,619
Finger-reach . - {1,705 |1,692 | 1,727; — {1,676 | 1,747 | 1,713
Height of seventh wectebra 5 — |1,362 | — 1,400 | 1,353 | 1,290 | 1,355?
Height of acromion. . —-«_|1,382 {| }"sgq7) | 1,313) 1,329 | 1,321 | 1,380 | 1,333
Height of point of second fin- | 612 | 5702/ 571) 614 | 597) 598| 600
ger
Width between acromia . Pee — —_— — — 381 | 368
Height, sitting . : : Si 873 876) — ~ 908 | 895
Length of arm . A : Sl ier i PU 716 G42| 715 724 732 733
Lengthofhead . . .| 192 | 203! 201) 192) 199) 196| 200
Width of head . ; : + | 249 159 154; 160 159 155 166
Height of ear . A F «| 149 ay, 127). 127 126 133 127 7
Width of face . . 154 142 151; 146 151 151 158 ;
Distance from chin to ‘naso- 130° £18" 128)" 126 122 125 124 :
frontal suture
Distance from mouth to naso- 76 86 | 90} 81 74 81 75
frontal suture .
Height of nose. : : 58 _- 57} 62 54 54 56
Width of base of nose ‘ 5 —- — — — — Sil 31
Maximum width of nose . 5 38 41 38 33 38 42 38
Cephalic index . 4 ; . | 776 | 783 | 76:6 | 83:3 | 79°99 | 791 | 83:0
Index of height of ear . -| 76) — 63:2 | 661 | 63:3 | 67-9 | 63°5
Facial index . .| 844 | 83:1] 841 | 863] 808 | 82°8 | 78:3
Index of upper part of face .| 494 | 606 | 596 | 55:5 | 49:0 | 53:6 | 476
Nasalindex . . | 655) — 66:7 | 53:2 | 70-4 | 77:8 | 67-9
Index of base of nose . -| — — — — _ 574 | 55°4
Finger-reach in per cent. . - |101°0 | 105°5 | 1055 | — |105°5 | 107-3 | 105:8
Height, sitting ,, ” -| — 54°5 | 53-5 | — —_ 55:8 | 553
Length of arm ,, By .| 45°6 | 44-7 | 43:5 | 43:4 | 45°6 | 45:0 | 45°3
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 427
2. Kwakiutl and Nootka.
I. Males | II. Females
Joa ie | 3 4 5 6 7 eh 8 10
r 8
s 3 4 =
g & 2 3 e | 8 3 ae g
meope | ©) Bb ise. | 3 4 e | 3 g
ay a ae | Gi =} = ee: | Z a
= 13 ee eS B A Ber) = < =
ig A <q is
| a
Sh |
Seg ot |
aS | Os > » ~ ae . > wey
eye | eS | ee |e |S s Ee eS S
Peete eke ies 2 ie | © oe
Boy} sl | A 2 S) S) 5 \, 73 S)
. ey
|
* 34 40 50 40 48 55 25 52 55
-mm.|mm.| mm.| mm. | mm.| mm. mm. mm. mm. mm.
| 1,647 1,695 | 1,633 |1,575 |1,612 | 1,574 1,565 1,711 1,441 1,471
11,756 | 1,833 |1,780 |1,664 |1,651 | 1,791 | 1,742 | 1,829 || 1,555 | 1,571
1,365 = 1,626 | 1,475 || 1,225 | 1,238
1,313 | 1,276 1,254 1,403 1,191 P19
589 496 524 618 521 536
397°) (3711) 370 386 386 — «|| 330 340
876 898 873 876 838 838 914 799 804
752 736 Keel 724 780 730 Wo | 670 655
1953; 200' 206! 193 196 193 189 177 187
1581; 1641) 1751 149 150 155 162 143 16L
1441} 1361) 130! 136 120 140 135 138 126
152 157 138 150 154 150 152 139 152
127 140 121 127 121 141 127 113 119
84 90 81 79 78 87 78 75 81
57 63 54 50 55 63 60 51 53°5
30 30 — 37 39 34 —_ 31 33
35 39 35 4l 40 37 41 32 37
; 1 Head deformed.
428. REPORT —1891.
4.—Lower Fraser River. Males.
: ; —- |
Number . 1 Sigel. it 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 8 |
€ ce LP el aes
pe io | z= > | |
a o Sy | Sey
INGE see) tae i | a “yj az oH Bb fos | a B
my Bl &. | o sees S|” ae
27 2.78 | BOS ee | eae
| 5 e- | tes
| | Lol
o | ;
| z EY Z
| = a | a A, bes 2 a | a | a g
Bg an ens cn f} g 3 2S =
Trib |\85| 8 |@e|es|/S58| 6 | eel =
TIDE heh), elegy a. 2, ES Sa | we eae ‘aa i
Be) a [ea | aM ee] 2 | ee) ©
aa | Ba | | ee
Arie e te. 0 c-|, 9 19-10) 10. | 10 | 200 | Se) 1 ee i
mm. | mm. | mm, | mm. | mm. mm. /mm. |} mm.
Stature . i 4 . | 1,219 | 1,260 | 1,378 | 1,324 | 1,332 | 1,381 | 1,368 | 1,365
Finger-reach . . | 1,238 | 1,279 | 1,435 | 1,364 | 1,378 | 1,462 | 1,419 | 1,428
Height of 7th vertebra . | 1,020 | 1,062 | 1,168 | 1,117 | 1,125 | 1,167 1,156 | 1,143
Height of acromion . | 974 | 1018 | 1108 | 1,062 | 1,079 | 1,095 | 1,105 | 1,077
Height of pointofsecond | 432} 451 . 493 | 469 | 486 475 | 504] 469 |
finger |
Width between acromia | 273} 289 322 289) 316 314| 318| 310
Height, sitting : F 684 | 705 733 717 724 | 749 743 TAT
Length of arm = 5 542 559 «615 593 593 | 620) 601 608
Length ofhead . .| 170| 172'| 183 |1775| 170| 178| 1651| 175
Width of head " - 145 154!) 155 151 152 | 155 1541} 152
Height of ear F 3 Oks} 112 132 | 125 126 | 129 ) 130 137
Width of face “ 125 128 142 127 133 132 | 135 136
Distance from chin to| 102) 106| 105| 106| 105! 110) 104| 107 |
naso-frontal suture | | |
Distance from mouth to 64 64 64 65 | 68 69 67 72
naso-frontal suture
Height of nose . 41 41; 43); 46) 44) 44 43 45
Maximum width of nose 28 29 28 | 922 | 25+) (98528 29
Width of base of nose . 35 34 34 i) 5 298) 33.) iB 33 33
Cephalicindex . .| 853 | 89°5'| 847] 85:1) 89:4 | 87-1 93°3'| 86-9
Index of height of ear .| 70:0 | 65:1 | 72:1 | 70-4} 74:1 | 725 | 78:8 | 78:3
Facial index . 816 | 82°38 | 73:9 | 83-4 | 78:9 | 83:3 ie encOnn-78°7
Index of upper part of 51:2 | 50°0 | 45:1 | 51-2 | 51:1 | 52:3 | 49:6) 52:9
face
Nasal index . i = |. 8b73. 0-829) FOL | 63:0 |, 75-0 |. 79:onl wom le wore
Index of base of nose .| 68:3 | 70'7 | 65-1 | 47-8 | 56:8 | 64-7 / 65:1 | 64:4
Finger-reach, per cents.. | 101°5 | 101-5 | 104-1 | 103-0 | 103-4 | 105-8 |103-7 | 1046
Height, sitting, ,, - | 5671 | 56:0 | 53:2 | 541 | 54:4] 54:2 | 543) 54-7
Length of arm, _,, . | 445 | 44:4 | 446 |) 44:8 | 445 | 44:9 | 439 | 445
’ Doubtfulawhedher Headideronmed.
Harry Jimmy
Chilliwack
11 12 13 14 15 16 | 17 18 | 19 | 20
= a
g| 3 3
oO
pee Bat ee ig) |e | 2 |) Be
Fy < S ry a) =F Sn 5 nm &
= 5 io)
3 o
Beg | A ae | be APM Ne Stee 2 ee
q na 5 oO g n n
ooo ui Bi Ore Gale ae a= =
joe) 5 5 a g a & BR a
14-15| 15 | 15 31 35 | 48 | 50 |50-55| 65
mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm mm. mm. mm.
1,549 | 1,576 | 1,600 | 1,657 |(1,663)) — | 1,649 | 1,606 | 1,651
1,614 | 1,682 | 1,634 {1,720 |1,807 | — | 1,750 | 1,701 | 1,867
Tg 13590 t Sa0a) BI See | es |, see ere
1,272 | 1279 11,989 |1,343| — | — |1,349 |1,321 |1,359
586 | 568 596 | 617|(581)| — | 557 | 581 | 540
3491 1Gyay| 4SAG cl 4060 2). |) = \...378-\) Seale dse
Samay Soe) shh: soy =| —'| 900 | S70u.s
6865 07s! 693s) “7268. =) 792. |, FEL SIS
180 | 185 | 183] 191 | 200%} 1882/183°5')187-5'| 1903
1575 | 158 | 155 | 158] 181'| 1662] 183'| 170'| 171)
130 ele 188-\- 800) oh 138 |- 133 | 138
144] 143] 137| 151 |167-5 | 157) 162] 161] 161
121] 116| 114] 122] 119| 122] 137] 132] 130
TPA pay) Tal Fe 74. | 85 89.| 86). 88
46| 49| 651 55 | 52 BGule 962, | -BSclestee
28| 35 31 Sos 30° It 85 37 |\> Bh 33
34] 41 36.( 39:17. 4%} .° 40'| . 45.) 88.1.1 38
87:5 | 85-4 | 84-7 | 82-7 | 90:51| 88-32/100:0'| 90:°6'| 89-5
22 TGQ) 754s) 68:1.) == = 752 | 709 | 72:6
84:0 | 811 | 83-2 | $08 | 71:0] 77-7 | 846] 82:0 | 808
535 | 51:0] 526 | 503 | 442] 541] 549 53:4! 51-6
73:9 | 83:8 | 70:7 | 70-9 | 788 | 71:4] 72-4) 65:5 | 67:9
60:9 | 71-4} 608 | 600] 61:5 | 62:5 | 59-7 | 53-4) 58-9
104-2 | 106-7 | 1021 | 103-7 |108-7 | — | 106-1 | 105-9 | 113-1
53:3 | 539 | 532] 542| — | — | 646| 549 | —
443 | 45:1 | 433] 438] — | — | 481] 461] 49:0
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
4.—Loner Fraser River.
Males (continued).
1 Head deformed,
2 Doubtful whether head deformed,
430 REPORT—1891.
7. Columbians.
I. Males
Number . : A ’ . A : > 1 2 3 as 5
o ao
| 2 |S2] @ [Bs
| A | Bol & [eas
ey
Name . . . . ‘ . . | S io} A al e ° s <s
aes Ho > |ouS
| oS we iro) forms)
ES Ed | @ ladda
LAS) 6°98 008
za Pa
“4a|aes|uo | @®
= =a sf
6 | 2S.) Sees elegee
Tribe ° . . . . . Ty oilers ‘a6 | $33 | 3g | 3a
| @ |O0 | SENOS | hig
al nie ae og) eee?
He mS | ke ar
Age 12 |) 15° | TT Bae oe
| pe a
mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm.
Stature . 1,447 | 1,634 |1,666 | 1,747 | 1,625
Finger-reach . 1,466 | 1,713 |1,708 |1,833 | 1,775
Height of seventh vertebra 1,222 | —
Height of acromion . | 1,168 |1,295
Height of point of second finger | 617 | 552
Width between acromia . : ; . 310 375
Height, sitting : - : : : 775 | 867
Length of arm : ; : - 3 651 | 743
Length of head. é : - 5 .| 178 | 179 |
Width of head 5 ; . 147 150
Height of ear . 3 - : : : sie dos 229
Width of face. 3 131 140
Distance from chin to naso- frontal suture 116 116
Distance from mouth to naso-frontal suture . 76 72
Height of nose 50 52
Width of base of nose 24 32
Maximum width of nose. 7 31 38
Cephalic index : ; c : . | 82°6 | 83:8
Index of height of ear . < ee cAGTi ay (2rd
Facial index . 3 . - 88°6 | 82:9
Index of upper part of face : c : 58:0 | 51-4
Nasal index . 2 < : 62:0 | 73:1
Index of base of nose 48:0 | 61°5
Finger-reach in per cent. 101°3 |104:8
Height, sitting, 5 53:6 | 530
Length of arm, ” 45:0 45:5
1 Head deformed.
ee eee
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 431
7. Columbians (continued).
I. Males | : II. Females
e i
7 8 9 10 11 12 - || 15 14 15
ees |e == Ses |
H E ee | 4
5 5 2 ao Ee aaly Seeley
Se = seller iead il a .| |e 2
Byilie SB |aa|/a | | & E §
o a S By dq od ree ° a
on B | 10°90 = — S az =
8 a 2 ee | 2 a 5 2 0
& | a 7 Pea 4 4
S) —____ i
Jo} [Je
» n Ss se = Z 4 = » } Z = 4a,
S| gs |sesqis88]/ 6 | & | weg | os 28
3 a | osos | aS 8 3 82 2 EES
“4 4 Colt ie a 74 a n= 28
iS 3 |= eas | & CRE a ga $4 28
— w It diac = a S iS)
M15 Sa eats. | aa | oe =i
SE otis | | fs ys, i cae-|
cay &
37 40 46 50 50 | 56-60 8-9 13 55
| mm. | mm. mm. mm. | mm. | mm. mm. mm. mm.
1,615 | 1,758 1,668 1,682 | 1,722 | 1,651 1,224 1,459 1,520
4,727 | 1,865 1,750 1,731 | 1,803 | 1,719 1,244 1,514 1,560
1,371 — 1,438 1,447 |1,501 | 1,417 1,006 1,247 —_—
1,329 | 1,441 1,378 1,362 |1,447 | 1,365 971 1,175 1,238
600 670 654 584 676 613 465 552 581
343 -- 381 aT — — 277 348 356
894 927 895 921 941 869 672 797 817
729 771 719 778 Citas 752 506 623 657
184 201 190! 186"; 1811) 182} 171 175 Lise
157 158 1764 185") 1531) 1562 151 158 161°
129 153 UR Ge 1397) 1161). 1292 132 130 129}
147 145 164 160 144 147 150 141 149
124 114 128 129 124 126 104 112 111
75 75 85 85 82 76 63 71 V7
52 47 61 62 59 55 42 48 50
33 29 32 37 27 34 26 33 34
> 36 Bioue ye! 39 36 37 —_ —_— 39
8 | 85:3 | 78:6 92°62 99°51) 84:51) 85:7! 88°3 90°3 9371/2
my cO'l: | T6"1 ZB 7474) — |° 7091 17-2 74:3 74-6!
i| 84:4 |) 78-6 78:0 80'1 | 86:1 | 85:7 80:0 79-4 74:5
2 ‘ 51:0 | 51-7 51°8 53°1 | 56:9 | 51:7 48°5 50-4 51:7
766 62°3 62°9 | 61:0 | 67:3 — 780
7 | 63°5 | 61:7 52°4 59:7 | 45°7 | 61:8 61:9 68:7 68:0
=| —___
at
|106-9 | 106-1 104°9 | 102°9 |104:7 |104:1.}; 101°6 103°7 102°6
| 55:3 | 52-7 53:7 54°7 | 54°6 | .52°7.!) 54:9 54:6 53°8
8 | 45:2 | 43:9 43°2 46°3 | 44°8 | 45-6 | 41-4 42-7 43-2
2
AC ’ Head deformed.
REPORT—1891.
432
8. Alsea and Tillamook.
I. Males
Number. : ; A 1 | 2 | 3 4 5
a a wa 6 iw
Ho) Seo Ser eet tees
Meme, ba Yee Ge. Sp ; = a rs a
a 2 is Ad a
oS S 3 a 2
2 5 A ne ae
co < a
a s 4
a | 8 | gees
Tribe J) 2 q a a || CS ta
= = eg | 3 |e
a ra a
mn eo
Age > 8 8-9 12 20 22
mm. | mm. | mm. | mm. | mm.
Stature . 1,238 | 1,270 | 1,384 | 1,676 | 1,698
Finger-reach . 1,247 1311 1,364 |1,708 | 1,752
Height of seventh vertebra |1,038 | 1,048 | 1,152 | 1,422 | 1,427
Height of acromion 4 | 981 | 991 |1,101 |1,374 | 1,378
Height of point of second finger 443 | 419 | 511] 649} 640
Width between acromia 260 283 310 360 402
Height, sitting 687 | 690 |. 75 941 | 924
Length of arm 538 | 572 | 590 | 725) 738
Length of head. . 169°5 185 |} 181 182}} 178
Width of head ; A 153:5 145 154 1641} 149
Height of ear. 5 121 127 146 1401} 135
Width of face 128 131 |) 155 138
Distance from chin to naso- -frontal suture 102 Oi 116 126 112
Distance from mouth to naso-frontal suture. 66 61 — 80 73
Height of nose ; 44 40 53 55 52
Width of base of nose 27 28 28 28 30
Cephalic index 90:5 | 78:4 | 85:1 | 90:11) 83-7
Index of height of ear ; 71:4 | 686 | 80:7 | 76°91) 75:8
Facial index . 5 ; : 796 | 740) — 81:3 | 81:2
Index of upper part of face . . 516 | 466 | — 51:6 | 52:9
Index of base of nose : 61:4 | 70:0 | 52°8 | 50:9 | 57-7
Finger-reach in per cent. c ° ‘ 100-7 |103:2 | 98:6 | 101-9 | 103-2
Height, sitting, op - F . | 555 | 54:3 | 54:5 | 56:1 | 54-4
. A .| 434] 45:1 | 42:7 | 43:3 | 43°5
Length of arm, “3
1 Head deformed.
,
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
8. Alsea and Tillamook (continued).
I. Males II. Females
if 8 9 I) 11 12 13 14 15
a aa
: 2. | 33
a es, g & BS Sa
“4 g = =| = Fo 3
2 =~] g g a io} ., no
x a teal a faa) o* are) SH
a o ir) 6 Sia 30
n f q ® 3 5 a ean
S wn S 7 = n os °
g = S 5 hess oy igus
iS) =>} | KR 5 lore) B= |
S = A ee ae
= = tb
433
3
a
s
55-60
mm.
1,460
1,499
1,233
1,199
B81
325
811
618
179!
159}
143!
14
120 11
7 hale Well esi 80 81 a
53} 54] 52 43 49 58 56 58
S24) asain 588 |) 38 28 28 30 31
88°31] 96:61) 89:31] 83-7 | 87-92] 89:21] 87-61] 38981
783") 795'| 74:9'| 89:3 | 77-0 | 80-1] 72:41] 7991
789 | 789 | 753 || 767 | 836 | 821 | 82-6 76°6
47-4 | 49:3 | 48-7 || — aes 552 | 55-9 at
60-4 | 63:0 | 63:5 || gia | 57-1 483 | 53-6 53-4
‘1 | 106-4 | 104-6 | 1065 | 1008 | 101-1 | 103-0 | 1047 | 102-7
"8 | 55:3 | 55:6 | 55-1 || 53-5 = 550 | 52:8 55:5
49 | 45-7) 429 | 445 || 428 | 447 | 442 | 44-6 42-4
Head deformed.
2 Doubtful whether head deformed.
FF
434 REPORT—1891.
10. Crosses between Oregonian Tinneh and Northern Californians.
= I. Males
Number : , : ; i 2 3 4 5 6
3 5
wn ay n
| ae ee :
oS - “cs B
Nance Ee ces; Se Vee 3 qs A |
aq w any 3
By 2 = = = g
o rt oc =
| & s = a s
5 = g
&
“ 2 S S|
gq | 22 | 2s | 32 | 2 | b8
ne |OR|S2|so|8e|2¢
Tribe eee ii «| -s j|8f|33s | 88|S8)/48 | Be
QR. | aM |ealso ‘25 | 5
gee | oc er ies _: Re} oe si
2 es |e = |e.
ee
As os es Pa Neg ee ee
mm. | mm, | mm. | mm. }mm. | mm.
Sistares bo .. oS . 7%. |1j598 | 1,681 || 1670 {1636 ies | Lees
Finger-reach . ; . {1,717 | 1,747 | 1,615 | 1,703 | 1,676 | 1,753
Height of seventh vertebra . . | 1,855 | 1,441 | 1,322 | 1,390 |1,3711) 1,488
Height of acromion . |1,297 | 1,352 | 1,265 | 1,352 | 1,330 | 1,362
Height of point of second finger c 549 | 624 | 571 619 | 600 | 592
Width between acromia . a ‘ 360 386 375 362 — 376
Height, sitting . A ; ; 3 841 892 886 881 908 876
Length of head . 3 L s - BR Pre 181 177°| 1983] 184:
Width of head . , , 5 : 155 149 155 | 154) 149 148
Height ofear . 3 : ri 5 149 145 135 133 116 133
Width of face . 144 135 143 136 142 148
Distance from chin. to naso-frorital 121 | 125 | 119 | 122| 122) 120
suture
Distance from mouth to naso-frontal — 76 80 78 71 —-
suture
Height of nose . 4 : 3 : 53 52 55 54 50 53
Width of base of nose A F Pe 3) 27 28 24 32 31
Cephalic index . ‘ : , 89:6 | 79:7 | 856 | 87:0 | 772 80:4
Index of height of ear q és 861 | 77:5 | 74:6 | 751 — 72:3
Facial index 5 , : 84:0 | 92:6 | 83:2 | 89:7 | 85:9 81:1
Index of upper part of face 4 -f| — 563 | 559 | 574] 50:0] —
Index of base of nose 3 f . | 63 | 520 | 50:8 | 444 | 64:0 | 583 |
—_ Se
Finger-reach, in percent... . | 107-8 | 103-9 | 102-9 | 104-1 | 102-4 106-4
Height, sitting, _,, ~ | 598 | 531 | 564 | 589 | 555 | 532
Length of arm, _,, "5 * | 47-0 | 43:3 | 442 | 448 | 446 | 467
Minimum width of forehead . 5 — = — 108 — =
Maximum width of nose . 5 : — — = 41 — 7
1197 from glabella.
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
11. Southern Oregon and Northern California.
435
II. Fe-
— I. Males mae
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
a £ rg
Soy a hay a = = F $
$6)| 3 a 2 E ea a S|
sz | & a S is F| = Ss
5 35 4 = PS; ee = ES nm
ga | ‘8 q 8 =I g 5 2
ee) os G4 Q ° S&S a a
mon oO 1 S) As iz & q
4 a s S| og q r=!
. a q q es | a3 q 2 |
a is & a Rie fy pos s
71s} )] oF caltpleS ols hap leepeiectes sp Mi ily 7 he
=|
16 18 35 40 48 50 60 | 45-50
mm. | mm. /] mm. ; mm,.| mm mm. | mm. | mm.
| Stature 2 1,606 | 1,615 | 1,622 | 1,666 | 1,612 | 1,551 | 1,570 | 1,554
i Finger-reach . A - 11,665 | 1,756 |1 681 1,719 | 1,714 | 1,651 | 1,630 | 1,525
| Height of seventit ver- 1,365 1,374 1,381 1,437 | 1,365 | 1,313 1,349 —
tebra
eight of acromion 1,282 | 1,303 | 1,301 | 1,359 | 1,317 | 1,227 | 1,238 | 1,241
Height of point of 565 559 581 619 576 557 557 611
r, second finger
|Width between ac-| — 400 | 373} — 352 | 367 | 340 | 325
|} romia
| Height, sitting 870 | 847 | 881 |} 889] 854! 795 | 813] 889
ny gth of head 189 194 183 190 190 187 189 187
th of head c 150 154 149 152 152 155 154 146
ht of ear a 130 133 UBB) 127 141 146 158 142
ith of face 139 144 147 148 145 142 148 148
stance from chin to L208)9 128-1 23e) TOT Tae | ZS? | eT 2R ee
naso-frontal suture
ance from mouth to 76 79 76 71 72 79 85 74
naso-frontal suture
ht of nose 52 51 55 53 47 55 62 52
th of base of nose 29 31 31 34 30 31 36 31
phalic index \ . | 79:4 | 79°4 | 81:4] 80:0 | 80:0] 82:9 | 81:5 | 7&1
of height of ear . | 68-8 | 68:6 | 72:7 | 66:8 | 742 |. 781 | 83-6 | 75:9
index . 86°3 | 88:9 |, 83:7 | 81:8 | 83:5 | 86:6 | 86:5 | 81-1
* upper part of 54:7 | 54:9 | 51:7 | 48:0 | 49-7 | 55:6 | 57-4 | 51-7
lex of base of nose 55°8 | 60°8 | 56:3] 64:1 | 63:9 | 56:3 581 | 59°8
-reach in per cent. | 103-7 | 108:7 | 103°6 | 103-2 |106°3 | 106-4 |103°8 | 98-1
» sitting, ,, 54-2 | 52-4 | 53-7] 53:4) 53:0] 51:3} 51:8 | 57-2
ofarm, ,, 44-7 | 46-1 | 444 | 444] 460) 43:2 | 434 | 40°5
um width of fore- 102; — — 100; — -— — =
Q
width of nose 35 | — — 36 | — _— = =
436 REPORT—1891.
In order to discuss the material contained in the preceding tables, I
have arranged it in series. The series for ‘ Stature,’ ‘Cephalic Index,’
‘Facial Index,’ ‘ Index of Upper Part of Face,’ ‘ Finger-reach,’ ‘ Height,
sitting,’ and ‘ Length of Arm,’ are given here. In selecting the cases to
be included in each series, it was necessary to exercise some criticism.
The ages of all individuals are estimated more or less incorrectly. In
order to fix the lower limit, [assumed nineteen years for males and seven-
teen years for females as the limit. For the facial index I assumed the
limits as twenty and eighteen. Only in such cases where the measure-
ments of a male of about eighteen years exceeded the corresponding
most frequent measurements of adults, I included the case in the series,
as the probability is, that such an individual had reached approximately
its maximum growth. By this method the total results cannot be
depressed. itis more difficult to decide on an upper limit. It appears
clearly from the tables that the changes incident to old age begin very
early among these Indians. The stature decreases, and the facial index
diminishes on account of the wearing down of the teeth. But there are
great individual differences regarding the time of the beginning of these
changes. A decrease of stature will always tend to increase the relative
length of arm, because the absolute length of the latter does not decrease
proportionately. In the same way the proportional part of the ‘ height,
sitting’ decreases as the trunk loses more rapidly, through the increasing
curvature of the spine, than the legs do. I have, therefore, excluded all
such individuals over forty-eight years (estimated), in whom these
indices differ from the most frequently occurring indices in such a sense
that they might be explained as caused by loss in size.
A comparison of children’s cephalic indices and of those of adults
does not seem to bring out any typical differences between the two; for
this reason, which is entirely in accord with Welcker’s investigations of
the growth of the skull (‘ Untersuchungen iiber Wachsthum und Bau
des menschlichen Schiidels,’ Leipzig, 1862), I have not separated children
and adults. Neither do I find an appreciable difference between the
indices of males and females, and consider it therefore justifiable to lump
all the observations on this point. If, in Table 9, the measurements of
Oregonian Tinneh, north of Rogue River, are tabulated separately [for
what reason this separation is made, will appear later], the following
result is obtained, which shows how nearly the maxima of frequency of
occurrence of values of the cephalic index coincide among boys, girls,
adult males and adult females :—
| | jl | i
Cephalic Index | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | so | 81 | s2 | 83 | sa | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | Average
|
Boys. # | ta =f 1)1)—| 2) ae ger
Girls ; Bs | 1 1 1 | | SBS
Adult males . | 1}/—{|—|—/]—|]—| 2 D2 1 4/—/;1)—;—] 1 83°38
Adult females. | —|-|-|-|-|- bo Reco pf Oa a em ees
|
The following tables give the number of occurrences of certain values
of stature and various indices among the different tribes. I have
refrained from reducing the figures in such a way that they would
indicate how many individuals among a thousand would have a certain
stature or a certain index. Although apparently by such a procedure
the figures become more easily comparable, there is no justification for
such a reduction, as the frequency of occurrence of certain values is not -
proportional to the number of observations. With an increasing number
[To face p. 436.
II. Females
fee 20. ) 2% | 28 | 28 35 | 36.{ 37 | 38 | 39
9 n 8 'S ~ n
} Pelee S| 8 ts Ee vow) ee
= 3 B B=! o 8 “- = Es Ps
5 7 gd m4 S m+ Ss oe < 1
2 8 ra Q i g ee 9 oa 5 ot
4 S | B 8 = = ao | a § So |
‘ 2 ae eee | Bias
: = a 2 joe | 4
| m gy es |e fe
alae ee So. 9e| 2 | #13
= 3 BS 2 3 Sc 8 =
ee eee ee Vee | Be | lee
A 4 | Alms | A zr) It
35-40| 44 | 45 |50-55/ 22 | 24 | 25 |28-30| 32
mm, mm. mm. | mm. | mm. mm pair mm, mm,
1,587 | 1,679 | 1,670 | 1,606 681 | 1,588 | 1,525 | 1,614 | 1,549
1,756 | 1,807 | 1,753 | 1,743 | #2 | 1,708 | 1,666 | 1,612 | 1,713 | 1,607
po igo Pes haze | = 1 1989)) == 308s aes
2 ea tak pl loads | ( 1,260r
1,279 | 1,371 | 1,355 | 1,314 1,270 1,308 { 13607 1,317 {| 79387
543 | 591 | 604! 616 530 | 597 | 5592| 578 | 5622
381 | 389| 384) 325] |9| 359| 321] 365] 367| 346
889 | 892] 879| 864/|8| 876] 855 | 826] 883| 834
736 | 780| 751 | 698 740| 711 | 685 | 739| 676
183 | 201} 195) 180 [51| 1781] 1821 1741177-51] 1691
151 | 157 | 157 |157°5 (54) 1574} 161!) 1631) 1533} 157)
138 | 138] 137 | 133 5) 1381} 131) 1301/1331 197)
149 |1465 | 157| 150) 7| 149| 144| 1561/1385 | 146
128 | 128| 189] 121! (8| 123| 125] 419| 194] 191
6 | 74 | 80-78) Tey.) ee
1} 5O0}| 53] 57] 55] 58
n} 29| 28! 30| 29] 96
6| 33| 36| 39| 33| 32
88:21] 83-01) 93:71 86:21 92-91
1 77-54 72:01) 74-71] 74:9) 75-1)
826 | 868 | 76:3 | 89:5 | 82-9
49-0 | 55°6 | 50:0 | 55°6 | 56-2
660 | 67-9 | 68-4 | 600 | 55-2
58-0 | 52°8| 528 | 52:7) 448.
‘t 108-1 | 104-9 | 105-6 | 106-2 103-7
560 | 53:1 | 52:6 | 53-0 554 | 538 | 541 | 547) 53:8
46-4 | 465 | 45:0 | 43°5 46°8 | 448 | 44-9 | 45°83 43-6
_ = == ——— - - —_>— ——_—- ————— — r
3. Bilqula. [To fuce p. 436,
=<) a ae I. Males Subjects messured by R. Virchow 11. Females
Nanber ae 6 6 | n | is | 16) 16 | 26 | 28 | 29 32 aa | 99
z E | 2 | 2 3 | 2 herd)
= ea 3 | 5 g | | 2 | 2 ye tee) ele peat
Ee = a|8 s/f |2 | epee |) Sileealitecaile |e?
E =| Bl || & ale|s \= | ERE We! hc) WEL 5) =|
= = ]| EI Z\5 = abe all eis is Bi)
z 4 | a {o20 | 1a | 4 =
= Sli I imate lis
5 E Ws | Eh) Ela |e | 4 I Ie
ibe - & 3 i ee 2 (2 |is =, <3 \ls\
: EB Bee) (Pe) leh Ee eae a 5
& | LS i laa ta %
ao! = 1
a A a rer 18 |17-18 19 |19-21/19-20 20 | 20 30 45 es | 19
; | mm. | mm. | mom. | mn, | ‘um, | mim. | mm, mm. | mm: tom. | mm.
Slalure fiz [1,549 11,678 | 1,744 | 1,723 | 1,603 | 1,641 1,728 1,708 1,614 | 1,549
Firzerrea Bas 1,638 124 | 1747 | 1,742 1758 1/882 1,718 |1,007 |
Hoght of seventh vertebra {1.310 — 184 | 1,390. | =) = nats |
| Height of acromion D 12% 1,298 TAIL | 1,295 |1,940 | 1,999 1,974 | 1499 | 1, 1415 1,390 jane Tose?
Height of paint of second finger 659 Gil 36 | 043) 597 | 676| 619 Cin 569 | 650) 649) Gos 5621
| Width between acromia 356 381 400 } 379)) 379 | ssh 361 425 | 376 S16
| Height, sitting. B19 876 o2i| g73| 927] 876| 898 870, B41 | 908 888 | 899 a4
Length of area - 700 787 75) 762) 748 | 746| 765 751 | 086 | 766 || 767 676
Length of head eal ish 196 | 1915 | 176 18% | 183 169)
Width of head). P 166 158 160 | aT 148} 161 167!)
Height of ear 140 14 146 121 130 | 180 137}
Width of face - | 17 167 16085 a 155 | 152 146
Distance from chin to naso-frontal 7 127 10} 116 123 | 121 121
matare | 2 A
Distance from mouth to naso-frontal ri) 40| 76 si; 72] si] ag 78| 85] 82) 80 77) 82
ewiore
| eight of nose. na alee o sa] 57) 66] 53
Width of tase of nose 7 32) 28 45 | - — |=
Maximom width of nose 37 “| 40 48 48 ao} 30
Cephalic index. E 04 Gj 5 60 | 86°5 | 807 s0-0 | 380
Index of height of ear 761 103 | 66-7 | Gud 710 | 7L0
| Facial index : 790 385 703 | 79-6
Index of upper part of face 04 Ba | 624 520) 626
Nasal index rie 504 | 787 42 | 785
Index of tase of nose | Oy 5e7 | — =) =
Finger-reach, in percent. 05 10710 1105-7 1050 tong |100 | 1017 | 1076 1062 | 1087
| Height, sitting, = pa 40 m6 | 539 sid | 540 | 524 689 SAT | 588
|Lengthofarm, |, . | 487 | 402 160 4160 | GR | 415 AG2 | 458 ATA 458 | 136
* Head deformed.
Dominy
Lucie, father, No. 12 ES
|
ee eee ee ae
Ft. Douglass
Height} 1,159357
| Height) 51165
| Mary, mother, No, 29
Ft. Douglass
[Zo face p. 436.
— == | I. Males | IL. Females
fn cae ican) ca Cy ca ec 16) az | 18| Sow) me | oy | at | 33 [oss |
| == a alpen} Sar all Fe at femal = ; = | |
| ea | | a |e |
| Via ee Ia Saleen sil brea iea| : :
5 = = Wel & Gi Sy 2\/3/8 a
Same = z | a |= =) SUES eaiiiea = | Sn leas cI
| teas \e] ell EEL |e Ss sa a 2
en | | ¢|5| 3 } 2 | |
=! | | bd | | |
| LL | [aR | a He
= — —e == =! = —}—|— —_ | } Ne
: [eee ae || 2 Pe SB |
|413 2 VBS TEN RIVER) EO NEED Wt ep etc len
5 2 Hest |e/e|e fella |eleleie]2)24il2 g|2e|e
| Tribe = | s we {Sa egaliese lesmiesh isos ious sailed = |) eel) &
# cs ale : ye Pe ee ee Neel ee) ee ea a ih |
= = ES) eR | me |e | me) we |S | Ss les] 2
a aS ea cel
=| eee =i = a — ee ee a or
in | 28 a | 2 40 | 40 | so | w | 3 |a0 | m | 1 [fae | io | 20 | 20 | 20 | 21 | 30 | 307
| mm. mm, | mm, | mm, | mm. | mm. | mm, min. | mm. | mm, | wm mom. | mm, | min. | | mm, | mm. | mu | om, mom.
Statore 1,276 WG71 1784 1,690 | 1,052 )1,622 1,644 1,622 | 1.489 1,608 SSi [1,082 1,881 1017 | 1,089 1,543 1,546 1,681 =
| Fioger-reach 43 1,768 | 1,717 |1,577 860 | 1,166 | 1,359 1,606 11,590 1,009 |1,656 1,679 =
| Height of seventh vertebra | — | — | — — | ‘392 | tart = — | — —
| Height of acromion 2 Y2as 1,278 1,400 1,843 |1,938 | 1,200 082) 867 | 1,251 1,206 11,282 =
| Height of point of second Ginger Bio | “ou | 678 | 688) ‘524 | 105, 69 | ’se5 | ‘569 —
| Wideh betsecen acromia S10) anh 359) 368 | 330 201 352 310 | 363 =
Height, sitting BI 544 sor | — | 778 405 825 787 | X51 =
| Length of urn 70 Gat | 695 | 780 | 708) 765) 745) 086 417 082 TL) 713 =
| Length of bead a4) 180 | 195 | 180 181 iso | 160) 18 | 165 [1705 | 183 | 176 167
Width of head IL nT | 160 1k 166 176 | 172) 162] 167 198 150 | 167 151
Height of ear it Wh) 143) 46) 1d 1a yo} 190} 127) 140 | 495 | us| 190) —
Width of face 2 0 | 189) 7) 47 158 2 | 165) 150) 146 | 135] MG | 141) 138
Distance from chin (0 nnso-fronial 105) 118} 128) 112 19 tie) 107] 128 | 112 1085 | 110} 115) 99 ;
sotare . |
| om month oso t+| 08| 71} 70) 7o| 72] 70) 80) 77\ Go| 80) 76 is se] 7G} G8)! oz] 76) 70) 58] 77
sature |
| Height of nose -| 42) mo] 48 48) o7) 6) m3) Bb) 56) th 58 |) 45
| Width of base of nose + =| 25) BL) 30 29) 29) 29] so] so) 28) 29 24 o7| 29
Maximum width of nose. © -, 29| a6| 36 as) 41] 45) 40] #8) 89] a6 | aI Ma) 36
| Cephalfeindex. =. ; aa 97 | 870 | v0) 9x6 | a80| orn) ano] B02 8: 859 897
Tndex of beight of ear 5 704 706 | 784 | o8R | 722| 090} 70) Go| 727 724 7 676
Facial index * ri 0 768 | 762) 716) OHO) 620) 767) 799) B18 ii ALS 169
Index of apper part of face . O11 441) 620) 475) 445) HHS) O21) 47/9) C4 Are 518 409
Nasal index A 750 719 | 686 | 765 | 691 | 709| O65) B20) GAR ar 720 800
“Index of base of nowe : 625 | 520 088. m9) 527 | 5o0) O65] 609) 527) O80) Bod 18 549 hd
Finger-rench, In percent. | 1005 |1023 | 1070 | 1005 | 1050 1090 |106-0 |105-9 |1059 | 100-4 | 109-5 | 105 | 1048 1055 1008 1062 10841
Meight,aitting 4, 4 - . .| BRA GR | GOT | 598 GAL 651) 527) — | 582) 683 | 595) B21) 520 OT bat 538 ol
Length of arm a bag ses! anal aur) 4st] 442 | 406 | ao | 469 | 460] 455] Adz] 475 | 402 nT 457 ADI ran
6. Coast of Washinytor To face p. 436.
= 1, Mal II. E
A 1 pi 2 1 Te in| | 19 | 2 4 7 | 40° |Nco | 1 2 2 | 19 1213) 14 | a s | 19 2 )
1 100 10 1,484 41 (ANT 1,000 0 |1467 11,019 [1,000 | 1,689 1734 1,625 1,089 1 hart i re t
V998 102 W398 14 i 42 |170 1.684 | soo7 | 177 1 [i784 1,074 1688 | 1)70 IL 1,668 | 1\6
i rtebra 8 41171 78 1,236 | 1,300 ri 1 192 | 14 i95 14 8 ‘ rey
i 1 1114 1,051 1,101 1,295 | 1,165 1,296 | 1,171 | 1,196 1,368 1,049 1411 1,904 | 1,876 4 } 960 | 1,205
i 1 fing 492) 4 400 | 470 24 7) no ) | 1d 600 682 4) 6 020 a| 5
1 66! 316 300! Bt 1 1 6 fi a] 4 i 87 | 370 | 400
i 714 | 78 25) 754) 4G) 796) &O: r 802 | 8 905 | 879 | 905) 891 Oe
gth of ai 0 | 625, GOL) m25|) 632] G62) 774) O18) O85] « ( 72 6 739 | 7 46 | 727) 670 t 701 | 650
178) 17 6 | ie) ea) 17 a5) 170] 1 1K0 | 180 1st | 184 187| 186) 180 1g5!) 188) 191} 17
Wide 45 | 14 47) 15L} 166} 154 | 1 165) 145] 1 1 15 1 151) 166) 1 160 Vit) 171! 150 | 168!)
Height of 154 | 1 1) 127] 46) 1H!) 155) las) 198) WME | 14s} 10 1 180) 188 | 1 1 140)) 186") 140! 132 | 141)
ff ) 120 125) 129 199) 10 1 14a) 187) 187 | 189 | 16 wo} 4 Ti y| 167 | 140 | 160 10) 188) 148 | 142
Distance from chin to naso-frontal| 107) 11 | 113) 10) 119) 114 8} 116) M9} 16) 15] 119) 120) 129 i | 192] 1 127 2) 14} 116} 108
Vistar movth tor a1} 7G) 68) 7 ‘ 7 70] 7 i i 7 89 0 8] 85] 70 1
Height of n 46) 44 4] 40] 47] 47 2 0| 48 co} s6} co} co} s2]| 6o
W ofn | 2 Ai} 27 2 ) a 2 0 1 6 5 5
faximam width of nose 7 2 ' 5} wt} x6] 8 M7 & 7 i ‘ 10 Wi)
ephalle in £04 | B18 as | 81-0 488 » | 8921) 9751) ogat
Index of height of ear sha | 77d 79 | #84 788 | 744 78'6
F di cin wi | &A7 kau | ond 826
f opper yart of face 564 | 50 Ka | 520 602 | 697 10
al ind 655 | 7H6 7:0 | 81 88 | Gi 750
In {bose of x or O10) 626 02 | ni O15
1055 1042 1068 1028 | tors |1010 )1030 7 1070 1080 [Ok [1061 10M) 976
6) mA hilt 11 520 G54 oF G nOL oo | Go | 66% 4
WS 410 AN) 102) 4S AHH) 155] ASD 420 MOS 4s do | Ad
* Host deform
\
- 9
ya
cca
Jessie Baptiste
F, Galice Creek
M. Tututine
: a
9 Es. 2
9 hie
9 : Ora
3 SI a Bass SUR AL
() .
——_—-— 7 r —- —— --
9, Oregonian Dinneh. [o face p. 436.
= | I. Males
- - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 | 7 8 9 40 u 12 | 13 iu 16 16 its { 18 19 20 a 22 23 a 26 26 27 28 | 29 30 SL 32 33 orl 35 86 37 «|| 38 39 40 AL Ag 430) dt 45 16 49 60 OL 62 Lx} ot |) 65 56 oT
| = | | st | 7 | 1 au al =| | oe
| fae! | z g 3 e 5 3 5 = % x a |
= a0| fenjecsiecat 2) ||-c eet rey lheey Ta Mey |) ca | 5 «| 3 4) 3 a|alaie|4 SEN e Wa al Ele 8 le 2) Eee Sie ui! a BR g| 2
= 2alspa et S1eBle lS) 3/8 | 21818 a) hire) ie 2|% £/2/2 ee WET ee) ee ae) EA SE lh St EPS [ee EE) ET et 1) SE Be A
al SZ /2/Slele/2)e ie /slelelalzlel/e ele ial EE eS EN SER eS WE SUT) EE 24) UNREST) el ee) EN ELM ee
ee) ee ee Ry | et | S| RS ee tele sya) | Sere ere Fal acta Patt Vi=sal Pacsafe) corde PanT geet [tat Bie | eats ine | = 4B EER es aS 8 a ee Ses SG ene ey Wee Heil) SS StS |) a
| : g Elelelsleleielzezlelelel2l/alelilelalalal3 Elelaiele|2 gi|ajei|e ale SEE eee EN a We eee eal Soe el ci lie |e
3 Ea Salsa lam sa) ss alecaleaellmae ee ie sa ea Woe PS eiiay [ery re 3 3 a/2|a £ fey |) I El =| q Ft & EP EL at 3) 4 Hle)/s)éa|/e)se |S Ss 1s )e )a | 3 la
vs Pad es ies | SS Dts si ite ee 2 rs 2 E | * S ra) || a Be 5s |e eb eek ASE Te 2 a|3 Z|4
2 2 5 5
— | i
S 5 3 Fj 3 3 rae 4o\6 a ; a
Z Ba 22|32| < | 2 |32|82|ga| 22 | 35|¢ |28| 2 |4 22/2 | 2 | a3 33\|| 2 2 24 § | 22/22| 3/2) 2 fl |e $2 | 2 EEN G
L Bei £38 3313 g| 3 |22/83| 2 | & |22/22/ 22/22] 2 | Z2| 2 |28| § |22| 4 |28 a2|# | 4 |2e| 2 | 23) 4 gle) glee |= les)22| 2 |2)2)2/é | 2 |g 23 | 4 $22) 2
Tee 2s g2|-|2]|2 |= 2 | 4 jaz léz| 2 | = |22| 92/6 |e5| 2 |E8| 2 |22| 2 lee | F248) 2 |22| 2] |2e|2 [22/2 )2)2)2 le eel 2) 2 (sell ee )elele| 2 ize as z |83| =
ae s|s6 eal: | ts [yy cee Te |S eee Ee |e teat ray Ne, (Salleh ee) Se eice | s |)B 6 4g a|2ié al: ae |go) 3 | 3 |e | 28 | § z |S 3
| Ba tS Bala |" | 2 jen | oa |Re |e ae & |e ao | |#a| 2 | 2 Ra) -,|/24 5 /éa)/4)| 2 lSalealia | 2) 2 GET Pea ra a
s Pa = a ie Pay a a |e re
| } —I = —— tS ==! —
Age - - - - - = -| 5] 6 8 9 10 10 10 roa 1-12 13 13 Wj 1t-15) 15 16 }16-17) 19 21 2 23 |23-24) 25 | 26-27) 28 | 31-82] 32 83 uw 36 ‘35 40 40 40 46 56-60) a 5-6 7 T3 | 80 9 9 9-10} 12 12 WwW | its ty 19 | 20-22) 22 23° | 25 |37-40| 60
mm. | mm mm. | mt mm. | mm. | mm mm, mm. | mm, mm. | mm, rum,
= 1048 | 1,013 1348 416 |1,416 | 1,270) 1,508 144 1,541 |1,503. 1,590 | 1,686 1,608
2 = = «/lee9] 9m} 1364 M447 | 1489 | 11238 L571 1,704 1,684 | 1,508 1,688 | 1,703 1,665
oteerenthveriehes . .| 557) B51 iL ti191 | 4,067 1,202 1,081 1,936 1,279) — | — | — |
- - «| 538] se 1,062 [1,124 Tigo} 3,010. 1216 1,833 1,240 |[1219 | 1,226 | 1,298 | 1,821 | 1,219 | 1,197 |
ere pot of second finger .| 375 | 375 476 | 498 “wos 41) ‘552 ‘O87 652} 655] 687} 678) O08) GAB) 628
Wait between acromia - it «| 20) — 223 | 281) 268 303) 296 | 318 21 269) 346 ‘75 349 | 307] 332] 868] 870) 302) 286
Besght, sitting. - - . | 592) 615) 655 | 708) 673 752) 725 | 762 T66 687) 528 ‘B02 — =— S44] 867| 871 | 838] S22
Legibofars- = © | =| 453| 444| 541} oor] 549 617 | 581 | 626 | 635] 629 664 146 oso | 664) 641) 720) 713| 676) 659
Legthofbesd -| 169) 169] 170) 160] 186] 171) 183| 183| 164] 176 | 187] 174) 176 199 | aa} aes | a7s| ass] isa) ag6| 175) 180
‘Wiieh of bead - - - -| 145 185) 146) 149) 143) 165) 144] 156) 152] 152 150 152) 167 166 148 | 169) 149} 447) 160] 166] 147) 161
Hegieofer- - . - .| 1s7| 132] 125] 147} 143] 197| 140] 327] 187] 324 | — | 12s) — 146 138) U1| 18s} "136 | 149) 148) 136) 125
Widthotfoce. = . . | tet) 116 | 1245 127} 182) 194) 125| 191] 195] 136 | 191 134! 110 WL 130] 142] 198) 188) M46) MG] 135) 154
Distance from chin to raso-freatal wo a 103) 105) 108) 105) It iil) 109 110 106 124 183 M0} 113} 112] 1) 120) 119} 16) 1
72) | 1) — 63) — 6¢| 77| 7) 7) 85) 7) 72) 77) 76) S81) 82] Sf) 80) 82) 76) 75) 74) 76) 75] 76) 86) 79) 76] 90]}} — 69] 63) 67) 67) — 6; —|—|—|]—-]— 1) | 10)928))) TA) 73) — 80) 75
49| 48) 47] oo 46) 68 68)|)5L) |) 64) || a7] 43] 48 47| 6a) 47) 49] 43] 48) 48] 63) 62
a1] 26] 35] 33 27° 29 96 | 383] 32] — 25] 3 98 ga] | 93| 38] 26) — | 29] so} as
B52 a74 | 897 750 | 850] 887 |) 447] soa] soe] so an ee 5
Od 13) — 700 | 70:3 | 787) — | 65:5} B4a| 680 77:0 | 78:0 i
7 AGG | 886 ge4| 763) 93:8 || — | goo | 747 802 76 | Bb2 81
55 AB) Git | 500) ore |] — | 490) coe | 540 | 8 tel
ove 583 | 500 66:0 | 646 | 500 |! — | o76| 585) 583 681 | 462 Co
1020 | 975 1002 1018 1047 |1064 || 980 | 99-2 |1008 |102-0 1000 | 1025 |1023 |1001 |1054 |1038 | 992 | 1042 |107~0.
630 | 640) 698 Gh | Gi | 640 eet reed Peal cate ll eral cic nee oo7 | 46 | 689) 657 | oF9| 555) ces | B26
417 | 440. 445 | 447 | 403 || — | 430 | aay | 449 442] 493 | 409) 406 | 440 | 407) dot | 440) 460
105 from ophryon.
437
der, the greater the
d from a long series
Or the same fact may be expressed in this
f variation are probably the wi
t variations become more probable, and smaller ones
Therefore the curve compute
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA.
robable.
the limits o
f observations.
of observations grea
series 0
consequently less p
way
hy
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es sasug jo Se Rs eae aa ie ~ .
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— ri ee
440
REPORT—1891.
Finger-reach of Males.
Per cent.
Tribes Number
j of Cases
99 | 100} 101 | 102) 103] 104/105 | 106 | 107; 108 , 109 | 110 | 111} 112} 113
Northern tribes and | —|—}| 1} 1}/—]—]/ 5] 2; 1} 1} 1)/—] 1/—]j] 1 13
Vancouver Island
Bilqula 5 5 P| Veh MeN Ms OPC a) PVs a a re Pa P20 YB |= 25
Fraser River . .«}/—/—|—/]—| 1lJj]—}]—] 1/—] lJ-—|-—J]-J—]/=— 3
Harrison Lake . ~f/—}—);—}]—}] 2] 1) 4] 2)—]-—)/—)—!— J —} — 9
Washington . »>|/—}]—!]—!}—}]—] 3} 1 1 1};—/—;—|j—|}-—|— 6
Columbians TSN ee at Sen ce |] Se) 8
Northern Oregon ~}/—]—] 1T}—] ty oif}oiry2) 1)—)—fy—}—f—-] — 7
Oregonian Tinneh ./|—|—J| 3 Dil el OB ed 1 1 1)—)—}]—}—] — 17
Crosses between Ore- | — | — | — | —}] 3]/—j|—j)} 2] — 1})/—/{/—|}-—{]-—-|j—- 6
gonian Tinneh and
Californians
Northern Californians | — | — | — | 2} 1 1 1 |— 5
Finger-reach of Females.
Per cent.
Tribes 2 - Number
f Cases
105 | 106 | 107 | 108 | 109
(
|
|
Bilqula + ‘ -f|—}]—}]—}]—]} 1] 2) 1) 1J—] 1J—}—J—-j—-]— 6
Harrison Lake . »~}/—]—|—| 2 1 1 1 1 1)/—};—/]—)J—f--}— 7
Washington 4 -|/—}—}]—}] 2);—] 8] 1] —}]—}]—J—}]—|— | -—-y]— 6
Northern Oregon —}—}—] 1] 1) 1);—J/—]—};—}—} —|}—]-] — 3
Oregonian Tinneh . i UY Ve, 3 ee? Ma ee) = SS SS 9
Height, sitting, of Males.
Per cent.
i ‘Number
are | Nl of Cases
50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59
Northern tribes and Vancouver Island . Cf | es EN pa if 12
Bilqula. . 5 . . e A eet) ee Ve aD a9 ad ie S34) $e || 25
Fraser River . 5 ° . 4 A opm fa fed od Ot ae es ed ed 3
Harrison Lake . ° . . . 5 -|—|]—]| 2 5 | — 1/—}—j|j—-|— 8
Washington Fy 5 - 3 . : -|—|—| 1 1] 1} 2) 24—)—]— 7
Columbians 5 5 : . 5 3 ~|/—J]J—|] 2] 2} 3] 2)—/—}/—J— 9
Northern Oregon 5 "5 5 - 5 -|/—}]—!—|]—| 2] 4 1)/—|—|— 7
Oregonian Tinneh . A A : 5 ~|—/—/]—] 5] 6]. 4] 2 | —| 1lj— 18
Crosses between Oregonian Tinneh and Cali-| —|/—) 1} 3 > —!] 1}; 1})—}]|—/— 6
fornians
Northern Galifornians . 5 5 ~f[—) 2) 1) 38} 2J—.—]—] — y= 7
Height, sitting, of Females.
Per cent.
$ Namber
cad H | of Cases
50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59
Bilguls us ee ew owe Me ie a -|=|=|=| 3] 2 1 Pat Se
Harrison Lake . . . . . 5 ~{| L1}/—}] 1) 4) 2)/—]/—}—J—j— 8
Washingtont Te) Bten bier Ween Yel.) se | ala | 1} 1} 2} 2}—}— 7
Worthern Oregon aiem iiel ites re) ie ie (ia) el ee 3
Oregonian Tinneh . 5 . ae o}—l]—y] 1] 1 | 3/ 3}/—|—|— _ 8
| Northern Californians
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 44}
Length of arm of Males.
Per cent.
Tribes = =r5t8 = ______ Number}
| | | { ‘of Cases
41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 46 | 47 | 48 | 49
te | ! i |
Northern tribes and Vancouver Island . r -/—|]—| 2] 3] 8 | 1 | —/—|1 15
Mqule . =. - a ee ee esa oma tole eo LON Gay RA 25
Fraser River . é . . ° . —=|/—|] 1y—]} =] ti—] tf = 3
Harrison Lake .. tpi bs Vie set ye —|—| 2/3] 2) 2;—}—|;— 9
Washington . & : C A . —/ 1] 2); 2); 1};—J;—|]—j] — 6
Columbians . . Hale Ah: Sedan SiN nef Abie al, |) | 9
Northern Oregon. - a —;} 1} 2) 3} 1J/—}|}—)j;—|— 7
Oregonian Tinneh —| 3] 1} 8] 3] 1}— | 1/— 7
pees between Oregonian Tinneh and Califor- —|— 1 3/|— 1 1)};—|— 6
ans
Northern Californians < Q = ~-/—{|—]}] 2] 3!|—] 2); — | —|— 7
Length of arm of Females.
Per cent.
Tribes Number
} | | of Cases
41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 ee 47 es | 49
Bilqula _. ee ssa ol ne ee ibderaan vs —|}—| 1; 2] 1 | 1/—|;—|— 5
Harrison Lake . = . 2 c c c —}/—]—)} 4] 3}/—}—)}—-—-]— 7
Washington . . F : . . 3 1); 2|—;—] 2 i 1)/—}]— 6
Northern Oregon - ° 5 . . -= 1}/—]| 3)/—;—|—|]—)|;— 4
Oregonian Tinneh . . oh Wes, 89% = 25) Woee6r ik 1 | = | — | — | _ 9
We will direct our attention to the maximum of frequency in each of
these series.
maxima occur, or are, at least, indicated.
each series is indicated by bold type.
Tribes
Northern tribes and Vancouver Island
Bilqula a
Fraser River
Harrison Lake
| Washington
Columbians
Northern Oregonians |
Oregonian Tinneh
“Crosses between Tinneh ‘and Northern
Californians
. . . .
about 146
It will then appear that in several of the groups two
The principal maximum in
Stature in cm.
159-165
158-163
156-164
162-166
158-162
160-170
about 163
about 161
166-172
Bearer
166-170
Tribes
Northern tribes and Vancouver Island
Bilqula . ins
Fraser River .
Harrison Lake
Washington .
Columbians .
Northern Oregonians
Oregonian Tinneh. .
rosses between Tinneh and Northern
Californians
Northern Californians .
arte .e) gr te.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. . .
71-81
80-82°5
80-82
80-82
about 79
79-81
Cephalic Index
83
85-88
84-87
82-84
83-87
83-85
84-87
about 87
Facial Index
- 78-81
78-81
about 75
Ss
Siewert
nN
82-87
83-86
|
|
This table gives a clue to the understanding of the types of the
442 REPORT—1891.
various tribes. In looking over the figures given for the Bilqula, it
appears that in the three cases considered here, two maxima of frequency
occur, while cases between the two maxima are quiterare. Furthermore,
it will be seen that the secondary maximum of this series coincides very
nearly with the maximum of the first group, embracing the northern
tribes and those of Vancouver Island. The cephalic indices do not
coincide quite so well as the other measurements, but still sufficiently
nearly. The primary maximum of the Bilqula agrees very closely with
that of the Oregonian Tinneh. It appears that the stature of the latter
varies more than that of the Bilqula, but I shall show later on the cause
of this curious fact. The resemblance of the two maxima of frequency
to the types of the Coast Indians and of the Tinneh is very far-reaching.
As this comparison is entirely based on the occurrence of the two maxima
among the Bilqula, it is desirable to show their actual existence more
evidently. For this purpose I have divided the whole series of the
Bilqula into two parts according to the order of the observations.
Bilqula.
Stature Cephalic Index Facial Index
Cm. Nos. 4-17} Nos. 18-32 Cm. Nos, 1-16 | Nos. 17-32 Cm. | Nos. 4-17} Nos. 18-32
|
154-157 = 1 78, 79 2 1 76, 77 = 1
158-161 5 3 80, 81 4 3 78, 79 3 3
162-165 2 il 82, 83 2 2 80, 81 3 1
166-169 3 6 84, 85 2 3 82, 83 —_ 3
170-173 4 3 86, 87 5 4 84, 85 5 3
174-177 —_ 1 88, 89 -- 3 86, 87 1 2
90, 91 1 = 88, 89 1 2
90, 91 1 =
It appears from this table that the distribution of cases in the two
halves of the series remains unchanged.
The explanation of these phenomena must be sought for in the
mixture of the two types of people: the coast people of shorter stature,
and with longer heads, and the Tinneh with shorter heads and of taller
stature. We know that a mixture of these two people has taken place
among the Bilqula. We even know, based on linguistical considerations,
that the Bilqula must have lived at one time with the Salish tribes
farther south-east. Therefore the explanation given here appears quite
plausible.
While coming to these conclusions, I read a preliminary notice of
the anthropological investigations carried on in Baden (‘ Globus,’ vol.
lix. p. 51), in which the same point is brought out most clearly. O.
Ammon, who reports on these investigations, states that in the case of a
mixture of types no middle forms originate, but that the parent forms
are preserved separately. The same fact has been brought out by Dr.
von Luschan in his investigations in Lycia. (‘Reisen in Lykien,’ &c.,
Vienna, 1889.) He found that among the Greeks of that country the
Shemitic and Armenian types are preserved without having undergone
any mixture. If we study among the Bilqula the individual distribution
of observations, it appears that the types of the component forms which
appear so clearly in a statistical treatment of the material, appear in all
possible combinations among the single individuals, so that each indivi-
—
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 443
“dual, as we might express it, is a mechanical. mixture of the features of
the parent types. He may have the face of a Tinneh, and the stature or
head of a Coast Indian, and vice versd. This important fact also tallies
exactly with Ammon’s conclusions on the blonde and brunette population
of Baden,.and confirms the views which Kollmann expressed in 1883.
(‘ Archiv fiir Anthropologie,’ xiii. 79, 179; xiv. 1.) The fact that these
conclusions have been arrived at independently on entirely independent
material seems to give them great strength.
When we turn to a consideration of the Oregonian Tinneh, we shall
find the same phenomena, although apparently somewhat obscured.
Instead of two distinct maxima, we find here a great number of cases
distributed equally over a long interval. The next northern group
differs but little from the Tinneh, but their southern neighbours show
quite a marked contrast, particularly regarding their cephalic index. If
we assume the Oregonian Tinneh to be a mixture of the two, and keep
the fact in mind that no middle forms originate, the form of the curve
explains itself easily. In looking at the crosses between the two groups,
their distribution according to the maxima of the two component groups
is brought out most strikingly, notwithstanding the small number of
cases.
In order to ascertain in how far these assumptions are justified, we
will subdivide the material in a different way. If the Oregonian Tinneh
contain a Californian element, we may assume that it is more prevalent
in the south than in the north. For this reason we will arrange the
material in the following groups: South of Rogue River, North of Rogue
River, and crosses between the two. We will compare preliminarily the
measurements from Northern Oregon with those of .the group north of
Rogue River.
Cephalic Index.
Tribes 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90
Suerth of Rogue River .| 1 |] —|—|—}|]—j|1|4)1)/4 {315 )]4)]1}—] 2] 1
Worthern Oreson . 3. | —|/ —|/—| 1/—]|]—]|—/]—]2]1);1]/—]1]-—|]-] 2
Stature.
Tribes 152, 153 | 154, 155 | 156, 157 | 158, 159 | 160, 161 | 162, 163 | 164, 165 166, 167 | 168, 169
North of Rogue River — — 2 — 2 2 - 3 2
pL 1 1 _ 2 2
Northern Oregon. = ee bag
It appears that the two groups are quite homogeneous, so that we
may be allowed to combine them. Thus we obtain the following table :-—
Cephalic Index.
Tribes 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 89 | 90 | 91
South of Rogue River | — | — | 1 | 3 | 417|4/3 E 2 | ae =|. 1) | — dele
TOSses at. SC ee SCNT hE FOU abet | ath Peet) oD yD? LU ae ee
North of Rogue River | 1 | — | —| 1 gs 1}4/1 | 6 | 4 | 6)/4/2)/—|)-2]2)—
444 REPORT—1891.
Stature.
| | | |
Tribes 152, 153| 154, 155 | 156, 157 | 158, 159 / 160, 161/162, 163 | 164, 165 | 166, 167 |168, 169 170,171
South of Rogue — 1 2 _ 3 3 4 2 _ | _—
River |
Crosses. 5 1 — a2
North of Rogue — _
River
bo
"
wo
wow
|
on
ai %
|
It appears from these tables, particularly from that of the cephalic
indices, that the individuals south of Rogue River are similar to the
Northern Californians. But we also recognise distinctly in the series the
secondary maximum belonging to the Oregonian Tinnek. In the same
way we sce that the tribes north of Rogue River are much more homo-
geneous, but recognise a secondary maximum corresponding to the
Northern Californians. The table brings out exactly what might be
expected: a greater admixture of Californian blood in the south than in
the north. It is also important to note that the crosses in all these
cases appear more variable than the individual races. ‘This is what
must take place if the crosses contain both the component types,
and are not arranged around a middle type. The measurements,
in the two groupings discussed above, give the following ranges of
variation :—
Tribes Coes : Number of | Range of | Number of
; Trades Cases | Stature Cases
Oregonian Timneh . . .| 17 | 87 10 19
Crosses. A ‘ ; : 5 13 6 a 6
Northern Californians . A 4 5 | 8 7 6
|
North of Rogue River . : . 16 34 7 18
Crosses. - : ; . 2 16 13 10 3
South of Rogue River . ‘ 5 14 30 | 7 15
If the crosses and the component groups were equally variable, we
ought to expect much narrower limits of variation among the former, as
they embrace only a few individuals; while actually their ranges of
variation equal or exceed those of the purer tribes.
I believe all these points, taken in connection with the results of Dr.
von Luschan and O. Ammon, prove beyond a doubt the fact that ina
mixture of tribes the component types remain unaltered.
The tables of finger-reach, height (sitting), length of arm, do not bring
out these relations, because their ranges are almost the same among all
the tribes, and therefore intermixture cannot be detected in the com-
pound tribe.
We will try to explain the observations based on these considerations.
Among the Bilqula, in Washington, and throughout Oregon, we find a
type present of a stature, ranging from 166 to 172 cm., with a cephalic
index of from 84 to 87, and a facial index of from 83 to 86. Among the
Bilqula, and in Oregon, this is the prevailing type, while in Washington
le ae
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 445
it is of secondary importance. In all these regions Tinneh are the main
mass of the population. They were present in Washington, and form a
considerable element among the Bilqula. Therefore it must be assumed
that this type represents the Tinneh of the Pacific Coast. We do not
know much on the physical characteristics of the Tinneh east of the
mountains. But according to Petitot they are tall (‘ Dictionnaire de la
langue Déné- Dindjé,’ p. xxi). Quatrefages and Hamy (‘Crania Hthnica,’
p- 470) mention seven skulls of Tinneh, and find them to be brachy-
cephalic. Both these facts tally with what we found on the Pacific
Coast. I had occasion to question a number of former officers of the
Hudson Bay Company regarding the general appearance of the Tinneh
of the interior of British Columbia, and of the Mackenzie Basin. Accord-
ing to their descriptions, they resemble the tribes of the North-West
Coast much more closely than the Algonquin. The complete absence of
dolichocephali—at least according to the present state of our knowledge
—distinguishes the Tinneh most clearly from the eastern groups of
Americans, the Algonquin and Iroquois, as well as the eastern and
central Eskimo, so that I am inclined to class them as one of the Pacific
peoples. This view is supported by linguistic and ethnological evidence,
which, however, it is not the place to discuss here (see ‘Journal of
American Folk-Lore, vol. iv. p. 13, ff.). It is worth mentioning that the
Tlingit of Alaska, who have intercourse with the Tinneh, appear also
to be taller and more brachycephalic.
The tribes of the northern parts of the coast of British Columbia
appear to be of shorter stature, ranging from 159 to 162 cm., and have
much more elongated heads. They are mesocephalic, the index ranging
from 77 to 81. We find the same type present, although to a lesser
degree, in Washington and on Fraser River, as well as among the
Bilqula. It appears to be absent in Oregon, but, remarkably enough,
reappears as we approach California. Still farther south true dolicho-
cephali appear. I cannot discover any difference of type between the
northern tribes and those of Vancouver Island. This conclusion, drawn
from measurements of living subjects, is confirmed by measurements
of skulls from this region.
I published in the ‘Verh. der Berliner Ges. f. Ethn.,’ 1890, p. 30,
Measurements of a series cf ten undeformed crania from Vancouver
Wsland. All of them were obtained from a burial ground near Victoria,
and belong, therefore, probably to the Lkufigtn tribe. I reproduce the
cephalic and facial indices here for comparison. Besides these, No. III. of
the Songish crania, described on p. 813 of the Fifth Report of the Com-
mittee, may be made use of. To these may be added a skull described by
Flower (‘ Catalogue of the Specimens illustrating the Osteology,’ &c., in
the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, p. 148), which belongs to
the West Coast of Vancouver Island, and another from the head of
Alberni Channel, from the Museum of the Geological Survey of Canada.
Furthermore, I add a series of measurements of slightly deformed crania
from various parts of Vancouver Island from my own collection; the
_ Tsimshian skulls, described on p. 812 of the Fifth Report; three Tsim-
shian skulls described by Barnard Davis, and another, described by the
Same author as a ‘round head,’ from Vancouver Island (‘ Thesaurus
Craniorum,’ p. 229). Finally, I add a Haida cranium, which I measured
in the Provincial Museum of Victoria. The numbers given here are
those of the catalogues of the various collections.
446 REPORT —1891.
Lkufigrn crania
1g 23/32 )197| 50 oo |792 82 | 92 [109 mt 12
| |
Cephalic Index . | 76°4 ond 80°71 | 77°0 | 81:1 a4 78'8 | 746 | 74°9 | 78:5 | srs 76°4
Facial Index , 79:9 — | 866 | 98:5 | 85:7 | — | 926 “= — | 99:2 / _— -
\
Nootka Cowitchin| Comox Salmon River; Nimkish
III. | =
—— 5th Rep. | |
Flower | Geol. Sur. mer 109 } 113 | 122 | 1238 135
|
Cephalic Index . | 85°8 774 81:2 ie 6) 816 7859 | | 174 | 78:2 79°
Facial Index . — -— _ —_ — —
—_— \ = --— —~.
Kwakiutl Tsimshian 5th Rep., p. 812 Barnard Davis Haida 9
— | i] >
vo | uo | 4 F [n g| It. | Iv. ¢ | 1,022} 1,023) 1,024] 1,211 =
; | |
Cephalic Index .j| 817 | 75:8 | 76°7| 78:2 76:7 $3°0 7 76 78 76 824 |
Facial Index . 3 ne -- 92-1 — — — a —
| |
Or arranged in a series :
Indices 74
Skulls . . . . . . . -| 2 | 1
Living . . . . . . . “| 2 2
For the purpose of comparison I have added the indices of the living
subtracting two from each [according to Broca]| in order to make them
comparable to the skulls. The close correspondence between the two
groups becomes at once apparent.
It is of interest to investigate the further distribution of this form of
head. Turning to the interior of British Columbia we have a series of
skulls from Lytton, which were described in the Fifth Report. To these
may be added one from the same place which is in my own collection,
and has an index of 77°4. All these skulls have suffered somewhat by
post-mortem deformation.
~
Bo Sorscyiga L078 <6) Hay) bye) Spgeo go. ae
Aas oy tee tbe oan Pot wt eed oBan BE
This series agrees very closely with that of the coast tribes. Measure-
ments of the long bones from the same place show that the tribe must
have been a very short one, probably resembling also in this respect the
coast people.
Besides these, we have the measurements of two Shushwap crania
in Davis’s collection (p. 226), which have indices of 76 and 83. A
single Shushwap, whom I measured at New Westminster, had an index
of 82:9, corresponding to about 81 on the skull. It seems, therefore, that
these people resemble the coast tribes, but further investigations are
necessary to prove this theory.
Among the other groups, the tribe of Harrison Lake is particularly
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 447
remarkable. The prevailing type is exceedingly brachycephalic and
chameprosopic, and their small stature is also quite unique. Their differ-
ence from all the other tribes appears so clearly from our tables that
further remarks seem unnecessary. I have not found any analogy among
the neighbouring tribes, except at the mouth of Fraser River, where the
same type might be expected to occur on account of the intermarriage of
these groups. The question regarding the relationship of this tribe must
remain at present an open one.
Among the other tribes the Columbians appear remarkable on account
of their tallness. It seems that their heads are a little longer than those
of the neighbouring tribes, but the data do not bring out the difference
with sufficient clearness. There appears to be no reason to suppose that
more favourable conditions prevailed in this region, and should have pro-
duced the development of greater stature.
We will finally consider the proportions of the bodies of the various
groups. It appears that the finger-reach of the southern groups, especi-
ally of those of southern and central Oregon, is much smaller than that
of the northern tribes. I am inclined to attribute this fact to a difference
of occupation, the first-named two groups living on reservations, while
the others are fishermen. Together with this lengthening of the finger-
reach seems to go an increase in the length of thearm. These variations
may be seen in females as well as in males. The women pass also much
of their time in the canoe, which explains the corresponding variation in»
their sex. The table also shows that the trunk of these Indians is much
longer than that of Europeans and also longer than that of the Iroquois,
which, according to Gould, is 53°4 per cent. It seems that the trunk of
the southern group is a little longer than that of the northern ones.
I will finally sum up the results of this investigation. We find an
almost homogeneous population on the coast of British Columbia, with the
exception of the region of Dean Inlet. It is characterised by a stature
ranging between 159 and 162 cm.; a cephalic index ranging between 77
and 81, a facial index ranging between 78 and 81. At Bentinck Arm
and in Washington this type is mixed with another, which also prevails in
Oregon, so far as it is inhabited by Tinneh. This type is characterised
by a stature ranging between 166 and 172 cm.; a cephalic index ranging
between 84 and 87, and a facial index of from 83 to 86. In Northern
Oregon this type is found quite pure. Farther to the south the type is
mixed with that of the northern Californians, which becomes the more
prevalent the farther south we go. In Washington the same type seems
to exist, but subordinate to it the northern type is found. It is the
primary element among the Bilqula. We consider this type to be peculiar
to the Tinneh. The type of northern California is characterised by a
stature ranging from 160 to 164 cm.; a cephalic index of from 79 to 81,
and a facial index of from 83 to 86. On the whole this type resembles the
first so much that I am inclined to identify them. A third and a quite
unique type is found at Harrison Lake. The individuals are short, with
very wide faces and heads. There is no similar tribe known to exist in
this region, and their affinities appear doubtful. On Columbia River we
find a fourth type, remarkable for its tallness, with a cephalic index of
from 80 to 84. I believe that these may be identified with the tall tribes
of the interior, but further evidence is required on this point.
448
REPORT—1891.
Errata in the Sizth Report of the Committee.
Page 604, line 43, instead of Koi’kyaqténoq read K: or’kyaqtenog.
606, ,, 16. 3 Ts’E/ntsEnHk’aid read Ts’E'ntsEnuk'’aio.
616, ,, 8 of footnote, instead of Ts’étsa'éh'a. Generally read Ts'ttsa'zha,
generally.
617, ,, 33, instead of s@latlila read sa'latlila.
G18; coe Dy 55 ha'mats’a following read ha'mats’a, following.
Gls <5 mus “A h-ué'h-ntsé read hue! h-utsé.
623, 5) Bos < Ha‘ili'kyilatl read Ha'ilikyilatl.
623, ,, 49, ‘a Ts'étsa'éha read Ts étsa'éhk-a.
625, ,, 13, omit Newette.
625, 21, instead of ts'é'tséqk: engélis read ts’é'tséqkengélis.
625, song I., line 3, instead of Hamats'a’s read Hamats'a’s.
628, ,, VIL, last line, instead of Si’siutlkyas read Si'siutlkyas.
Gilera VIL, first line, instead of Ts'é'k‘oa read Ts’é'k:oa.
635, line 14, from much more usually to end of paragraph is a footnote follow-
ing the next paragraph, to be signed G. M. Dawson.
638, lines 16 to 18, by G. M. “Daw son.
640, lines 9 and 12, instead of wandering read meandering.
640, line 34, instead of lower vead fore.
658, ,, 8 of table, instead of matitsmd'ts’utl read matltsma'ts ut.
659, in table, possessive pronoun, last line, fifth column, instead of qents read
genuq.
660, in table at head of page, 2nd line, 4th column, instead of d'mduqsé read
o'mpugqse.
661, in table, read under thy father, near person addressed, instead of
au'mmpugs read au'mpuqs.
662, line 31, instead of ua’qpitsé read ua'qvisé.
662, » 40, ry ak a'stla read nak-a'stla.
663, ,, 4 following table, instead of tlelimas'utlenu'g qutl read tlelimasu-
tlenw' qutl.
663, footnote 5, second line, instead of is read are.
666, line 26, instead of trs read t xs.
6695) (5, Anan. ie —hs read —k:s.
669+ thd ” dialect ead dialect h.
(RES eR et ‘, waha'h read woha k.
Giose ent oe, * hiscitlak: latah read hiscitlah tlatah.
OTtes 5k Ds h agssapa'minie read k-agqsapa'minic.
GWA us,) Paselast table, instead of hisci'anitic read hiscianitic.
674, ,, 58, instead of maiptogsath read maptaqsath.
GTD, ii. ols - bush vead beach.
(yeh yy ERY aN t'a't'oa read to't’oa.
680, ,, 6, below table, instead of nnitl read nmitl.
682, ,, 6, instead of (n)é- (u)c read (n)é- (az)te.
682,40) i, i k’aik’GiétltHn read k’a'ik’Getlten.
683, ,, 48, - hoto't read holo't.
684, ,, 6, i, tiksa'ha read tiksa'la.
684, ,, 23, > antsa'wa read ntsa'wa.
GO, ike he 3 sqa’ goa read sqa’ "qaa.
691, 29, st'sentsa rea st'sentsa.
695, column mother, dialect 15, instead of skéqeda'a read skéQédza'a.
Coin A face, ie ae ‘ ts‘al »» tsialy
GOTKeT A, head, os 16, 7” —k’én PUK Jen:
Goa aes; nose, + ie a ne/k'sEn » nb’k‘sEn.
6985) -s, body, * 15, “a mkEa’te » MEZAa’te.
699 es finger, me ily: x4 snE‘qtsEs », Snk/qtszEs.
400} ee blood, es 2, 3 gai ~~ ail.
(OE 3 bow, MA 3 ty haukta'k: » haukta’k‘,
OL ae star, 7 2, es p’ia’ls » pia’ls.
INE sea, ne 3, a min 7 mane
(Od ee. valley, Ps ip a nut’p’] » nutlE’l (gorge).
TOLS . 3, leaf, as 2. 4 tleya/‘igual ,, tllya’igual.
ae
|
+
A
ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF CANADA. 449
Page 705, column salt, dialect 14, instead of ts'alt read ts’alt.
me n0p, 3 «deer; "1 2, » giat » gat.
m0, 5, white, % ile Pe tlédi’qaté’ ,, tlédiqaté'.
OG, 3 bird, ss 15, Pe SpEO'O »» SPEZO!ZO.
rit, ys fish, “ it a kak.qu’lg = ,, k‘ak-qu'lq.
tie light blue, ,, i re ts'oyi’qaté ,, ts’dyi’qaté.
ens, 55 great, Pa 15, as qEo’m » QEZO’m.
eo 1i0S. | 55 strong, ,, 2, 5 diakuya’ » dakuya’.
” 708, ” he, ” 5, ” hé 5B) hét.
echUOs: ¥ 93 dead, At 15, ee 0/uk: » 20'uk.
aeLO: 255 near, FA 9, ms dje’é’djimit ,, djié’djimit.
i a six, 3 8, 5 taqania'é » taqamia’é.
ls, CS, to kill, a 15, Pa ok's » ZOK'S:
eidos 55 toliedown,, 18, s ‘ak qka » g'a'’k-qka.
Fifth Report of the Commvittee, consisting of Sir Joun Lupsock,
Dr. Jonn Evans, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Dr. R. Munro,
Mr. W. Pencetity, Dr. Henry Hicks, Professor MELpoua, Dr.
MurrHEaD, and Mr. James W. Davis, appointed for the pur-
pose of ascertaining and recording the localities in the British
Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found. (Drawn up by Mr. JAMES
W. Davis.)
Your Committee, in presenting their fifth report, have pleasure in draw-
ing attention to the list of lake dwellings found in the British Islands
compiled by one of their number.
The Sites of Lake-Dwellings or Crannogs known up to this Date in Great
Britain and Ireland.
The following alphabetically-arranged lists have been compiled
mainly from Munro’s ‘ Lake Dwellings of Europe,’ to which work we
refer our readers for an epitome of the scientific results obtained from
practical investigation, as well as further references to the voluminous
literature on the subject. As many of the sites and remains of these
ancient habitations have been destroyed in the course of drainage and
Other agricultural operations, and are now known to have existed merely
from tradition or incidental allusions to them in the early annals of the-
country, we distinguish by an asterisk (*) those that have been carefully
_ observed or more or less practically investigated, and when the recorded’
_ observations are of special archeological value we give the reference to.
_ the original source of their publication. To include more than this, as,
y
al
or example, the merest abstract of researches, would so greatly add to.
the length of this report that its tabular character would be entirely
stroyed.
I. Eneuanp.
Cold Ash Common, co. Berks. Wiltshire Arch. Soc., 1869.
os: Mere, co. Suffolk. Quart. Journ. Suf. Inst. of Arch. and Nat. Hist., 1869.
4
Crowland (Fen district), co. Lincoln. Fenland Past and Present, by Miller and
Skertchly.
_ *Holderness (four or five localities), Yorkshire. Lake Dwellings of Europe. Proc.
York. Geol. and Polytech. Soc., vol. xi.
1891, aa
450 REPORT—1891.
*Llangorse Lake, co. Brecon. Arch. Cambrensis, 4th §., vol. i.
*London, co. Middlesex. Journal of Anthrop. Institute, 1866, and Journ. Arch.
Association, 1866.
*Preston, Lancashire. Proc. York. Geol. Polyt. Soc., vol. xi. 1889.
*Wretham Mere, co. Norfolk. Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., vol. xii, and Cam. Phil. Soe.,
March 31, 1862.
II. Scornann.
Achilty, L., co. Ross.
Achray, L., co. Perth.
*Airrieoulland, co. Wigtown. Collections of Ayr and Galloway Arch. Association,
vol. v.
Ard, L., co. Perth.
*Arisaig, L., co. Inverness. Proc. S. A, Scot., vol. viii.
*Banchory (Loch of the Leys), co. Aberdeen. Jdid., vols. i. and vi.
Barean, L., co. Kirkcudbright, Ancient Scot. L. Dwellings, p. 37.
*Barhapple, L., co. Wigtown. Col. Ayr and Gal. Arch. Association, vols. iii, and v,
Barlockhart, L., co. Wigtown.
Barnsallzie, L., co. Wigtown.
Battleknowes, co. Berwick.
Black Cairn (submarine), Beauly Firth, co. Ross.
Boghall (Beith), co. Ayr.
Borgue, co. Kirkcudbright.
Brora, L., co. Sutherland.
*Bruich, L. (near Beauly), co. Ross. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. xx.
*Buston, co. Ayr. Ancient Scot. L. Dwellings, and Col. Ayr and Gal. Arch, Association.
*Canmor (Kinord), L., co. Aberdeen. Proc. SS. A. Scot., vol. vi.
*Carlingwark, L. Tbid., vi., vii., and x.
Castle Loch, co. Wigtown.
Castletown, co. Roxburgh.
Closeburn, co. Dumfries.
Clunie, L., co. Perth.
Collessie, co. Fife.
Corncockle (Applegarth), co. Dumfries. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. vi.
Cot, L., co. Linlithgow. Jbdid., vol. vi.
Croy, co. Inverness.
*Dhu Loch, co. Bute. Tdid., vol. iii.
Dolay, L., co, Sutherland.
Doon, L., co. Ayr.
*Dawalton, L. co. Wigtown. Rep. British Association, 1863; Proc. 8S, A. Scot., vol.
vi.; Ancient Scot. L. Dwellings; and Ayr and Gal. Arch, Association, vol. v.
Earn, L., co. Perth.
Eldrig, L., co. Wigtown.
*Eriska, co. Argyll (submarine). Proc, S. A. Scot., vol. xix.
Fasnacloich (Appin), co. Argyll.
Federatt, co. Aberdeen.
Fell, L., co. Wigtown.
Fergus, L., co. Kirkcudbright.
*Flemington, L., co. Nairn. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. v.
*Forfar, Loch of, co. Forfar. Arch. Scotica, vol. ii. ; Proc. S. A. Scot., vols, vi. and x.
Freuchie, L., co. Perth.
*Friar’s Carse, co. Dumfries. Ancient Scot. L. Dwellings.
» Fullah, L., co. Perth.
Glass, L., co. Ross.
Granech, L., co. Perth.
Green Knowe, co. Lanark.
Gynag, L., co. Inverness.
Heron, L., co. Wigtown.
Hogsetter, L., Shetland. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. Xv.
*Kielziebar, L., co. Argyll. JZbid., vol. vii.
*Kilbirnie, L., co. Ayr. Jbid., vol. xi.
Kilchonan, co. Argyll.
Kinder, L., co. Kirkcudbright.
Kinellan, L., co. Ross.
ON THE PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 451
Laggan, co. Perth. ‘
*Ledaig, co. Argyll. Proc. S. A. Scot., vols. ix. and x.
*Leven, L., co. Kinross. JZbid., vol. xxii., and Lake Dwellings of Europe, p. 492.
*Loch-of-the-Clans, co. Nairn. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. v.
Loch-in-Dunty, co. Nairn. Jbid.
*Loch-inch-Cryndil, co. Wigtown. Jbid., vol. ix.
Lochindorb, co. Moray.
*Lochlee, co. Ayr. Ayr and Gal. Arch. Association, vol. ii.; Proc. S. A. Scot., vol.
xili.; and Ancient Scot. L. Dwellings.
Lochmaben, co. Dumfries. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. vi.
*Loch-na-Mial, Island of Mull. Tbid., vol. viii.
Lochnell, co. Argyll. Jbid., vol. ix.
Lochore, co. Fife. JZbid., vol. vi.
Lochrutton, co. Kirkcudbright.
*Lochspouts, co. Ayr. Col. Ayr and Gal. Arch. Association, vols. iii, and iv.; and
Ancient Scot. L. Dwellings.
Lockwood, co. Dumfries.
Lochy, L., co. Inverness.
Lomond, L., co. Stirling.
Lotus, L., co. Kirkcudbright. Proc. S. A. Scot., vol. xi.
Machermore, L., co. Wigtown. Jbid., vols. ix. and x,
Merton, L., co. Wigtown. bid.
Mochrum, L., co. Wigtown. Ibid.
Monivaird, L., co. Perth.
-Morall, L., co. Perth.
Morton, co. Dumfries.
Moulin, L. (drained), co. Perth.
Mountblairy, co. Moray.
Moy, L. (Ellan-na-Glack), co. Inverness.
Oban (Lochavoullin), co. Argyll, Lake Dwellings of Europe.
Ore, L., co. Dumfries.
Peel Bog, co. Aberdeen.
Quien Loch, co. Bute. Proc. 8. A. Scot., vol. iii.
Rannoch, L., co. Perth.
*Ravenstone, L., co. Wigtown. Col. Ayr and Gal. Arch. Association, vol. v.
Rescobie, L., co. Forfar.
Rothiemurchus, Loch-an-Eilan, co. Moray.
*Sangahar, Black Loch of, co. Dumfries. Dumfries and Gal. N. H. Soc., 1865.
Shin, L., co. Sutherland.
Spinie, L., co. Moray.
Stravithy, co. Fife.
Sunonness, L., co. Wigtown.
‘Tay, L., co. Perth.
Tolsta, Lewis, co. Ross. Proc. 8. A. Scot., vol. x.
Torlundie, drained loch at, co. Inverness. Jbid., vol. vii.
‘Tullah, L., co. Perth.
Tummell, co. Perth.
Ure, L., co, Dumfries.
Vennachar, L., co. Perth.
-Weyoch, L., co. Wigtown.
; III. Irenann.
n _Aconnick, L., co. Cavan.
_ Acrussel, L., co. Fermanagh.
Allen, L., co. Leitrim. Aveh. Journal, vol. iii.
fi Aghakilconnel, L., co. Leitrim.
_ Aghnamullen (‘Glebe Island’), co. Monaghan.
u $ eae. L., between King and Queen’s County. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 3rd
’ -» VOl. i.
___Annagh, parish of Kilbarron, co. Tipperary.
*Ardakillen, co. Roscommon. Proc. R. I. Acad., vol. v,
*Ardmore Bay, co. Waterford (submarine). JZdid., 2nd §., vol. ii.; Journ. R. H. A.
Association, 4th S., vol. vy.
Arrow, L., co. Sligo.
Ga2
452 REPORT—1891.
Aughlish, co. Fermanagh. Tdid., vol.ii. ‘
Ballaghmore, co. Fermanagh. bid.
Ballinafad, co. Galway. Jbid.
Ballinahinch, co. Galway. Jbid.
*Ballinlough (4 crannogs)), co. Galway. Proc. R. J. Acad., vol. ix.
*Ballydoolough, co. Fermanagh. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th §., vols. i. and ii.
Ballygawley, L., co. Sligo. Wood-Martin’s Lake Dwellings of Ireland.
Ballyhoe, L. (2 crannogs), co. Monaghan. Journ. Kilk. Arch. S., 2nd §., vol. vi.
Ballykinler, co. Down. Ulster Journal of A7vch., vol. vii.
Ballywoolen, co. Down. Journ. Kilk. Arch. S., 2nd S., vols. iii. and iv.
Bohermeen, co. Meath.
Bola, L., co. Galway. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th S., vol. ii.
Breagho, co. Fermanagh. bid.
Camlough, co. Armagh.
Campsie, near Londonderry. (Report not yet published. See Journal of Royal
Society of Antiquaries of Ireland., vol. i. p. 327.)
*Cargaghoge, co. Monaghan. Jbid., 3rd. 8., vol. i., and 4th §., vol. v.
Castleforbes, co. Longford.
Castlefore, L. (2 crannogs), co. Leitrim.
*Clogherny co. Tyrone. Keller’s Lake-Dwellings, 2nd ed.
Cloncorick Castle, L., co. Leitrim.
*Cloneygonnell, L. (3 crannogs), co. Cavan. Proc, R. I. Acad., vol. viii.
Cloonbo, L. (2 crannogs), co. Leitrim.
Cloonboniagh, L., co. Leitrim.
Cloonfinnen, L., co. Leitrim,
*Cloonfinlough (2 crannogs), co. Roscommon. Jbdid., vol. v.,and Lake Dwellings of
Europe.
*Cloonfree (2 crannogs), co. Roscommon. Proc. R. I. Acad., vol, v.
Cloonturk, L. (2 crannogs), co. Leitrim. bid.
Cloughwater Bog, co. Antrim.
*Coal Bog (Kilnamaddo), co. Fermanagh. Jbid., 2nd §., vol. ii, and Journ. Areh.
Association, vol. Xxxvi.
Coolcranoge, co. Limerick.
Corcreevy (Loch- Laoghaire), co. Tyrone.
Corrib, L., co. Galway.
*Cornagall, L., co. Cavan. Journ. Rk. H, A. Association, 4th §., vol. i.
Cornaseer, co. Cavan. Jbid., vol. vii.
Crannagh MacKnavin, co. Leitrim.
Crannagh, L.,co. Antrim. Proc. R. J. Acad., 2nd §8., vol. ii.
Crannog-na-n-Duini, co. Donegal.
Crannog-boy, co. Donegal.
Crannog Mac Samhradhain, co. Cavan.
Greenhagh, L. (2 crannogs), co. Leitrim. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th §., vol-
vii.
Crumkill, co. Antrim. Notes by Rev. Mr. Buick.
Cullina, near Maryborough, Queen’s co.
Currygrane, L. (2 crannogs), co. Longford. bid.
Derreen, L., co. Roscommon.
Derreskit, L., co. Cavan.
*Dromiskin, co. Louth. Jbid., 4th S., vol. ix.
*Drumaleague, L. (2 crannogs), co. Leitrim. Proc. f. I. Acad., vol. v.
*Drumdarragh or Trillick, co. Fermanagh. Jdid., vols. ii. and vii.
*Drumgay (3 crannogs), co, Fermanagh. Jdid., vols. i. and ii.
*Drumkeery, L., co. Cavan. <Archeologia, vol. xxxix.
*Drumkelin, co. Donegal. TZbid., vol. xxvi.
Drumlane (2 crannogs), co. Cavan. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th §., vol. vii.
*Drumskimly (3 crannogs), co. Fermanagh. JZdid., vols. i. and ii.
*Drumsloe, co. Fermanagh, JZd7d., vol. ii.
Effernan, co. Clare. JZbid., vol. v.
*Hyes, L. (6 crannogs), co. Fermanagh, Jbid., vols. i. and ii.
*Faughan, L.,co. Down. Proc. R, I. Acad., vol. vii.
Fort, L., co. Donegal.
Funshinagh, L., co. Leitrim.
“a ON THE PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 453
Galbally, co. Tyrone.
Glencar, L. (5 crannogs). Wood-Martin’s Lake-Dwellings of Ireland.
Gortalough, co. Fermanagh. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th S., vol. v.
*Grantstown, co. Queen. Jbid., N.S., vol. v.
Guile, L., co. Antrim. Jbid., 3rd S., vol. i.
om L., co. Limerick. Wilde's Catalogue.
_ Hackett, L. (Cimbe), co. Galway. Jbid., and Keller's L. Dwellings.
Hilbert, L. (Goromna Island), co. Galway.
Inishrush (Green L.), co. Derry. Proc. R. I. Acad., vol. vii.
Joristown (in river Deal), co. Westmeath. Jbdid., vol. v.
Kilglass, L., co. Roscommon.
Killynure, co. Fermanagh.
Kilmore, L. (2 crannogs), co. Monaghan.
Kilknock, L., co. Antrim.
Knockany (Lough Cend), co. Limerick.
*Lagore or Dunshaughlin, co. Meath. Proc. R. I. Acad., vol. i., Arch. Journal,
vol. vi.
Lane, L., co. Roscommon.
Lankhill, co. Fermanagh.
Leesborough, L., co. Monaghan.
Lenaghan, co. Fermanagh.
*Lisanisk, co. Monaghan. Arch. Journal, vol. iii.
*Lisnacroghera (Craigywarren), co. Antrim. Journ. R. H. A. Association, vols. vi. and
ix, Lake Dwellings of Europe.
Lochanacrannog, co. Sligo.
Loughran’s Island, co. Antrim. Proc. R. I. Acad., vol. v., and Ulster Journal of
Arch., vol. vii.
*Loughannaderriga, Achill Island, co. Mayo. Wood-Martin’s Lake-D. of Ireland.
Loughinsholin, co. Derry. .
-Loughavarra, co. Antrim.
*Loughavilly, co. Fermanagh. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th §., vols. ii. and v.
Lochlea (3 crannogs), co. Roscommon.
*Lough-na-Glack, co. Monaghan.
Lough Cam, co. Galway.
Loughmagarry, co. Antrim. Proc. R. I. Acad., vol. vii.
Loughtamend, co. Antrim. bid.
Longhtown, co. Leitrim.
*Loughrea (4 crannogs), co. Galway, Jbid., vol. viii.
4 ough Oughter (3 or more crannogs), co. Cavan. Journ. R, H. A. Association, 4th 8.,
vol. V1l,
ch, L., co. Antrim.
Hugh, L. (2 crannogs), co. Leitrim. JTbid.
ean, L. (3 crannogs).
Nevin, crannog, co. Galway.
horhamilton, co. Leitrim.
00, co. Armagh.
L., Hag’s Castle.
n, L., co. Fermanagh.
enoe, co. Fermanagh. .
incha, co. Tipperary.
ough, co. Meath. Proc. R. I. Acad., 2nd §., vol. ii.
onalty, co. Monaghan. Avch. Jowrnal, vol. iii.
nea, co. Fermanagh.
avlin, co. Donegal.
achin, L., co. Monaghan.
ne, L. (2 crannogs), co. Antrim. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th S., vol. vi. ;
@. 8. A. Scot., vol. xx., and Z.-D. of Hurope.
g, near Cullybacky, co. Antrim. (Recently investigated by the Rev. Mr.
ck of Cullybacky, who is preparing a report of his discoveries for the Journal
f the Royal Society of Antiquarians of Ireland.)
‘ickenagh, L., co. Roscommon.
noe, L., co. Monaghan.
intir Eolais,’ co, Leitrim.
454 REPORT—1891.
*Nahinch, L., co. Tipperary. TZbid., vol. ix.
Naneevin, L., co. Galway.
Ooney, L., co. Monaghan.
Owel, L., co. Westmeath.
Pad or Boat, L., co. Fermanagh.
xRavel, L., co. Antrim. Jbid., vol. vii.; Jow'n. R. H. A. Association, 2nd §., vols. iii.
and iv., 3rd §., vol. i., and 4th §S., vol. ii.
*Rohan’s, L., co. Monaghan.
*Ramor, L., co. Cavan. Jbid., 4th S., vol. vii.
*Rinn, L. (3 or 4 crannogs), co. Leitrim. bid.
Ross, L., co. Armagh. Jbid., vol. vi.
Roughan, L., co. Tyrone. Jbid., vol. vii.
Rouskey, L., co. Monaghan.
Scur, L. (2 crannogs), co. Leitrim.
St. John’s, L. (4 crannogs), co. Leitrim.
Talogh, L. (several crannogs), co. Leitrim.
*The Miracles, co. Fermanagh. Journ. R. H. A. Association, 4th §., vols. ii. and v.
Toome Bar, co. Antrim. Jdid., N.S. vol. v.
*Tully, L. (3 crannogs), co. Cavan. Tbid., 4th §., vol. vii.
Tullyline, co. Cavan.
Veagh, L., co. Donegal.
Williamstown, L., co Galway. Tbid., 5th §., vol. i. p. 337.
Yoan, L., co. Fermanagh. Jbid., 4th §., vol. ii.
Several reports on prehistoric objects have been promised by scientific
observers in various parts of the country, and your Committee urge that
no more delay should be made in presenting them than is compatible
with accuracy and thoroughness. It is requested that the Committee be
reappointed as before without grant.
Fourth and Final Report of the Committee, consisting of the Hon.
RaLPH ABERCROMBY, Dr. A. Bucuan, Mr. J. Y. BucHANAN, Mr. J.
Wiis Bunp, Professor CurystaL, Mr. D. CunnincHaM, Pro-
fessor FirzcEratp, Dr. H. R. Mitt (Secretary), Dr. JOHN
Murray (Chairman), Mr. Isaac Rozerts, Dr. H. C. Sorsy,
and the Rev. C. J. Srewarp, appointed to arrange an
investigation of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature im
Lakes, Rivers, and Estwaries in various parts of the United
Kingdom in co-operation with the local societies represented on
the Association. (Drawn up by Dr. H. R. MILL.)
[PLATE XV. ]
Ar the meeting of 1890 this Committee requested reappointment with a
grant of 50/. in order to draw up a final report on the work inaugurated
at its suggestion and carried on by observers, most of whom acted under
the auspices of local scientific societies represented on the Association.
It was proposed to include in the final report a quantity of material of
great value bearing on the seasonal and diurnal variation of river- and
sea-temperature accumulated by the Scottish Meteorological Society and
still unpublished, and, in addition, to give a general discussion (sup-
ported by recent publications of observations in the ‘ Reports of the
Fishery Board for Scotland’ and other journals) of the whole question
of the variation of temperature in exposed bodies of water as determined
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 455
by season, actual meteorological conditions, tidal influence, &. The
grant of 201. which was given to the Committee on its reappointment
was quite inadequate to pay the working expenses of the scheme and
admit of employing a competent person to tabulate and compute means
of the great mass of available material.
It was accordingly resolved to confine the scope of this report to an
account of the observations made on the direct initiative of the Committee,
and to the statement of such brief summaries as might be supplied in
tabular form by previous observers. The main object held in view by
members of this Committee from its first appointment, viz. to produce an
authoritative and exhaustive memoir on the seasonal variations of tem-
‘perature in the lakes, rivers, and estuaries of the British Islands had to
be abandoned. At the close of its four years of existence the Committee
can only claim to add some additional data to the store awaiting future
discussion. This addition is of considerable scientific value, and casts
light on several problems in the régime of lakes and rivers. The obser-
vations have, however, led directly to another and perhaps even more
beneficial result. Great interest was taken by the Conference of Dele-
gates from local societies in the establishment of observations in their
own neighbourhood. The consciousness that they were engaged in col-
lecting data for a special and definite purpose has stimulated many of
the observers to a more earnest study of science, and done something to
forward that spirit of fellowship amongst all scientific workers which for
the last few years the Association has been so successfully advancing by
means of the annual conferences. The results of this stimulus may, it is
hoped, continue even when the observations which produced it have
ceased.
The three previous reports of the Committee may be referred to for
particulars as to the method of working, the instruments employed, and
the period over which the observations extended ; a comparatively small
number were continued into the year 1891. The first report! was
mainly preliminary. The observations it records were upon rivers in
Scotland, and although several of the observers have continued their
work, most contented themselves with the record of a few months
only. The second report? notes a large accession of observers on the
rivers of England and of Ireland, and as an appendix the directions to
observers are reprinted, showing the conditions in which it was desirable
that all the observations should be made. In 1889 the reappointment of
he Committee was not accompanied by a grant of money, and the
observations in that year consequently suffered to a certain extent. The
third report * gives an epitome of the material collected by the Committee,
which forms the basis of the present discussion. The three previous
eports, it will be noticed, deal exclusively with the organisation and
2: * of the observations, none of the data being recorded or discussed
in them.
Some of the sets of observations have been published in detail. Of
these the most important is that accumulated by Dr. Sorby during the
rs 1884-1888 on the estuaries of the south-east of England, which
ppeared in the ‘Scottish Geographical Magazine’ for 1889 (vol. v.
». 589). An abstract of the results is included in the present report.
Jbservations on the River Thurso, by Mr. John Gunn and others, were
_ } B.A, Reports, 1888, p. 326. 2 Ibid. 1889, p. 44. 3 Ibid. 1890, p. 92.
456 REPORT—1 891.
printed in the ‘ Journal’ of the Scottish Meteorological Society for 1888.
The observations of Mr. W. Watts on behalf of the Manchester Geo-
logical Society at the Piethorn and Denshaw Reservoirs have been
printed in full in the ‘Transactions’ of that Society. Mr. Ashworth’s
observations on the Cowm and Spring Mill Reservoirs have also been
published in a summarised form with detailed curves in the ‘ Proceed-
ings’ of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society.
In addition to the observations specially made or discussed for the
Committee, many papers are to be found in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the
Royal Society of Hdinburgh, the publications of the Meteorological
Societies, in the annual reports of the Fishery Board for Scotland from
1887 onward, and in the ‘Scottish Geographical Magazine” A fuii
discussion by Dr. H. R. Mill of very detailed temperature observations
made by the staff of the Scottish Marine Station on the Clyde Sea area
is nearly completed, and will be presented to the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.
The best method of publishing the results of the observations dealt
with in this report has been carefully considered. There are peculiar
difficulties in dealing with a mass of data compiled by observers, some of
whom are skilled and others uninstructed in their work, especially when
—as in this case—the observations are taken with regularity in few cases
and often at different hours. The record of actual observations will be
preserved by the secretary of the Committee, who will be glad at any
time to place it at the disposal of any one interested in this branch of
meteorology. Weekly means have been calculated for each of the
stations where reasonably regular observations were made, and these are
published in the form of curves in this report. The curve-form was
chosen in preference to printing the figures, on account of the much
more vivid impression conveyed by inspection as to the relative air- and
water-temperatures and their seasonal variations. The unit of the curve
is the weekly mean, as in many cases on one or more days of the week
the observations were omitted, and a curve of actual daily readings
would present a very broken appearance, besides throwing into undue
prominence purely temporary variations. The monthly means are given
in tabular form. The monthly means are usually calculated as the average
of the four or five weekly periods comprised in the month; but in the
case of very regular observations the monthly mean is given as the
average of the daily readings. Comparison of the two methods shows
practically identical results in the case of regular observations, and where
the observations are irregular the method adopted for general use
obviously gives more satisfactory results. On account of the much
greater difficulty of measuring the temperature of air, less reliance must
be placed on that part of the work than on the temperature of the water,
which is easily found in a readily comparable manner.
For the drawing of most of these curves and the calculation of the
means from them the Committee has to acknowledge the assistance of
Mr. John Gunn, F.R.S.G.S.
In several instances, when the observations were carried on by skilled
meteorologists in conjunction with the routine of a meteorological
station, the observers accompanied their records with a short sammary
and discussion, in which the most striking relations of temperature were
pointed out. These statements, either completely or in abstract, are
embodied in this report.
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 457
A. Observations not recorded in full in this Report.
These observations were, as a rule, made by skilled observers for
special purposes, and the abstracts were prepared specially for this report
by the investigators, to whom the thanks of the Committee are very
cordially given.
River CHERWELL AT OXYORD.
Observations of the temperature of the Cherwell have been made
regularly every morning since 1878 by Mr. Edward Chapman, M.A.,
F.L.S., of Magdalen College, Oxford. The ordinary meteorological
observations having been made at the same time, make it possible to
sompare river-temperature, air-temperature, and rainfall. The river-
temperature recorded below is the mean of daily observations at 9 a.m.,
the air-temperature is the mean of the maximum and minimum thermo-
meter in the shade for the previous twenty-four hours, and the rainfall
is the amount in inches which fell in the previous twenty-four hours.
The length of this series of observations gives it peculiar value in
affording an indication of average conditions. The average air-tempera-
ture for the ten years was 48°°9, the average water-temperature at 9 A.M.
50°-3, or 1°-4 warmer than the air; the mean annual rainfall for these
_ | years being 24°79 inches. The average monthly means are shown in the
2 Curve below. The year of lowest air-temperature was 1887, with 47°°6,
:
Ourve of Temperature of Cherwell. Mean of 10 years.
Av Veter Rantce 5p
[Fa [Nore]
Gane Perret ere
- apa walla
nY4n
0
fake
the average water-temperature for that year being 49°'8 and the rainfall
18:78 inches, very exceptionally low. The lowest mean water-temperature
‘was in 1888, 49°-0, when the mean air-temperature was 47°-9 and the
rainfall 27°39, The highest air-temperature was 50°-Y, the mean of 1884,
when the water-temperature was also highest, 51°'5, :nd the rainfall was
19-48 inches. In 1890, the year of lowest rainfall, when only 17°02 inches
_ fell, the temperatures of air and water were almost at their average (49°-0
nd 50°8 respectively) ; while in 1886, which was the wettest year, with
‘82-12 inches of rain, the air-temperature was also normal (49°-0), but the
458 REPORT— 1891.
water-temperature was nearly a degree below the average (49°-5). The
difference between the average temperature of the warmest and coldest
year recorded was only 2°'5 for the water.
The highest mean temperature of the water for any month was 68°°7
in July 1887, the month of highest air-temperature also, with an abnor-
mally low rainfall, but in a year the temperature of which was below the
average. The lowest mean temperature of the water was 32°4 for
January 1891 (air 32°°6), but the lowest air-temperature was 29°2 for
December 1890 when the water had a mean of 33°°3.
The difference in average temperature of water for the same month in
different years was greatest in the months of annual maxima and minima.
The hottest June was 10°°6 warmer than the coolest June; the warmest
January was 9°°7 warmer than the coldest January. At the time of
annual average temperature the difference was least; thus the warmest
April was only 5°°6 and the warmest September only 4°°2 above the
temperature of the coldest month of the same name.
On the average, as shown in Curve XXX., the air-temperature came
nearest the water-temperature in the winter months, notably in November
and January, when they almost coincided (difference 0°'2), and the two
temperatures diverged most in the summer months, particularly April,
May, and July, when the difference averaged 2°'3. During the ten years
of observation the average monthly air-temperature was higher than the
average monthly water-temperature at 9 A.M. on 17 occasions. Of these
6 occurred in January, 2 in February, 4 in November, and 2 in December,
or 14 in the winter months; 1 was in March, 1 in May, and 1 in October.
In no April, June, July, August, or September, between 1882 and 1891,
has there been an instance of air being warmer than water on the average
of a whole month. Of course, in the remarkably fine observations now
recorded the comparison is made between average air-temperature for the
whole 24 hours, and average water-temperature at 9 a.m. only, while in
the short series of observations specially made for the Committee the air-
and water-temperature are both calculated for 9 a.m.
Mean Monthly Observations on the Temperature of the River Cherwell at
Oxford. By Mr. Epwarp Cuapman, Magdalen College.
1882.
Mean Mean Mean Air |Mean River Total
— Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
° aaa | 0) ss ero pear
January . : : 41:3 36:0 38°6 418 1:13
February . : 3 42:3 36°6 39-4 417 1°75
March . : : A 48:0 38:0 43-0 46°8 118
April . : . 51°3 40°5 45:9 51:0 3°78
May . : : : 581 45°1 51:6 67:3 1:66
June . F : é 61:0 49:7 55:3 53°9 3:08
July . é 3 3 64:0 53:0 58:5 63°6 3:56
August ‘ 4 3 67°6 53:2 60:4 62°9 1:36
September . 5 é 63:1 46:0 54:5 57°3 2:08
October 4 5 : 56:2 442 60:2 50°9 5:54
November . ‘ A 48°5 37°3 42:9 41:9 3°41
December . : 43-1 346 38°8 40:3 3°20
Year ° 4 - — — 48°3 50°8 31:73
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 459
MEAN MONTHLY OBSERVATIONS—continued.
1883.
Mean Mean Mean Air | Mean River Total
= Maximum |} Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
° te) ° °
January , > : 45.7 37:0 41:3 41-0 2°29
: February . : - 48-2 37°3 42-7 42-4 3°60
March . : 3 = 43°7 29°7 367 39°9 0:99
| April . é . : 53°3 38°5 45°9 49-9 1:07
| May . i ; : 62:0 44-7 53°3 563 1:94
June . 5 : : 69:9 50°9 60°4 62°5 4:35
July . ; ; : 69°7 52°5 61:1 62°6 3°53
August A : : 71:3 53°2 62:2 63-2 0:70
September . : : 65:0 50°5 577 58°7 4:50
October ; : . 56°6 44-1 59°3 51-2 1:90
November . : : 48°8 3671 42-4 43-0 3-11
December . : : 44-7 364 40°5 41-1 0:54
Year : : : _— — 49°5 51:0 28°52
1884.
Mean Mean Mean Air | Mean River Total
— Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
January . . .| 471 39°3 43-2 43-1 2-30
February . : : 475 37°1 49:3 42-6 1°32
March . 5 B - 51:3 36°3 43°8 45:2 1-41
April . 5 - -| 540 41°2 47-6 49-1 1-69
May . 3 : ; 65°3 44:3 54°8 51:3 0:80
June . 5 : oH 6769:0 50-4 59°7 61:5 2°05
July : : 73°5 54:9 64:2 64:9 2:25
August
September
| . Foy 53°9 64:8 66:8 1:52
| 67:9 51:3 59°6 61:1 1:36
October | d5t0 42:0 495 519 0:97
November : «ah | MiG 36°2 418 430 1:74
December . ; ‘ 439 36:0 39°9 38°4 2:07
|
Year —_ —_ 50:9 515 19°48
1885.
Mean Mean Mean Air |Mean River; Total
Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
fe}
January . . .| 403 32-1 36-2 34-0 217
February . 2 . 48:5 38-2 43:3 41:2 2°67
March . 5 : 48-2 33°6 41:9 42-7 1:10
April
May . : 7 Fi 59-2 41°8 50°5 54:3 2°03
June . : 2 4 70°4 50°7 60°5 63:1 1:67
July . : F F 74:9 54:3 64:6 66°5 0:18
August é 5 68°3 50°9 59'6 60°8 1:56
September . A . 63:9 47°3 55°6 57:0 4:36
October A : ; 52°6 39°9 46:2 47-2 3°89
November . : ° 46:7 38:0 42°3 41:4 3°51
December . ° : 42:5 33-1 378 375 1:02
a a ) , ee od
Year. ° * _ _ 48°8 49°6 25°88
: 55°9 38°3 47-1 49-1 1:72
460 REPORT—1891.
MEAN MONTHLY OBSERVATIONS—continued.
1886.
Mean Mean Mean Air | Mean River| Total
== Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
ae oe ere ol ok le co. oa eee | Coe
January 5 ° : 40°5 31:0 357 35:1 4:00
February . A : 38:7 29°6 34:1 357 0:68
March . 4 . ; 46:3 33:9 40-1 39°5 1°61
April . 5 i : 55'6 39:2 47-4 47-7 2°13
May . : 3 A 61'S 44-0 52:9 53:4 4:58
June . j 67:9 501 59:0 59-9 114
July . \ 5 : 73-4 53:9 63°6 65:9 3°39
August ; ° ; CLF, 54:4 63:0 64:0 165
September . : : 66:7 50:6 58°6 60:1 2:27
October 2 2 : 59-2 47-5 O33 53:1 3:16
November . 5 : 49-2 38°5 43°8 43°5 2°50
December . : 41:3 31:3 36:3 36:5 5:01
Year : : ; —— — 49:0 49°5 32°12
1887.
Mean ‘Mean Mean Air | Mean River Total
— Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
* gl bapOaaea se aga Rae | iis S| lan Nine (SE Sen
January ‘i ‘ , 38:7 29:9 34:3 35'2 2716
February . F ; 42-1 33'3 BY GY G 39°8 0°67
March . : s : 44:2 31:9 38-0 40°5 1:58
April. . f : 53°5 35°9 44-7 47°8 nich bt
May . , 5 : 58°8 43°5 511 653°7 151
June . : < ; 71:2 51:4 61:3 64-5 1:56
July . ; 2 ; 78:0 54:9 66°4 68:7 O71
August 2 2 ; 724 51:4 61:9 64:5 2:20
September . 5 ; 62°7 47-4 55:0 569 2:10
October ; ‘ : 503 38-2 44:2 46:8 1:96
November . 2 : 44-3 34:9 39°6 40°8 1:85
December . 5 42°3 32:1 37:2 37:7 1:37
Year ; ? — — 476 49-8 18°78
1888s.
Mean Mean Mean Air | Mean River Total
— Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
° ° fo} ie}
January : a 4 41-1 32:0 36°5 365 0-70
February . : ‘ 33°3 31-4 32°3 34:7 3°38
March . F s 42:0 32°8 37:4 38°3 2:94
April . X A ; 51:2 3T°3 44:2 45-4 1:59
May . . 3 , 63:0 43°8 53-4 56°8 1:18
June . ; 2 5 67°6 50°2 58°9 61:0 3:19
July . : ‘ . 67°6 52:1 59°8 61:0 4-44
August 5 Z ° 681 51:4 59°7 60°9 1:97
September . : : 64:0 48°6 56:3 578 TS
October A ; 2 54-4 38°3 46:3 476 O77
November . . ’ 57:8 42-2 50:0 468 413
December . F : 44-4 359 40:1 42:0 1:97
Year ; i ; — — 47-9 49:0 27°39
ee ee eee ee ee eet
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 461
MEAN MONTHLY OBSERVATIONS—continued.
1889.
Mean Mean Mean Air |Mean River} Total
— Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
| asa | om «= | | om e/* ° }°
January - : : 40:2 319 36:0 381 0°66
February . 5 : 43-1 32-4 37:7 38:0 1:82
March . 4 ‘ ; 48-2 347 41-4 41-9 1:69
April . : - 5 52°5 39°2 45'8 47-5 2°51
May . i 2 F 66:0 48:9 57:4 57°8 2°91
June . ji s é railed 53°1 62:1 64:3 1:90
July. : : 709 53°5 62:2 64-7 2°69
August : . : 69°3 52:0 60°6 63-4 2°29
September . 4 : 65:3 49-4 573 59-2 1-49
October ‘ : 5 54:9 42:0 48-4 49°6 2°36
November . - ; 45:8 395 42°6 45:3 0°88
December . : = 41:9 318 36°8 ice 1:04
Year A 5 : —_— — 49-0 50°6 22°24
1890.
Mean Mean Mean Air | Mean River Total
— Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
°o o Oo fo}
January 4 : c 46°8 36:9 41-8 415 1:86
February . ; : 43-2 32°8 38 0 39°3 0-71
March . : P F 50-4 36°2 43°3 43°6 0:72
April . a A : 53°8 38:0 459 486 1:03
May i. é 4 ‘ 65:3 45°2 552 58:3 175
June . 5 3 ; 69-4 50°3 59°8 61-9 151
Say, 3 z : 69°6 53°2 61°4 63:7 2:96
August i 3 ; 69°4 52:2 60°8 63°4 2°26
September . : | 68°6 50°5 59°5 60:2 1:02
October 3 F : Eyal 42-4 49-7 51:2 1:14
November . : kK 43°5 37:7 43-1 44-4 151
December . 5 32°8 25:7 29:2 33°3 0°55
Year , “ - — — 49:0 50°8 17:02
1891.
Mean Mean Mean Air |Mean River] Total
— Maximum | Minimum | Tempera- | Tempera- | Rainfall
in Shade in Shade ture ture in inches
: ° ° ° ° 7) <a
January : : : 38:0 27:2 32°6 32-4 1:40
February . 3 : 45:3 32°71 38°7 39'3 0:00
March . ~ 5 5 46°5 34-0 40:2 40-5 HEE
April . : 3 ‘ 52:9 36°5 44-7 46:9 1°41
May . : § 59°7 42°5 51:1 54-4 2715
June . ; ‘ ; 709 52:0 61-4 63°6 1:27
July . 5 F : 70-7 52-4 61:5 64:5 214
August a 5 A 67°5 52:0 59:7 61:3 4°51
September . X : 66:8 49-9 58°3 59-4 1:34
October . i ‘i — —_ —_ — —_—
November — — — — —
December — —_ — — —
Year 5 is ; — — —_ — —
462 REPORT— 1891.
Mean Temperature of Cherwell for Ten Years, 1882-1891.
(The portion from October to December is the mean of nine years, and
the yearly averages are also the mean of the nine years 1882-1890.)
Mean Air Mean River Excess of Average
Month Temperature | Temperature, | River over Air] Rainfall
for Day 9 AM, Temperature in inches
Taine: a. a? ae ° ° Me OS teu
|) January . . : : 376 37°8 0:2 1:87
| February . W ; : 38°6 39°5 0-9 1:66
March : . . : 40°6 419 13 1:48
April. . : 5 - 459 48:3 2-4 1:80
May . = A 4 : 531 554 2°3 2°05
June. . ° 5 : 59°6 61°6 2:0 217
July . ‘ . : : 62°3 64°6 2:3 2°58
August . ‘ 3 3 61:3 63:1 18 2:00
September 5 3 : 572 58'8 16 2°16
October . J 5 : 48:7 49°9 1:2 2°41
November. ' 5 2 43:2 43-4 0-2 2°51
December . ; : : 37-4 38:2 0:8 1:86
Year 0 . : 48°9 50:3 1:4 24°79
Extreme Values of Monthly Means of River-Temperature and Range
between Warmest and Coldest Months of the same Name.
. os Date of Date of Air
Month Maximum | Minimum | Range Maxim Mini Warmer
>. um inimum Occasions
° fe} ° o> a ae
January . . 42-1 32-4 97 1884 1891 6
February . 4 42:6 34:7 T'9 1884 1888 2
March : 46:8 38°3 8-5 1882 1888 1
April - : 51:0 45-4 5:6 1882 1888 0
May. 3 : 58:3 51°3 70 1890 1884 1
June. ‘ 3 64°5 53:9 10°6 1887 1882 0
July. 2 c 68°7 61:0 Cer 1887 1888 0
August . : 668 66:9 5°8 1884 1888 0
September ¢ 611 56°9 4:2 1884 1887 0
October . 5 53:°1 46°8 6:3 1886 1887 i!
November : 46°8 40°8 6:0 1888 1887 4
December. : 42:0 Bore 8:7 1888 1890 2
Year poo te [CLs 49-0 25 1884 | 1888 | 0
Estuary TEMPERATURES.
Abstract of Discussion of the Temperature of the Tidal Hstuaries in the
South-east of England. By Dr. H. C. Sorsy, F.B.S.
Temperature of the air on deck and of the water at surface and
bottom were made at high and at low tide from the yacht ‘ Glimpse.’
The district specially studied extends from the Strait of Dover up ‘the
mouth of the Thames’ to the West Swale and Chatham; thence to the
estuaries of the Roche, Crouch, Blackwater, and Colne (where each
season’s observations began and ended); to Walton Creek, the Stour,
the Deben, and the Alde on to Lowestoft. The open water most fre-
quently examined was that of the Swin and Wallet, from which the
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 463
?
estuaries nanved above diverge more or less directly. The depth in the
estuaries at low tide was usually from 1} to 4 fathoms, that of the open
water about 6 fathoms. The observations extend over the period from
_ May to September in each year, as long a time as it is practicable to live
on a yacht in such an exposed situation. ;
The following table gives the monthly means observed in the
estuaries :—
Date | High Tide | Low Tide | Air
1884
o ie] fe}
ete OIE. --.) 75° Gk tterA Ge? B79 585 56'8
June 5 : ' 5 3 : : ° 61:7 62-4 65°5
July. ° : 5 ° . ¢ 5 : 65:5 66:9 68°5
Rr eg eS on a tae 67-5 65:9
Séptember : 5 - 5 - : 63-2 62:7 63°
1885
eRe TON NALS BA eT WE Boe 53-1 53-0
June . é : P A : 62°8 64:2 62°3
eG. & Hycusié) yalriida ©. wpe [ol G8 66°8 63-7
August . 5 i 5 s 3 62°5 62°5 63°1
September z A < 5 ° ° . 591 59:2 60°6
1886
May. ° . ‘ . . . . ° 54-6 57:0 60:2
June 2 3 3 2 : * Hs 59:0 59°3 57-4
September 3 2 i ‘ - ° . 64°9 63°5 61:8
1887
. | May. 4 5 : : : : : 5 49°7 52:0 54:9
July. é : : 69:4 69°7 67:1
: September : 58°7 675 56:9
188s
MR Te leeee, merenanee eer 5) 54:3 52:9
June. ; : : : 6 A . . 59°6 59:2 61:7
i PR SURES 5 ST taal eae TC 60°8 60-9
August. 2 : : - : 3 5 61:1 62:2 64:4
September > ; 5 : a ‘ 59°9 60°4 60:0
__ Making allowance for the incomplete data, the mean temperatures in
the estuaries and open water were as follows :—
Difference between
Estuaries i
Caen Water msi Open
Swin and
High Low apace High Low
Tide Tide Tide Tide
° ° ° 2
54-2 555 51:8 +238 | +3°68
60:8 61°5 60:2 +053 | 41:24
65°7 66°4 64:2 +1:49 | +2:26
64:0 64:2 63-4 +067 | +0°89
61:0 60°6 61:3 —0:30 | —0-74
611 61:6 — = | =
464 REPORT—1891.
In July 1886 the North Sea was 2°3 cooler than the Wailet, and
5°°6 cooler than the estuaries. The water of the shallow estuaries evi-
dently heats up more rapidly in spring, attains a higher temperature in
summer, and cools down more rapidly in autumn, than does the open
sea. The observed maximum temperatures were as follows :—
= Water Air
1884 721, August 12 76-6, July 4
1885 . ‘ A A 74:1, July 11 78:1, June 4
1886 . : : ; 72:2, July 6 75'5, July 5
fbi (gee : - : 73:5, July 26 81:0, August 8
1888 . i : , 65:4, August 10 81:0, June 3
Mean . S A 71:4, July 25 78°5, June 29
Hence the average maximum for the water was 7°11 less than that for
the air, and occurred about twenty-six days later.
In extreme cases, when the tide has risen over a wide expanse of
heated mud, the surface temperature has been seen as much as 2° above
that of the bottom; when the sun is shining strongly a difference of 1°
may be observed ; but, as a rule, in the estuaries the rush of tide prevents
any difference of more than half a degree. When the air is very cold
the surface water has been observed half a degree or so colder than that
at the bottom. During the period of observation, the surface tempera-
ture was always in excess of that of the bottom, the greater difference at
high water being accounted for by the cold current setting in from the
open sea :—
Excess of Surface over
Bottom Temperature
Period
High Low
Tide | “Tide | Mean
°o °o °
May and June . : . : - : ¢ . | O85 0-15 0:25
July and early August ; C ; : : = Oulai 0:20 0:18
Late August and September - - : ; . | 0:03 0:07 0-05
Low water is usually warmer than high water in the summer season,
but, as shown below, variations are experienced in particular years.
Excess (+) or Deficiency (—) of Low Water Temperature.
Year May June July August | September
° ° ° [eo] {e)
1884. 2 ; +0°6 +07 +14 —0°2 —05
1885 . : - : +0°8 +14 +01 —0:05 + 0°05
1886. . : c +24 +0°3 a ane —1-4
LSS (ees 4 : : +2:3 iy +0°3 te —12
1888 . : ; —08 —O-4 +1°4 +1:2 +0°4
Mean . 4 4 n +1:0 +0°5 +0°8 +0°3 —0'5
The effect of solar radiation in heating the water of estuaries during
the day, and of radiation from the water reducing their temperature at
night, has been arrived at by comparison of the same tidal phase occur-
ring consecutively by day and night. The results are as follows :—
May June July August | September
| Hiau WATER a 6s % a a
m Day . ; ; ; +16 +0°5 +22 +0°5 +0°6
| Night —12 —0°5 —0°6 —0°8 —07
Low WATER
me Day . : 3 : +0°9 +29 +2°5 +15 +0°
Night 4 x ; -10 —2:0 —2-4 —15 -0°6
MEAN
Day . 5 3 : +12 +17 +23 +1:0 +0°6
Night : : 2 —11 —1:3 —15 —11 —0°6
. ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 465
Neglecting sign the total changes are :—
_ | May Jung July August | September
7 ape ee a. Serene 0 °
Mean, high tide . 1-4 O05 1-4 0-6 06
» ~lowtide . c 10 2° 2°4 15 06
ee ulde : 1-2 15 19 111 06
A comparison of the general means for the whole five months shows
the mean effects of day heat and night cold to be :—
| High Water | Low Water Mean
{ _—
oe | ° ° °
Heat of day 2 | 1:07 LAr 1:39
Cold of night 0-76 1:50 1:12
| Difference . : é ; ; ‘ +031 +0°21 +0:27
daily rate of storing heat in the summer months.
7
River Derwent (DERBYSHIRE).
Observations made at Belper by Mr. Wu. Hunter,
1877 | 1878 | 1879 | 1880 | 1881 | 1882 | 1883 | 1884 |} 1885 | Mean
|
|
co) ie} fe} ie} fo} fe} fe} oO fe)
42-5 | 37-7 | 395 | 38:2] 436 | 41:9 | 442] 41:2] 41-1
— | 43:7) 403 | 422} 40:0] 43-4 | 43:5 | 43-4] 42:9 | 49-4
— | 451] 42:5 | 45:0] 438] 446] 41:1] 451] 43-4] 43:8
— | 482) 45:6] 47-4 | 460] 480] 481] 460] 50:0 | 47-4
oo) | SEER
49:0 | 52°35 | 53:6 | 52°8 | 516] 54:4) 49:2 | 52:0
577 | 55°8 | 53°7 | 55°38 | 57°99 | S16 | 567 | 67-8 | 57-1 | 574
581 | 614 | 54:6) 578 | 615 | 564 | 571} 62:7) 626] 591
58:0 | 58:9 | 54:9 | 57-7 | 575 | 57:3 | 58:5 | 626 | 58:0 | 58-2
51:7 | 55:0 | 52:0] 55:3 | 52:9 | 52-4 | 54:0 | 58:2] 55:7) 54-1
48-4 | 493 | 489 | 46-7 | 46:2 | 447 | 493 |) 49:9 | — 47-9
454 | 42:2 | 42°5 | 43:0 | 45:8 | 43:7 |] 43:4 | 453] — 44:0
42-4 | 37-7 | 376) 43:1 | 422) — 42:9} 416) — 40-7
49°4 | 466
48°'8
This shows, although only as a rough approximation, the average
466 REPORT—1891.
Sea OBSERVATIONS AT ARBROATH.
Observations at Mason’s Cove, two miles north of Arbroath.
By Mr. Wm. Guen.
_— 1888 1889 1890 1891 Mean
| ° ° ° ° ap hp MOMeES Bl
January : : : — 44°5 475 42°5 (44:0)
February ; ; oe 41:5 45:0 43°5 (42:7)
March . ; . 42:0 43°5 43°5 44:5 43°3
April . : : . 44:0 45:5 475 44:5 45:4
May : . 49°5 49-0 50:0 48-0 49-1
June . ; ; ; 54:0 55:0 54:5 53°5 54:2
oly vs : : . 55:0 59°5 57°5 57:0 57:3
August. é 0 . 57-5 60°5 58:5 58:0 58°6
September . : c 575 57-5 58°5 58:0 579
October : 2 ‘ 515 54:5 55°5 as (54:0)
November . ; : 47°5 51:0 52°5 — (50°4)
December . ; i 47°5 47:0 46°5 — (47-0)
Mean : : (48°8) 50-7 51-4 (50:2) (50°3)
Sea OBSERVATIONS AT Dover.
Notes of Observations made at Admiralty Pier, Dover, by Captain J. Gordon
McDakwy, wnder the auspices of the Dover Natural History Society.
The place of observation is about 1,000 feet from the shore. Depth
of water about 32 feet at lowest tide.
In the previous year temperatures were taken (at irregular intervals,
and therefore not in conformity with the requirements of the Committee)
to ascertain the difference of temperature of the surface water of the
tides running north and south, their relation to fogs, &c.
The temperature does not appear to be affected by the northerly or
southerly set of the tide.
The average water-temperatures during the abnormally cold winter of
1890-91 were for December 33°:0, January 36°°5, February 40°-0, or 7°°3
below the average of the same three months of the previous winter, when
the temperature might be considered normal. The low temperature
appears to have been caused by the melting snow on the surface water.
I am inclined to think, from numerous careful observations made by
myself, that 40° is the lowest normal winter temperature.
The lowest temperatures were on December 16, air 27°, water 28°,
and January 10, air 26°, water 28°. It was stated in the local press that
at Margate ‘the ice was drifted and packed at the foot of the cliffs to
the height of six feet. The shore for a great distance was covered with
crabs and starfish which had been frozen to death.’
The small river Dour, rising from two springs at Alkham and Ewell,
and flowing into the sea at Dover, about four miles distant, remained
unfrozen during this severe winter. The temperature on one occasion
was 48° when the surrounding country was covered with snow and ice.
/
Discusston or SEA OBSERVATIONS CARRIED OUT FOR THE FisHeRY Boarp
oN THE Coast or Scornanp. By Hucu Roserr Mitt, D.Sc.
In the Ninth Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, part
ili. p. 353, a detailed discussion of temperature and other physical obser- —
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 467
_yations on the water of the sea at certain fixed stations is given. The
summarised results in tabular form are given below, in order to render
them more available to other workers, and to afford ready compari-
son with other records carried on simultaneously in different places.
The following tables are expressed in Centigrade degrees, most of the
instruments used by the Board’s observers being graduated on that
_ system.
j Ardrishaig and Brodick are situated on the Clyde Sea Area, and
‘observations of surface-water only are taken twice daily at the end of the
steamboat piers in water never less than 6 feet deep at low water.
The Bell Rock Lighthouse stands in the North Sea nearly opposite
the estuary of the Tay and twelve miles south-east of Arbroath, being
thus quite beyond land influence.
Monthly Mean Temperatures of the Sea.
BELL Rock |,. ’
ARDRISHAIG BRODICK LicinrHousr OxcaAR LIGHTHOUSE
Month Year 9 AM. 3 P.M. 10A.M.)4 P.M.|9 A.M.) 3 P.M. 9 A.M. 3 P.M.
: Sur- ‘ Sur- | Sur- | Sur- | Sur- | Sur- d Sur- | Sur-
Air face Air face | face | face | face | face Air face | face
|
OF ae GE ECON CON | CORE CES RT Gn Ke Man eT ON, Wl) o.
January . 5 . | 18909} — —_ — — = —_— 65 _ 65 6:2 6-0
February - - iy 42 5°6 69 59 — _ 57 — 41 50 6:0
March =r 8-4 6-9 | 10:9 02 — — 53 55 74 57 59
April a 10°5 8:0 | 144 85 79 85 6:3 64 8°6 71 71
May 5 154 | 11-1 | 189 | 11°6 | 10°4 | 11:2 8°6 88 | 116 98 98
June ” 165 | 11°3 | 19:4 | 11°6 | 11°6 | 12:2 | 10°0 | 10°3 | 14:1 | 11:0 | 11°3
July ie 14:7 | 11:7 | 168 | 124 | 125 | 13°6 | 11°6 | 11:7 | 14°8 | 10°8 | 11-4
August aS 149 | 133 | 17-4 | 13:7 | 13:7 | 141 | 12:7 | 12:7 | 14°9 | 10:3 | 10°7
September rf 14°9 | 12°8 | 164 | 133 | 13:3 | 13°8 | 13:0 | 13-1 — — _
October ‘ i a 106 | 110 | 114 | 11°3 | 11:4 | 11°9 | 11°6 | 11-9 | 10°0 8-2 8-9
November . - 7 56 91 6°6 9:2 97 98 95 95 63 71 76
December " f a 32 6°5 3°5 6°6 8:0 81 76 — — — —
January . * - | 1891 | 3:0 51 4°6 55 65 67 53 5:2 31 39 43
February F ‘ 3 5:7 68 71 68 65 71 5°2 54 — — --
March . . r A 36 59 52 61 58 6:0 4'8 49 4'6 43 50
Oxcar Lighthouse is situated in the Firth of Forth a little to the west
of Aberdour, and is built on a rock surrounded by deep water. From its
situation it is much under the influence of fresh water carried down by
the Forth and its small tributary the Almond, when in flood. The tide
here has considerable power, and the observations were sorted out in order
‘to detect any tidal disturbance. As the two daily observations were taken
six hours apart, they were almost exactly at opposite phases of the tide.
Neglecting all cases except those in which the observations were within
an hour and a half of high or of low water the results were classified as
given in the table on next page.
The North Carr Rock Light-vessel is anchored off Fife Ness, just
epyond the mouth of the Firth of Forth, in 24 fathoms of water. The
situation is a very exposed one and little subject to land influence. The
onthly means at this station and their tidal discussion are on pp. 468,
. The surface-temperatures recorded are probably too low on account
af the time which was allowed to elapse between raising the thermometer
_ trom the water and reading it, and of the exposure of the wet bulb to
the air. ;
HH 2
468 REPORT—1891.
Ozxcar Lighthouse. Mean Tidal Effect on Temperature. .
Temperature Temperature
Dire | ue eee
} , High Low Low High
ee 258 Water Water S_-S, Water Water S5-Sy
9am. | 3 P.M. OND MNS) ACM: 3 P.M
So 8; So S;
SC: 2G: OF SC; Os °C,
January . .{| 1890 6-0 6-7 0-7 6-2 6-4 0-2
February . bea - 46 43 0-2 4-9 56 07
March . 4 * 63 68 0-5 54 55 O01
April : Nie a 72 (RU 05 70 7-0 0:0
May : : 10°4 11-3 |59 a0 a Laer 9:3 —0:3
June é Sit me 111 THET* (CBee) eee 108 —O--4
July ; a 3 10:7 123) oy) deb 10°8 11-4 0°6
August . : cs 97 10°5 0-8 10°8 109 O01
September > aes —_ — — — ae —
October . : x 8-0 9-0 10 8-0 8-6 06
November , “3 74 76 0:2 65 72 0-7
December ; ) —_ — — —_ oo —
January . 5 ihe dtetal 3-4 3:9 05 3°8 5-2 1-4
February . : 59 5-4 54 0:0 4-9 ap! 0-2
March . . e 47 5-4 0-7 4-0 4-6 0°6
Mean . : — 73 9 06 72 Tao 0:3
North Carr Light-vessel. Temperature of Water (Monthly Means).
Observations, 9 A.M. | Observations, 3 P.M,
Month Year Se —
| Air Surface) 12 fms. Bottom) Air |Surface)12 fms.|Bottom
|
| | Ol); | cor pe | Oo ( | oO¢ °o¢, ol @ oI: °C,
December . . | 1889 59 69 74S} 76 6-4 69 76 76
January . . | 1890 | 66 6°6 64 6:4 6-9 66 6-4 67
February . es 51 56 ot 6:0 6:3 5°7 bys) 6:0
March 3 sell EA 53 56 5:3 52 65 56 5:4 5:3
April . 5 Sat ess 8-7 btb 6:4 6:3 9-1 67 6°5 6-4
May . : eal eed 8:4 8:8 83 (aay | slloe 9:0 8:4 (ei
June . 4 ; on 14:0 | 105 | 10-2 94 | 14:9 | 106 | 10°4 9:4
July . A 5 49 149 | 11°8 | 11°2 | 10-4 | 15-4 | 125 | 12:0 | 11:3
August % é a 15:0) | 12'0)) 12:9. }°12'0 }/15*6 ©) 123.9) WB) et
September . . ss 144 | 12°8 | 13:0 | 12-4 | 16:0 | 13:2 | 13°6 | 12:8
October. 5 a5 OUR TEs fs Fa Ue: a MU UES Ua of fi 7: i ae ei leisy) i Ee
November . 3 - Gal 9:2 8:9 9-4 Te 9:2 9-0 Os
December . . . 4-9 76 76 78 Bal 1:5 TD (gery
January . . | 1891 2°8 54 51 54 4-7 55 53 55
February . “i a 57 53 53 56 eb 5b 56 56
March a sf 40 4:9 4-2 47 60 ball 46 47
The following table shows that when high water occurs at 9 a.m. and
low water at 3 p.M. in the warm months, the heating effect of the sun and
of the ebb from the Forth makes the water 0°-4 warmer on the surface and
0°3 warmer on the bottom in the afternoon than in the morning. But in
the cold months the cold ebb-water from the Forth completely neutralises
the feeble heating effect of the sun, and no rise of temperature occurs in
the afternoon. On the other hand, when high water occurs in the after-
noon in the warm months and low water in the morning, the colder water
_ON THE SEASONAL YARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 469
a the North Sea prevents sun-heat from raising the surface tempera-
re more than 0°'1 C. in the warm months, and allows no rise of tem-
ature at all in the cold months. It is probable that the effect is pro-
ced by the warming power of the ebb-water at ? a.m. making up for
loss by radiation at night, and this would completely account for the
range being greater at the bottom than on the surface, as the surface is
naturally more affected by the fresher ebb-water.
North Carr Light-vessel. Mean Tidal Effect on Temperature.
| SURFACE Borrom
“ | .
Month Year | High} Low Low | High High | Low Low | High
At |Water/Water) 5 _« |Water)Water/g , |Water Water)», p Water|Water|_ »
7 19. A.M.|3 P.ar.| "2"? /9 4.M.|/3 P.M.} "919 aw. |3 P| 2 9) 94.M.13 PM. SY
8. Ss, 8. S3 Bape be ol | B, B
——~
| PLOT Ol Cs Si Cat <2) CL || SU mS Cami Our eC oC OC. | Cel ae
|} December .| 1889} 71 | 7:0 |—O1 | 66;| 67 | O1 | 79 | 79 | OO | GO | 65 | 05
‘January . | 1890 | 6:2 62 0:0 65 67 02 64 62 |—0°2 69 69 0-0
| February . ay 54 54 0:0 5°6 5°6 00 5°6 58 0:2 61 61 0-0
c or 57 57 0-0 54 54 0-0 53 54 OL 5:2 5:2 0:0
. = 65 68 0°3 62 65 0:3 64 63 \—O1 61 61 0-0
a ea 97 99 0-2 79 8:3 0-4 78 8-0 0-2 74 76 0:2
< = 106 | 105 |—O1 | 106 | 10:0 |—0°6 94 9:2 |—0°2 90 Cal O1
c * 11:7 | 12:4 0-7 | 115 | 121 06 | 10% | 114 OS) |) 107) EL 0-4
. = 117 | 12:8 1:1 | 12:0 | 12:3 03 | 11:7 | 12:3 06 | 11:8 | 119 01
Z a 130 | 13°38: | O03 | 12°6 | 12°9 03 | 126 | 13:0 0-4 | 124 | 13:0 0°6
- 113 | 115 0-2'-) 111 | IL-1 0:0 | 116 | 11:7 O1 |} 114 | 113 |—O1
a 90 9°3 03 8-9 87 |—0°2 95 97 0-2 8:7 9-0 03
: oy 74 73 |—O1 71 65 |—0°6 8-0 77 \—0:3 74 73 |—O1
. | 1891 | 55 53 |—0:2 5:2 53 01 53 55 0-2 51 56 05
5 54 54 0:0 53 54 O01 5:4 56 0-2 56 56 0-0
5 " 51 5:2 O01 47 48 O01 5:2 5:2 | OO | 47 48 01
| | |
~| — 8-2 8-4 02 7-9 8:0 O01 8-0 82 | 0:2 78 7) 01
Abertay Light-vessel. Temperature of Water (Monthly Means).
Observations, 9 A.M. Observations, 3 P.M.
Year
Air a. 1 fm. | 3 fms.) 5 fms. a Air rom 1 fm. |3 fms.|5 fms. Bat
CHEE Keil MECH O Ra MDT OL MI MeO A AGH ON CaF lei 06 Uist ofan BRAT ONE ESCH 0821/6110
1889 | 149 | 11-4 | 11°0 | 10°9 | 10°5 | 10-4 | 15:7 | 11°5 | 11:3 | 10°9 | 10°8 | 10°7
a = 15°1 | 12°6 | 12°5 | 124 | 12°3 | 12°3 | 17-2 | 12°6 | 12-4 | 12°4 | 12°3 | 123
5 ae 148 | 13:7 | 13:6 | 13°5 | 13-4 | 134 | 17-4 | 188 | 13°6 | 13°6 | 13°5 | 13°5
& fe 12% | 128 | 12:8 | 12:8 | 12°8 | 128 | 14°5 | 13-0 | 12°9 | 12°9 | 12-9 | 12°9
= a 88 | 10°3 | 10°3 | 10°3 | 10-4 | 10-4 | 10°8 | 10:7 | 10°6 | 10°6 | 10°6 | 10°7
: 5 74 9°2 9:2 Or 91 9-1 85 93 9:2 93 93 9-4
& Shih 45 65 6°6 67 69 70 57 69 | 68 70 71 T1
.| 1890] 56 | 59 | 59 | 60] 62] 63 | 68 | GO} 61] 62) 63 | 64
ie 35 | 52 | 53 | 53 | 54 | 54 | 57 | 53 | 5:4 |] 54 | 5S | 55
cle 57 | 54 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 53 | 77 | 5:7 | 5:5 | 5:5 | 55 | 55
é a 75 66 65 65 6°5 64 9°8 67 66 65 65 64
2 cry 113 OL 9-0 8:9 88 88 | 12:3 90 88 8:7 86 86
- a 14°3 | 10°8 | 10°7 | 10°5 | 10-4 | 10-4 | 15:7 | 10:7 | 10°6 | 10:3 | 10°3 | 101
J a 15:5 | 1271 | 12:0 | 11°8 | 11:7 | 11°6 | 166 | 12°0 | 11:9 | 11°8 | 11°7 | 117
A eS 13°3 | 12°8 | 12°8 | 19°8 | 12°8 | 12:7 | 17-1 | 12:9 | 128 | 12:8 | 128 | 128
3 = 13:9 | 131 | 131 | 13:0 | 12°9 | 12°9 | 17-2 | 13-1 | 13-1 | 13°0 | 13:0 | 13:0
G Fs 10:3} W120 | WV | 211 | 201 || Wed | 4 | 10-4] 11-4 | 114 | 14
a , 61 81 8:3 85 86 8°6 76 88 9-0 Lp! 9°2 9-2
6) oH 37 64 66 6°6 68 68 43 66 68 69 70 70
- | 1891} 28 44 | 45 45 46 46 4:2 47 47 47 | 48 4:8
5 7 49 48 50 50 50 51 8:2 53 51 51 52 52
: eS 34 | 44 | 43 4:3 4:3 4:3 65 50 49 45 48 48
470 REPORT—1891.
The Abertay Light-vessel is anchored in about 8 fathoms of water,
the depth varying from 6 to 10 fathoms according to the tide, at the
mouth of the Firth of Tay. Its position differs from that of any of the
other stations, most nearly resembling Oxcar, but subject to much more
intense and variable conditions. The tides run very strongly, and the
shifting of the sandbanks on both sides of the entrance to the Firth must
produce corresponding changes in the direction of the tidal streams.
The tidal effects at Abertay are remarkably distinct and striking.
They are brought out in the following table, which extends and confirms
the conclusions drawn from the Oxcar and North Carr observations.
Abertay Light-vessel. Mean Tidal Effect on Temperature.
SURFACE Borrom
| |
Month Year | High| Low | Low | High | High | Low Low | High
Water|Water « « |Water)Water . « |Water/ Water B._Bp,| Water Water 5 p
9 4.M./3 P.M.| "2"? /9 4.M.|3 Pa.) °S2)9 a.m.|3 P.M.) 2 9|/9 A.M. | 3 PM.) 2)
8, S| Si Ss, é Be) Bs ase el Pisis
E —|- x
LOM CAM (Gh Oo EA che CX ope MM ere MCh ieroR || Ach) tec,
June . - | 1889 | 10°0 | 12°5 | 2% | 124 | 105 |—1°9 93 | 114 21 | 11-7 | 100 |—1:7
July . = 59 12°70 | 1371 | 11 | 131 | 12°6 |—0°5 | 11°8 | 12°9 11 | 131 | 126 |—05
August. A 133 | 13:9 06 | 13°7 | 134 |—0°3 | 13°4 | 13°6 0-2 | 135 | 13:3 |—0-2
September . “a 13:0 | 13:3 03 | 12°7 | 12:7 0:0 | 131 | 131 0:0 | 12:7 | 12:7 0-0
October “ 5 107 | 10:7 0:0 9:7 | 105 08 | 111 | 108 |—0°3 97 | 106 0-9
November . 5 95 87 |—0'8 9:3 9°6 03 97 93 |—0°4 88 o'7 0-9
December . 59 70 62 |—0'8 55 7:3 18 74 65 |—0'9 62 75 13
January . | 1890 56 51 |—05 55 61 06 64 6:0 |—O04 58 64 06
February .| ,, 50 | 46 |—04 | 51] 60] 09 | 52] 50 |—O2 | 56 | G1 | 0-5
March . B = 56 6°4 08 4:9 51 02 5°6 58 02 51 53 0-2
April . = of 64 68 04 66 61 |—0'5 64 6°6 0-2 68 62 |—0°6
May : = = 86 | 10:0 14 9:1 81 |—10 86 9°5 0-9 9°0 80 |—10
June . : = 101 | 121 2:0. | Lie2 95 |—17 9:8 | 10°5 07 | 110 95 |—0°5
July . Z 5 11:2 | 12:9 17 | 12°77 | 114 |—1:3 | 11:3 | 12°3 10 | 124 | 11:2 |—1-2
August . 5 a5 121 | 13°6 15 | 133 | 12:2 |—11 | 12°5 | 13:2 07 | 13:2 | 12:2 |—1:0
September . - 12°6 | 13°3 0°77 | 133 | 127 |—0°6 | 12:7 | 131 0-4 | 131 | 13°0 |—01
October : = 113 | 11:0 |—0°3 | 101 | 108 07 | 115 | 11-4 |—O-1 | 104 | 110 0°6
November . os 89 8:2 |-0°7 67 88 21 9°6 9:2 |—0°4 75 91 16
December . 5 69 5°38 |—11 52 67 15 75 67 |—0°8 54 (fil ily
January - | 1891 | 5:2 3°83 |—1'4 3-4 3°8 04 5:3 46 |—0°7 47 48 O1
February . os 51 49 |—0°2 4:8 53 0°5 51 51 0-0 49 5:3 0-4
March . ; “5 49 47 |—0:2 38 44 0-6 50 49 |—01 39 45 06
Mean .} — 89 9:2 03 8:8 8-9 01 9:0 on 01 88 89 | Ol
a - | — (|(@isregarding| 0-9 _ _ 0-9 — _ 05 _ _ O7
sign)
It appears from this table that the average change of temperature on
the surface between morning and afternoon is about a degree C., and the
daily range of temperature on-the bottom something more than half a
degree C. The changes are sometimes in one direction, sometimes in
the other, and the mean of the whole series shows a slight warming in
the afternoon.
The tidal relation of the water is remarkably simple, and affects
the bottom almost equally with the surface. It may be summed up
thus :—
In the warm months, when high tide occurs in the morning, and low
tide in the afternoon, the water in the afternoon is nearly a degree C.
warmer than in the morning—the average of the month of June shows
even 2°25 C. of increased warmth. But in the warm months, when low
tide occurs in the morning, and high tide in the afternoon, the water is
: ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 471
about three-quarters of a degree C. colder in the afternoon than in the
morning—the average of the month of June shows this afternoon cooling
to be as much as 1°8 ©. Inthe cold months the phenomena are reversed.
When the tide is high in the morning and low in the afternoon, the water
is about half a degree C. colder in the afternoon than in the morning—
in December as much as 1°°0 C. When the tide is low in the morning
and high in the afternoon, the water is about three-quarters of a degree C.
warmer in the afternoon—in December as much as 1°°6 C.
It thus appears that the tidal effect on temperature is stronger than
the solar. In summer, no matter how hot the day may be, the water at
the Abertay lightship cools steadily until the hour of high tide ; in winter,
no matter how cold the night may have been, the water warms steadily
until the hour of high tide. The explanation is simple and sufficient.
The temperature of the water of the Tay is always higher in summer and
lower in winter than that of the sea, and putting the case generally, the
Abertay light-vessel floats in Tay water at low tide, in North Sea water
at high tide.
These observations, which are not further alluded to in this report,
serve to record a very large amount of thoroughly trustworthy observa-
tions. Especial attention is directed to Mr. Chapman’s magnificent series
of mean monthly temperatures, which illustrate very clearly the varia-
tions in the seasonal swing of temperature in water in one of the most
extreme average climates of the British Islands, taking its low altitude
into account. It serves not only to record the variations in temperatures
of the Cherwell, but to suggest the range of deviations from normal
seasonal temperatures to be expected in any case. Thus we are warned
not to assume the mean of one or two years as being the real mean
temperature of any exposed body of water.
B. Record of Occasional Observations.
Many observations taken regularly at intervals of a week acquire some
yalue in tracing the seasonal variations if they have been carefully per-
formed and carried out at exactly the same hour on each occasion.
RiveR WANDLE.
_ Observations by Mr. F. C. Bayarp, LL.M, F.R.Met.Soc., made under the
4 auspices of the Oroydon Microscopical and Natural History Club.
¥ These observations were made once a week at a number of points near
the sources of the river Wandle, which takes its rise as an outflow from
the chalk, and throughout its course of ten miles to the Thames is never
known to freeze.
i The observations of temperature on the Wandle by Mr. Bayard once
q a week for 1889 are published by Mr. Thomas Cushing, F.R.Met.Soc. in
Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee of the Croydon Micro-
scopical and Natural History Club for 1891. Mr. Cushing gives the
following abstract of the extreme temperatures observed and the yearly
range :— é
472
Carshalton Branch of Wandle.
REPORT—1891.
Greatest Differences.
Statiwn 1.—Lowest, 37-7. December 29 nr 20-6
Highest, 58:3. August 4 S 7
a 2.—Lowest, 45:1. December 15 9:8
Highest, 54-9. September 1
Sn 3.—Lowest, 49°9. December 30 } “7
Highest, 51°6. August 4 Sf
# 4,—Lowest, 46°6. January 6 71 8-4
Highest, 55:0. June 2 Jf
aS 5.—Lowest, 498. January 6 at 0-9
Highest, 50-7. July 28 J
Croydon Branch of Wandle.
» 6.—Lowest, 48°3. April 4 1 ss
Highest, 52°6. September1l /f
59 7.—Lowest, 46:9. January 6 71 65
Highest, 534, June 2 Jf
5 8.—Lowest, 41°6. December 29 ) 24-6
Highest, 66:2. June 2 if r
x 9.—Lowest, 36°7. January 6 ue 26-3
Highest, 63:0. June 2 J Fi
+ 10.—Lowest, 48:5. February 24 1 3:5
Highest, 52:0. Septemberl jf
Weekly mean air-temperature was lowest (30°'5) on January 6, and
highest (64° 1) on September 15, a difference of 33°°6.
River Hott.
Observations of Temperature made at Driffield on the River Hull by
Mr. Joun Lovet, F.R.Met.Soc., January—September 1891.
The observations were made once a week at three statiors until
June 21, thereafter at one station.
Station 1.—King’s Mill Stream, over quarter of a mile south of the
observer’s climatological station (lat. 54° 0’ 30’ N., long. 0° 27’ 15” W.),
and fed by springs from distances of from one quarter to one half a
mile.
Station 2.—River Head. More than one mile south-east of King’s
Mill; a deep-water basin above a lock on the canal known as River
Head. The river here flows S.S.E., and is partially sheltered on north,
east, and west.
Station 3.—Whinhill. About two miles farther down the river at the
second lock, E.S.E. from River Head, stream flowing due east. Greatly
exposed to all winds.
Sea temperature in Bridlington Bay from boat :—
June 6, 53°-2; June 20, 56°-0 at 6 P.M.
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 473
Observations of Temperature at Driffield, Yorkshire, 1891.
Screen fenmperatare! Stations :-— Previous week For the day at
for the day 9 A.M.
Date |
l King’s | River |Whin| Rain-| Bright
:9 A.M.) Max.| Min.| Mill Head | Hill | fall | Sunshine Cloud) Wind | Force
° ° ° ° ° ° Ins. H. M
January 18 ./ 188} 276) 150 | 43:9 44-7 40-2 43 | 10 45 0 Ww. 0
4 » 25 | 37-2 | 442 | 342] 45-0 459 | 42:8 | +33 | 17 55 0 W. 3
| February 1 .| 37:0 | 465 | 35:7 46°3 47-4 45°3 21) | 1G" “20 1 N.W. 3
“A 8 .| 41:2 | 44:0 | 39°5 475 47-9 47:3 ‘01 | 22 10 10 W. 1
aa 15 39°2 | 53°7 | 33°8 | 46:9 430 47°3 “05 | 16 55 2 W. 0
» 22 29°38 | 37:7 | 29°3 46-2 46°6 449 02 | 23 10 10 S.E. 2
March 1 48°38 | 55°77 | 37:0 | 48:0 48'S 484 05 | 33 15 10 WwW. 4
ye 8 32°3 | 37:3 | 31-1 46:3 46-7 46°3 24) 27 40 8 N.W. 1
iA 15 35°0 | 42°4 | 32°0 46°0 46°9 46°0 “61 35 30 10 S.E. 3
it 22 39°5 | 45°0 | 28-2 4671 43°0 46'8 87 | 21 10 1 N. 1
” 29 .| 394 | 436 | 34:2 45°3 475 45°0 “41 32 «CO 1 N. 4
April 5 39°4 | 41°6 | 39-2 45°5 46°3 _ 26} 32 O 10 E. 5
25 2 431] 47:1 | 37-0 47-2 50:0 50°3 88} 12 O 7 N.E. 2
1 2 19 43°4 | 47:0 | 33-1 47-4 50°3 51:0 34.) 37° 0 9 | E.N.E. 3
” 26 45:9 | 52:2 | 255 48°) 50°8 52-0 “e240! 0 6 S.E. 0
May 3 .| 462 | 53:5 | 36-7 48°0 49°6 516 “45 45 0 7 S.W. 3
= 10 .| 504| 562) 44-9 49°0 49°0 500 10| 53 0 9 N.E. 5
a 17 _.| 41:2 | 447] 282) 47:8 480 48-0 26) 54 0 10 W. 2
53 24 .| 481 | 494] 41°8]) 49:0 49°6 — 42/ 39 O 5 E. 3
” 31 50°0 | 56°9 | 39°8 49°7 53°0 57:0 74) 23 0 10 E. 2
June 7 477 | 53:4 | 45:5 49°0 51:0 55°6 “1p. 67 1-0 10 | N.N.E. 2
a 14 571 | 61:0 | 47-3 50°9 -= — O25 3b ° 0 10 N.W. 3
bs 21. | 53:2 | 62'4| 49°0} 51:0 557 62:0 28] 37 O 10 N.E. 2
” 28 .| 619 | — — 52°0 — — 30} 46 15 9 S.W. 2
July 5 .| 620) — — 510 — — 60 | 60 45 6 S.E. 1
uF 12 .| 576 63 | 27 45 10 | N.N.W. 1
> 19 .| 603; — — §2°2 “= — 24] 26 15 9 S.W. 1
» 26 .| 640] — — 52°3 _ — 63 | 33 35 3 W. 2
August 2 .| 621] — -- 53°0 — — 163 | 32 55 vi S.W. 2
” 9 .| 615 — _ 53°2 -- — 37 26 50 10 S.W. 2
9 16.) 558) — — 513 os — 90 | 32 25 10 N.W. 2
; ” 23 .| 540! — — 514 — — 73 9 45 10 N.W. 3
” 30. | 537) — — 49°8 - 110} 20 10 3 Ss. 0
September 6 .| 570) — — 514 — — *84| 43 50 10 S.W. 3
” 13. | 645) — — 517 — — 16} 57 30 2 E 1
A) 20 .| 580] — — 510 — — *88.| 19 55 10 Ss 2
” 27 .| 556 _— — 499 —_— — 58 23 50 1 W. 5
C. Observations regularly made for the Committee.
_ The remainder of the observations have been specially taken from the
commencement for the Committee, and are recorded in the manner
already explained. The curves expressing weekly means are inserted in
the text, except Curves XX. and XXIII, which are shown on Plate XVI.
Tn a few instances the monthly means have been calculated from the
daily readings by the observers, and discussed more or less completely.
;
Rocupate RESERVOIRS.
Full particulars of the situation of the reservoirs are given in Mr.
Ashworth’s report of the work done on them, and the corresponding
curves of weekly means are given as No. I. and II.; the true monthly
means, calculated from daily observations, are entered below :—
Discussion of Temperature Observations of Air and Water at Cowm and
Spring Mill Reservoirs. By Mr. J. Recrnatp AsHWoRTH.
__ In furtherance of the work of the Committee, and under the auspices
of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society, observations are being
474 REPORT—1891.
carried on at Cowm and Spring Mill Reservoirs, permission to do this
having been obtained from Mr. W. Tomlinson, the manager of the
Rochdale Corporation Waterworks.
The observations began on January 1, 1890, and a synopsis of the
results obtained is given below. <A record of the rainfall and the number
of days on which rain fell has also been included. The hour for obsery-
ing the instruments is nine o’clock in the morning, but at Cowm during
the month of January 1890 the readings were taken at twelve o’clock,
noon, and in consequence a considerable difference will be remarked
in the mean temperature of the atmosphere at the two stations in that
month.
Both reservoirs lie in valleys running nearly north and south (open
to the south) about one and a half mile apart, and from three to four
miles north of Rochdale. Cowm, the larger reservoir of the two, is 816
feet above sea level, and its drainage area is 900 to 1,000 acres. Sprin
Mill is 771 feet above sea level, and has a drainage area of 500 to 600
acres.
The accompanying table sufficiently explains itself. The figures at
both stations differ but little, but in column tv. it will be noticed that
the monthly range of water temperature has been generally greater at
Cowm than at Spring Mill; the extreme oscillation during six months
covers 25°5 at the former and 25°2 at the latter station. The wide
difference in the fluctuations of air and water temperatures is brought
out more strikingly in the chart.
CURVE I.—Cowm Reservoir, Rochdale. 9 A.M.
Birt item in
Var |Feb. Warch| dr May Vere) Fash tere [Sex Jace Wov. Deo |
Seeee rr Case Seo
wae
BRSERSEREEOM) NCO eel
pO YO N24 0 Bel
ttt tt TE A
ye | Daiwa
HB ET NET
\
40 pti tit | fA S Lit
BEANS. [septa a es
aaa
PAPAL EEE LEE ELE EEE
OF JE Ys SHORE s Tee ee Reese
J SEEPS e eee Lt tt EH
On three occasions in the months of June and July the temperature
of the principal feeding stream to Spring Mill Reservoir was taken, and
it was found to be 5°*7, 5°-8, and 5°-3 respectively colder than the main
body of the water as tested near the overflow. The first of these obser-
vations was taken at 9 o’clock in the evening, and the other two at the
usual observing hour.
Mr. James Diggle, C.E., F.G.S., has also thermometric observations
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE.
Heywood Corporation Waterworks.
Cowm Reservoir.
475
in progress (commenced on March 1), on Clay Lane Reservoir of the
> 14 days only. 2 26 days.
iis II. III. RV We Nae Vil.
Mean Maximum | Minimum Range of Maximum
Temperature|Temperature |Temperature Temperature) Difference
1890 No. of
Rain- | days on
Air water fall bess
Air |Water| Air |Water| Air |Water Air |Water| above jabove eh te
Water| Air
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° Ins.
January, 12 noon. | 41°6 | 385 | 49°S | 40°8 | 24:7 | 32°7 | 25-1 81) 110 80 | 7530 24
February, 9 A.M.. | 34°9 | 36°3 | 44:0] 39°0 | 28:7 | 33:7 | 15°3 53 50 674 | 0°765 7
March . . . | 40° | 384 | 50°8 | 48:5 | 25°7 | 32°7 | 25:1 | 10°8 | 11:0 70 | 5245 22
April . . | 441 | 433 | 55:8 | 47°5 | 37-3 | 42:0) 18:0 55 9°0 50 | 1815 10
May . ¢ . | 50°77 | 513 | 617 |] 55°38 | 45°8 | 463 | 15-9 9°5 (ey 7-0 | 3°765 13
June . F . | 548 | 56°0 | 63°7 | 582) 50°3 | 52° | 13-4 57 63 9°9 | 3°960 18
July . . . | 553 | 5771 | 63:7 | 59-4 | 51°38 | 55°5 | 119 39 6°0 4°4 | 4°665 18
August. . . | 55° | 585 | 63°7 | 617 | 483 | 548 | 15-4 69 25 6°9 | 6°705 19
September . . | 56°7 | 56°2 | 62°7 | 59°7 | 52°3 | 54°8 | 104 49 50 3°5 | 1°920 12
October < . | 46°8 | 50°83 | 55°5 | 55°9 | 30°99 | 448 | 246] 111 15 | 14:9 | 5°510 17
November . . | 40°3 | 42°6 | 50°38 | 45°38 | 27°7 | 385 | 231 73 8-0 | 12:3 | 9°020 22
December . aN _ = _— — | 0°820 8
Spring Mill Reservoir.
I. II. III. Vi Vv. VI. Vit,
Mean Maximum | Minimum Range of Maximum
Temperature|Temperature|Temperature/Temperature| Difference No. of
Rainfall | (@¥5 on
Air |Water Rain fell
Air |Water} Air /Water) Air |Water| Air |Water|above|above
Water) Air
1890
i ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° Ins.
January . - | 383 | 385 | 48°8 | 40°38 | 22°2 | 34:7 | 26°6 61] 10:0 | 13:0 | 7-279 27
y February . - | 35°0 | 36:2 | 44°0 | 39°3 | 29°7 | 34:2 | 14:3 51 5°0 54 | O'714 8
| March - | 40°6 | 38°6 | 50°8 | 42°8 | 26°7 | 33:2] 24:1 96 | 10°0 65 | 5369 23
| April. A - | 43°7 | 43°3 | 53°8} 45°38 | 388 | 42:3 | 15°0 3°5 80 4:2 | 1679 11
May . 5 - | 52°7 | 515 | 62:7 | 55°38 | 46:0 | 46:3 | 16°7 9°5 81 65 | 3°688 13
| June. . - | 55°5 | 564] 61:7 | 584 |] 50°3 | 53°83 | 11:4 46 6°0 64 | 3°794 20
July . ° - | 56°0 | 57-4] 647 | 59°3 | 51°8 | 55°99 | 12°9 34 56 4:9 | 4701 19
| August . | 55°83 | 58°4 | 64:7 | 62°2 | 49°6 | 54:4] 151 78 35 89 | 6616 21
September - | 57°6 | 56°38 | 64:7 | 59°0 | 51°83 | 54:3 | 12:9 47 62 4:0 | 2°163 12
October - | 472 | 50:2 | 55°4 | 55:7 | 30°7 | 43°8 | 24:7 | 11°9 5-0 | 131 | 5°821 18
November - | 39°9 | 42°5 | 52°38 | 461 | 27°7 | 38°6 | 25-1 75 9-4 | 121 | 9°603 22
December. - | 301 | 34:3] 39°0 | 38:4 | 18:0 | 32°0 | 21:0 6-4 55 | 15°6 | 0°733 9
1891
January . - | 32°2 | 33:2 | 44:0] 35:0 | 15°3 | 32°4| 28:7 26) 10°0 | 17:2 | 4:182 16
| February. .| 38:2 35°6 | 45:0 | 37:0] 32:0] 340] 130] 3:0] 100] 4:0) 0:425 5
|March' . - | 386 | 382} — — — — — _ — — | 2°995 19
April. . - | 414] 39°7 | 50°2 | 42°5 | 33:0 | 36:2] 17:2 63 77 3:2 | 2°242 13
May . . - | 471) 475 | 613 | 51:5 | 35°0 | 43:2 | 26:3 83 | 10°2 | 11:0 | 4499 21
June. - «| 582] 568 | 65°6 | 61:0} 48:0] 50°0| 17°6 | 11:0 8-0 60 | 1793 13
July * - «| 582] 599 | 64:0] 62:2] 52:0] 580] 120} 42 3-0 80 | 4211 18
476 REPORT—1891.
CuRvVE I].—Spring Mill Reservoir, Rochdale. 9 A.M.
Av. Water
Bec Ta er er Mire
BRRGERMSREGE SUS os
BEBESRRSE ETS ee
RRR 4
fee
AT
at A
A
VAM Kit NIT |
NWP XT Ti ye INT
TT AL |
EEESaNS
tote
aes eai/,LReSae
SESE EEE ENE
ACWW eS Zt A Alps
(ao +p A AAA Haase
j PR REE WV
OLDHAM Reservoirs.
The weekly means of Piethorn and Denshaw reservoirs are given in
Curves Nos. III.and IV. Both reservoirs are situated in a region the pre-
vailing formation of which is Millstone grit. Piethorn reservoir has an
area of 40 acres, a depth of 58 feet, and a capacity of 344 million gallons.
Its surface is 823 feet above sea level. Denshaw reservoir is of smaller
size, 23 acres, with a depth of 54 feet, and capacity of 146 million
gallons, and it stands 1,000 feet above the sea. Piethorn may be com-
pared in elevation with Cowm and Spring Mill reservoirs, referred to
above, and it is interesting to compare the respective temperatures.
Discussion of Temperature Observations on Air and Water at Piethorn and
Denshaw. By Mr. Witu1am Warts, F.G.S.
The temperature observations of the atmospheric air and water taken
at Piethorn and Denshaw have been in accordance with the instructions
of the Committee, and under the auspices of the Manchester Geological
Society. The area and capacity of each reservoir remain unchanged,
and the readings are taken daily at 9 a.m. A higher temperature both
of atmospheric air and water is still maintained at Piethorn, although
the two valleys are near together, similar in their geological substrata,
and not much unlike in their physical conformation. ‘Trees in both
valleys are scarce and grow with difficulty, although in former times
they appear to have flourished luxuriantly at a much higher elevation
than we find them existing now. The absence of trees is to be explained
rather by the keen north-east winds to which the valleys are exposed,
and by the rapid denudation of the valley sides by rain which washes
the soil from the roots, than by the pollution of the atmosphere by
factory smoke. A glance at the tables shows that the water is warmer
9 A.M.
Curvr 1V.—Denshaw Reservoir, Oldham.
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 477
BEre!
:
.
i
i
EEC EE
I 2s
TT et
H |
SR RART wy.
BRRRRNaS
S 8 z
SREPZABEe
oo
Terr}
Holt Teed
iia ep
478 REPORT—1891.
in winter and cooler in summer than the surrounding air, consequently it
must not be objectionable to reside on the margin of large reservoirs
except that an increase in the humidity of the air may be a drawback.
Average Daily Temperature.
PIETHORN DENSHAW
Month
Air | Water | Air | Water
1889
Epic) MAMBES bole 2, 59°6 581 60'8 58:7
July. - : 57°8 59°8 575 59°8
August . e . : 56:5 58-2 54°9 57°6
September ; ‘ 5 538'1 559 51:7 55-4
October . . 7 P 465 48-4 44-2 47°6
November 4 é - 43°3 44-6 41:2 43°9
December ; i : 37'5 39°3 35'7 38:0
1890
January . ; : 5 39 2 39°0 37:9 38:7
February . : : : 35'1 371 b4-4 36°3
March . : r : 40°8 38°6 ood 38:0
April : ; 3 : 44-1 42°9 41:9 42-4
May. : 2 : ; 52°6 49°8 50°6 49:9
June. ; 5 fi ; 547 55°1 54:2 55-4
July . ‘ : ; i 55-4 565 53:9 565
August. 4 3 : 56°7 581 53°7 57-7
September A < : 574 56°8 56:2 56°2
October . » a ‘ 47-2 51:2 46°4 50°6
November : 3 “ 40°6 44:2 39°9 43-4
December fC . 30°2 363 29°7 35:0
1891
January . : ’ 32°8 B41 32:1 33'5
February . + : : 39°9 36°8 37°6 36:2
March . § - : 36°7 37°9 35'8 37-4
April : F : F 40:7 40:0 39-2 39°6
May. ; A : : 47-4 46°9 46°5 47°3
June. : 6 é : 565 53°8 54:5 541
July. : 3 : . 67-1 58:7 582 59°2
In order to make the observations as complete and interesting as
possible, the monthly rainfall returns for each district are given in the
following tables :—
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 479
RAINFALL AT PIETHORN RAINFALL AT DENSHAW
Gauge 894 ft. above sea level Gauge 1,012 ft. above sea level
No. of No. of
Rain- | Greatest fallin | dayson |} Rain-| Greatest fallin | days on
fall 24 hours which fall 24 hours which
rain fell rain fell
1889
Inches| Date Inches Inches} Date | Inches
June ; . | O61 2nd 0:26 5 0:70 2nd 0°38 5
July : . | 3°92 | 21st 0°67 17 4:47 | 21st 0°83 16
August . . | 6°55 5th 0°82 23 773 5th 1:18 22
September .| 2°59 | 26th 0:70 12 3:16 | 26th 0°82 13
October . . | 5:59 7th 0:92 24 5°88 7th 0:98 21
November . | 1:83 | 24th 0:46 15 2:37 | 24th 0:54 15
December ~| 3°16 | 21st 0°84 18 2°66 | 21st 0°65 17
1890
January . . | 5°65 | 26th 1:68 27 4°80 | 21st 1:12 27
February . | 073 | 15th 0°45 9 0°88 | 15th 0°56 7
March . . | 3°87 | 23rd 0°46 21 3:72 | 10th 0:51 21
April ‘ «| 1:35 6th 0°31 11 1°58 6th 0°39 9
May : . | 3°30 | 11th 0:80 13 3:45 | 11th 0:72 13
June 4 . | 3:97 | 30th 0:70 21 4:01 | 30th 1:02 21
July A . | 3:34 | 25th 0°38 21 3:25 | 16th 0:48 20
August . 2 G05) | rkst 0-78 19 6-07 | 22nd 0°82 18
September ./| 1°88 | 30th 0:56 16 1:84 | 30th 0:42 13
October . . | 314 6th & | 0°40 18 3:41 6th 0-43 18
15th
November . | 5°70 | 22nd 1:21 23 || 5:49 | 22nd 0:87 22
December . | O37 | 25th 0:10 8 || 041 4th & j 0:12 6
23rd
’ 1891
January . . | 2°87 | 23rd 0°82 16 3°22 | 23rd 0:92 16
February . | 0-30 3rd O11 6 0°37 3rd 0712 7
March . . | 1:47 | 24th 0:29 13 1-72 6th & | 0:26 18
24th
April. .| 1:91 |\29th 0:44 15 1:99 | 29th 0-46 13
May . | 3:28 1st 0:43 19 3°68 1st 0:49 18
June . . | 1:69 4th 0:72 il 1:96 4th 0:90 8
July F . | 3°32 | 22nd 0:76 17 3°50 | 22nd 0-74 14
Tue Nira and Dee (Dumrrizs).
The Committee is indebted to the Rev. Wm. Andson, of Dumfries,
for enthusiastic assistance in inaugurating observations at various points
in the south-west of Scotland, and in summarising and discussing the
results. The weekly means of the observations discussed below will be
- found as curves, No. V. for the Nith, No. VI. for the Dee, and No. VII. for
Little Ross lighthouse. The monthly means in the accompanying dis-
cussion are calculated from the daily observations.
Discussion of Temperature Observations on the Nith and its Estuary,
April 15, 1889, to April 15, 1890. By Rev. W. Anpson.
These observations were made under the auspices of the Dumfries
and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society. The observa-
480 REPORT—1891.
tions at Dumfries were taken throughout the twelve months. Mr. Jas.
Lewis took the observations of the estuary at Kingholm Quay, from June
25 to March 21, and observations were begun at later dates in the River
Dee by Rey. W. I. Gordon, of Tongland, and in the Dee estuary by Mr.
Macdonald, lighthouse-keeper, Little Ross. These are not reported upon
in the present discussion. The Nith observations were taken at the
Dumfries boathouse, where there was an average depth of more than 3
feet. Inconsequence of the damming of the water by the weir below the
Old Bridge the river at this point never falls very low, the depth never
being less thar 24 feet. On two occasions of heavy flood the parapet
wall was overflowed—once in the beginning of November, when the
depth was estimated to have been fully 10 feet, towards midnight on the
1st; and again on January 25, after heavy rain and the melting of snow
on the high grounds, with a south-west gale, when the depth of 9 feet was
registered at the gauge on the Old Bridge. The hour of observation
was at or near noon. The following table shows the mean temperature
of the air and water for each month separately, along with the state of
the river or the mean depth as registered at the gauge (which was
erected in July), viz. :—
Corrected Means for Air | Water | yence State of River
° oO °
April . . 3 . | 51:3 | 45°38 | 5:5 | Average
May ; 60°5 | 56°6 | 3:9 | Under average
June 65:8 | 63°0 | 2-8 | Low—and very low
July 63:3 | 60°3 | 3:0 | Very low till 10th, then above average
Mean depth at gauge—
August : . | 62:3 | 67-5 | 4:8 5:0 feet
September . ‘ . | 59:7 | 53°71 | 66 A On ass
October 5 3 . | 49°6 | 45:0 | 4:6 (a Bess
November . ; . | 45°6 | 431 2:5 bw) a;
December . t - | 402 | 38:2 2-0 DIO bs
January . 4 . | 444 | 405 | 3-9 G0): 5.
February. : . | 42°83 | 38-1 4-7 4:3.
March : 4 pel ASO) || PAT ics ASO) tes
Means for whole year | 52°8 | 48°5 _- —
Mean excess of airtem-| 4°3 — — —
perature for year
From this table it will be seen that the highest monthly mean tem-
perature of the air for the year was in June, when it was 65°°8; the
mean temperature of the water for the same month being 63°, also the
highest mean for the year. The lowest was in December, when that of
the air was 40°'2, and the water 38°°2; but the mean temperature of
February for the water was a fraction lower than this, viz., 38°-1, while
that of the air was 42°°8.
The highest single reading for the air was on July 31 . : . 16
The lowest single reading for the air was December 1 . ; oe il
Extreme range for air : A , : ; . 45
Highest single reading for water wason July 4 . ; ; . 666
Lowest single reading for water was on February 13. ; See
Extreme range for water . 34-6
7 . ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 481
The months in which the mean monthly temperature of the air and
water most nearly approxi-
mated were: December,
when the difference was
only 2° (i.e., of air above
water); November 2°5;
June 2°8; and July 3°.
Those in which the differ-
ence of temperature varied
most were: March 7°-4;
September 6°°6 ; and April
5°°5. Mean difference for
whole year 4°°3. Thus it
ae
ee
will be seen thatthe months Pd ESS <eeee
in which the temperatures RB
of the air and water most HEE eee 4
nearly approximated were CO) Rae
those in which the day
was at the shortest and the
longest. In other words,
there were two maxima
and two minima of differ-
ence between the tempera-
tures of the air and water,
the former occurring in
_ the months of March and
September, the equinoctial
months; and the latter in
December and June, the
months of the winter and
summer solstice. The
former fact is easily ex-
plained, but it is rather
& curious circumstance 3
that the same thing should :
hold good of the month in
which the sun is longest
above the horizon, and
most nearly vertical. The
explanation, I have no
loubt, is that in the latter
part of June and the first
bart of July, when there
Was a period of drought
md warm weather, which
lasted more than three
veeks, the river fell to its
est level, and the cur-
ee es ee al Race ecer Oee o
Hence the water became se
more heated than in ordi- ASSES RSS eae Bw
nary circumstances, and its re — a am
oe more nearly approached that of the air.
12 noon.
a |
‘
:
Ik
|
Ps
ae
&
2
=
=
Z
|
=
S
| a0
&
(=)
'S)
a
5
vi
|_|
a
|_|
sire
\ \ IA
rw AY
7
Ang (Sep [dee Nov [Dec an Fes.
LI |
r]
cic
It
482 REPORT—1891.
Though, as a rule, the temperature of the air was higher than that of
the water, there were a good many exceptions to this rule, especially in
the months of May, June, July, November, and December. Thus there
were five days in May in which the water was warmer than the air, six
in June, and four in July, with an aggregate excess in the temperature
of the water of 37°. In November and December there were also fifteen
days with an aggregate excess of 30°-4, the greatest number being in
December, viz., ten days, while on other two days of that month the tem-
perature of air and water was equal. The conditions under which this
state of things was observed were, as a rule, in summer, when the air
temperature was lowered by cloudy and wet, or dull and foggy weather,
or by the prevalence of cold winds ; and, in winter, when the conditions
were similar, or when frost set in. The most extreme difference was
observed on July 7, when the reading of the air temperature was 53°,
and that of the water 65°—a difference of 12°. This was at the close of
the period of drought before alluded to. The greatest excess in the
temperature of the air above that of the water occurred in March, when
on sixteen days it was higher by more than 7°, ranging from 7° to 14°'5 ;
and the next in September, in which month there were thirteen days in
which the difference exceeded 7°, ranging from 7° to 13°2. On these
occasions the weather was for the most. part bright and sunny, or, if
cloudy or rainy, very mild, with south or south-west winds,
The following table shows the mean monthly temperatures of the air
and water of the estuary of the Nith at Kingholm Quay, where observa-
tions were taken with great regularity by Mr. James Lewis, for a period
of about nine months, from June 25, 1889, to March 21, 1890. The
hours of observation necessarily varied, because the proper temperature
of the estuary could be obtained only when the tide was up. For the
most part they were taken between the hours of 9 a.m. and 4:p.m., though
sometimes a little earlier and sometimes a little later.
Means
From Difference
Air Water
oO oo oO
June 25 to Juiy 31. 61:3 61°5 +02
August 1 to 31 i 59-0 56°9 —21
September 1 to 30 . 56:2 54-4 —18
October 1 to 31 45°5 45:8 +0°
November 1 to 30 . 45'8 41°6 —4:2
December 1 to 14 38:3 36°8 —1:5
January 1 to 31 41-1 39°5 —16
February 1 to 28 40-0 37-4 —26
March 1 to 21 42°7 40:4 —2°3
Means . : E F : e AT ‘7 46:0 -17
From this table it will be seen that for the period from June 29 to
July 31 the mean temperature of the estuary was a fraction of a degree
higher than that of the air, and the same thing occurred again in October.
In all the other months it was lower, but not to the same extent as in
the case of the river temperature. Taking the whole period during
which observations have been made, the mean temperature of the air
was 47°-7, and of the water 46°, giving a mean difference of only 1°-7,
instead of 4°-3, as in the case of the river. This result might have been
ao
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 483
somewhat modified if the observations had been extended over the whole
year instead of nine months, but not, I think, to any great extent, there
being an obvious reason why the temperature of the estuary should be
higher than that of the river as compared with that of the air, viz., the
fact that when the tide rises it passes over the extensive tracts of sand
which in the Solway Firth are left bare by the receding tide, and in
sunny days become heated by the sun.
By the kindness of Mr. Beck and Mr. Lindsay, observations were
made from August 8 to 19, and from September 13 to October 1, on
Lochrutton loch, with the following results :—
Means
= Difference
Air Water
° ie) . ie)
From August 8to19 =. : ; ; 58:3 61-1 +28
From September 13 to October1 . -| 54:3 55:2 +0°9
From this we may probably infer that during at least the autumn
and winter months, and possibly in summer also, the temperature of the
loch is, as a rule, in excess of that of the air. But the observations are
too limited in number to warrant any decided conclusion being founded
upon them.
Observations of Tenvperature of Rivers Nith (Dumfriesshire) and Dee
a (Kirkcudbrightshire) for year 1890-91.
The observations of the temperature of the Nith at Dumfries were
begun on September 8, 1890, and continued to August 31, 1891. They
Curve VI.—Dee at Tongland, Kirkcudbrightshire. 12.30 p.m.
Ay. Water
TEES TEGO
ole Dot] Wov Der an] Fob Men dard
Sere TEE AH
SS SRene ame CORONA
COCOA EEC
FEEEEECHHA HEE EE
naa | l] HHH
LA 4
yi | | INA
ote
EEE PEreE "|
SEEECEEEEEEHE EE
e taken daily, with some exceptions, at or near noon. Those for the
ee were taken at Tongland by Rev. William I. Gordon, for the most
t also. daily, about 12.30 p.m. The following table shows the monthly
Means both for air and water during that period at each station :—
112
484 REPORT—1891.
je eee ee a a |
NitH DEE
Air | Water | — Air | Water
1890
s ° . | fWind, W. and 8.W ee
: j ind, W. and 8.W. F ;
September . .| 610 | 55°6 |4 pain fall, average. £ 63:1 | 59-4
| f Mostly W., S.W., and N.W. “a ;
October. . | 522 | 483 |{ RONEN tnder average. \ B54 | 495
é ; > | Wind, S.E., 8.W., and N.W. ;
November ae. | 263 |} aes { Roinfatt PDA \ 47-7 | 439
i : » | Wind, N. and E.
December . .| 36:0 | 36:5 | Very dry and cold. 39°6 | 36°9
1891
; st Wind, N.W. and 8.W. il ,
January ; : | 39:0 | 35:0 Rainfall, under average. f 41-2 | 34-7
; ; Mostly W., S.W., and N.W. :
February . . | 442 | 400 |4 pone G93 inch_fine. s 46-0 | 41-1
ME | 408 | 390 Jn Oey No, aoe Nw 44:3 | 40-2
Rainfall, under average.
| : ABS, Mostly E. and N.E. ‘\ 5 4.
April. q OTE oo. { Rainfall, under average. If AR aU
on nn Mostly E., N.E., and N.W. al :
MAY, fe: ’ ale: DENOS gear { Rainfall, nearly average. if Bee eel
ee ee | eae ceo eee SSeS L) 67-2 | 643
Rainfall, under average. af
a = |fMostly 8.W., N.W., and W. 1} ¢5
OmEy ft : exes ae | Rainfall, half average. | Gp. | Gee
4 ' xp.~ | J Mostly 8.W. and N.E. a ; :
Repose ©") G98: | 6e5 4 err, anata avenge. i fila 0 | 60-0
Means for Year.
Niru DEE
|
i ah Excess of Air : 7 Excess of Air
Air Water above Water Air | Water above Water
C) ° ° | ° ° °
50°3 47-4 2°9 | 52:9 | 49°3 3.6
In the autumn quarter (September, October, and November) the
difference of temperature between the air and water was, for the Nith
3°-8; Dee 4°5. Winter quarter (December, January, and February),
Nith 2°5; Dee 4°°7. Spring quarter (March, April, and May), Nith
3°-2: Dee 3°°6. Summer quarter (June, July, and August), Nith 2°-4; -
Dee 1°°6. Though as a rule the temperature of the air was higher than
that of the water, there were many single days on which an opposite
state of things occurred, and these were chiefly in the winter and summer
quarters. In the month of December, for example, when dull and foggy
weather prevailed, with cold northerly winds, or when severe frost was
experienced, there were twelve days on which the temperature of the
water was in excess of that of the air, the accumulated excess amounting
to over 40°, and ranging from 0°'3 to 6°°6. In the month of July again
there were ten days which showed a similar result, the accumulated
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 485
_ excess amounting to 13°°6, and ranging from 0°1 to3°6. The maxima
of difference were, as regards the Nith, in September and April—
September 5°-4, April 4°°3. But in the case of the Dee they occurred
in October 5°-9, and January 6°°5. The minima occurred, for Nith, in
December, 0°5 (water higher than air), and July 1°1 (water lower) ;
for Dee, July 0°-9 (air higher than water), August 1°.
The extreme range of temperature at Dumfries (hour of observation
being about noon) was: air, highest on June 23, 75°°6; lowest on Decem-
ber 13, 27°°-7 ; range, 47°°9._ Water, highest on June 22, 68°; lowest on
January 5, 33°71; range, 34°°9.
CuRVE VII.—Little Ross Lighthouse, Solway Firth. 10 A.M.
Av
<J
[Aug |Sep. | ace: |
bef
Ge
Water
TTT TT SAINT
SERRE SENOS UP Avan.
odes} AVA
Tae Srour, CANTERBURY.
Colonel Horsley, R.E., has taken a great interest in the observations
on the Stour at Canterbury. His reports on the work done are followed
by the monthly means calculated from the weekly means which are shown
in Curve No. VIII.
Notes on Temperature of Air and Water on the Stour at Canterbury during
1889, by Colonel W. H. Horstry, R.H., under the auspices of the East
Kent Natural History Society, December 1888—May 1889.
With the view of giving effect to the intentions of the Committee, the
Committee of the East Kent Natural History Society appointed a sub-
committee to carry out the observations on river-temperature. They were
fortunate in securing the willing services of an Associate of their Society,
r. Henry Dean, of 35 St. Peter’s Street, Canterbury, by whom the
bservations now reported on were made.
_ The observations commenced on December 13, 1888, and have been
continued day by day to the present time (May 15), a period of five months,
_ The river in which the observations are taken is the western branch
the Stour, which flows through Canterbury and empties itself into the
sea at Pegwell Bay, near Sandwich, about 15 miles distant. The depth
f water is about 2 feet in the ordinary state of the river, increasing to
3 feet or more when the river is in flood. The direction of the stream is
m south-west to north-east. The banks are low, and shaded with trees.
In accordance with the directions received from the Secretary of the
_ Committee, the observations were taken at 9 a.m. regularly day by day,
always at the same place, and within five minutes walk from Mr. H.
,
4
486 REPORT—1891.
Dean’s house. Remarks on ‘ State of River and Weather’ are entered
in the observing book at the same time. The following are some of the
results noticed.
In December, as a general rule, the temperature of the water is higher
than that of the air, but there are exceptions, e.g., on December 19 the
temperature of air and water was nearly the same, viz., 43°, the wind at
the time was W.S.W., and the weather clear and fine. It was the same
on December 24. The greatest difference in the temperature of air and
water was on the 25th, when that of the air was 35°, and of the water
44°°3. On January 1, 1889, the difference is more remarkable, viz., air
30°'6, water 40°, and the same was the case on the day following, viz., air
29°, water 38°°5, with the wind N.E. and weather fine.
A sudden rise of temperature occurred on January 8, when that of the
air was 39°°8, and of the water 38°°2, somewhat colder than the air, the
wind S. and the weather fine. The same was the case the day following,
viz., air 45°, water 41°°5.
As a rule the temperature of the water does not increase so rapidly as
that of the air. On May 5, for instance, the air was 69° and the water
57°'2, the same on May 9, viz., air 62°, water 57°.
In February, with snow on the ground, the temperature of the air
varied from 25°'8 to 34°°8, and that of the water from 34°'6 to 39°'5, the
wind at the time being E. to N.E.
Speaking generally, it is observed that with the wind S. or S.W., and
rain falling, the temperature of air and water differs by only one or
two degrees.
Notes on Temperatures of Air and Water at Canterbury, from May 1889 to
December 1889. By Colonel W. H. Horstry, R.F.
The previous set of notes refers to observations taken up to May 15,
1889. In the same month the temperature of the air rose considerably,
the highest being on the 29th, when it was 69°°8, while that of water was
only 60°, the wind being S.W. and weather fine. Towards the end of
May the temperature of air and water once more approximated.
On June 2 there was a sudden and considerable rise in the air-tem-
perature, but only a moderate rise in that of the water, the difference
between them being 14°, with the wind as above; this again showing
that the water-temperature rises slower than that of the air.
On June 10, with a N.N.E. gale blowing, the temperature of the air
fell to 53°, while that of the water was 55°-2. As a general rule through-
out this month the water-temperature was below that of the air. The
last-mentioned is in fact the only instance to the contrary.
On June 20 the thermometer in use was accidentally broken, and
considerable delay ensued in procuring a new one of similar construction.
An ordinary instrument was, in the interval, supplied to Mr. Dean, and
with it the observations were taken and recorded until September 19.
The readings of this instrument, and that supplied subsequently from
Edinburgh, were found to agree very fairly, and the results of the obser-
vations taken during the interval show, as might have been expected,
that the air-temperature is above that of water throughout the summer
months, June, July, and August. There was only one exception, viz., on
August 23, when the air was one degree colder than the water, with the
wind in the N.W. and weather fine. A similar exception to the general
rule occurred on September 16, the air being 53° and the water 55°, with
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 487
the wind also in the N.W. Again on September 17, with the wind S.E.
and weather fine, the air was one degree colder than the water.
From September 20 to the end of December the new thermometer
was in use, and it is observable that from that date to October 7 the
temperature of air and water approximated very nearly, the water as a
rule being the colder of the two. From October 9, however, there are
several exceptions to this rule, notably on the 13th and 14th, when the
water-temperature was 4° higher than that of the air, the latter having
fallen suddenly some 6° in two days, and the water only 2° during the
same interval. The same was the case on October 25, with the wind
N.N.W. and the weather fine. In November and December the fluctua-
tions in the relative temperatures of air and water were frequent, but,
speaking generally, the water-temperature was higher than that of the
air—the greatest difference between them being on December 29, on which
date the air registered 26°-5, and the water 40°-3, a difference of 13°-8.
This is the coldest day recorded, with the wind S.W. and weather fine.
In conclusion it should be mentioned that the prevailing direction of
the wind in Canterbury and neighbourhood for the greater part of the
year is from the 8.W., veering to W. and N.W. In the spring of the year
it is from the E., veering to HK.N.H. and N.E. At such period the tem-
perature of the air is invariably colder than that of the water, the
_ atmosphere very dry, and plenty of dust flying about. At other seasons
_ of the year when the wind is from the 8. and S.W. the reverse is the
} case, 7.e., the water is the colder of the two. The highest air-temperature
__ recorded in these observations was on June 7, viz., 74°, while the water-
_ temperature on the same date was 62°.
[ee a tS
Notes on the Temperature of Air and Water as taken at the River Stour,
Canterbury, during 1890.. By Colonel W. H. Horstry, 2.2.
In the report for 1889 it was stated that in the months of November
and December the fluctuations in the relative temperatures of air and
water were frequent, but speaking generally, the water-temperature was
higher than that of the air. The same remark applies to the observa-
tions taken in January 1890, though there are some remarkable excep-
tions, showing that the temperature of water is not influenced so quickly
_ as that of the air. For instance, the temperature of the air, which had
averaged 39° in the first five days of January, suddenly rose on the 6th
ea to 51°°3, while that of the water, which had been 44° on the 5th, only
ose 1°°6 on the 6th of the same month. The same was the case on
_ danuary 12—air 51°, water 48°, with wind S.W. and W. And again,
_ on the 16th and 19th, air 50°-3, water 47°°5, on the last-mentioned date.
_ Another remarkable instance is reported on January 25, viz., air-tem-
_ perature 54°, and that of water 44°°5, difference 9°°5, that of air having
risen suddenly from 37° on the 24th to 54° on the 25th, while that of
the water had only risen 2°5 in the same interval. The weather
throughout January was unusually mild, the wind for the most part S.W.
with occasional rain.
In February the temperature of the water was, with one exception,
higher than that of the air. The exception occurred on the 13th, the
temperature of the air rising suddenly from 31° to 45°, while that of the
water rose only 1°, viz., from 39° to 40°.
In March there was a remarkably sudden fall in the temperature of
the air, viz., from 29° on the 3rd to 14° on the 4th. The frost on that
488 - REPORT—1891.
day was the severest that had been experienced in the memory of ‘the
oldest inhabitant,’ and told hard on water-pipes and shrubs. On the.
same dates the temperature of the river Stour was 37° and 36°, a differ-
ence of 1° only, while that of the air was 15°. The severe frost, it will
be observed, did not last long, for on the following morning, the 5th, the
temperature of the air rose to 38°-3, and that of water was 38°, or only
2° higher than it was on the 4th. Further instances of the rapid rise in
the air-temperature as compared with that of the water are observable
in the observations taken on March 6, 7, and 8, and again on the 9tha
rapid fall in the air occurred, and little or none in the water-temperature.
Wind N.W. and weather fine.
Observations were omitted in April, May, and June, as the observer
was not furnished with a book to enter them in.
In the month of July the temperature of the air usually exceeded
that of the water, as it might be expected it would. The highest air-
temperature was 71° on the 17th, when the water was 62°, difference 9°.
The lowest air-temperature was 55° on the 11th, and that of water on
the same date 57°, difference 2°. Wind generally westerly, veering to
N.W. and 8.W., with occasional showers but generally fine.
The same rule, as respects the relative temperatures of air and water,
applies to the observations taken in August and September, the water
being invariably colder, though not more than 6° or 7° difference, and
often less, especially towards the end of each month.
In October a change is observable, the water being frequently the
warmer of the two, notably on the 22nd and 28th, when the difference
was 9° and 10° in favour of the water, with a cold easterly wind on the
former date, and N.W. on the latter.
A further instance of the sudden rise in the air-temperature, as com-
pared with that of the water, is seen by comparing the observations taken
on October 28 and 29. A warm S.W. wind caused the air-temperature
to rise 10°, while that of the water remained the same on both days.
The same remarks are applicable to the month of November, the
water-temperature being usually the higher of the two. The exceptions
occurred on the 13th, 15th, and 23rd. On each of these dates there was
a sudden rise of air-temperature, and no corresponding rise in that of
water. The wind S.W. and weather dull and wet. The lowest air-
temperature in this month was on the 30th, viz., 22°-5, the water being
38°, difference 15°5.
December 1890 was an unusually cold month, the thermometer
standing at or below freezing point for twenty out of thirty-one days.
It opened with a temperature of 17°-5 on the first, on which date the
water was 37°, or 19°°5 warmer than the air. This state of things did
not last long, for on the 4th the temperature of the air was 4°°5 higher
than that of the water. As*a rule, however, the water-temperature was
higher than that of the air throughout the month. The Stour being a
running stream, the surface wa’ not frozen even with the air-temperature
at 18°. On the contrary, the water-temperature on these days, viz.,
13th and 14th, is recorded to have been 36° and 37°, that is, 18° and 19°
warmer than the air. The wind for the most part of the month was
from the cold quarter, viz., E. and N.E. A fall of snow occurred on the
19th with the wind at E.S.B., and again on the 27th. The weather
throughout the month was dull and cold.
It only remains to state that the observations referred to in this paper.
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 489
were taken at the same place and time, and by the same person, Mr.
Henry Dean, as those of the previous year.
Curve VIIIa.—Stour, Canterbury. 9 A.M.
Av. Water
a 1869 189O
PERE EEC WIE CI ance
AT PE
EE MRRRaS) SS eRe
San ae
SSS eR SRR aE
HEE
vom
CAUSE
NOMIC AL
: WIT
ARLE CLE I
s51 Gu j/SRUSEBEUUGnaaesee /o(ecasas
(/JS00S0S 000000 S ERR eRe
ScGRe SOS Se ne ewes
so
Monthly Mean Temperature of Stour at Canterbury.
Month Year Air | Water! Weatherand General Direction of Wind
December . . | 1888 37-8 42-8 Bren ane ; some fog,
January. : . | 1889 | 35-1 | 41:8 | E. and W.; changeable.
February § ; ee 35°5 | 39-7 | W. wind; fine; some snow and rain.
March . 5 ‘ % 40'°8 | 42:8 | Changing wind; fine; some rain.
‘April . : ; % 47-0 | 47-5 | Changeable.
ave . oF 56°8 | 55:3 | S. and W. winds; some rain.
June . - bm) oe 64:3. | 59:0 | Changeable.
July. A 4 65:1 | 61:2 | S.and W. winds; fine; some rain.
August . d : a 62:9 | 57-6 | S.W. wind; somé rain.
September _. 2 A 57:9 | 56-7 | S.W. and N.W. winds; fine.
October . é 3 go 49-7 | 50:1 | S.W. and N. winds.
| November. : Pe 44-1 | 46:8 | S. and W. winds; dull.
December. ‘ 7 38:9 | 42:0 | S.W. wind; fine; some rain.
| January. ; . | 1890 | 42°5 | 44-1 | S.W. wind; fine; some rain.
_ February ; ys ¥ 36-7 | 46:5 | N. wind; snow.
March . : : fe 37:3 | 40-1 | N.and W. winds; dull.
July. é . | 1890 | 60°9 | 58:2 | W. winds; fine; some rain.
August . : : Ae 61:3 | 57-9 | Changeable.
September . . PS 60°3 | 56°6 3
October. - a - 50°8 | 50°9 | W. winds; fine; some rain.
November . ; is 44:3 | 45°9 | W. winds; some snow.
December. 7 <A 28°6 | 36:2 | E. winds; dull fog; snow.
January. 4 . | 1891 | 32°9 | 38°5 | Changing winds; snow.
February ; ; ee 38:2 | 41°9 | W. and E. winds; fine; some fog.
March . 5 ‘ AN 41:6 | 42°9 | W. and N. winds; some rain.
April . ; : a 461 | 47-6 | N. winds; fine.
May ‘i “ ; FS 59°7 | 53:7 | Changeable.
June. : é FP 61:2 | 56:2 a
July. ; ; A! 62:7 | 58:4 | W. winds.
490
REPORT—1891.
CuRVE VIIId.—Stour, Canterbury. 9 A.M.
_ Aer. Water _.
AEE BECERRA ma
BERGA RSOEEEAL BIR Se
SOGRSeePs een at PA
GiEe tH
+H ae .
epee ee I We La
SEEEEEECC CHEER
River Nipp.
Observations taken by Mr. G. Paul, at Knaresborough.
Monthly Means.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather
Le}
March 1889 44-3 40°8 | Fine; some sun.
April cf 46°3 | 42°3 | Fine.
May * 51:3 | 50°7 | Fine; some rain and mist.
June 4 595 | 60°3 |.Cloudy; rain
July 5 =f 58:5 | 61°6 | Cloudy; some rain.
August . 5) 556 | 55°5 | Changeable; generally cloudy ; some
rain.
September . ; - 53°9 | 55°3 | Overcast; rain.
October . ; ‘ Es 48°3 | 46°6 | Overcast; mist; rain.
November. . 53 44:5 | 43:5 | Cloudy; some rain and snow.
December . ‘ : 39°1 | 37-5 | Rain; snow; a few clear days.
January . ; - | 1890 | 41-1 | 39-7 | Some hail, rain, and snow; cloudy,
February 3 5 > 37°9 | 38:7 | Overcast; cold.
March - : oe 45°5 | 42°2 } Fine; cold.
April 3 y 48:6 | 46°0 | Fine; some snow.
May ; - 57°5 | 50°5 | Some rain; cold.
June 5 “ 60°9 | 56:3 | Fine; cloudy; some rain.
July x 61:0 | 58-4 | Fine; some rain.
August . , ; 55 61:4 | 57:7 | Fine; a little rain.
September . “5 60:7 | 55°5 | Fine.
October . 4 5 ss 52°6 | 49-7 | Fine; a little rain.
November . 4 > 42°3 | 41:7 | Cold; fog; some rain and snow.
December . : a 32°4 | 35°5 | Cold; some fog and rain.
January. 1891 | 34:3 | 34:0 | Cold; snow; rain.
February Ba 37°6 | 37:3 | Fine; some fog.
March A 41:0 | 38:7 | Fine; some snow.
April as 42°7 | 41:9 | Mostly fine; some rain and snow.
May 5 : oP 511 | 49:2 | Fine.
June c 2 5 60°5 | 57-6 | Fine.
July: - a 62°6 | 60°3 | Fine.
491
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE.
__ The weekly means from which the above table is calculated are given
in Curve No. [X. Mr. Panul’s observations are remarkably regular and
‘WY 0¢'6 ‘Yonoroqsorvuy ‘ppIN—XI TAWAD
pa
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a.
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consistently careful.
a
492 REPORT— 1891.
contain some apparently new observations on the protective character of
a sheet of ice against the cooling of water by radiation. The rapid fall
of temperature following a thaw is analogous to the effect observed on
earth thermometers not far from the surface in like conditions.
Notes on the River Temperatures for the Winter 1890-91 in the Nidd.
By Mr. G. Paus, Knaresborough.
Some very interesting effects were observed during the long period
of intense cold. The river was frozen over, but the water under the ice
remained at the constant temperature of 34°-0 from December 20 to
January 2 inclusive. It fell to 33° on thawing on January 3. On
January 6 a second period of ice on the water commenced, and during it
the temperature under the ice remained at 33°°0. Not until the next
thaw set in and a third frozen period commenced on February 27, did the
temperature of the water under the ice fall to 32°-0.
Compared with this the record of earth-temperature at the depth of
1 foot acquires a special interest. An ice-cap was formed on the ground
on December 21 and remained until January 21. During this entire
month the temperature at the depth of 1 foot scarcely varied. On
December 20, before the severe cold set in, the temperature at that depth
was 37°'4, on the 2lst it fell to 36°°5, next day to 36°-4, and until
January 4 its range was only between 36°°4 and 36°3. From January
2 to 17 the temperature at 1 foot was 36°°3 or 36°°2 ; on the 18th it fell
to 36°'0, and on that day the grass thermometer registered only 3°°8, the
minimum temperature of the winter. On January 20 the 1-foot earth
thermometer registered 36°°4, but on the 21st it fell to 35°°5, coincident
with a rise of air-temperature and a general thaw. Next day the tem-
perature at 1 foot had risen to 36°2} and did not again fall below this
value.
The rest of the observations are given in the form of tabulated
monthly means and of curves expressing the weekly means. Had time
and other circumstances permitted, many or all of these sets of observations
would have been fully discussed, but the mere record suggests many
interesting relations as to the period of maximum and minimum tem-
perature, the manner in which water-temperature follows air-temperature,
and the effect of situation in latitude and altitude on the rate and amount
of monthly change..
BristoL CHANNEL AND T'AFF.
The Cardiff Naturalists’ Society arranged for three sets of observa-
tions from February 1889 to July 1691. One was taken by Mr. Petti-
grew in the Cardiff Castle Gardens on the Dock Feeder, a large stream
diverted from the Taff. This set cf observations (Curve XII.) shows
the water-temperature to be always higher than that of the air. This
is the only case in which this relation, so clearly shown in the Cherwell
observations, was distinctly seen in another river.
The Breaksea Lightship is anchored in the Bristol Channel about the
centre, south of Barry Island. Observations were made on it daily at
9 a.m. by Mr. J. Walters and Mr. J. R. Johnson. Therecord (Curve X.)
shows that while the temperature is rising, from February to July, the
water is colder than the air; but when the temperature is falling, from
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 493
July or August to February, the water remains warmer than the air.
This relation holds good for almost all observations made on the sea or
(FP aR eS
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Curve XI.—English and Welsh Grounds Lightship, Bristol Channel (off Newport). 9 A.M.
eee
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REPORT—1891.
large bodies of water, and is very well brought out in the reservoirs of
the Pennine district (Curves I. to IV.).
494
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169 Ooet OSPk
‘WV G ‘SUApIeH aTWseO PIpmep ‘YRL—'ITX Tauag
fathoms at low water, and 12
Le
2
| | The English and Welsh Grounds Lightship is anchored nearly
channel off Newport, the depth being 5
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 495
fathoms at high water. Observations were taken by Mr. J. Pain and
Mr. J. Bartlett. They show (see Curve XI.) the same general features
as those at Breaksea, but the seasonal interchange of position in the air
and water curves is not quite so clearly marked. The tidal effects must
be important, judging from the result of calculations on observations
made at the Scottish lightships; but it was impossible to carry out the
laborious reductions in time for this report. These three sets of obser-
yations were taken with great care and regularity.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations.
: - |English and Welsh | Taft, Cardiff Castle
Month Year Breskeea Leg btship Grids Lightship ” Gardens
Air Water Air Water Air Water
arn PCS) ° ral Otte ° ° ° }
February . . | 1889 — — 39°9 39°9 — eo
March. : 3 415 41-7 38:5 40-1 39°9 42-2
April 4 - 26 46-4 45-1 46:9 45:0 45:5 480
May. 4 3 “c 52:7 50°3 54:9 50°6 547 56:2
June H 5 a 58-0 57-0 59°3 57°8 59:0 52°4
July. 5 i ee 60°6 62°3 62°5 63°6 59°9 63:4
August . F 5 60°8 62:7 61:6 62°8 59°6 60°7
September ; cf 565 61:3 577 60°7 561 58:4
October . 2 ¥ 51:3 555 51:7 54:0 49-0 50-4
November ; 3 48:7 50°9 48°3 49°6 44-6 479
December 5 om 455 45°6 41-4 43-4 39°4 423
January . 1890 44-1 43-7 43-2 42:3 418 | 43:8
February . : iy 40-4 42-9 39°5 42-2 37°6 41:9
March. , 5 43-2 42°5 45-2 40°9 426 | 44-7
April 3 : < | 45:5 4671 49-6 46°3 44°6 48°8
May. 5 2 Be 53-4 515 — — 539 558
June 5 : is 58-1 57°6 60°5 577 57-4 59°8
July. ; : ‘ys 60:0 60°4 61:2 61:3 59:2 60°5
August . 5 5 61:2 62°9 62°4 62°6 59:5 60°5
September ‘ a 60°71 61:8 61:9 61°6 58-2 59°6
October . x PS 55:0 57:1 566 58'7 50°9 52-9
November : ‘ 48:1 52:0 479 49-2 43°8 47-1
December : As 36°3 43-7 36°5 41°9 31-7 38-4
January . ; 1891 36:0 37-1 35° 35°6 329 38°6
February . 4 - 39°5 38°8 419 38:7 367 43-2
March , 3 x 40°8 40-4 39-9 40°6 39-9 42-2
April : , a 44-2 42°5 45:4 42:9 43°9 47-1
May. : ; i 49-6 49-0 50°9 49°3 50°7 52°5
June ‘ 5 . 58-4 555 59:2 55:0 59°3 61:4
July. . ‘ “ 61:4 61:0 62°5 62-1 60°3 61:2
SEVERN.
Observations were made on the Severn at Stourport by Mr. Edward
Collens from March 1889 to May 1890. The observations were made
daily at 10 a.m. at a point on the east bank of the Severn, about 100
yards above the entrance of the Stour. A minimum depth of water is
retained in the river by a weir about a mile below the point of observa-
tion. At Stourport the Severn is rather less than 50 feet above sea level,
and it is 75 miles from Chepstow, where the river may be supposed to
meet the sea. The observations (Curve XIII.) show that the tempera-
ture of the water was almost always below that of the air, taking weekly
496 REPORT—1891.
means of both, although occasionally they approach very closely. This
greater cold of the water was observable in nearly all the rivers on which
observations were taken, and on some was more marked than in the case
of the Severn. The river-temperature followed the air-temperature closely
at all seasons.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Severn at Stourport.
Month Year | Air |Water| Weather and General Direction of Wind
March . . . | 1889 | 48:9 | 47-0 | W. wind; stormy.
Aprile: : P . 47-1 | 45:9 | N. wind; wet; dull.
May 3 : : + 567 | 55°5 | S. winds; thnunder-storms.
June : : ; my 63:5 | 63:7 | S. and E. winds; fine.
July ; 5 : te 66:0 | 64:1 | Changing winds; fine; cloudy.
August . ; ; FA 61:7 | 61:4 | W. winds; fine; mists.
September. : se 59°8 | 58:7 | N.,S., and W. winds; fine; some rain.
October . : : * 50-4 | 48°6 | Changing winds; overcast.
November. : <4 46:3 | 45°6 | W.,S., and E. winds; fine; some frost.
December . . “4 39:5 | 39°6 | S. winds; dull; some frost and snow.
January . : . | 1890 | 42-4 | 41-0 | S. winds; fine; some rain.
February : 5 ep 38:0 | 39:0 | N. and E. winds; dull; stormy; snow.
March . Hi : “ 47:1 | 43°0 | N. and W. winds; changeable: slight
| frosts.
April. : : cs 49-2 | 47-9 | Changing winds ; damp.
May - : : 55 57-4 | 58-2 | EH. winds; fine; overcast.
Curve XIII.—Severn, Stourport. 9 A.M. CurvE XIV.—Lugg, Aymest
9 or 10 A.M.
Aur —Water .
7889 My _ 1890
idbeeenuer eeGEuEEELE
EESRMe Al a 4 Sb eehel Sie
| |_| isi a a
[Alt |
a ain
SERRERAP oc 9/.UR
Cocca NNT A fhe oo ae orem se |
LN | TEeE bs
60
JU
40
Luaa.
Observations on the Lugg were made by Mr. A. Ward from April to
September 1889, at Aymestry, in the north of Herefordshire. The
temperature of the water was always considerably below that of the air,
but the period of observation was too short to bring out any important
relations (see Curve XIV.).
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 497
~ Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Lugg at Aymestry.
Month | Year | Air | Water Weather
. ° ° . .
| April ; . | 1889 | 47:5 | 46:0 | W. winds; some rain.
me May . é Ol ores 54:7 | 50-5 | S. and N. winds; storms.
Sesune . 2 : Fn 61:5 | 54:9 | N.E. wind; haze.
Mmasaly . : = Nears 60-4 | 55°6 | W. winds; fine; some rain.
August . = Ae ee 57:0 | 54:7 | 8. and W. winds; some rain.
at | September . “a Ne 55:2 | 52:0 | N.W. winds; fine.
i
L
uy Kennet.
; Observations on the Kennet at Marlborough were made by Mr. W. B.
_ Manrice and Mr. H. G. Maurice, acting for the Marlborough College
_ Natural History Society. The stream at the point of observation was
about 6 or 7 feet deep and about 24 feet in breadth, about 10 miles
! from its source, and nearly 40 miles from its junction with the Thames.
The depth of water varied considerably on account of a weir about
quarter of mile down stream erected to supply a mill, and when the mill
was not at work the level was allowed to fall very low.
The observations, shown in Curve XV., are remarkable in showing a
_ yery much less range of temperature in water than air. While the
weekly means of air-temperature ranged from 30° to 70°, those of water-
_ temperature were confined between 40° and 55°. The river was always
cooler than the air in summer and warmer than the air in winter, being
at the same temperature in April and October. The record is unfortu-
nately somewhat irregular, but the main facts of annual change of tem-
‘perature are sufficiently outlined by it.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Kennet at Marlborough.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather
°
1888 37-8 44-5 | Changing winds; frost; fog.
1889 | 36-6 | 42:2 | W. winds; snow; frost.
37-4 | 41-8 | W. and E. winds; snow.
cf 43:3 | 44-5 | W. winds; rain.
+) 46:1 | 47-4 | W. and E. winds; rain; overcast.
” 58-4 | 51:3 | Changing winds; some fog, rain and
thunder.
7 63°3 | 54:3. | Changing winds; bright..
A 63:0 | 54:2 | W. and E. winds; rain.
ac 61°5 | 52°8 | W. winds; rain.
Fe 57°6 | 51:7 | W. winds; some frost and rain.
. A 3 48-1 | 48:3 | W. and E. winds; rain.
November . 5 Ps 45°4 | 47-0 ce A frost..
| December . ‘ » | 387 | 4385 | BE. winds; frost; fog..
1890 | 41:2 | 44:1 | W. winds; rain.
4 35:4 | 42-3 | E. winds; fog; rain; frost..
- 46:0 | 44:9 | N. and W. winds.
“ 47-6 | 47:3 | E. winds; cloudy; rain.
Pi 63-6 | 55°5 | E. and W. winds; cloudy.
KK
498 REPORT—1891. “4
CurvE XV.—Kennet, Marlborough. 9 A.M.
Ar~ _- Waker
7883 1889 & 1890
STATA
ov Dee] |Dee.] |Jan.,| Fes. |
ay Viune\fuly| A Fane | July [leg
Sesser iiscrenaae tts 24
—_ HERRRES | SEaRi 2.
Ele PEC
CCSRSIS. Teac ieee SE eee
BEd susseeeeevabensereeseets
KKH EEE
Mie aes a {4 tt
SA TT NY Pooene er
HABA HH
\
AAR
SARE :
CoH Hh ro ses at
CREP Temi, HACE CLEC
CCS MBS ict
a BERH awe o ES
BAEC iets
TRENT.
Observations were made from January 1889 to January 1890, and
from September 1890 to July 1891, by Mr. Frank E. Lott, acting for the
Burton-on-Trent Natural History Society, The temperature was ob-
served on the right bank of the main stream, immediately below Burton
Bridge, and the depth by a flood gauge on the other branch of the river
was read at the same time, usually about 9.30 a.m.
CuRVE XVIa.—Trent, Burton. 9.30 A.M.
1989 a4 Socaey 418 1830
§ mr Fee. Wire Lal Al) Ue © Nov.\ De fF,
BANE
Pie Soe
EEE BRP ap
SS eee Re
| ta i a [TT (in|
CeCe ed
PEC Toe
z Bese Sera al
PEPE UREE | | 4
r| th | a
pindianaae a
a ee = {
“TAA wi 1.
ae My
. AL NT
Be i
ae eee aaa
The Curves XVIa. and XVIb. show that water- and air-temperature
kept very close together, and had almost an equal range, in complete
contrast to the Kennet. On the whole, the air was warmer while the
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 499
temperature was rising for the season, and the water remained warmer
when the temperature was falling for the season. This effect was not,
however, nearly so pronounced as in the reservoirs and the sea or estuary
observations.
Curve XVId.—Trent, Burton. 9.30 a.m.
bv. | Des)
[
mA See
COCCI ceo
¥ Ri a labelled
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Trent at
Burton-on-Trent.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather and General Direction of Wind
January . | 1889 | 40-4 | 40-0 Changeable winds; cloudy; flood gauge,'
42 ft. Tin.
February . oF 37:1 | 36:8 | W. winds; overcast ; flood gauge. 42 ft. 9 in.
March. P +5 41-7 | 40°5 | E. and N. winds; fine; dull; flood gauge.
43 ft. 6 in.
| April . ; “ 465 | 44:1 | N. winds; dull; flood gauge, 43 ft. 6in.
May . : + 579 | 55:1 | N. and E. winds; some fog and rain; fine;
flood gauge, 43 ft. 1 in.
June . 7 63°8 | 62°5 | Changing winds; fine; some rain; flood
: gauge, 42 ft. 1 in.
| July . ' = 64:6 | 63:3 | N., S., and W. winds; fine; dull; some thun-
{ der; fiood gauge, 41 ft. 11 in.
August ./ » 60:4 | 59:6 | W. winds; fine; some fog ; flood gauge, 42 ft.
} lin.
| September .|_,, 57°7 | 57-7 | N. winds; cloudy ; flood gauge, 42 ft. 2 in,
} October , es 48:1 | 47:7 | S. and N.E. winds; dull; fog; flood gauge,
42 ft. 6 in.
November . ” 448 | 44:3 | Changing winds; dull; fog; flood gauge,
42 ft. 3in.
December . ¥ 36:0 | 37:3 | S.W. winds; fog; some snow; flood gauge,
| 43 ft. 2 in.
January .| 1890 | 45:5 | 43-9 | S.W. winds; changeable; flood gauge, 42 ft.
September . * 62°6 | 69:7 | S.W. and N.W. winds; dull; frequent fog ;
\ flood gauge, 41 ft. 8 in.
1 Flood gauge average height 41 ft. 10 in.
500 REPORT—1891.
MonTHLY MEANS OF TEMPERATURE OBSERVATIONS—continued.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather and General Direction of Wind
October 1890 | 50°8 | 51-4 | S.W. mainly; dull; flood gauge, river too
low to read.
November . ss 41:6 | 42°9 | S.W. in beginning, N.N.E. winds end of
month; dull; flood gauge, 43 ft. 7. in.
December i 31:1 | 34:5 | E. and N.E. winds; fog; snow; river frozen
latter half; flood gauge, 41 ft. 10 in.
January 1891 | 32:2 | 33-4 | N. winds; fine; river frozen first half; 8.W.
winds later ; flood gauge, 42 ft. 5 in.
February 5 35°3 | 38°8 | N. and N.E. winds; dull; flood gauge, 42 ft.
4in.
March. s 40°4 | 39°7 | N. winds; fine; flood gauge, 41 ft. 11 in.
April . y 43-4 | 42°9 | N.E. winds; fine; flood gauge, 42 ft. 3 in.
May = 52:1 | 51:1 | N.W. winds; fine; flood gauge, 42 ft. 4 in.
June E 60:7 | 59°8 | S.W. wind; dull; flood gauge, 42 ft.
' July a5 63°8 | 62°6 | N.W. wind; flood gauge, 42 ft. 1 in.
Dove.
Observations were made from March to November 1889 by Mr. H. H.
CURVE XVII.—Dove, Uttoxeter.
Arr __W
9or10 A.M.
Brindley at a point on the right
bank of the Dove 14 miles east
of Uttoxeter and about 14 miles
from the junction of the river
with the Trent. At the place of
observation the riverrunsthrough
a flat meadow, and the banks are
low, but an adjacent railway em-
bankment shelters »t from south-
erly and south-westerly winds.
The stream is liable to sudden
floods, but rapidly regains its
normal size. Curve XVII. repro-
duces the weekly means, and, as
far as its fragmentary nature
allows one to judge, it appears to
closely resemble that for the
Trent.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Dove near Uttoxeter.
Month Year Air | Water
°
March 1889 | 47-3 | 42-7
April as 44:7 | 44-6
May D 55:6 | 53-0
June #5 60°3 | 57:9
July 5 “ 65°5 | 62°5
August . “0 59°8 | 57:3
September . 54:8 | 50°7
October . 4 476 | 47-7
November % 43°8 | 45:3
Weather
Changeable.
N. and E, winds; hail; rain; thunder.
E. winds; fair.
E. winds.
E. and S.W. winds ; some rain.
W. winds; rain.
W. winds.
Changeable ; rain.
Calm ; misty ; rain and snow.
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 501
WIrTHAM.
Mr. Henry Preston carried on a set of observations from April 1889
is
:
q
|
c
A
Curve XVIII.—Witham, Saltersford Pumping Station, Grantham. 9 A.M.
aS agg 2 | a aes
SEC CRRGnnE
r]
8 es g as
to July 1891 for the Grantham Scientific Society at the Saltersford
- Pumping Station of the Grantham Waterworks.
7°
502 REPORT—1891.
The result of this set of observations is shown in Curve XVIII., which
is a particularly valuable one on account of its length and regularity. The
range of water-temperature is markedly less than that of air-temperature,
although not to such a striking degree as in the case of the Kennet. The
interesting feature of this curve is, however, that at all temperatures above
the annual mean for water and air the water remains cooler and there is
only a scarcely appreciable approach of the two curves at the seasonal
fall of temperature, compared with their position during the seasonal
rise.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Witham at
Saltersford, Grantham.
Month Year Air |Water| Weather and General Direction of Wind
°
April . . . | 1889 | 45-8 | 45-5 | Changeable.
May ; , Hele ancy 56:0 | 52:0 | 8. winds; fog; rain.
June. F 5 ey 61:9 | 54:0 | N. winds; fine; cloudy.
July ‘ ; : “4 63:0 | 56-4 | N. and S. winds; overcast.
August . ; : 5 61:6 | 55-9 | S. and W. winds; some rain.
September . : : 58-0 | 54:3 | Changing winds; fine.
October . : : 35 48-2 | 47:0 | S. winds; fog; dull.
November. SH aes 44:5 | 44:0 | 8. and W. winds; some snow.
December. ; - 37°8 | 39:7 | Changing winds; dull.
January . : . | 1890 | 39-7 | 41°5 | S. winds; fine.
February : Bra ae 36:2 | 41:3 | N. and E. winds; some snow and rain.
March . : ; 5 44-6 | 43-4 | W. winds; dull.
April. : ra bss 47-4 | 463 .| Changing winds; fine.
May : ‘ Er il Beeay 55:4 | 52:9 , oe
June. : 3 f 57°6 | 55:8 | W. winds; dull.
July : 5 c o 60°6 | 58:0 | W. winds; some rain.
August . : sidlodbesy 61:4 | 55:9 | W. winds.
September . : 35 61:4 | 57-7 | S. and W. winds.
October . 3 F 3 520 | 48:8 | W. winds; some fog.
November. : * 42:2 | 42-4 | Changing winds.
December . : Fs 29°7_ | 35:0 5 aS
January . é . | 1891 | 34:7 | 35:2 | N. and S. winds.
February ‘ 5 “5 37-7 | 40:71 | S. winds; some fog.
March . : P 9 41:4 | 41-2 | N. and W. winds.
April . : : ” 44-8 | 43°8 | Changing winds.
May 4 5 i PA 51:3 | 50:0 $5 ay
June. 3 i $3 60°2 | 55:3 | N. and E. winds.
July ; : : Ks 63°5 | 57:3 | W. winds.
NortHAampTon RESERVOIR.
Mr. G. S. Eunson made observations for the Northampton Natural
History Society from January 1889 to March 1890 on a small reservoir
supplying water to Northampton. The reservoir stands 360 feet above
sea level on astream near Guilsborough, eight miles N.N.E. of Northampton,
close to one of the sources of the river Nene. The observations made
are shown in Curve NIX., the chief features of which resemble those of
the Grantham curve, although they are not so pronounced. |
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 503
Small Reservoir. Northampton. G. 8S. Eunson, Observer.
Month Year Air | Water Month Year | Air | Water
| ° | ° °
' | January : . {1889 | 37-4 | 38-7 | September . . | 1889 | 55°5 | 54:9 |
if February . : 3 36:0 | 37:4 || October . . . 48:2 | 47-1
' March . : ; i 41:2 | 406 November . p tp 441 | 449 |
se} April . : ; » | 45:1 | 43:0 || December . : = 37-4 | 39°6
\ May . : : 3 556 | 52:0 | January . . | 1890 | 41:0 | 40-9
June . 5 - 5 61:4 | 56:0 February . é + 37:0 | 39°6
July . A ; a 616 | 588 | March : : a 40°6 | 40-2
| August. : : a 60°3 | 568 |
CuRVE XIX.—Reservoir, Northampton. 9 A.M,
Atr___Water
NGA So 0G0RRKESER
WCC CECE
CNC CECE
fi 200 ea
AE
ener a NEE Bus
BADD
VES eB
VAM IAT TT
eee as)
Lt det T TM WT TN AT TT
| [tf
ARAY.
The record extends from August 1888 to July 1891 and is of unbroken
regularity. Observations were made daily at noon from August to
November 1888 and thereafter at 9 a.m., by Mr. G. Taylor at a point in
the grounds of Inveraray Castle about one mile from the entrance of the
_Aray into Loch Fyne. At the place of observation the river is to a slight
xtent shaded by trees, but it is a typical Highland stream flowing rapidly
‘om a bare moorland glen and subject to frequent and rapid floods. The
Curve No. XX. (see Plate) shows that, as in other rapid rivers, the
water is always of lower temperature than the air, and as the winters on
the west coast are not severe and the water rarely falls to freezing point,
his relation holds good for the weekly means all the year round. Sudden
alls of temperature are common in summer after heavy rain on the sur-
Trounding hills, and sudden rises of temperature, although not to such
4 pronounced degree, frequently follow a heavy shower in winter.
504 REPORT—1891.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Aray at Inveraray.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather
ie} fo}
August . * - | 1888 | 61°38 | 56°5 —
September . : i 57:9 | 53-4 —
October . A F Bh 52:1 | 46°6 —
November. . ; 478 | 44:3 —-
December , te 29 42°7 | 41:2 —
January. ‘ . | 1889 | 39-4 | 38-0 —
February : A 55 39:5 30-9 —
March . ‘ P oe 41°5 | 38:2 —
April. 3 ; a 474 | 43:0 —
May : 8 p . 58-4 | 52°7 —
June. ; : om 62°94 59°3 _—
July : . : is 61:1 | 57°5 —
August . 3 ; 55 60°7 | 56:9 a
September . 5 7A 550 | 52°5 Ss
October . : - re 475 | 45-1 —
November. . e 43°9 | 42°6 | Snow; rain.
December. , - 42°6 | 41:2 3 -
January. : . | 1890 | 40°2 | 38-7 5 » thunder.
February : : 5 37°6 | 36°9 | Bright; some snow and rain.
March . , 4 2 42°9 | 39°7 | Snow and rain.
April . : : 3 47:0 | 43-1 | Bright.
May - : ; ” 58°9 | 52°9 | Bright; some rain.
June. : . a 62°6 | 60°2 | Rain.
July. , : 5s 62°2 | 59:9 | Showery to dry and bright.
August . - . ” 59°5 | 55:7 | Rain.
September . ‘ 7 55:2 | 52°6 | Changeable.
October . 4 Z x 45:8 | 44-4 | Some rain, hail, and thunder.
November. es 42°9 | 42-4 | Snow; rain.
December. : a 37°38 | 36°8 | Much rain and some snow.
January. p . | 1891 | 37°3 | 35:7 | Showery, with many dry days.
February % 2 ee 41:4 | 40:1 | Dry on the whole; showers of rain
and sleet.
March . : s x 40-1 | 37-4 | Showery, with frequent sleet showers.
April. : 5 + 45:0 | 40°5 | Dry and bright on the whole.
May ; i : if, 53°3 | 49°3 ==
June : : s ; 63°5 | 60°2 --
July ; 5 A - 60°6 | 58:9 _—
THURSO.
Curves XXI. and XXII. give the weekly means of observatious made
by Mr. David Gunn at Thurso, Caithness, near the mouth of the river,
and by Mr. John Gunn and Mr. J. B. Johnstone on the same river at
Dale about nine miles farther up stream. The detailed observations were
made the subject of a communication by Mr. John Gunn to the Scottish
Meteorological Society, and they are published in the Jowrnal of that
Society for 1888. At both stations the temperature of the water is under
that of the air for the whole year, even at a time when the river was
partially or completely frozen for several weeks. This apparent anomaly,
seen also in other curves, is probably due to taking the forenoon or 10 a.m.
observations of air-temperature as the basis of the curve, while the
minimum night temperature is really the chief factor in determining the
chilling and freezing of the water.
61% Report Plate XV
. thereafter.
7537
it. Aov [Doc] Jan. | 226. | Har:|Apr May \Jane| July ud
JSR DC USEES eee
an |
BEUE’
ek Poe At
30
FRRaS i Fenn TT ae ihe
soeeg|sbececesesers (aeeaaeseeeea ces
Sool geo ce oeeeeece (oa aeeoe HA
fA SoS Ul pee eee
ons of Temperature in Lakes,
m.
Stotttiswoode &C°Lith. London
y
BI* Repaert Brit Nowe, I.
Cunvs XX.—Aray, Inveraray, Argyllshire. 12 noon until November 30, 1848, 9 A.a. thereafter,
[ies Lees [io
Th mua i
TEE
: - e {
1
erpeueea! 1 gauge (ae j |
ame ee } t HH
sbsad bas stasteesle Sridadeseatecttatiatel ute lestesttussee
Illustrating the Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes,
Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United Kingdom.
Battlrwnate AOA Landon,
2 : — 3
Aur Weetor
enews
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 505
CurvE XXI.—Thurso at Thurso. 10 to 10.30 A.M.
Water.
50 ey 7] q rv
seeraeoeees
BRAN INAS ieee
CINE RS
ms ye
5Q Besar ree tee eee ttre
CuRVE XXII.—Thurso at Dale. 10 A.M.
Atr___Wata
, [ 3 r |
BP B//\ 4S eNee
ATM LT TWA
y | BAY
= ian
Pra TT TT
PTA TT TT Ty
ee Tel eee et |
& BF SNE Se) 2
Navel a aeae
meri
Wy I
ALMOND.
From January 1888 to July 1891, with a few unavoidable interrup-
tions, Mr. J. Paterson, Almondbank, Perthshire, observed the temperature
of the Almond at a point about one and a half mile above the junction
of that river with the Tay. The weekly means are given in Curve XXIII.
(see Plate), from which it appears that, except in some winter minima,
the temperature of the water is always lower than that of the air,
although the two come closer together when the seasonal temperature is
falling than when it is rising. A noticeable feature in this curve is its
very irregular form, and the fact that the fall and rise of temperature
from one week to another is often greater for the water than for the air.
506 REPORT—1891.
This is probably to be accounted for by the chilling effect of rain or
snow-fall on the mountain streams which feed the Almond and bring it
down in frequent and heavy floods.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Almond at Almondbank,
Perthshire.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather
| January 1888 39-4 36-7 N. wind; mostly calm; some frost.
February a 35°8 | 34-4 | W. and E. winds ; mostly calm.
March 3 35°7 | 34-7 | Stormy.
April 55 45°5 | 37:3 | N. winds.
May » = ~
June ke 60°5 | 59°4 | E. winds: mostly calm.
July + 55°3 | 53-9 | S.W. winds; mostly calm.
August . * 55°4 | 52:1 | W. winds.
September a 5271 | 50:2 | W. winds.
October a 46:3 | 43-6 | Calm; rain.
November ‘. 42:4 | 40°9 | E. and W. winds; some rain.
December - 37-4 | 38:5 | Calm; rain.
January . 1889 | 35°5 | 35:8 | Calm; frost.
February z 33°5 | 33:3 | Calm; snow and rain.
March = 39°7 | 37-2 | W. and E. winds; mostly calm.
April = 44:2 | 39:8 x >
May a 51:3 | 49:2 | Changing winds; rain; mostly calm.
June ‘5 58:6 | 57°8 | Calm.
July » | 589 | 582 | E. winds. |
August . BS 57°6 | 55:1 | Calm; rain; fog. |
September “3 —_— —
October . nn 44-4 | 43-2 | W. winds; dull; fog.
November 3 41°6 | 40:3 + mostly calm.
December a4 37:4 | 36-4 | S. and W. winds or calm.
January 1890 | 3971 | 37:7 | W. winds or calm.
March 93 43°6 | 39°5 =
April ss 45:3 | 41°9 =
May | 534. 1.5079 —
June 5 58:2 | 55:0 =
July 3 58:7 | 55:1 “=
August . m — — —_—
September a — —_ _- °
October . cs 50°77 | 46°6 =
November re 39°2 | 46:3 aad
December = 34:8 | 35°6 =
January 1891 | 33:1 | 33°8 sale
February as 390 | 37-7 as
March +s 38°5 | 3671 =
April * 43:0 | 39°3 ==
May 5 48°5 | 45:4 —
June = 5972, | B77 =
July oe (Pes | 60d =
Harn.
Observations on the Harn were made by Mr. John Ellis from January
to June 1888 at Bridge of Earn, about three miles above the junction of
the river with the Tay.
XXIV. is too short to admit of discussion.
The record given by weekly means in Curve
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 507
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Earn at Bridge
of Earn.
Year Air Water Weather
°o [o}
| January . ; : .| 1888 39°2 39°2 Changeable.
| February . P F 4 ‘i 32°3 35°7 N.W. and EK. winds.
March . ; ; i Me 36:0 Biel N. winds; snow.
April : c é : 3 44:0 42°8 N. winds.
May. : é f : ni 53:0 499 S.W. and E. winds.
June. ‘ F : ‘ $ 48°5 48°5 E. winds.
_ CurRVE XXIV.—Earn at Bridge of Harn. CURVE XXV.—Tay at Perth.
8.45 A.M. 8 to 10 A.M.
* 7887 /858
ine Wr ok
LAU A TT
TINA T TT
CWI TTT
a? il, ae) es
eas pal VE Pr
mts ReEeSRE
14 ee
40
3
Tay AND BRAAN.
Observations on the Tay at Perth were made at different hours
in the forenoon and afternoon by Mr. W. Wilson (see Curve XXV.),
Mr. R. Dow, and Mr. Mechie for a few months in 1858. The morning
observations are most interesting to compare with other rivers, and they
alone are given. The record is too short to admit of any attempt at
diseussion. The same observers made a series of observations in 1887’
and 1888, but not in the conditions required by the Committee.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Tay at Perth, 9 a.m.
Month Year | Air | Water | Weather
fo}
| December . Q . | 1887 32:5 | 35-9 | Some snow and frost.
| January . é . | 1888 | 40:0 | 37°8 | Some fog and rain.
February. E ‘ Bs 36:7 | 37-5 | W. and N.E. winds; some snow.
| March , : F : 5 37:9 | 37-4 | W. winds; some snow.
April . é ‘ ; 35 45:8 | 43:6 | N. winds: some rain.
| May . ‘ é j Pr 50°3 | 46:9 | N. and W. winds.
At Inver, near Dunkeld, Messrs. C. and J. Macintosh made observations
on the rivers Tay and Braan from March 17, 1889, to June 20, 1890, at
8.15 a.m. The Tay at the point of observation is narrow and deep, with
@ comparatively slow current when the river is low. In flood instances
have been known of the water-level rising as much as 16 feet above
the average. The banks are high and wooded to the margin of the stream.
508 REPORT— 1891.
The temperature is taken about 8 feet from the bank, where the depth
of water varies from 4 feet to 12 feet or more.
The Braan is a rapid mountain stream; about half a mile above the
point at which observations are taken, it emerges from a deep narrow rocky
ravine well wooded and about one and a half mile long. Before its
junction with the Tay a mill-lead is cut from it to the Tay, and the
temperature is observed near the outlet of this artificial channel.
Both sets of observations are shown in the same diagram, Curve XX VI.
The Braan is always a few degrees colder than the Tay and follows the
variations of air-temperature much more closely than does the larger
river. The Tay was almost always warmer than the air, and this was
particularly the case in the summer of 1889, when for more than a month
both rivers had a temperature over 60°, a temperature which the air did
not reach on any occasion as a weekly mean. It must, however, be
noticed that the early hour of observation would account for a low air-
temperature. The river-temperature runs much closer to the air-
temperature during the period of heating up than while cooling down.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on the Tay and Braan
at Inver, near Dunkeld.
Month Year | Air | Tay |Braan | Weather and General Direction of Winds.
March. . | 1889 41-2 39°8 39°0 | N.W. wind: changeable ; some thunder.
April , ; a 42:0 | 41:3 | 39:2 | N.W. wind; stormy; some snow.
May ,. ‘ 5 50°8 | 50°3 | 49:0 | E. winds; fine; dull; showers.
June , : 5 55°7 | 57:0 | 56:4 | N.W. and E. winds.
July . F BA 562 | 60°7 | 58:5 | No remarks.
August : ” 53°5 | 55:5 | 55:3 rs ;
September . + 50°56 | 53°4 | 61:2 BS
October : = 43-2 | 461 | 43°8 sy
November . i 40°7 | 43:0 | 40-4 5
December . Fy 37°9 | 39°56 | 36°6 »
January .| 1890 | 36:6 | 39°5 | 37°6 7
February . a 34:5 | 37°83 | 34:7 a
March : - 42°6 | 39:3 | 38:3 5
April . : +S 41‘7 | 43:3 | 41:7 i
May . : bf 492 | 60°5 | 49°9 =
June . é - 55:5 | 53:4 | 53-4 95
CuRVE XXVI.—Tay and Braan, Dunkeld. 8.15 A.M.
Aw-— fiwer lay’ — thve? Draar----
1889 7890
UK Iprid Wah Tosa Vey Mag Ss ed] Wav Dea [Jan FEB Ware ot | Mag
LY EE
Cert Wee Deere eb le
Me 0 Va
EEE COREL 5G ai
CoM j Suse
RASA
CCE eee ria
FREE SEE eae
ON THE SEASONAL VARIATIONS OF TEMPERATURE. 509
Observations were also made on the Tummel at Ballinluig, on the
Dochart and other feeding streams of Loch Tay at Killin, on the Forss
in the north-west of Caithness, in the sea at Scrabster and at Wick in
Caithness, on the Wick river, on the Glass in Strathglass, the Eden near
Cupar Fife, on the Nith estuary and on Lochrutton, Kirkcudbrightshire ;
but from irregular hours of observation, short period of observing, or other
_ causes, they have not been reduced to the form of curves.
A number of observers in various parts of Ireland were supplied with
instruments, but only two sent in reports of work done.
Sea at Movie.
One of the records was an admirable series of observations in the sea
at Moville, on Lough Foyle, by Mr. J. Lowry, from January 1889 to May
1899.
CuRVE XXVII.—Sea at Moville, Ireland. 9 A.M.
. Ay. Water ‘
Z BP 90
[Mar ord ey Vere Vp dag. Wop ee Wor. Decl Jun Feb Afar or |
ne TEE eee ee
ea | FN fn a | a ef te ea
@CCCHCCCE NARA COE
£\ m—
VATS IN A PEEP tt Be
| 4 Zi FEE ite PEC
DER ee
Dale AS) f ABEoS
SeSR006)//SEnEEe Saemeny A AHHH
PAC VAIE aaa = aun goonam WAP
" NWA la ©
Haba AIMS PEE SEBEL ase
ACO SR0SR S08). 0/,00888
BEE eee aero reise eee ee eet
EEE BSSEESSTUSaesaaae
guage
le
Y |
| |
Be
a
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on Lough Foyle at Moville.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather
January . , . | 1889 | 45:8 | 44-6 | S. and W. winds ; some hailand rain.
February : ; % 41-2 | 42:3 | Changeable; rain and snow.
March . . i ¥ 44:2 | 43:3 | W. winds.
April. ‘ 3 ; 46:9 | 46:0 | N. and E. winds.
| May ¥ F b 56:2 | 51:3 | 8. and EK. winds.
| June. B 9 59°7 | 55:3 ” ”
July . : 6 op 59:3 | 58:1 | S. and W. winds; some rain.
August . 5 : ‘i 58:1 | 58:0 or EF
September . . 7 578 | 54:9 | S, and E. winds.
_ | October . ; ' i 50-4 | 51:0 | Changing winds.
| November . 4 5 47-6 | 48:5 | S. and W. winds.
| December . ° 5 43:2 | 44:9 5 &
January. 3 . | 1890 | 42:4 | 44-2 =, Fr
February ; ‘ os 4071 | 43:5 | S. and E. winds.
| March . 5 . 3 43-7 | 44:9 | S. and W. winds.
| April. ¢ ‘ 7 46:0 | 46:2 | S. winds.
May » ‘ 5 ae 504 | 49:2 rf
Curve XXVII. gives the weekly means and affords an interesting
510 REPORT—1891.
comparison with the Bristol Channel observations. The water was colder
than the air while the temperature was rising and at the seasonal maxi-
mum, but warmer than the air when the temperature was falling and at
the seasonal minimum. The range of sea-temperature was decidedly less
than that of air-temperature, and the curve for the water is more uniform
than that for the air, showing little tendency to follow sudden and tem-
porary changes.
BELVEDERE Lake.
Mr. J. Bayliss made observations on the east side of Belvedere Lake
from January 1889 to January 1890. Belvedere Lake is a small sheet of
water three miles south-west of Mullingar, in West Meath. The tempera-
ture of the water (Curve XXVIII.) was almost always higher than that
of the air, and had a nearly equal range but was less subject to small
irregularities.
Monthly Means of Temperature Observations on Belvedere Lake,
West Meath.
Month Year | Air | Water Weather
January. : - | 1889 |. 39:7 39°3 S. and W. winds; stormy,
February ‘ . 38°9 | 39°38 | W. and N. winds; snow.
March . : ; + 42-2 | 42-1 | Changing winds; stormy.
April. . ; Pe 45°8 | 46-4 | N.,S., and W. winds; some rain.
May E * ¢ cS 53°9 | 55:4 | S. winds; overcast.
June F P - 5 60°1 | 61-8 | Changing winds; cloudy.
July 5 ; = - 59°9 | 60°9 | W. winds; stormy; rain.
August . . A 58:3 | 59:8 | S. and W. winds; overcast.
September . : 5 580 | 57-6 | Changing winds; some rain.
October . 4 2 > 47-9 | 49°5 | S.W. and N. winds ; rain.
November . ; qi 46:1 | 47-9 | S. winds; fog; rain; stormy.
December . é e, 41°5 | 41-4 | S. winds; stormy.
January. : - | 1890 | 45°0 | 42:1 | S. winds.
CuRVE XXVIIIJ.—Belvedere Lake, West Meath, Ireland.
10 A.M.
CurVES.
Av. Water
iz Word Jina dao ar] aid Weekly means of
bi) ce Bee Me Np Mr a EEhee Aihots Bee! water- and air-tem-
PEE pele al Se te perature at twenty-
Sens Bel eight stations. The
| Bae | a
60 BESERBESEE NT Gib”. 1. GF GRR eeEee curves are drawn on
| the same scale, the
entries correspond-
BERG BASE (AR ee [TLt] ing to the average
vot tt BWSR OS 2 temperature (usually
POPS at 9 A.M.) for the
| LIN IZ week ending each
| AA [| PEEP Saturday. The tem-
eat ‘Abd aa a + perature readings are
i" corrected for instru-
PEPE EP EEL EL aa) ental nemeren
ge COPS EEE eee eee eee several instances the
readings are subject
to uncertainty sometimes on account of the observer only reading to
whole degrees or to half or quarter degrees,
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. ol
)
On the Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their Capture by
Jupiter. By Professor H. A. NEwrTon.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]
1. Some years ago I obtained and published! a formula expressing in
simple terms the total result of the action of a planet in increasing or
diminishing the velocity of a comet or small body that passes near the
planet. This formula is practically a modification of the integral of energy,
the smaller terms in the perturbing function being omitted. A very brief
and partial treatment of it was presented to this Association in 1879 at
its Sheffield meeting.? Within the last two or three years several astro-
nomers have made special study of the manner of Jupiter’s action in
changing the orbits of comets that pass very near him. M. Tisserand
has given us an expression connecting the major axis, inclination, and
parameter of the orbit described before coming near to Jupiter with the
corresponding elements of the orbit after leaving the neighbourhood of
the planet.? M. Schulhof has applied the formula of M. Tisserand as a
eriterion for determining the possible identity of various comets whose
orbits pass near to Jupiter’s orbit. Messrs. Seeliger, Callandreau, and
others have continued these investigations. The interest thus shown in
the problem has led me to resume the study of the subject and to work
out the results of the formula obtained by me in 1878 more fully than
they have been hitherto developed.
2. One of the remarkable distinctions between the comets of long (or
infinite) periods and those of short periods is that the orbits of the
latter have almost without exception direct motions and small inclinations
to the plane of the ecliptic, while the orbits of the former have all
possible inclinations between 0° and 180°. At first sight this seems to
imply that the two groups of comets are radically distinct in origin or
nature one from the other. The most natural line of investigation there-
fore is the effect of perturbations in bringing or not bringing the comets
to move with the planet after the perturbation.
3. The algebraic processes by which was obtained the formula for the
change of energy which a small body experiences from passing near a
_ planet were given in the article cited, and they need not be here repro-
duced. The following was the resulting equation, viz. :—
¥" 4mfa?v, cos $ sin a ‘ a
Po
and it was obtained from the general differential equations of motion by
making assumptions not greatly differing from those used in obtaining
Laplace’s well-known theorem, that a sphere of suitable magnitude may
be described about the planet as a centre, and that for a tolerable first
approximation the comet may be regarded as moving when without
fas
' American Journal of Science, III., vol. xvi., 1878, p. 175.
* Report, 1879, p. 274.
* «Sur la théorie de la capture des cométes périodiques,’ Bull. Astron., tome vi.,
juin et juillet, 1889.
* ‘Notes sur quelques cométes a courte période,’ Astron. Nachrichten, No. 2964,
512
REPORT—1891.
this sphere in a conic section of which the sun is the focus, and as
moving when within the sphere in a conic section (an hyperbola) of
which the planet is the focus. In other words, only perturbations of the
first order of magnitude are taken account of. A comet is treated
throughout this paper as a small indivisible body whose mass may be
neglected.
4. Notation.—The symbols used in (1) and also other symbols which
I shall have occasion to use may be thus defined :—
Let €,
To
be the orbit of the comet about the sun before the comet
comes under the appreciable action of the planet ;
the orbit of the comet about the sun after perturbation by the
planet ;
the hyperbolic orbit of the comet relative to Jupiter when
near the planet ;
the elliptic orbit of Jupiter about the sun;
the point on ©, which is nearest to 3;
the point on 9 which is nearest to ©, ;
the length of the straight line EA, being the perpendicular
distance between the orbits at their nearest approach ;
the angle between the tangent of ©, at A and the tangent to
¥ at E;
the distance which the planet has yet to pass over to reach E
when the comet is at A (i may be negative) ;
the mass of the planet ; sun’s mass = unity ;
the unit of distance, in general the mean distance of the earth
from the sun ;
the sun’s attractive force at the unit of distance ;
the planet’s velocity in its orbit at E;
the comet’s velocity in its orbit C when the comet enters the
sphere of Jupiter’s perceptible influence ;
the comet’s velocity at A relative to the sun ;
= v,/, 5
the semi-axis major of €, (negative if ¢, is an hyperbola) ;
the semi-axis major of ¢ (negative if ¢ is an hyperbola) ;
the perpendicular from the planet upon asymptote to C;
the acute angle between the transverse axis of C and the
asymptote to C ;
the angle between the tangent to J at O (drawn in the
direction of the planet’s motion) and the line from the
planet to the vertices and centre of C;
the semi-transverse axis of C;
-the semi-conjugate axis of C (hence equal to p) ;
the distance of the planet from the sun ;
the distance of the comet from the sun;
the distance of the comet from the planet ;
p, and p distances of the comet from the sun at selected epochs before
and after perturbation ;
u,and wu the velocities of the comet at the selected epochs ;
A
2 2
the increase to which »?—2/" _ ema receives by the planet’s
r; °
action during the whole period in which the comet is
passing near to Jupiter.
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 513
_ 5. If we assume two epochs, one before and one after the perturbation,
it which the comet is equally distant from the planet, the term 2mfa?/r,
is the same at both instants, and it disappears from the value of A.
Therefore
and
hence
hat is, from (1)
1 1 = 4mcos ¢ sin a
a, @ ps
This equation is valid whatever be @, the major axis of the orbit €,, and
may be used to determine the major axis of either orbit from the elements
of the other. My present purpose is, however, to study the action of
Jupiter in changing orbits that are originally parabolas, and hence in
general @, will be taken infinite. In that case
= ps 5)
ee nae NS hela ite.
_ It will be found that the second member of (2) depends on wo, d, and
h,and these are known quantities when the elements of @, and ¥ are
given. The use of the equation is, moreover, greatly simplified and
enhanced by the fact that the plane of the planet’s orbit is involved only
in so far as that it must contain the tangent to J at E.
_ 6. In the second member of (2) all the factors are positive except
cos }; hence if 6 <4}z, @ is positive and the orbit € is an ellipse ; but if
b>47, @ is negative and ¢ is an hyperbola. This result may be thus
expressed : If the comet passes in front of Jupiter the kinetic energy of the
et is diminished ; if it passes behind the planet the kinetic energy of the
et is increased. .The reason for this may also be given in general
anguage. If the comet passes in front of the planet the comet’s
ttraction increases the velocity, and hence increases the kinetic energy
f the planet, and vice versd. But the total energy of the two bodies is
stant, so that when that of the planet is increased that of the comet
$ diminished, and vice versd.
_ 7. It is desirable now to transform the value of @ given in equation
2) so as to be able to determine the major axis of the new orbit of the
somet directly from the circumstances of its initial approach to the
planet before perturbation ; in other words, to find @ in terms of «, d,
and. For this we must find in terms of wo, d, and h values for s, p, a,
d.
1891, Tht
514 REPORT—1891.
8. To find s—In fig. 1 let A and E represent the two points A and E
as defined above (Art. 4), and the line AE represent d. Let AY be the
tangent to ©, at A, and EO the tangent to § at E. It is an admissible
supposition that the planet is describing the straight line OH, and that
the comet in its unperturbed orbit is describing the straight line YA.
At some certain moment the line joining the planet and the unperturbed
comet must evidently be perpendicular to OE. Let OY be the line
joining the bodies at that moment, so that the planet is at O when the
comet is at Y, and HOY is aright angle. Instead, however, of supposing
the planet to move from O towards E we may apply an equal, opposite
motion to the comet, and consider the planet to
remain at rest at O. Draw AC parallel to EO and
make AB equal to the distance described by the
planet during the time that the comet is moving
from Y to A: Join YB. Then since YA and BA
represent in direction and magnitude the motions of
the two bodies in a given interval, the third side YB
of the triangle represents in magnitude and direc-
tion the motion of the comet relative to the planet.
The angle YAB is the angle o, and the three sides
of the triangle YA, YB, and BA are proportional
tov, v,, and v, Let the angle YBC be 0; then from
the triangle YAB we have
UV." = 07 — 2vy crs w + 8,
Fig. 1.
and
U:U,:0,::8in 6: sin (@—w) : sin w 5 ; (3)
Since v and v, can be computed from the given elements of the orbits of
the planet and comet, we may readily compute from o the value of s,
or v,/v,. But if the planet is at its mean distance from the sun, and the
comet’s orbit is parabolic, v? = 2v,?, and we have
si=3—2/2cosw . : : : (4)
Also from the triangle
2v,? = v,? + 2v,v,cos 8+ v7,
or
2s cos 0= 1 — 3? 2 3 ; : ° (5)
9. To find p.—tThe planet being regarded at rest at O and the relative
unperturbed motion of the comet being along YB, this line may within
admissible limits of error be treated as one asymptote of the relative
orbit C. The perpendicular from O upon YB will then be by definition
(Art. 4) the line p. Draw OX from O perpendicular to OY and OH,
and let these three lines be coordinate axes. Let the line AB meet the
plane XOY in C. Join OC, let fall OD perpendicular to YB, and join
CD. Since EA is perpendicular to AY, and also to EO, and so to its
parallel line AC, therefore it is perpendicular to the plane YAC. Hence
OC parallel to EA is perpendicular to the plane, and so perpendicular
toCD. Again CDY is a right angle; for OD? + DY? = OY? = OC?
+ CY?, and OD? = OC? + DC?. Hence DC? + DY? = CY?, and conse-
quently CDY is a right angle.
The quantity h is the line BC; for h is the distance which the planet,
when the comet is at A, has yet to pass over before reaching E. But the
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. A515)
. lepinet was at Y when the planet was at O, and the planet describes BA
while the comet describes YA, leaving BC as the distance yet to be
described, or h. But the angle CBD is @, so that we have
p?=OD?=00?+CD?=d? +h sin?6 . . (6)
10. To find a.—The angle a is the acute angle between the asymptote
and the transverse axis of the hyperbola, and hence from the nature of
_ the hyperbola tana = B/A. By known formulas we have, if the planet
is at its mean distance,
4 ea:
sraree(t-J)
Lay? «a
vo? = 2mfa? (= + me
v2 mr mr
v2 A? or A=: (7)
Hence from (6) *
; Bp s?(d? + h? sin? 6)!
taie= ,=-—=—S
A nur
11. To find ¢.—The orbit of the comet relative to Jupiter lies in the
plane YOB. Let 7 be the inclination of the plane YOB to YOX,
‘measured positive from 2 positive to z positive; let 7 be the longitude of
the direction YC, measured in the plane YOX from OY, that is, the
angle made by YC with OY produced; let A be the longitude of the
direction YB measured in the plane YOB from OY, that is, the angle
made by YB with OY produced. Imagine now a sphere described
about Y as a centre that shall cut the three planes XOY, BOY, and BCY
in three sides of a right-angled spherical triangle. The hypotenuse of
this triangle is \, the base J, the perpendicular }7— 6, and the angle
opposite to the perpendicular is 7 ; hence we have
cos X= cos 1 sin 0 : : . peen((ist)
cos 6=sin7 sin A ; ; F Bern Go):
cot 1 = sin / tan 6 ; z ‘ - CQ)
Also from the triangles OCY aud BCY
4 OC d
tan 1 = tan OYC ip re Pn Gan A . . . i
cos¢=sinisin(A+a) . a Piss . (12)
These equations enable us to compute ¢ in terms of d, h, and w; for in
succession 6 may be computed by (3), J by (11), A by (8), ¢ by (10), and
$ by (12).
_ 12. These values of s, p, a, and ¢ give by equation (2) the value of @.
The suppositions that the planet is at its mean distance, and that , is a
parabola, are involved in that equation, but they are not necessary o the
Lu2
516 REPORT—1891.
determination of @ when no such hypotheses are made, and changes in
the equation that are not serious would make it applicable without these
limitations. The quantities in the several equations may be regarded as
having values :—
d positive,
h positive or negative,
a positive and less than 42,
w, 6, o, and 7 positive and less than z,
1 and X positive and less than 27.
13. We may, however, also find directly the value of @ in terms of
d, h, and the known functions of w.
From (12):
cos ¢ sin a = sin? sin A cos a sin a + sin 7 cos A sin? a,
From (7) :
eis dtl os ee and sin? ger
4B? 2B
From (10) and (8):
ote Fe si sin 6 cot Z sin 6
ua ee Sr ee ;
ek Soatee (1+sin?/ tan? 6)! (sec?6 + cot? 1)}
hence from (6) and (11):
bees h sin? @ h sin? 6
ee =
EES = = Lae = ow
From these and (9) :
cos ¢ sin a (A? + B?) = AB cos 06£/B sin? 8,
and hence from (2) :
jas a2 ENTE ols _ & A+d? +h? sin? 6
@= 4m’ Acos@=hsin?@ 4m’ AcosO+hsin26 ~ aS)
Since m is the known mass of the planet, and 6, s, and A are known
functions of w, equation (13) gives directly the value of @, the semi-
axis major of the new orbit ¢, in terms of d, h, and o.
14. For a particular case of approach, equation (13) is convenient for
computation. We may, however, now treat d, h, ana w as independent
variables whose varying values may express all the different possible
cases of approach of the comet to the planet, so far as change of periodic
time of the comet is concerned. The dependence of @ upon the three
variables cannot be very easily represented graphically in a single plane
diagram. But by giving to w successive values in multiples of 10°, viz.,
w = 10°, 20°, 30°, &e., to 170°, I have prepared a series of diagrams to
exhibit in each case in succession the relation of @ to the other two
variables. The values of 6, s, and A for the several values of w were
needed in making the diagrams, and they are given in Table 1. Equa-
tions (4), (5), and (7) are used in making the table. The disturbing
planet is assumed to be Jupiter, so that m was taken equal to 1/1050
and r= 5:2.
> °
: : ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 517
re
Tase LI.
e | 8 5 A w @ s A
=. ° ° ‘ ° ° i
1 0 0 O 0-414 “02886 100 131 48 1°868 00142
) 10 BoP F1 0:463 -02309 110 | 138 9 1-992 00125
20 55 47 0°585 01448 120 | 144 21 2-101 00112
30 72 22 0°742 ‘00900 130 150 26 2°195 00103
40 84 46 0:913 00594. 140 156 26 2:273 00096
50 94 47 1-087 00419 150 | 162 22 2334 00091
60 103 27 1:259 00312 160 168 16 2:379 “00088
70 111 14 1-426 00244 170 | 174 8 2-405 00086
80 118 27 1-584 00197 180 | 180 0 2-414 00085
90 125 16 1:732 -00165
15. Using these values of 0, s, and A we may now represent graphic-
ally the dependence of @ upon the other two variables d and h for each
specified value of w. Let d and h be Cartesian coordinates, then for each
point of the coordinate plane there is a value of @. The ambiguous sign
will be fully satisfied by giving positive and negative values toh. For
an assumed value of @ we shall have a curve whose equation is (13),
and each point of this curve represents values of d and h for which the
total action of the planet upon the comet will be to reduce the energy of
the comet a constant amount. This locus will be called an ‘dsergonal
curve.
16. Faisceau of isergonal ellipses.—The equation (13) of the isergonal
curve may be written
4m@ (A cos 6 + h sin? 6) = s (A?+d?+/A? sin? 6),
and this is the equation of an ellipse. As @ changes its value we may
treat it as a parameter, and we have a faisceau of similar isergonal
ellipses, each ellipse symmetrical with the axis of h. The radical axis of
the faisceau A cos 8 + h sin? 6 =0, and the imaginary ellipse A? + d?
+h? sin? 6=0, are theoretically two members of the faisceau. For
points on the radical axis @ = cc, and therefore for this locus there is no
change in the energy of the comet.
17. Centre and area of the isergonal ellipse.—The centre of the isergonal
ellipse is upon the axis of h; making d = 0 and solving for h, we have
_ 2m@ 4 2n@ é3 We CASAS
ba es (2 (cos @ aa 2 ately
The first term of the second member of (14) is the ordinate of the centre,
and the second term is the semi-axis major of the ellipse. The ratio of
he axes being 1 : sin 6, and As? being = mr, the area of the ellipse wi!l
equal to
272 2
fxm'@ (2 — (cos 0-7) )
8? sin 6 as
_ 18. Maximum action of the planet.—For two particular values of @
the isergonal ellipses become points. These values of @ result if the
maximum effect of the planet in increasing and in decreasing the
energy of the comet takes place, and they are obtained by making
518 REPORT— 1891.
the two values of h equal to each other in (14), that is, by making
A
cos 6 — ine =+1. Since at the same time h = 2m@/ss, we obtain
A As
= sss e d we ig
b= os DEY © Hope ed 19)
Let h’ and h’’, and @’ and @”, be the positive and negative values of h
and @ in (15), and we may construct the following table of their values.
As in Table I, Jupiter is assumed to be the perturbing planet.
Tasie II.
w WV hu @’ @" w h id @’ @"
fe} fe}
O | 01443 (oa 314 —-oc 100} :00426 |—-00085 417 | —0°83
10 | 01250 |—-15174 3°04 —36:90 || 110} 00489 |—-00072 512 | —0O'75
20 | 00927 |}—-03307] 2°85 —10°15 || 120} -00598 |—-00062 6°60 | —0°68
30 | 00690 |—-01290| 2-69 — 5:03 || 130] -00789 |—-00055 9:09 | —0°63
40 | 00544 |—-00654] 2-61 — 3:13)| 140} -01149 |—-00050 13:71 | —0°60
50 | 00457 |—-00387 2°61 — 2-21 ||150/} 01934 |—-00047| 23:70 | —0:57
60 | 00407 |—-00253] 2°69 — 1°68 || 160] -04192 |—-00044|° 52:36 | —0°55
70 | 00382 |—-00179 2°86 — 1:34 || 170) -16336 |—-00043 | 206°30 | —0:54
80 | 00377 |—-00134 3:14 = 1:11 || 180 (od —*00043 x —0°54
90 | 00390 |—-00105| 3°55 sO g ayy a — —_— — —
19. Explanation of Table II.—The meaning of the numbers in this
table may be explained by an example. If a comet moving in a parabola
passes near to Jupiter, and the directions of the two original motions at
nearest points of the orbits make an angle of 10°, then the greatest
action of Jupiter (during the whole period of transit) in diminishing the
velocity of the comet in its orbit about the sun will take place if the two
orbits actually intersect (d = 0), and if the comet in its unperturbed
orbit arrives first at the point of intersection at the instant when Jupiter
is distant therefrom ‘01250 (the earth’s mean distance from the sun
being unity), the resulting semi-axis major of the comet’s orbit about
the sun will be 3-04.
On the other hand, the greatest effect in increasing the velocity of
the comet will take place when the two orbits actually intersect, and the
comet in its unperturbed orbit reaches the point of intersection later than
the planet and when the planet is distant therefrom 0°15174. The semi-
transverse axis of the resulting hyperbolic orbit about the sun will be
36°90.
20. Resulting orbits of maximum perturbation—The position of the
relative orbit about Jupiter in these cases of maximum perturbation for
given values of w is easily determined. From the equations (7), (6),
and (15)
tana = B/A=h sin 0/A = sin 6/(cos 6 +1).
The positive sign gives 2a = 6, and the negative sign gives 2a = 7 + 0.
But the angle 2a in the first case is the angle of the asymptotes enclosing
the branch of the hyperbola described about Jupiter by the comet,
Since the two original orbits intersect, the plane of the relative orbit
contains the planet’s path, so that the comet passes directly in front of
the planet, and being turned backward leaves Jupiter exactly in the
g
4
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 519
direction of Jupiter’s quit.! The place of encounter with Jupiter will be
‘near an apse of the comet’s resulting orbit about the sun. The comet
leaves the planet with the relative velocity v,, so that if s < 1 the motion
about the sun in the new orbit will be direct; if s > 1 the motion in the
new orbit will be retrograde. That is, by (4) when w < iz the resulting
motion is direct ; when » > iz the resulting motion is retrograde.
In the second case the angle 2a, being greater than 180°, stands for
the angle between the asymptotes exterior to the orbit. Hence the
comet passing behind the planet will be turned forward and will leave
the planet in the direction of Jupiter’s goal, and have a velecity that will
send it permanently out of the solar system.
21. The results of Art. 20 assume that wis given. To find for what
yalue of w the period of the resulting orbit is the shortest possible we
may put As? = mr and 1 — s? = 2s cos @ in (15), so that
ta
2 Faas,
d@
To find the minimum for @ place eS 0 in this equation. This gives
Ss
¢ = +1, in which result, since s is inherently positive, only the positive
sign is used. But whens=1, @=}7,h=mr, andw=47. Hence the
greatest effect of perturbation of a planet moving in a circular orbit in
shortening the periodic time of a comet originally moving in a parabola is
obtained if the comet’s original orbit actually intersects the planet’s orbit at
an angle of 45°, and if the comet is due first at the point of intersection at
the instant when the planet's distance therefrom is equal to the planet's
distance from the sun multiplied by the ratio of the mass of the planet to the
mass of the sun.
The relative velocity of the comet on leaving the planet’s sphere of
action would be equal to, and directly opposite, the planet’s velocity
(s = 1), and the comet would be left entirely at rest to fall to the sun.
This case could not happen for planets like the earth where mr is less
than the semi-diameter of the planet. In the case of the earth mr is less
than 300 miles, and actual collision would result. But for Jupiter mr is
greater than the distance of the second satellite from the planet. The
_ nearest approach of the comet to the planet would be mr (/ 2—1), which
is more than four times the radius of Jupiter. Hence this case of
maximum diminution of major axis could occur near Jupiter.
22. Isergonal ellipse for » = 10°.—If we make w = 10° the vanishing
points of the isergonal ellipses will be (Table II.) at d= 0, h = ‘01250
and d=0, h= —‘15174. In fig. 2 let OH and OH be the axes of d andh
respectively. The vanishing points will be on the axis OH at distances
h’ and h’ above and below O. Upon this diagram are shown the halves
of four isergonal ellipses. The scales used for d and h are not equal to
each other, since the use of the same scale for both coordinates would
make the figures of inconvenient shape. In this and in all the figures
2-18, the unit in d is to the unit inh as 1 to sinw. But to indicate
more clearly this scale, and at the same time to give a kind of shading
to a part of the area, there are drawn above the radical axis ae lines
parallel to OK, and parallel to OH, at intervals of ‘01; that is, the sides
1. The goal and the guit of a moving body are those two points on the celestial
‘sphere towards which and from which the body is moving.
520 REPORT—1891.
of each of the small rectangles in the quadrant HOE are ‘01, or about
925,000 miles. Only the positive values of d are represented in the
figures. The positive vanishing point being 1°250 of these divisions above
Fig. 2.—w=10°. Fig. 3.—w=170°.
\N
P SQ MMQy :
MAN
AW—C—uHrnr
MQ se WN N Vo
= . RA RX Qav
O, and the negative vanishing point 15,174 below O, we lay off Oa
= }(h' + h’’)= — 6-962 divisions, and draw ae for the radieal axis. The
smallest positive value of @ is (Table II.) 3:04. As @ increases from
Fig. 4.—w=20°. Fig, 5.—w=160°.
=e
\ eee SSS eee reer
===
Se
SS ee ee ee a a SS SS
===
===
==========—=——-
= ===
2=aa ae
Beste AS
a a PS ES
Ss Sa eS #H
ae ESS Ea
=== ING
SS OTE
Sas=s\—
Era
3-04 the ellipse increases in size, and the innermost eurve represents what
it becomes when @= 5. The second curve (separating the blank and
shaded areas) corresponds to @= 20. Any parabolic comet passing
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 521
Jupiter with an original angle of o=10°, and having d and h such as to
be represented by a point within the blank area of fig. 2, will leave the
vicinity of the planet in an elliptic orbit whose semi-axis major is less
than 20, and whose period therefore is less than ninety years.
The larger curve that lies above ae in the shaded area is the isergonal
ellipse for @=50. As @ increases the lower part of the curve tends to
approach the radical axis ae, with which it coincides when @= cc. For
points in the area below ae (distinguished by the oblique-line shading),
the planet increases the velocity of the comets, and the comet would be
thrown permanently out of the solar system. The smallest semi-transverse
axis, the one corresponding to the vanishing ellipse, is (Table II.) 36:90,
and the isergonal curve for @ = — 50 is drawn in the figure.
23. Isergonal ellipses for w =170°.—In fig. 3 are drawn the three
ellipses corresponding to the values of @, — 5, —20, and —50. The
ellipses above ae do not appear, inasmuch as the smallest possible elliptic
orbit has a semi-axis major of 206°3 (Table IJ.) and a period of about
3,000 years. The radical axis ae is ‘08146 (or over eight divisions) above.
E
24, Figs. 4 and 5 are like diagrams for »=20° and »=160°.
With altered numbers the explanation of Arts. 22 and 23 apply with
slight change to these figures. The line ae in figs. 4 and 5 is nearer to
Fig. 6.—w =30°. FIG. 7.—w =150°.
OE than is the same line in figs. 2and 3. In fig. 4 the line for @ = — 20
appears below ae, while above ae are the three curves for + 5, + 20, and
+ 50. respectively. In fig. 5 the ellipse for @ = 50 is wanting, since the
522 REPORT—1891.
minimum ellipse has a semi-axis major 52°36 (Table II.), while below ae
the three curves are present.
In figs. 6 and 7 are contrasted in like manner the isergonal curves
for the angles w=30° and »=the supplement of 30°. In fig. 6 the
curve @ = — 5 is wanting, and in fig. 7 the two curves @=5 and
@ = 20 are both wanting.
In like manner are to be explained figs. 8-18. The numbers
needed for drawing the figures are furnished by equation (13). The
curves that in each figure separate the shaded area from the non-shaded
Fic. 8.—w = 40°. Fig. 9.—#=140°
H
Saneees
Sees amen
SSeS 3mn ce
Rt eH ER
‘a a BB ,
2 a
4 = :
Bee
a on a
> ae a a
ieaeze
Ate
D > eZ ees
| Oa
a NEN \. €
\ QS 4
SAI
‘
MQ
area are the ellipses for @ = 20 and @= — 20. The shading is intro-
duced in order to compare more readily the corresponding curves in the
figures.
. 25. The dotted curve in the several figures represents those values of
d and h for which the total change of direction in the relative orbit is
10°; that is, a= 865°. It is that curve whose equation is A tan 85° = B,
or d? + h? sin? 6 = A? tan? 85°. It is therefore an ellipse whose centre
is the origin of coordinates, and it is similar in each figure to the isergonal
ellipses.
26. Hypotheses about the parabolic cometary orbits.—It will be convenient
to make two assumptions about the distribution of the parabolic comets
and the distribution of the goals of their motions. There seems to be no
very well-marked relation between the ecliptie, or to speak more strictly
a er
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 523
_ the invariable plane of the solar system, and the known parabolic cometary
orbits. The following two assumptions do not seem likely therefore to
introduce any very serious error into our reasonings.
If about the sun as a centre a sphere S be described with an arbitrary
radius 7, it will be asswmed that near the surface of %, space is filled
equably with comets. We may express this by supposing that in each
cubic unit of space near 3, there are at each and every instant » comets.
As the orbits are all assumed to be parabolic, the » comets have a
common velocity v.
It will be furthermore assumed that the directions of the comets in
Fig. 10.—w = 50°. Fig. 11. Fig. 12.—w= 60°. Fig. 13.
a= 130°. w=120°.
eae tt
Ta.
a Milf Tif
GASLOPILALALIGHT
YU
UY
each cubic unit of space near & are at random—that is, that the quits
and goals of the comet’s motions relative to the sun are distributed
equably over the surface of the celestial sphere.
27. Number af comets entering —If about a normal to & as an axis
there be described two cones cutting the celestial sphere in two small
circles distant from the point where the normal meets the celestial sphere
yand ¥+dy, then of the comets there will be 4n sin dy comets whose
quits are between the two circles. Each of these comets will move per-
pendicularly to the spherical surface with the velocity v cos y. Hence
in a unit of time }nv cos y sin ydy comets will cross a unit of the surface
® going towards the sun. The total entering the sphere in the unit of
524 REPORT—1891.
time will be this number multiplied by the number of units in the surface
of 2, or
2
darts nv cos y sin Yd = rnvr?.
0
28. Distribution of parabolic comets as to perihelion distance.—This
supposition of equable distribution of the goals of comets as they cross
the spherical surface 2 involves also a law of distribution of comets as to
perihelion distance. The number of comets that enter the sphere in a
given time whose motions make with the normal angles between y and
Ww + dy is proportional to sin y cos yd. If N be the number of comets
that enter } in a given period of time with an angle with the normal
less than y, we may write dN = k sin ycos dy, where k is some constant.
Fig. 14.—w=70°. Fig. 15.—w=110°,
But if q is the perihelion distance of a comet which at the distance r from
the sun moves at an angle with the radius equal to y, then g =, sin? y,
and dq = 2r sin y cos dy. But comets that enter S with angles to the
normal between y and y + dy have perihelion distances between q and
q+ dq. Hence N may also represent the number of comets that in the
given period of time pass their perihelia, and whose perihelion distances
are less than g. Therefore 7q 18 ® constant, and we conclude that if
comets be grouped according to their perihelion distances the number of
comets whose perihelion distances are less than q is proportional to q.
|
:
:
:
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 525
29. It follows as a corollary to Art. 28 that if the two assumptions of
Art. 26 be made for the spherical surface 3, the like distributions are true
_ for every smaller concentric spherical surface. It would be but a reason-
able extension of the assumptions to make them apply to larger spheres
if finite.
30. If there are assumed to be 7 comets equably distributed in each
unit of the space near and through which a planet is moving, and if these
comets are all assumed to be moving in parabclas about the sun with the
Fig. 16.—w = 80°. Fie. 17.—w = 90°. Fig. 18.—w =100°.
velocity v, having also their directions of motion equably distributed, then
the number that are moving from quits lying within an element dS of
the surface of the celestial sphere will be ae Let vo be the common
TT
velocity of these comets relative to the planet. Then suppose that a
spherical surface S! is described with a radius 7’ about the planet as
centre; 7’ being small relative to the sun’s distance, yet not so-small as
to forbid the omission of the planet’s perturbing action so long as the
comet is without the surface 8’. In each unit of time out of these comets
directed from the element dS of the celestial sphere there would pass
nearer than 7’ to the planet nt «77 ¥9 = fnvor’*dS comets if unperturbed.
T
Evidently an equal number cross the surface S’ entering the sphere in
each unit of time.
If now w be the angle which the comet’s unperturbed motion is
making with the planet’s motion, and if v, or its equal v/,/2, be the
planet’s velocity in its orbit about the sun, then vp? = 4v2[3 - 2/2 cos w],
526 REPORT—1891.
The element dS may be taken to be the elemental zone between the two
small circles whose common pole is the planet’s quit, and whose distances
from the planet’s quit are w and w + dw. Then dS =27rsinw dw. The
number of comets entering S’ in a unit of time with quits within that
elemental zone will be
anor’?
oe s i .
379 (3 — 2./2 cosw)' sin « dw
dnvor® X 27 sin wo dw =
The integral of this,
aK —2/2cosw)'sin o dw = {rnvr”,
expresses the total number of comets that, under the hypotheses that have
been made, would in a unit of time enter the sphere S’.
31. If we compare the two expressions obtained in Arts. 27 and 30
we find that the number of comets which, in a given period of time, come
nearer to the sun than ¢ is to the number that (unperturbed) come nearer
to the planet than 1’ as 6r? is to 7”. The factor § expresses the increase
of numbers caused by the planet’s motion in its circular orbit. The value
of r’,as has been said, must not be too small, nor yet must it be very
large.
39, In order to determine the number N of comets which in a unit of
time will have their periodic times reduced below a given period we may
make use of the isergonal curves represented in figs, 2-18. Although
the diagrams were not constructed to exhibit the motions of the bodies,
yet they may be utilised for that purpose. Let OH be the tangent to the
planet’s orbit, O the place of the planet considered at rest, and let the
plane HOE contain the shortest line d between the two orbits. This d
will be the abscissa of the point at which the comet’s unperturbed orbit
will cut the plane. The ordinate of the same point, produced if necessary,
will be the projection of the comet’s path upon the plane HOH, and the
comet’s path makes with the plane the angle 6. The velocity of the
comet perpendicular to the plane will be v)sin@. By reason of the
hypothesis that the comets are equably distributed, the points of intersec-
tion with the plane HOE will be equably distributed over the plane.
Hence the number of comets whose quits are in the element dS of the
celestial sphere and that will pass the planet in a unit of time in such a
way as to have their periodic times reduced below a given period will be
equal to the area inclosed in the corresponding isergonal curve multiplied
by the velocity perpendicular to the plane, vp sin@, and by the factor
ndS
ar
time, the area of the corresponding isergonal curve will be (Art. 17)
a (4m?@ _ (2m@cos 3)
GG aoa
s? s s?
0
If @ is the semi-major axis of the orbit for the limiting periodic
For dS we may, as before, take 27 sin w dw, and we shall then have
N= ao sin of e- (“2 se =") “te.
8
8 s?
The integration must extend throngh the positive values of the
quantity in square brackets beginning atw=0. [In case o=0 givesa
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 527
‘negative value for the quantity in square brackets we must integrate
between the two values of w corresponding to the zero value of the
bracketed quantity.] We may make S the independent variable by the-
equations
sds =/Y 2 sin w do, vp.f 2=sv, and 2s cos = 1 —s?,
N= Jenm?e|[ 4@? 2 (e-—@" ) ‘|@
33. If now we require the number of comets which in each unit of
time shall pass the planet in such way as that they shall have after the
passage respectively less than one-half, once, three-halves, and twice, the
planet’s period of revolution, we may place @=rT%, and make T equal
successively to 4, 1, 3, and 2, and compute in each case the value of N as
given in the last article. The results are found to be rnm?r*v multiplied
severally by the coefficients 0°139, 0:925, 1-876, and 2:948.
34. By comparing the results of Arts. 27 and 33, and making the
assumptions of Art. 26, we have the proposition, that the number of
comets which in a given period of time pass their perthelia nearer to the sun
than a given planet is to the number of comets whose periodic times are
reduced by the perturbing action of the planet so as to be less severally than
one-half, once, three-halves, and twice, the periodic time of the planet, as
unity is to the square of the mass of the planet multiplied severally by 0°139,
U''25, 1876, and 2:943.
35. If Jupiter is the planet, m= ,);5, and we may express these
ratios as
' These give :
1 000 000 000 : 126 : 839 : 1701 : 2670.
That is, assuming the hypotheses of Art. 26, and regarding the planet as
without dimension so as to intercept any comets, ¢f im a given period of
time a thousand million comets come in parabolic orbits nearer to the sun
than Jupiter, 126 of them will have their orbits changed into ellipses with
periodic times less than one-half that of Jupiter; 839 of them will have their
orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times less than than that of
Jupiter; 1,701 of them will have their orbits changed into ellipses with
periodic times less than once and a half times that of Jupiter; and 2,670
of them will have their orbits changed into ellipses with periodic times less
than twice that of Jupiter.
36. Another and perhaps a more important inquiry is this, what
effect have the perturbations of the planet in bringing or not bringing
the comets to move in the same direction that the planet is moving after
the comets have by perturbation had their periodic times largely reduced ?
For simplicity and as a special example I shall consider the action of
Jupiter only, and also only his action upon those comets whose periodic
times are reduced to be less than Jupiter’s period, the original orbits of
the comets being parabolic. In other words, how many of the 839
comets which are reduced (Art. 35) to have periodic times less than
Jupiter’s period will after perturbation have goals distant less than 15°,
30°, 45°, &c., severally from Jupiter’s goal ?
37. Let BA, fig. 19, be drawn to represent v,; and CA to represent
2/2. With A asacentre and AB and AC as radii describe the semi-
circumferences BLO and CHG. Let the angle BAH be made equal to
» and BH be drawn; then HA will represent the comet’s velocity about
528 REPORT—1 891.
the sun, BA the planet’s velocity about the sun, and therefore HB the
comet’s velocity vp in its orbit about the planet before perturbation. About
B as centre describe the semi-circumference KHT. Since the relative
Fig. 19.
ORS G
velocity after as well as before perturbation is equal to HB, therefore the
velocity of the comet about the sun after perturbation will evidently be
represented by a line drawn from some point in the semi-circumference
KHT to A. Ifthe velocity is increased the new velocity will be repre-
sented by a line to A from some point in the arc KH, if diminished by a line
to A from some point in the are HT. If the new velocity is less than the
planet’s velocity, and so the new cometic period less than the planet’s period,
the new velocity will be represented by a lineto A from some point in the
arc ET. Ifina diagram constructed for o=BAH the isergonal curve
be drawn for @=r, those comets for which d and h represent points
within that isergonal curve will after perturbation have velocities repre-
sented by lines drawn from points in ET to A, while comets for which
d and h represent points outside that isergonal curve will after pertur-
bation have directions of motion represented by lines drawn to A from
points in EHK. The number of comets having motions represented by
lines to A from points in ET will be proportional to the area of the
isergonal curve @=r. Let the angle BAS represent a limiting value w’’
of distance of quits of comets from Jupiter’s quit after perturbation. The
comets which are thus limited and at the same time have @<vr will be
moving in lines directed to A from points in the area bounded by the
straight lines SA and AF, and the ares FD and DS. Let w receive an
increment dw=Hh and let a new semi-circumference be drawn with Bh
as radius, To the elemental arc Hh will correspond the elemental area
along the semi-circumference KET. If ET lies wholly in SAFD the
number of comets that pass the planet in a unit of time having initial
angles of direction with Jupiter’s motion between w and w+dw will be
equal to the area of the isergonal curve for @=r multiplied by the
elemental number $n sin wdw, and by the relative velocity vp sin 0 of the
comet perpendicular to the isergonal area. Tf the area of the isergonal
curve be represented by ¢s? sin 6, then this product will be
dds,
m sin wdw __nv
. Uo sin 6. eS
s? sin 6
since / 2v9=sv, and /2 sin wlw=sds.
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. 529
38. This expresses the elemental number of comets corresponding to
the elemental area Te. The integral of this expression, that is, Jnvfdds,
_ so taken as to cover the area AFDS will give the number of comets
_ which in a unit of time will pass the planet in such a way as to have
@<vrand wo’ <BAS. When the elemental area does not extend from the
are DS to the line BA, the area of another appropriate isergonal curve
is to be used in determining ¢.
By Art. 17 we have
¢ =zm'| 4@2— — — — e) a
For the elemental areas of the surface AFDS which end on the are
DS we make @=7, and let ¢y be the resulting value of $; then
— dy=7m7?(4—s").
For elemental areas that end on the radius AS the values of @ on
that line are functions of s. To compute them let v’ be the comet’s
velocity in its orbit about the sun, and hence equal to the distance of the
point on AS from A; then, by the triangle of velocities
0? +!? —2y'v,.c0s wo! =9?=s870 7.
Again by the laws of gravitation,
via (2— es
ie —2 a/ 2- hea ow,
@ 3—s?—2 cos? w+2 cos w'(s?—sin? w"’)}
r 9—8 cos? w’/ —6s?+ s¢
Hence
Let ¢’ and ¢’ be the two values of ¢ obtained by substituting in ¢ these
values of @, $'’ representing the value for the point nearer to A.
39. If w'’=90°, and therefore cos w'/=0, we have along the limiting
ine the two values of @ equal ; hence
CO mare oy
Bae Nd BST py
So that the number of comets having quits less than 90° from J upiter’s
quit and @ <r is
“2
nu a2 nv V2 anvum2r2 /2 (s?—1)ds
MU ods — "(dg TO 4.—s%)ds—4 | & —*)es
a | eat i? ik to 4 [| arses (ce
1
= THE (7+ /2)="7012 nvmr?,
eince the whole number of such comets is (Art. 33) equal to 925 znvm?r?,
the number of comets the distance of whose quits from Jupiter’s quit is
between 90° and 180° is 224 rnvm2r?. The number of the comets for
which @ <r that have inclinations to the ecliptic less than 90° is to the
ead that have inclinations greater than 90° as 701 is to 224. Of the
. MM
530 REPORT—1891.
839 comets spoken of in Art. 36, 203 will after perturbation have retrograde
motions, and 6386 will have direct motions.
40. If w’’ is less than 90° the expression to be integrated in order to
cover the area SAFD will be
sin w” 2sin Jw” 1
[sods + [bo — 4°) ao + [oras
sin a sin «”
If w’’ is greater than 90° the corresponding expression becomes
2sinj}o” [{2sin jw”
[is (gids
2-1 1
As the value of @ introduces into ¢’ and ¢” only one radical in s, and’
that a radical of the second degree, these integrations are possible.
Finite summation is however more convenient. Computing the values.
for each interval of 15° we construct the following table. The first
column indicates the interval in values of w’’; the second column gives.
that coefficient of }xnvm?r? that must be used to obtain the number of
comets which in a unit of time will pass perihelion nearer than Jupiter’s.
distance to the sun, shall also have their periodic times reduced to be
less than Jupiter’s period, and shall also leave Jupiter’s vicinity so that
the distance between the quits of the two bodies is between the two
values in column 1; the third column indicates the distribution of the
839 comets of Art. 36 through the twelve zones.
Taste III.
Limiting values of w” Coefficient of 4anvm?r? No. out of 839 comets
ie} °
From Oto 15 26 6
From 15 to 30 401 91
From 30to 45 751 170
From 45 to 60 670 152
From 60to 75 548 124
From 75to 90 443 101
From 90 to 105 296 67
From 105 to 120 235 53
From 120 to 135 162 37
From 135 to 150 99 23
From 150 to 165 50 ~~ oe
From 165 to 180 16 +
We see also from the last column of this table that of the 839 comets
under consideration 267 have quits less than 45° from Jupiter’s quit,
while only thirty-eight of them have quits within 45° of Jupiter’s goal.
41. Table III. gives the distribution of the comet quits relative to
Jupiter’s quit. It may also be used to determine how many of the
comets whose orbits are thus changed shall have an inclination to the
plane of Jupiter’s orbit less than a given angle.
Let the angle be 30°. Let Q be Jupiter’s quit on the celestial sphere,
Q’ the comet’s quit, and S the sun’s position as seen from Jupiter. Then
in the triangle QQ’S put w” for QQ’, the distance of the quits. The side
QS = 90°, and QSQ’ will be the inclination of the orbits. Represent
this angle by 7 and the angle Q’QS by 7. Then sin 7 = cot w” cot 7.
Let two small circles be drawn about Q at distances w”’ andw!’ + dw!’;
ON THE CAPTURE OF COMETS BY PLANETS. jou
then if dw’ be made 15° the numbers in the second or third columns of
Table III. indicate how many quits are in the several zones of 15° on the
celestial sphere. These may be distributed at smaller intervals than 15°
by known processes. All the quits that lie in the lune between two semi-
circles drawn through §, so as to make angles of 30° with QS, will evi-
dently have orbits inclined less than 30° to Jupiter’s orbit. From wo’ = 0
to w'’ = 30° all the quits are included in the lune. From w’’ = 30° to
wo! = 90° we compute 7 from the equation sin 7 = cot w” cot 30°; then
the portion of the quits in any elemental zone that fall in the lune is to
the whole number of quits in that elemental zone as this value of 7 is to
90°. These may be summed by finite summation, and the result is that
among the 839 comets 257 would move in orbits inclined less than 30° to
the orbit of Jupiter.
42. If a like summation be made for the equal lune that contains
Jupiter’s goal we find 51 to be the number out of the 839 comets which
move in orbits inclined more than 150° to Jupiter’s orbit. That is, some-
: what more than five times as many of these comets move in direct orbits
inclined less than 30° to Jupiter's orbit as move in retrograde orbits inclined
less than 30° to Jupiter's orbit.
43. The comet has been thus far considered as approaching Jupiter
while moving in a parabolic orbit about the sun. If the comet, however,
is moving in any other orbit, and it passes near to the planet, the result
of the planet’s perturbing action will in general be quite similar to the
result when the orbit is parabolic, the other circumstances of the approach
being assumed to be alike in the two cases.
44, These are perturbations during one transit past the planet. But
the comet, unless the orbit is further changed by another planet, must
return at each revolution to the place where it encountered Jupiter. At
some time Jupiter will be nigh that place nearly at the same time as the
comet, and the comet wiil suffer a new, and perhaps a Jarge perturbation.
Its period will again be changed, being shortened or lengthened according
as the comet passes before or behind the planet. This process will be
repeated again and again, since after any number of encounters the new
orbit of the comet will still pass near to the orbit of the planet.
This repeated action makes it possible to have an orbit shortened in
period by several passages near to Jupiter instead of its being done at
one passage. A much larger proportion of comets than 839 out of
1,000,000,000 might therefore have their periodic times reduced below
the period of Jupiter.
| 45. If the comet’s orbit is largely inclined to the ecliptic, and hence
its motion makes a large angle with that of Jupiter, the diagrams figs.
10-18 show that there is nearly an even chance that the velocity will be
increased or diminished. A considerable fractional part of the whole
mber of such comets will at each passage be thrown out of the solar
system altogether, or thrown into such long orbits that they will return
only at very great intervals of time. This class of comets cannot be there-
‘ore regarded as permanent members of the family of short period comets,
except such of them as happen to come so near to other planets as to
ve their orbits changed in such wise that they do not have thereafter
_ the near approach to Jupiter’s orbit. Bat when an orbit is greatly in-
clined to the plane of the solar system the comet passes through the
_ plane in general at a considerable angle, and the chance of coming close
to another planet is relatively small.
MM 2
532 REPORT—1891.
46. On the other hand all the comets which after perturbation are
moving in orbits somewhat but not greatly inclined to the ecliptic are
liable to meet, in fact are sooner or later almost certain to meet, other
planets in such a way as to suffer perturbations that will prevent future
close encounters with Jupiter. After such changes those comets must
be regarded as tolerably permanent members of the solar system.
47. Comets that have motions not greatly inclined to Jupiter’s motion
are, as figs. 2 and 4 show, more likely in subsequent passages near to
Jupiter to have their periodic times shortened than lengthened. On the
contrary those passing in nearly opposite direction to Jupiter's motion
will, as figs. 3, 5, and 7 show, be much more likely to have their periods
lengthened than shortened.
All these causes combine and work together to the one end that those
comets which are changed by the perturbing action of Jupiter, or other
planets, from parabolic orbits of every possible inclination to the ecliptic
into short period ellipses, and become permanent members of the solar
system, will as a rule (but with exceptions) move in orbits of moderate
inclination to the ecliptic, and with direct motions.
We know as a fact that most short period comets do move in orbits
having small inclinations and direct motions, while long period and para-
bolic comets move at all possible inclinations to the ecliptic. If the short
period comets have been changed by Jupiter and other planets from
parabolic orbits, the preceding investigation shows why their orbits have
now small inclinations to the ecliptic, and the comets themselves have
direct motions.
The Recent Progress of Agriculture in India. By C. L. TUPPER.
[A Communication ordered by the Council to be printed in extenso among
the Reports. ]
Since 1884-5 the Revenue and Agricultural Department of the Govern-
ment of India has published very comprehensive returns of the agricul-
tural statistics of British India, showing from year to year the area irri-
gated by Government canals, the acreage under cereals and pulses, fibres,
and other crops, the total area cropped, and many other particalars. I
have abstracted some leading figures from these returns, and append my
abstracts to this paper.
It will be observed that in the period of six years, from 1884-5 to
1889-90, comprised in these returns the total cultivated area has risen
from 126 million acres to 136 million acres. I give the increase in
round numbers, and I propose throughout the text of this paper to use
round numbers only, showing the most precise figures I can get, either |
in footnotes or in the appended abstracts from the returns. The figures
of 1884-5 necessarily do not include Upper Burmah, nor do they include
Ajmere, or the pargana, or tract known as Manpur in Central India.
Accordingly, to arrive at the total increase of cultivation in the six years,
we must deduct for these localities some three million acres, We thus
arrive at an increase of seven million acres, or a little more than one
million acres a year. The population of India now amounts to 286
millions, of which 220} millions live in British territory and 65} millions
in the protected native states. In the decade 1881 to 1891 the increase
;
P ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 533
a.
has been 29 millions. But if we take only British territory, and exclude
Upper Burmah as a fresh acquisition, it appears that the population has
risen by nearly 19 millions,! or by 145 millions if we exclude Bengal,
which it is necessary to do because the Bengal figures are omitted from
the returns, the land revenue system which obtains in Bengal affording
no facilities for their compilation. The proportionate increase in the
area under review during the six years comprised in the returns would
be abont 8,700,000; so that for each extra mouth to be fed we have
nearly ‘81 acre of additional cultivation. ‘This is not much, seeing that,
according to the figures given by the Famine Commission in 1880, the
_ ratios of the cropped area in the principal provinces ranged from 88 of
an acre per head in the North-West Provinces to 1:9 acres in the Central
_ Provinces.
! The second statement I have prepared (Statement B) shows the
extension of the irrigated area during the same six years. The increase
_ due to the inclusion of Upper Burmah is 400,000 acres, so that the exten-
sion of the irrigated area in India generally, less Bengal, may be taken
at 44 million acres, from 23 million in 1885-6 to 275 million in 1889-90.?
The figures include all sources of water supply—Government and private
canals, tanks, wells, and hill streams. It is not possible to state with
precision the portion of this area which is irrigated by Government canals
because the Bombay returns of land irrigated in that way include also
the acreage watered from canals which are the property of private
persons. But I may estimate the area irrigated by Government canals
at nine million acres. The Famine Commissioners assumed that an acre
of irrigated land can produce enough food to support 2°5 people. It is
_ safe to suppose that at least 24 million out of the 45 million acres newly
brought under irrigation were untilled before, thus allowing 2 million
acres as old cultivation now improved by being irrigated. On these
data, with the additional assumption that one unirrigated acre will yield
enough food for one person in the year, we may calculate that 45 million
acres of fresh irrigation will produce enough food for 94 million people.
_I have shown that the increase of the cultivated area, irrigated and
“unirrigated, amounts to seven million acres; so that, on the supposition
-—too favourable a one—that the whole addition to the tilled breadth is
given to food crops, we have an additional food supply for 11? millions
to set against an actual increase of 8,700,000 in the population. Without
pretending that this result possesses any greater degree of accuracy than
is warranted by the nature of the returns and suppositions on which it is
founded, I think it a safe general conclusion that the agricultural deve-
lopment which is implied in the extension of cultivation and the extension
of irrigation keep pace, and do not do much more than keep pace with
the simultaneous increase in the numbers of the people.
This is not a startling conclusion; and it is one, I think, to be
weighed with sobriety of judgment, with a mind neither specially elated
aor unduly depressed. There are physical limits, of course, to the exten-
sion of cultivation, and to the application of that most obvious and in
many places, but not in all, most useful of Indian agricultural improve-
s Year 1881 5 fs ; F 5 ‘ . Population 198,655,160
Year 1891 : : : : : : . Population 217,487,370
Difference. c 5 . +18,832,210
_ * Texclude the figures for 1884-5 because in that year statistics for Bombay and
_ Sindh are not available.
534 rEePportT—1891.
ments—the supply of artificialirrigation to dry areas by means of wells or
canals. There are considerable parts of India, such as the Patna and
Burdwan Divisions of Bengal, the Benares Division, and the Lower and
Middle Dodb in the North-West Provinces, with parts of Rohilkhand
and Oudh, and two or three of the most populous districts in the Punjab,
where the population is already so dense that it presses closely on the
means of subsistence. Elsewhere it is important to distinguish between
the wastes already included in village areas, used as common grazing
grounds for cattle, and great unoccupied blocks of arable land available
for new settlers. Village grazing lands are to be found practically
everywhere. In British India there are only a few well-defined tracts fit
for settlers, thongh of some of these the areas are enormous. In the
southern plains of the Punjab, between the great rivers, there are some
eight or nine million acres of fairly fertile soil, ready for cultivation, if
only water can be given to them. In the Central Provinces the Famine
Commissioners mentioned two tracts, one in the western end of the
Nerbudda Valley and the other in the eastern, or Chatisgarh Division,
to which the attention of immigrants might be directed. In Assam and
Burmah there is a vast extent of culturable land. I cannot do better
here than quote the report of the Famine Commission, from which these
facts are derived :—‘ There is,’ it says, ‘outside the congested tracts, in
most villages, scope for a slow and gradual extension of cultivation by
the breaking up of uncultivated land, and for the more careful cultivation
of what is now under tillage, and outside the village areas there is an
immense extent of land which is more or less fit for cultivation. But
much of it is poor land, and where it is not poor either the climate is
feverish or else the conditions are so different from those that prevail in
the densely populated places from which emigration might be desired or
expected to come that settlers would be alarmed and discouraged. Pro-
bably the only tracts to which these objections do not apply are the
desert waste plains between the Punjab rivers and along the Indus, in
which, if irrigation is ever introduced, cultivation can be carried on under
much the same conditions as those which prevail in the greater part of
Upper India.’
Any such attempt as this to convey in the space of less than half an
hour some prominent facts connected with any recent development of
agriculture in India must almost necessarily start from the admirable
report in which the remarks I have just quoted were made. That report
gathered into a focus all the light then available as to Indian agriculture,
and it has been diffusing it ever since. I draw special attention to the
conclusions of the Famine Commissioners as regards the waste lands
between the great Punjab rivers because I am anxious to point out that
the Government of India is fully alive to what is probably the greatest
agricultural improvement that it is at present within its power to effect,
and that the Local Government concerned and its officers are energetically
co-operating in the endeavour to bring about that improvement in a
satisfactory way. In every one of the vast interspaces between the
Punjab rivers, including the space between the Swat and Cabul Rivers and
the Indus, we now have either important irrigation canals or projects for
such canals sanctioned or unsanctioned. It must not be supposed that
this is any direct result of the recommendations of the Famine Commis-
sion. Two of the permanent canals, the Bari Dodb and the Western
Jumna, are of old date; and the Swat River Canal was planned and the
CE ————
ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 535
Sirhind Canal was under construction years before that famine in southern
India which led to the appointment of the Commission. Still the recom-
mendations of the Commission coincided with conclusions locally well
known and already in process of practical acceptance. I append a state-
ment (Statement C) of the perennial canals in the Punjab constructed and
under construction. I have to add that for the space between the Indus
and the combined Jhelum and Chenab there were projects not yet sanc-
tioned, so far as I know, when I left India; while, further north, between
these two rivers, the Jhelum Canal, already sanctioned, had been begun:
this work, for reasons on which I need not enter here, had been tempo-
rarily discontinued. All the other Dodbs, or spaces between the rivers,
are accounted for in the appended statement.
In addition to these perennial canals there are, both in the Punjab
and in Sindh, very numerous inundation canals. These are cuts of
simple construction filled by the flood waters of the Sutlej, Chenab,
and Indus, as the rivers rise in the late summer and autumn. Some of
these, notably the Muzaffargarh canals, have been greatly improved of
late years, and new ones, such as the Sohag and Para and Sidhnai, have
been constructed. Here we have been able to induce cultivators from
crowded districts to settle on virgin soil, and the success of the measures
taken has been very great. The system of tenure and allotments which
has given this result was devised by the late Colonel Wace and put into
execution by Lieut.-Colonel Hutchinson. I believe it to possess great
importance as a precedent, not only with reference to the spread of irriga-
tion to other waste lands in the Punjab, but also with reference to other
parts of India where the cultivating settlement of immigrants may be
contemplated as a possibility. The area irrigated by inundation canals
in Sindh is, I believe, about 1,800,000 acres. In the Punjab it was some
930,000 acres at the date of the report of the Famine Commission, and is
by the latest returns 1,242,000 acres.
Of the 274 million acres shown as irrigated nearly 10 million acres
are irrigated by wells. It is in the alluvial soil of upper India that a
water-bearing stratum is found from 10 to 40 feet below the surface, and
the irrigation of crops by means of wells is commonly seen along the
courses of the rivers of the Indus and Ganges systems. In the uplands
of the spaces between the Punjab rivers the depth of the water-table from
the surface is so great that well-sinking becomes an unprofitable venture.
In the Central Provinces, Berar, the Bombay Deccan and parts of Madras
the subsoil is often rocky and the use of wells is much restricted. I have
prepared a return (Statement D) showing the area irrigated by wells in
Madras, the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, and the Punjab, with
the totals including other provinces, for the five years ending with
1889-90. This shows a steady and general improvement, the area having
risen in every province almost year by year, and having increased on the
whole from some 8,750,000 acres in 1885-6 to nearly 10 million acres in
1889-90. An increase of 1} million acres of cultivation from wells is
_ yaluable, not only because this additional area is thus secured from famine,
and enabled to produce better and more valuable crops, but because these
improvements are made by private persons at their own cost, and are thus
_ evidence of enterprise and security of tenure.
Before I leave the returns showing the extension of cultivation there
are two further remarks I wish to make; which I owe partly to Mr.
O’Conor’s ‘ Review of the Trade of India for 1888-9’ and partly to a
526 REPORT—1891.
speech I not long ago heard made by Mr. H. J. S. Cotten, one of the Secre-
taries to the Bengal Government, at a meeting of the East India Associa-
tion. It is obvious that the mere extension of the cultivated area is not
necessarily a good thing in itself. If poorer soils, with a precarious rain-
fall and no other means of irrigation, are broken up and barely supply the
wants of an increasing population, this merely means a spread of the
insecure area already liable to famine. Now in the case of the Punjab
canals, which I mentioned just now, water is being brought to virgm
soils; and we hope that, as far as possible, the land allotments will be
taken up by incoming settlers from congested districts. All this is, I
think, unmixed gain.
The other remark is that the changes which have taken place in Indian
trade must necessarily produce corresponding changes in Indian agricul-
ture. The historic exports of India, such as spices, silk, lac, and dye stuffs,.
now take a secondary place; opium and indigo still hold their ground, but
the rapid advance in the export trade is of recent origin and is based upon
the European demand for Indian raw products. The great export of
cotton followed the American War of Secession (1861-5). The export
of jute practically began after the Crimean War. ‘The seed trade,’ Mr.
O’Conor says, ‘and the trade in wheat and rice took their present large:
proportions only after the opening of the Suez Canal. The great tea
trade and the trade in coffee are the creations of the last quarter of a
century. So with the exports of hides and skins, wool and timber.’ It
is a question for experts whether, in taking raw products and returning
cotton piece goods of English manufacture, we do not slowly add to the
impoverishment of the soil. The remedy for the evil, if evil there be, is
doubtless to be found in greater diversity of occupations. There is a
beginning in this; of the 114 cotton mills and 26 jute and hemp mills.
now at work in India not one existed in 1848 and nearly all have been
started within the last twenty years.
Some of the most valuable recommendations of the Famine Com-
mission had reference to the relations of proprietors and tenants. The
Commission urged that, where this was not already sufficiently provided by
law, guarantees should be accorded to the landed classes that they should
without hindrance enjoy the fruits of improvements made at their own
expense. In the case of those persons who pay the land revenue direct
to Government, all of them, though called by different names and holding
tenures of different kinds in different parts of the country, have always:
under British rule, at least during the present century, had the benefit of
security of tenure. In many parts of the country, particularly in portions.
of Northern and Western India, where the old Hindu institutions success-
fully reasserted themselves against Muhammadan supremacy, or where
that supremacy was never effectual, or where wise Muhammadan em-
perors or governors Jaid down fairly lasting lines of revenue administra-
tion conceived in the Hindu spirit, the revenue-payers are very commonly,.
though by no means invariably, themselves the actual cultivators, and a
class of tenants interposed between them and the soil, though it occurs,
is not general. Even in these provinces there is a tenant question ; the
stratification of Indian society, indeed, bears witness almost everywhere
to the superposition of race upon race, or tribe upon tribe, due doubtless
to untold ages of internal warfare and successive invasions of new
tribes or races from without. In other parts of the country we found
the old state of things terribly confused and almost entirely obliterated
ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 537
by the misrule of the mushroom Muhammadan governments that sprang
up outside the spheres of influence of the Sikhs and Mahrattas in the
wide ruins left by the downfall of the Delhi Empire. The eruel and
grasping expedient of farming the revenues adopted by our unscrupulous
predecessors, and continued for a space by ourselves when we had not
the knowledge or experience to enable us to dispense with it, left us in ©
large provinces a tangled web of tenures which we are only now getting
straight. Since 1880, when the Famine Commissioners submitted their
report, the whole law of landlord and tenant has been thoroughly recon-
sidered, both in the light of their recommendations and in accordance
with local needs and proposals, in Bengal, in the North-West Provinces,
in Ondh, in the Punjab, and in the Central Provinces; that is, the best
efforts of the Government and of the most competent officials and other
persons whom it could consult have been given to the amelioration of
land tenure in the whole of Northern India, so far as it is British, from
the Himalaya to far below the Nerbudda and Tapti, and from Peshawur
almost to Manipur. In the same period the land revenue law, that is,
the law for the assessment and collection of the land revenue, vitally
affecting the economic conditions of the country, has been carefully
revised in the Central Provinces and the Punjab. How extensive and
how onerous these tasks have been few know besides those who have
had to deal with them. To my mind they are, in their successful com-
pletion, agricultural improvements of the first consequence; and no
economist can impute to the State misguided intervention here. No
hand but that of the law could hold the balance between the conflicting
interests of those who draw their livelihood from the soil, and who have
learnt from our inevitable accentuation of individual right, derived from
Western theories of legal equality, to enforce, by legal processes, in
novel and powerful courts of justice, their antagonistic claims. Nor
could any authority but that of the State itself determine from time to
time the most suitable methods of assessing and collecting that public
demand, wholly unlike any impost in this country, which may, according
to our point of view, be described as a land-tax or a State rental.
There was another set of proposals made by the Famine Commissioners
which has produced and is producing very important effects in India.
As they advised, the Revenue and Agricultural Department of the
Supreme Government, which had been temporarily in abeyance, was
quickly revived. In all the great provinces officers have been appointed
under the designation of directors of land records and agriculture, or of
commissioners of settlements and agriculture, whose duty it is, under
the Local Governments and Administrations, to supervise the detailed
execution of that policy of agricultural inquiry upon which it was a main
object of the Famine Commissioners to insist. It is a recommendation
of that policy that it is founded on native institutions of great antiquity
_ and wide extent; and it is only so far new that it utilises them for
beneficent purposes that were unknown to our predecessors, and too
_ little realised by ourselves, until the examination of the evidence con-
_ nected with a series of famines produced the abiding conviction that the
effort to prevent or circumscribe, or at least to mitigate, those disastrous
evils is amongst the first duties of the State in India. Wherever a just
and careful assessment of the land-revenue demand has been made in
. ‘temporarily settled districts, the basis of it has been sound agricultural
_ inquiry. Practically the Famine Commissioners may be said to have
538 REPORT—-1891.
pointed out that the sort of knowledge of the agricultural conditions of
an Indian district necessarily gathered by an assessing officer in the
process of fixing the land-revenue demand for a term of years ought, for
the proper administration of the charge, to be continuously available
during that term of years to every officer in charge of a district. The
foundation of this knowledge is the returns and records which are
annually prepared by the village accountants—ofiicials, usually hereditary
officials, who have existed in India for ages before our time. Attention
has therefore been directed to the improvement of this indigenous
agency and to its more effective supervision in each district by a staff of
native officiais acting under the orders of the district officer and his
principal assistants. The object in view has been to provide for each village
a record, always kept up to date, of all essential particulars bearing on
its agricultural efficiency, so that from harvest to harvest the responsible
functionaries may be supplied with sufficient and trustworthy infor-
mation as to the extent and character of the crops grown, as to the
prosperous or depressed condition of the peasantry, and as to any risk
there may be of famine or scarcity. In this way, if famine comes, it will
take no one by surprise, and those concerned will be able to battle with
it to the best advantage, because they will possess detailed knowledge of
the actual circumstances of particular tracts. If scarcity comes, not
amounting to famine, the district officer by timely suspensions or re-
missions of the land-revenue demand, or by the institution of timely
relief works, if required, may be able to avert that terrible weakening of
the health of the people, due to hard times, which when the sickly
autumn months come round culminates in appalling mortality. If there
is neither famine nor scarcity the continuous maintenance of correct
records of the state of agriculture will enable the next reassessment of
the land revenue to be made with speed, and in proportion as the whole
system is efficient, the people will be spared, at intervals of twenty or
thirty years, the harassment of inquiries by a small army of strange
officials, and that cruel drag upon agricultural improvement which
consists of prolonged uncertainty as to the rate of land-tax or State rent
that they will have to pay.
If the first great work which in part resulted from, or at least was
largely influenced by, the labours of the Famine Commission was the
revision of the law of landlord and tenant in Upper India, the second
great work has been this thorough and extensive organisation of agri-
cultural inquiry which I have been endeavouring to describe. There is
a third great work which deserves mention, though it is not really com-
parable in extent and complexity with the other two. In each province
a famine code has been prepared which will serve as a manual of famine
relief for the guidance of all concerned on the next occurrence of famine.
I have already explained that due regard is being paid to the extension
of canal irrigation. As to railway extension, as probably the most
powerful of all prophylactics against famine, I leave that subject for the
next paper, which is to deal with recent improvements in communi-
cations. I will only remark, lest I appear to have overlooked so very
important an item in agricultural conditions, that in India generally,
including native states, there were 8,492 miles of railway open in 1879-
80, and that there were open in 1889-90 (by the last return), 16,097
miles. The railway mileage bas thus been nearly doubled in eleven years.
I suppose I ought also to say a very few words on what are known as
ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 539
agricultural improvements in this country of peace and plenty, where, in
these days, famine never comes, and where farming is a business con-
ducted on business principles, not the sole means of subsistence for the
vast mass of the population. You will anticipate the general drift of my
remarks when I say that I agree with those who hold that we have far
more to learn from the Indian peasant about Indian agriculture than,
even with the resources of science at command, we are at all likely,
for some time to come, to be able to teach him. Reforms have been
attempted—the introduction of new crops, improvements in the methods
of cultivating the ordinary crops of the country, the adaptation of English
or other machinery to Indian conditions, and the breeding of cattle.
Anything I might tell you under these heads would be a mere repetition
of what is said in Part II. of the ‘ Report of the Famine Commission,’
pp. 137-9. Of the important staples successfully introduced—viz., tea,
coffee, the Mauritius sugar cane, New Orleans cotton, cinchona, and
potatoes—it may, however, be interesting to mention, in connection with
British trade, the areas now cultivated with coffee and tea. The coffee
area has slightly contracted. It was some 121,000 acres in 1884-5, and
some 118,000 in 1889-90. In the same period the area under tea has
risen from nearly 130,000 acres to more than 250,000. In my own pro-
vince, the Punjab, the breed of horses has certainly been improved within
my recollection. For the rest, I will only say that the Indian agricul-
turist is well aware of the value of manure, but with reference to the
vast distances that have to be traversed, and to some other considerations,
either could not afford to buy or would be unwilling to use imported
manures, while he wants a great part of his farmyard manure for fuel.
There are many practical difficulties in the way of the employment of
English ploughs and of deep ploughing; and expensive machines worked
by steam, which could not be mended by village blacksmiths, are out of
the question for peasant holders of small plots scattered in villages over
the face of a vast, very primitive country. The most that can be said, I
think, is that the Indian peasant may possibly plough deep, use more
manure, and abstain from drenching the soil with all the water he can
let on to it, when he is convinced that an alteration of practice in these
respects will be profitable to himself in his lifetime. We have hitherto
entirely failed to demonstrate to his satisfaction the pecuniary advantage
ofachange. Our efforts, too, in technical education in agriculture have
not, so far, either reached or formed the practical farmer. They have
merely resulted in a new brood of hungry aspirants for employment as
officials.
I hope that in the space I have at my disposal I have been able to
make it sufficiently clear that in speaking of such a primitive country as
India we cannot use such an expression as the development of agricul-
ture in quite the same sense in which we apply it to the highly cultivated
and civilised countries of Europe at the present day. Famine, it has
been well said, is one of the diseases of the infancy of nations ; and at
present our best efforts are needed rather to prevent or mitigate that
sudden and terrible deterioration of agriculture which is implied in
famine than to convert the empiricism of a thousand generations to
Western beliefs in scientific farming. I do not deny that to improve
agricultural methods is a part of the means of famine prevention ; but I
would add that another disease of the infancy of nations is chronic war.
To England, to this land of ours where there is indeed much poverty,
540 REPORT—1891.
famine, as I have said, never comes, pestilence but rarely, and we have
almost forgotten that the fire and sword of the invader or freebooter were
for centuries part of the ordinary lot of human kind. Those touching
and familiar supplications for deliverance from plague, pestilence and
famine, from battle and murder, and that peace may be given in our time,
have happily lost here that sort of significance which attaches to an
attempt to ward off evils known in all their bitterness by personal and
recent experience. In India we are far nearer to the actual conditions
of society which existed when that litany was framed upon which ours
was largely modelled. In India we have given the land peace; and that
is, indeed, one of the greatest of all agricultural improvements, as any-
one knows well enough who has seen on or beyond the Indian north-
west frontier armed men ploughing their fields, armed shepherds and
graziers pasturing their flocks, and the village towers of refuge dotted
about the village lands, lest perchance there should come some band of
raiders too strong to be dealt with in the open plain. We have given
the land peace and must maintain it. That alone is no light task. We
must also decide justly those conflicting claims of various sections of
the people which have arisen in part from the imposition of civilised rule
upon primitive societies and in part from centuries of incessant violence
and war; and we must be prepared to face pestilence and famine, and
when they come, to do our best to mitigate their ravages. I do not say
that in securing all this we should neglect agricultural chemistry and
experimental farms. I only say that in promoting these means of agri-
cultural improvement we must not forget their relative importance in
view of some of the first duties which Indian Governments have to dis-
charge.
In India three important committees have lately assembled to consider
agricultural affairs. A Bombay committee, which reported on July 8,
1890, recommended an increase in the number of experimental farms, the
establishment of cattle farms, and an increased expenditure on seed for
distribution and improved machinery and implements. The Madras
Government on the 4th of the same month, reviewing the report of the
Madras Committee, condemned in some lively sarcasms the operations of
the past, noting that the amount of real good secured had been infinitesi-
mal, and that the greater part of the money which had been spent on
agricultural improvement and education in the Madras Presidency had
been thrown away. A project was approved for the establishment of
combined agricultural schools and farms at or near the headquarters of
five representative districts, the College of Agriculture was to be main-
tained with some improvements in its course, and the branch of the
Agricultural Department which dealt with cattle disease was to be abo-
lished. The third committee was held in October 1890 under the presi-
dency of Sir Edward Buck. It was mainly the outcome of the mission
of Dr. Voelcker, the agricultural chemist to the Reyal Agricultural Society
of England, who was deputed to India by the Secretary of State to
investigate the conditions under which action may usefully be taken in
connection with agricultural experiments in that country. The Com-
mittee proposed the appointment of an agricultural chemist in India for
a term of seven years ; the maintenance in each province of a system of
farms for inquiry and experiment; the better extension of primary
education amongst the agricultural classes; and the combination of
instruction in agriculture with the existing course of instruction. In
ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 541
several of these matters past experience alone would hardly justify any
sanguine expectation of great results. But Jet us trust that the sober
and serious spirit of resolve to try again with more system and with a
frank recognition of past mistakes—a spirit which, I think, may be said
to characterise all these proceedings—may lead in course of time to
improvements which will, at all events, beat the past record. I will
venture to add a suggestion for the consideration of the authorities.
_ More than a decade has now elapsed since the submission of the Report of
as “Gee Sell
the Famine Commission. It contained a vast number of detailed proposals.
I have not troubled you to-day with more than a very few of the leading
heads, but I may mention that the second part of the report, dealing with
measures of protection against famine and its prevention, suggests a great
number of administrative changes, many of which have since come under
separate consideration. I may instance the general organisation of the
superior official staff—since the subject of the labours of the Public Service
Commission; the relations of Jandlord and tenant; the assessment and
collection of the land revenue; the indebtedness of the landed classes; the
policy of Government in regard to railways and canals, emigration, and
forest conservancy; and the encouragement of diversity in occupations.
Would it not be a good employment for the next Agricultural Committee
assembled in India to refer one by one to all the proposals in the second
part of the report of the Famine Commission that were approved by the
Secretary of State, and to report, for the information of Government and
the public, what proposals have been carried out and in what manner,
what still remain for consideration, and whether any of these should be
taken up and put into execution now ? As a study of Indian agricultural
conditions and of the principal problems bearing upon agriculture in
India, Ido not think it likely that the report of the Famine Commissioners
will, in this generation, be excelled ; and I am sure all who have looked
into that most valuable record will agree with me that very full justice
should be done to the great knowledge ot Indian life, character, physical
surroundings, and possibilities which it displays throughont. Sir Kdward
Buck, in his address to the Committee of October last, was careful to
point out that the gradual establishment of a sound system of scientific
investigation and of education in connection with agriculture was the
next point to be taken up in the approved programme of the Famine
Commission. Without disputing that view or undervaluing in any way
the possibilities of important additions to knowledge and of improvement
which may result from the employment of a first-class expert, I merely
wish to draw attention to the wider measure of a general examination at
_ this date of the scheme of the Famine Commission considered as a whole.
The remarks made in this paper have necessarily been slight, and have
dealt much more with the conditions of Indian agriculture than with the
connection between Indian agriculture and British trade. I hope that
part of the subject will be more fully discussed by other speakers. If such
an examination of the views of the Famine Commission as I have here
suggested be undertaken in India within the next two or three years, the
time spent on this paper will not, I trust, prove to have been altogether
thrown away.
I will, in conclusion, refer to one proposal made by the Famine Com-
missioners which, I think, might be revived with advantage. At present
members of the Indian UVivil Service are forbidden to hold land in the
_ provinces where they are employed. No doubt it is undesirable that
542 REPORT —1891.
Indian Civil Servants should farm for profit. They must not be distracted
from their official duties or have interests that might clash with those
duties, or be even open to suspicion of irregularities in dealings with
tenants or labourers or traders in produce. But these objections would
hardly apply to district officers permitted to hold small areas of 50 or 100
acres on lease for purposes of recreation and experiment. If this per-
mission were given to the comparatively few who would care to have it,
a good deal of practical experience of much value might be accumulated.
Srarement A.—Oultivated Area.
. Bombay a = Total (exclud-
Year Madras | and Sindh | N-W-P. Oudh Punjab ing Bengal)
1884-5 | 21,331,674 | 25,966,024 | 22,244,943 | 8,764,086 | 22,553,701 | 125,955,122
1885-6 | 22,463,253 | 25,424,532 | 25,102,975 | 8,819,063 | 20,512,118 | 128,282,535
1886-7 | 23,004,643 | 26,355,920 | 25,466,869 | 8,801,909 | 18,387,661 | 128,316,277
1887-8 | 23,326,272 | 26,352,865 | 25,244,378 | 8,828,303 | 20,586,028 | 131,231,180
1888-9 | 23,157,408 | 26,928,859 | 24,829,969 | 8,857,670 | 20,720,695 | 134,653,056
1889-90 | 23,797,036 | 28,088,955 | 25,123,483 | 8,873,699 | 19,407,513 | 136,168,899
SraTeMENT B.—Area Irrigated.
Bombay oe : Total (exclud-
Year Madras | nd Sinah | N-W-P. Oudh Punjab ing Bengal)
1884-5 | 5,546,191 | Statistics | 6,820,931 | 2,957,765 | 6,672,966 | 22,470,244
not
available
1885-6 | 5,815,378 | 2,440,620 | 5,820,559 | 1,928,068 | 6,635,951 | 23,098,822
1886-7 | 5,999,922 | 2,305,974 | 5,568,943 | 2,269,446 | 6,555,592 | 23,250,530
1887-8 | 6,234,432 | 2,417,836 | 6,208,299 | 2,448,267 | 6,990,682 | 24,936,091
1888-9 | 6,231,358 | 2,835,375 | 6,232,092 | 2,496,996 | 7,379,293 | 26,343,519
1889-90 | 6,398,285 | 3,363,024 | 6,693,541 | 2,507,510 | 7,487,483 | 27,722,441
Statement C.—Punjab Canals.
I. II. III. IV. Nis VI.
—_— Swat | Western | Sirsa Branch Bari
River | Jumna Western Doab
Canal Canal | Jumna Canal} Canal
Sirhind | Chenab
Canal Canal
Area Irrigable— Acres Acres Acres Acres Acres Acres
By complete project | 120,000 | 550,000 175,200! | 525,000 | 800,000 2) 400,000
At present . - | 120,000 | 550,000 | Under con- | 525,000 | 778,000 §| 148,000
struction
Mileage of works as
now sanctioned— Miles Miles Miles Miles Miles Miles
1. Main and branch 22 280 138 362 542 125
canals
2. Distributaries . 129 916 528 1,049 4,413 273
The miles shown in this statement are canal miles of 5,000 feet.
1 British, 126,290; Native States, 48,910. Total, 175,200.
? British, 522,000; Native States, 278,000. Total, 800,000.
* British, 500,000; Native States, 278,000. Total, 778,000.
ON THE RECENT PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. 543;
Statement D.—Area Irrigated by Wells.
: Total (inelud-
Year Madras N.W.P. Oudh Punjab ing other
Provinces)
803,479 | 2,925,159 | 1,063,780 | 3,831,051 | 8,742,798
816,648 | 2,805,020 956,015 | 3,749,818 | 8,489,566
1,055,912 | 3,104,326 | 1,235,878 | 3,839,447 | 9,398,590
1,100,083 | 3,221,444 | 1,247,290 | 3,882,921 | 9,618,466
1,169,141 | 3,462,484 | 1,217,849 | 3,959,427 | 9,967,701
. . °
. ° .
. . .
. . .
. . .
The returns for 1884-5 are too imperfect to be worth abstracting.
Statement E.—Ooffee and Tea Culture.
Year Coffee Tea Year Coffee Tea
‘ 1884-5 . : 121,468 129,314 || 1887-8 . z 117,894 234,176
1885-6 . 5 119,142 219,111 1888-9 . : 118,262 241,077
| 1886-7 . » | 117,504 227,258 || 1889-90 . eae aS S219 251,672
i mene ;
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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Suction A._-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
4
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor OLIveR J. LoDGE., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The PresipENT delivered the following Address :—
Durine the past year three or four events call for special mention in an annual
deliverance of this kind by a physicist.
One is the Faraday centenary, which was kept in a happy and simple manner
by a cosmopolitan gathering in the place so long associated with his work, and by
discourses calling attention to the modern development of discoveries made by him.
Another is the decease of the veteran Wilhelm Weber, one of the originators
of that absolute system of measurement which, though still hardly grasped in its
simplicity and completeness by the majority of men engaged in practice, nor even,
I fear, wholly understood by some of those engaged in University teaching, has yet
done so much, and is destined to do still more, for the unification of physical
cience, and for a thorough comprehension of its range and its limitations.
A third event of importance during the year is the discovery in America of a
binary system of stars, revolving round each other with grotesque haste, and with
| proximity to each other such as to render their ordinary optical separation quite
mpossible. Ideas concerning the future of such systems, if, as seems probable,
their revolution period is shorter than their axial period, will readily suggest them-
elves, in accordance with the principles elaborated by Prof. George Darwin. The
ubject more properly belongs to our President, but I may parenthetically exclaim
t the singular absurdity of the notion which was once propounded by a philoso-
her, that motion of stars in our line of sight must for ever remain unknown to us;
yhereas the mere time of revolution of a satellite, compared with its distance from
s central body, is theoretically sufficient to give us information on this head. As
Matter of pedagogy it is convenient to observe that the principle called Doppler's,
‘hich is generally known to apply to the periodic disturbances called Light and
jund, applies equally to all periodic occurrences; and that the explanation of
iomalies of Jupiter’s first satellite by Rcemer may be regarded as an instance of
oppler’s principle.t Any discrepancy between the observed and the calculated
mes of revolution of stars round each other can possibly be explained by a
ve motion between us and the pair of bodies along the line of sight.
If our text-books clearly recognised this, we should not so often find exami-
tion candidates asserting that the apparent time of revolution of a satellite of
ipiter depends on the distance of the earth from that planet, instead of on the speed.
- Dr. Huggins has just pointed out to me a perfectly clear statement to the
‘bove effect in Professor Tait’s little book on Light.
548 REPORT—1891.
I should indeed be sorry to be judged by the performance of my own students, but I
fear that many of the less obvious mistakes made by reasonably trained examination.
candidates are more directly traceable to their teachers than some of us as teachers
would like to admit. :
The change in the refrangibility of light by reason of the motion of its
source, though familiar enough now, was at first regarded as too small to be
observed, and one or two attempts directed to detecting the effect of this principle
on the spectra of the stars, or sometimes on sunlight reflected by a 45° mirror into
the line of the earth’s motion (which is not a possible method), wholly failed. I take
pleasure in remembering that this effect was clearly observed for the first time by the
gentleman we this year honour as our President ; and that itis by this very means
that the latest sensational discovery in astronomy of the rapidly revolving twin
star B-Auriges, by Prof. Pickering and the staff connected with the Draper
Memorial, was made.
The funds for the investigation that led to this result were provided by Mrs.
Draper, as a memorial to her late husband ; and if 8-Aurige does not constitute a
satisfactory memorial, I am at a loss to conceive the kind of tombstone which the
relations of a man of science would prefer.
The fourth event to which it behoves me to refer is the practical discovery of
a physical method for colour photography. When I say practical I do not mean
commercial, nor do I know that it will ever become applicable to the ordinary
business of the photographer. Whether it does or not, it is a sound achievement
by physical means of a result which the chemical means hitherto tried failed, some
think necessarily failed, to produce. I say practical, because already it had been
suggested as possible theoretically ; and a step toward it, indeed very near it, had
been actually made. The first suggestion of the method, so far as I know, was
made by Lord Rayleigh in the course of a mathematical paper on the reflection of
light, and with reference to some results of Becquerel obtained on a totally different
plan. He said in a note that if by normal reflection waves of light were converted
into stationary waves, they could shake out silver in strata half a wave-length
apart, and that such strata would give selective reflection and show iridescence.
The colour of certain crystals of chlorate of potash, described in a precise
manner by Sir George Stokes,! and also the colours of opal and ancient glass, kad
been elaborately and completely explained by Lord Rayleigh on this theory of a
periodic structure (the Jamimated structure in the case of chlorate of potash being
caused by twinning *); and he subsequently illustrated it with sound and a series of
muslin discs one behind the other on a set of lazy-tongs. Each membrane re-
flected an inappreciable amount, but successive equidistant membranes reinforced
each other’s action, and the entire set reflected distinetly one definite note, of wave-
length twice the distance between adjacent muslins. So also with any series of
equidistant strata each very slightly reflecting. They should give selective reflection,
and the spectrum of their reflected beam should show a single line or narrow band,
corresponding to a wave-length twice the distance of the strata apart.®
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. Feb. 1885. 2 Phil. Mag. Sept. 1888, pp. 256 and 241.
3 The footnote of Lord Rayleigh on page 158, Phil. Mag. 1887, vol. xxiv., is brief
and forcible enough to quote in full:—‘ A detailed experimental examination of the
various cases in which a laminated structure leads to a powerful but highly selected
reflection would be of value. The most frequent examples are met with in the organic
world It has eceurred to me that Becquerel’s reproduction of the spectrum in
natural colours upon silver plates may perhaps be explicable in this manner. The
various parts of the film of subchloride of silver with which the metal is coated may
be conceived to be subjected during exposure to stationary luminous waves of nearly
definite wave-length, the effect of which might be to impress upon the substance a
periodic structure occurring at intervals equal to half the wave-length of light; just
as a sensitive lameexposed tostationary sonorous waves is influenced at the loops, but
not at the nodes (Phil. Mag. March 1879, p. 153). In this way the operation ofany
kind of light would be to produce just such a modification of the film as would cause
it to reflect copiously that particular kindof light. I abstain at present from de-
veloping this suggestion, in the hope of soon finding an opportunity of making my-
self experimentally acquainted with the subject.’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 549
Independently of all this, Herr Otto Wiener, imitating Hertz’s experiments
with ordinary light, in 1889 reflected a beam directly back on itself, and, by inter-
_ posing a very thin collodion film at extraordinarily oblique incidence, succeeded in
the difficult experiment of so magnifying by the cosine of inclination the half
wave-length, as to get the silver deposited in strata of visible width, and thus. to
_ photograph the interference nodes themselves at the places where they were cut by
the plane of the film.!
‘Then M. Lippmann, using a thicker film, not put obliquely but normal to the
light, obtained the strata within the thickness of the film itself—hundreds of
layers ; and so, employing incidence light of definite wave-length, was able to pro-
duce a stratified deposit, which reflected back at appropriate incidence the same
_ wave-length as produced it; thus reproducing, of course, the definite colour.
P It is probable that the silver is first shaken out at the ventral segments, but
that the strata so formed are thick and blurry. I conjecture that by over-exposure
this deposit is nearly all mopped up again, traces being left only at the nodes,
where the action is very feeble and takes a long time to occur; but that these
residual strata, being fairly sharp and definite, would be likely to give much better
effects. And so I suppose that these are what are actually effective in obtaining
M. Lippmann’s very interesting, though not yet practically useful,, result.
I now leave the retrospect of what has been done, although many other topics
might usefully detain us, and I proceed to glance forward at the progress ahead
and at the means we have for effectively grappling with our due share of it.
There is a subject which has long been in my mind, and which I determined to
bring forward whenever I had a cathedral opportunity of doing so; and now, if
eyer, is a suitable occasion. It is to call attention to the fact that the further
progress of physical science in the somewhat haphazard and amateur fashion in
which it has been hitherto pursued in this country is becoming increasingly difficult,
and that the quantitative portion especially should be undertaken in a permanent
and publicly-supported physical laboratory on a large scale. If such an establish-
‘ment were likely to weaken the sinews of private enterprise and individual research
it should be strenuously opposed; but, in my opinion, it would have the opposite
effect, by relieving the private worker of much which he can only undertake with
great difficulty, sacrifice, and expense. To illustrate more precisely what I
mean, it is sufficient to recall the ease of astronomy. The amateur astronomer has
much work lying ready to his hand, and he grapples with it manfully. To him is
left the striking out of new lines and the guerilla warfare of science. Skirmishing
and brilliant cavalry evolutions are his natural field: he should not be called upon
to take part in the general infantry advance. It is wasting his energies, and he
could not in the long run do it well. What, for instance, would have been the
state of astronometry—the nautical almanac department of astronomy—without
he consecutive and systematic work of the National Observatory at Greenwich ?
It may be that some enthusiastic amateurs would have devoted their lives to this
routine kind of work, and here at one time and there at another a series of accurate
observations would have been kept for several years. Pursued in that way, how-
ever, not only would the effort be spasmodic and temporary, but the energy and
enthusiasm of those amateurs would have been diverted from the pioneering more
suited to them, and would have been cramped in the groove of routine, eminently
adapted to a permanent official staff but not wholesome for an individual. :
_Long-continued consecutive observations may be made by a leader of science,
as functions may be tabulated by an eminent mathematician ; but if the work can
be done almost equally well (some would say better) by a professional observer or
computator, how great an economy results.
_ Now all this applies equally to physics. The ohm has been determined
With 4-figure, perhaps with 5-figure, accuracy; but think of the list of eminent
en to whose severe personal labour we owe this result, and ask if the spoil is worth
e cost. Perhaps in this case it is, as a specimen of a well-conducted determina-
We must have a few specimens, and our leaders must show us the way to do
‘baings. But let us not continue to use them for such purposes much longer. The
} Wiedemann’s Annalen, vol. xl. 1890,
550 REPORT—1891.
quest of the fifth or sixth decimal is a very legitimate, and may become a very
absorbing, quest, but there are plenty of the rank and file who can undertake it if
properly generalled and led: not as isolated individuals, but as workers in a
National Laboratory under a competent head and a governing committee. By this
means work far greater in quantity, and in the long run more exact in quality, can
be turned out, by patient and conscientious labour without much genius, by the
gradual improvement of instrumental means, by the skill acquired by practice, and
by the steady drudgery of routine. Paris has long had one form of such an
institution, in the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers,and has been able to impose the
metric system on the civilised world in consequence. It can also point to the classical
determinations of Regnault as the fruits of just such a system. Berlin is now.
starting a similar or a more ambitious scheme for a permanent National Physical
Institute. Is it not time that England, who in physical science, I venture to think,
may in some sort claim a leading place, should be thinking of starting the same
movement ?
The Meteorological and Macnetic Observatory at Kew (in the inauguration of
which this Association took so large a part) is a step; and much useful quantitative
work 1s done there. The new Electric Standardizing Laboratory of the Board of
Trade is another and, in some respects perhaps, a still closer approximation to the
kind of thing I advocate. But what I want to see is a much larger establishment,
erected on the most suitable site, limited by no specialty of aim nor by the demands
of the commercial world, furnished with all appropriate appliances, to be amended
and added to as time goes on and experience grows, and invested with all the dignity
and permanence of a national institution: a Physical Observatory, in fact, precisely
comparable to the Greenwich Observatory, and aiming at the very highest quanti-
tative work in all departments of physical science. That the arts would be benefited
may be assumed without proof. It is largely the necessity of engineers that has
inspired the amount of accuracy in electrical matters already attained. The work
and appliances of the mechanical engineer eclipse the present achievements of the
physicist in point of accuracy, and it is by the aid of the mechanician and optician
that precision even in astronomy has reached so high a stage. There is no reason
why physical determinations should be conducted in an amateur fashion, with
comparatively imperfect instruments, as at present they mostly are. Discoveries
lie along the path of extreme accuracy, and they will turn up in the most unex-
pected way. The aberration of light would not have been discovered had not
Bradley been able to measure to less than 1 part in 10,000; and what a brilliant and
momentous discovery it was! He was aiming at the detection of stellar parallax,
but the finite velocity of light was a greater discovery than any parallax. This is
the type of result which sometimes lurks in the fifth decimal, and which confers
upon it an importance beside which the demands of men who wish to serve the taste
and the pocket of the British public sink into insignificance.
In a National Observatory accuracy should be the one great end: the utmost
accuracy in every determination that is decided on and made. Only one thing
should be more thought of than the fifth significant figure, and that is the sixth.
The consequences flowing from the results may safely be left; such as are not
obvious at once will distil themselves out in time. And the great army of outside
physicists, assured of the good work being done at headquarters, will (to speak
again in astronomical parable) cease from peddling with taking transits or
altitudes, and will be free to discover comets, to invent the spectroscope, to watch
solar phenomena, to chemically analyse the stars, to devise celestial photography,
and to elaborate still more celestial theories; all of which novelties may in
their maturity be handed over to the National Observatory, to be henceforth incor-
porated with, and made part of, its routine life; leavmg the advance guard and
skirmishers free to explore fresh territory, secure in the knowledge that what
they have acquired will be properly surveyed, mapped, and utilised, without further
attention from them. As to the practical applications, they may in any case he
left to take care of themselves. The instinct of humanity in this direction, and
the so-called solid gains associated with practical achievements, will always
secure a sufficient number of acute and energetic workers to turn the new territory
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 551
into arable land and pasture adapted to the demands of the average man, The
labour of the agriculturist in rendering soil fertile is, of course, beyond praise ;
but it is not the work of the pioneer. As Mr. Huxley eloquently put it, when con-
trasting the application of science with the advance of science itself, speaking
of the things of commercial value which the physical philosopher sometimes dis-
covers :—‘ Great is the rejoicing of those who are benefited thereby, and, for the
moment, science is the Diana of all the craftsmen. But even while the cries of
jubilation resound, and this flotsam and jetsam of the tide of investigation is being
turned into the wages of workmen and the wealth of capitalists, the crest of the
wave of scientific investigation is far away on its course over the illimitable ocean
of the unknown.’
I have spoken of the work of the National Laboratory as devoted to accuracy.
It is hardly necessary to say that the laboratory will be also the natural custodian
of our standards, in a state fit for use and for comparison with copies sent to be
certified. Else perhaps some day our standard ohm may be buried in a brick wall
at Westminster, and no one living may be able to recall precisely where it is.
But, in addition to these main functions, there is another, equally important
with them, to which I must briefly refer. There are many experiments which
cannot possibly be conducted by an individual, because forty or fifty years is not
long enough for them. Such are secular experiments on the properties of materials
—the elasticity of metals, for instance ; the effect of time on molecular arrangement ;
the influence of long exposure to light, or to heat, or to mechanical vibration, or to
other physical agents.
Does the permeability of soft iron decay with age, by reason of the gradual
cessation of its Ampérian currents ? Do gases cool themselves when adiabatically
preserved, by reason of imperfect elasticity or too many degrees of freedom of their
molecules? Unlikely, but not impossible. Do thermo-electric properties alter with
_ time? And a multitude of other experiments which appear specially applicable to
substances in the solid state—a state which is more complicated, and has been
less investigated, than either the’liquid or the gaseous: a state in which time and
past history play an important part.
Upon whichever of these long researches we may decide to enter, a National
Laboratory, with permanent traditions and a continuous life, is undoubtedly the only
appropriate place. At such a place as Glasgow the exceptional magnitude of a
present occupant may indeed inspire sufficient piety in a suecessor to secure the
continuance of what has been there begun ; but in most colleve laboratories, under
conditions of migration, interregnum, and a new rézime, continuity of investigation
_is hopeless.
I have at any rate said enough to indicate the kind of work for which the
establishment of a well-furnished laboratory with fully equipped staff is desirable,
and I do not think that we, as a nation, shall be taking our proper share of the
highest scientific work of the world until such an institution is started on its career,
There is only one evil which, so far as I can see, is to be feared from it : if ever
it were allowed to impose on outside workers as a central authority, from which
infallible dicta were issued, it would be an evil so great that no amount of good
work carried on by it could be pleaded as sufficient mitigation.
If ever by evil chance such an attitude were attempted, it must rest with the
workers of the future to see that they permit no such shackles; for if they are not
competent to be independent, and to contemn the voice of authority speaking as
mere authority, if their only safeguard lies in the absence of necessity for struggle
ind effort, they cannot long hope to escape from the futility which surely awaits
em in other directions.
I am thus led to take a wider range, and, leaving temporary and special con-
siderations, to speak of a topic which is as yet beyond the pale of scientific orthodoxy,
and which I might, perhaps more wisely, leave lying by the roadside. I will,
owever, take the risk of introducing a rather ill-favoured and disreputable looking
stranger to your consideration, in the belief—I might say, in the assured conviction
—that he is not all scamp, and that his present condition is as much due to our
tong-continued neglect as to any inherent incapacity for improvement in the subject.
Oe REPORT—1891.
I wish, however, strenuously to guard against its being supposed that this
Association, in its corporate capacity, lends its countenance to, or looks with
any favour on, the outcast. What I have to say—and after all it will not
be much—must rest on my own responsibility. I should be very sorry for any
adventitious weight to attach to my observations on forbidden topics from the
accident of their being delivered from this chair. At the same time not only do I
claim the right to express myself concerning matters on which I have worked, but
I conceive it to be a duty, from which, if I shrank, I should shrink from no higher
motive than simple cowardice, though I know them to be topics on which it is quite
impossible, as well as undesirable, for everyone to think alike.
It is but a platitude to say that our clear and conscious aim should always be truth,
and that no lower or meaner standard should ever be allowed to obtrude itself before
us. Our ancestors fought hard and suffered much for the privilege of free and open
inquiry, for the right of conducting investigation untrammelled by prejudice and fore-
gone conclusions, and they were ready to examine into any phenomenon which pre-
sented itself. This attitude of mind is perhaps necessarily less prominent now,
when so much knowledge has been gained, and when the labours of many indivi-
duals may be rightly directed entirely to its systematisation and to the study of its
inner ramifications ; but it would be a great pity if a too absorbed attention to what
has already been acquired, and to the fringe of territory lying immediately adjacent
thereto, were to end in our losing the power of raising our eyes ‘and receiving
evidence of a totally fresh kind, of perceiving the existence of regions into which the
same processes of inquiry as had proved so fruitful might be extended, with re-
sults at present incalculable and perhaps wholly unexpected. I myself think that
the ordinary processes of observation and experiment are establishing the exist-
ence of such a region ; that in fact they have already established the truth of some
phenomena not at present contemplated by science, and to which the orthodox man
shuts his ears.
For instance, there is the question whether it has or has not been established
by direct experiment that a method of communication exists between mind and
mind irrespective of the ordinary channels of consciousness and the known organs
of sense, and if so, what is the process? It can hardly be through some unknown
sense organ, but it may be by some direct physical influence on the ether, or it
may be in some still more subtle manner. Of the process I as yet know nothing.
Further investigation is wanted. No one can expect others to accept his word for
an entirely new fact, except as establishing a prima facie case for investigation.
But I am only now taking this as an instance of what I mean; whether it be
a truth or a fiction, I doubt if one of the recognised scientific societies would receive
a paper on the subject. What I wish is to signalise a danger—which I believe
to be actual and serious—that investigation in this and cognate subjects may be
checked and hampered by active hostility to these researches on the part of the
majority of scientific men, and a determined opposition to the reception or discus-
sion of evidence,
That individuals should decline to consider such matters is natural enough; they
may be otherwise occupied and interested. Everybody is by no means bound to in-
vestigate everything ; though, indeed, it is customary in most fields of knowledge
for those who have kept aloof from a particular inquiry to defer in moderation to
those who have conducted it, without feeling themselves called upon to express an
opinion, But it is not of the action of individuals that I wish to speak, it is of the
attitude to be adopted by scientific bodies in their corporate capacity; and for a
corporate body of men of science, inheritors of the hard-won tradition of free and
fearless inquiry into the facts of nature untrammelled by prejudice, for any such
body to decline to receive evidence laboriously attained and discreetly and in-
offensively presented by observers of accepted competency in other branches,
would be, if ever actually done and persisted in, a terrible throwing away of their
prerogative, and an imitation of the errors of a school of thought against which
the struggle was at one time severe.
In the early days of the Copernican theory, Galileo for some years refrained from
teaching it, though fully believing its truth, because he considered that he had
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 553
better get more fully settled in his recent University chair before evoking the storm
of academic controversy which the abandonment of the Ptolemaic system would
arouse. The same thing literally is going on to-day. I know of men who hesitate
to ayow interest in these new investigations (I do not mean credence—the time is
too early for avowing credence in any but the most rudimentary and definitely
ascertained facts—but hesitate to avow interest) until they have settled down
more securely and made a name for themselves in other lines. Caution and slow
progress are extremely necessary; fear of avyowing interest or of examining into
unorthodox facts is, I venture to say, not in accordance with the highest traditions
of the scientific attitude.
We are, I suppose, to some extent afraid of each other, but we are still more
afraid of ourselves. We have great respect for the opinions of our elders and
superiors; we find the matter distasteful to them, so we are silent. We have,
‘moreover, a righteous mistrust of our own powers and knowledge ; we perceive
that it is a wide region extending into several already cultivated branches of
science, that a many-sided and highly-trained mind is necessary adequately to cope
with all its ramifications, that in the absence of strict inquiry imposture has been
rampant in some portions of it for centuries, and that unless we are preteruaturally
careful we may get led into quagmires if we venture on it at all.
Now let me be more definite, and try to state what this field is, the explora-
tion of which is regarded as so dangerous. I might call it the borderland
of physics and psychology. I might call it the connection between life and
energy; or the connection between mind and matter. It is an intermediate region,
bounded on the north by psychology, on the south by physics, on the east by phy-
siology, and on the west by pathology and medicine. An occasional psychologist has
groped down into it and become a metaphysician. An occasional physicist has
wandered up into it and lost his base, to the horror of his quondam brethren.
Biologists mostly look at it askance, or deny its existence. A few medical practi-
tioners, after long maintenance of a similar attitude, have begun to annex a portion
of its western frontier. The whole region seems to be inhabited mainly by savages,
many of them, so far as we can judge from a distance, given to gross superstition.
It may, for all I know, have been hastily traversed and rudely surveyed by a few
clear-eyed travellers; but their legends concerning it are not very credible, certainly
are not believed.
Why not leave it to the metaphysicians? I say it has been left to them long
enough. They have explored it usually with insufficient equipment. The physical
knowledge of the great philosophers has been necessarily scanty ; and though the
ideas which we owe to their genius may ultimately be of the greatest service
to us as physicists, still their methods are not our methods. They may be said to
haye floated a balloon over the region with a looking-glass attached, in which
they have caught queer and fragmentary glimpses. They may have seen more
than we give them credit for, but they appear to have guessed far more than they
saw.
Our method is different. We prefer to creep slowly from our base of physical
knowledge, to engineer carefully as we go, establishing forts, making roads, and
thoroughly exploring the country ; making a progress very slow, but very lasting.
The psychologists from their side may meet us. I hope they will; but one or
other of us ought to begin.
A vulnerable spot on our side seems to be the connection between life and
energy. The conservation of energy has been so long established as to have become
acommonplace. The relation of life to energy is not understood. Life is not
energy, and the death of an animal affects the amount of energy no whit; yet a
live animal exerts control over energy which a dead one cannot. Life is a guiding
or directing principle, disturbing to the physical world but not yet given a place in
the scheme of physics. The transfer of energy is accounted for by the performance of
work; the guidance of energy needs no work, but demands force only. What is
force? and how can living beings exert it in the way they do? As automata,
operated on by preceding conditions—that is, by the past—say the materialists. Are
we so sure that they are not controlled by the future too? In other words, that the
§54 REPORT—1891.
totality of things, by which everyone must admit that actions are guided, may not
include the future as well as the past, and that to attempt to deduce those actions from
the past only will prove impossible.! In some way matter can be moved, guided,
disturbed, by the agency of living beings; in some way there is a control, a
directing-agency active, and events are caused at its choice and will that would
not otherwise happen.
A luminous and helpful idea is that ¢ime is but a relative mode of regarding
things; we progress through phenomena at a certain definite pace, and this sub-
jective advance we interpret in an objective manner, as if events necessarily happened
in this order and at this precise rate. But that may be only our mode of regarding
them. The events may be in some sense existent always, both past and future,
and it may be we who are arriving at them, not they which are happening. The
analogy of a traveller in a railway train is useful. If he could never leave the
train nor alter its pace, he would probably consider the landscapes as necessarily
successive, and be unable to conceive their co-existence.
The analogy of a solid cut into sections is closer. We recognise the universe
in sections, and each section we call the present. It is like the string of slices cut
by a microtome; it is our way of studying the whole. But we may err in sup-
posing that the body only exists in the slices which pass before our microscope in
regular order and succession.
We perceive, therefore, a possible fourth-dimensional aspect about time, the
inexorableness of whose flow may be a natural part of our present limitations. And
if once we grasp the idea that past and future may be actually existing, we can
recognise that they may have a controlling influence on all present action, and the
two together may constitute ‘ the higher plane,’ or the totality of things, after which,
asit seems to me, we are impelled to seek, in connection with the directing of force
or determinism, and the action of living beings consciously directed to a definite and
preconceived end.
Inanimate matter is controlled by the vs a tergo ; it is operated on solely by the
past.’ Given certain conditions, and the effect in due time follows. Attempts have
been made to apply the same principle to living and conscious beings, but without
much success. ‘These seem to work for an object, even if it be the mere seeking
for food; they are controlled by the idea of something not yet palpable. Given
certain conditions, and their action cannot certainly be predicted ; they have a sense
of option and free will. Either their actions are really arbitrary and indeterminate
—which is highly improbable—or they are controlled by the future as well as by
the past. Imagine beings thus controlled: automata you may still call them, but
they will be living automata, and will exhibit all the characteristics of live creatures.
Moreover, if they have a merely experiential knowledge, necessarily limited by
memory and bounded by the past, they will be unable to predict each other’s actions
with any certainty, because the whole of the data are not before them. May not a
clearer apprehension of the meaning of life and will and determinism be gradually
reached in some such direction as this ?
By what means is force exerted, and what, definitely, is force or stress? I can
hardly put the question here and now s0 as to be intelligible, except to those who
have approached and thought over the same difficulties ; but I venture to say that
there is here something not provided for in the orthodox scheme of physics; that
modern physics is not complete, and that a line of possible advance lies in this
direction.
I might go further. Given that force can be exerted by an act of will, do we
understand the mechanism by which this is done? And if there is a gap in our
knowledge between the conscious idea of a motion and the liberation of muscular
energy needed to accomplish it, how do we know that a body may not be moved
1 The expression ‘controlled by the future’ I first heard in a conversation with
G. F. Fitzgerald, who seemed to consider it applicable to all events, without
exception.
2
* This is, of course, not assertion, but suggestion. It may be erroneous to draw
any such distinction between animate and inanimate.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 5355
without ordinary material contact by an act of will? I have no evidence that
such a thing is possible. I have tried once or twice to observe its asserted oecur-
rence, and failed to get anything that satistied me. Others may have been
more fortunate. In any case, I hold that we require more knowledge before we can
deny the possibility. If the conservation of energy were upset by the process, we
should have grounds for denying it; but nothing that we know is upset by the
discovery of a novel mode of communicating energy, perhaps some more immediate
action through the ether. It is no use theorising; it is unwise to decline to
examine phenomena because we feel too sure of their impossibility. We ought to
know the universe very thoroughly and completely before we take up that attitude.
Again, it is familiar that a thought may be excited in the brain of another
person, transferred thither from our brain, by pulling a suitable trigger; by liber-
ating energy in the form of sound, for instance, or by the mechanical act of
writing, or in other ways. A pre-arranged code called language, and a material
medium of communication, are the recognised methods. May there not also be
an immaterial (perhaps an ethereal) medium of communication? Is it possible
that an idea can be transferred from one person to another by a process such as we
have not yet grown accustomed to, and know practically nothing about? In this
case I have evidence. I assert that I have seen it done; and am perfectly con-
vinced of the fact. Many others are satisfied of the truth of it too. Why must
we speak of it with bated breath, as of a thing of which we are ashamed? What
right have we to be ashamed of a truth P
And after all, when we have grown accustomed to it, it will not seem alto-
gether strange. It is, perhaps, a natural consequence cf the community of life or
family relationship running through all living beings. The transmission of life
may be likened in some ways to the transmission of magnetism, and all magnets
are sympathetically connected, so that if suitably suspended a vibration from one
disturbs others, even though they be distant ninety-two million miles.
It is sometimes objected that, granting thought-transference or telepathy to be
a fact, it belongs more especially to lower forms of life, and that as the cerebral
hemispheres develop we become independent of it; that what we notice is the
relic of a decaying faculty, not the germ of a new and fruitful sense; and that
progress is not to be made by studying or attending to it. It may be that it 7s an
immature mode of communication, adapted to lower stages of consciousness than
ours, but how much can we not learn by studying immature stages? As well might
the objection be urged against a study of embryology. It may, on the other hand,
as W. F. Barrett has suggested, be an indication of a higher mode of communication,
which shall survive our temporary connection with ordinary matter.
I have spoken of the apparently direct action of mind on mind, and of a possible
action of mind on matter. But the whole region is unexplored territory, and it is
conceivable that matter may react on mind in a way we can at present only dimly
imagine. In fact, the barrier between the two may gradually melt away, as so
many other barriers have done, and we may end in a wider perception of the
unity of nature, such as philosophers have already dreamt of.
I care not what the end may be. I do care that the inquiry shall be
conducted by us, and that we shall be free from the disgrace of jogging along
accustomed roads, leaving to isolated labourers the work, the ridicule, and the
gratification, of unfolding a new region to unwilling eyes.
It may be held that such investigations are not physical and do not concern us.
We cannot tell without trying; and as the results are physical, or at least have
a physical side, it seems reasonable to assume that the process by which they are
produced is a proper subject for physical inquiry. I believe that there is something
in this region which does concern us as physicists. It may concern other sciences
too. It must indeed concern biology; but with that I have nothing to do.
Biologists have their region, we have ours, and there is no need for us to hang back
from an investigation because they do. Our own science, of Physies or Natural
Philosophy in its widest sense, is the King of the Sciences, and it is for us to lead,
not to follow.
And I say, have faith in the Intelligibility of the universe. Intelligibility has
556 RrEroRT—1891.
been the great creed in the strength of which all intellectual advance has been
attempted, and all scientific progress made.
At first things always look mysterious. A comet, lightning, the aurora, the
rainbow—all strange anomalous mysterious apparitions. But scrutinised in the
dry light of science, their relationship with other better-known things becomes
apparent. They cease to be anomalous; and though a certain mystery necessarily
remains, it is no more a property peculiar to them, it is shared by the commonest
objects of daily life.
The operations of a chemist, again, if conducted in a haphazard manner, would
be an indescribable medley of effervescences, precipitations, changes in colour and
in substance; but, guided by a thread of theory running through them, the pro-
cesses fall into a series, they all become fairly intelligible, and any explosion or
catastrophe that may occur is capable of explanation too.
Now I say that the doctrine of ultimate intelligibility should be pressed into
other departments also. At present we hang back from whole regions of inquiry
and say they are not for us. A few we are beginning to grapple with. The
nature of disease is yielding to scrutiny with fruitful result: the mental aberrations
and abnormalities of hypnotism, duplex personality, and allied phenomena, are now
at last being taken under the wing of science after long ridicule and contempt. The
phenomena of crime, the scientific meaning and justification of altruism, and
other matters relating to life and conduct, are beginning, or perhaps are barely yet
beginning, to show a vulnerable front over which the forces of science may pour.
Facts so strange that they have often been called miraculous are now no longer
regarded as entirely incredible. AJ] occurrences seem reasonable when contemplated
from the right point of view, and some are believed in which in their essence are still
quite marvellous. Apply warmth for a given period to a sparrow’s egg, and what
result could be more incredible or magical if now discovered for the first time.
The possibilities of the universe are as infinite as is its physical extent. Why should
we grope with our eyes always downward, and deny the possibility of everything
out of our accustomed beat ?
If there is a puzzle about free-will, let it be attacked; puzzles mean a state of
half-knowledge; by the time we can grasp something more approximating to the
totality of things the paradoxicality of paradoxes drops away and becomes unrecog-
nisable. I seem to myself to catch glimpses of clues to many of these old questions,
and I urge that we should trust consciousness, which has led us thus far ; should
shrink from no problem when the time seems ripe for an attack upon it, and should
not hesitate to press investigation, and seek to ascertain the laws of even the most
recondite problems of life and mind.
What we know is as nothing to that which remains to be known. This is
sometimes said as a truism ; sometimes itis half doubted. To me it seems the most
literal truth, and that if we narrow our view to already half-conquered territory only,
we shall be false to the men who won our freedom, and treasonable to the highest
claims of science.
If I were asked (as I am not) to suggest any practical proposal for immediate
action in the direction indicated, I should not urge anything at all revolutionary.
I donot think that the time is ripe for the Royal Society, for instance, to move in
the matter ; the early stages of such an investigation, in which the human element
is so obtrusive and perturbing, may very properly be left to a society devoted to
that special end ; and, thanks to the single-hearted, persistent, and admirably judi-
cious labours of a few workers, whose names I need not mention because they are
so well known, such a society exists. I do, however, think that whenever in the
view of the leaders of that society the time may have come to put the scientific
world in official possession of their more securely ascertained facts—for instance,
by presenting a report to this or some other section—they ought not to ask in vain
for some recognition of the work accomplished by them. It seems to me desirable
that the work in which they have been so long engaged should be established
on a more permanent basis, such a basis as scientific recognition would be likely
to bestow, so that the existence of the society may not be imperilled by the mor-
tality of individuals. I will not press the suggestion further; it may bear fruit
—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. naire
in due season or it may not. I must return to the work of this section, from
which I have apparently wandered rather far afield, further than is customary—
perhaps further than is desirable.
But I hold that occasionally a wide outlook is wholesome, and that without
such occasional survey, the rigid attention to detail and minute scrutiny of every
little fact, which are so entirely admirable and are so rightly here fostered, are apt
to become unhealthily dull and monotonous. Our life-work is concerned with the
rigid framework: of facts, the skeleton or outline map of the universe ; and, though it
is well for us occasionally to remember that the texture and colour and beauty which
we habitually ignore are not therefore in the slightest degree non-existent, yet it is
safest speedily to return to our base and continue the slow and laborious march with
which we are familiar and which experience has justified. It is because I imagine
that such systematic advance is now beginning to be possible in a fresh and unex~
pected direction that I have attempted to direct your attention to a subject which,
if my prognostications are correct, may turn out to be one of special and peculiar
interest to humanity.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Interim Report of the Committee on Phenomena connected with
Recalescence.—See Reports, p. 147.
2. On the Action of a Planet upon small Bodies passing near the Planet,
with Special Reference to the Action of Jupiter upon such Bodies. By
Professor H. A. Newron.—See Reports, p. 511.
3. On the Absorption of Heat in the Solar Atmosphere.
By W. E. Witson, M.R.LA., F.RA.S.
The author endeavours to determine with accuracy the ratio of the heat
received from the limb and the centre of the solar disc, and thus, by taking yearly
observations through a sun-spot cycle, to find out if the solar atmosphere varies in
depth.
The apparatus consists of a heliostat which throws a small pencil of sunlight
into a dark room. It is received on a 4-inch concave silver-on-glass mirror of
about 10 feet focus. A small convex mirror is placed inside the focus of the
concave mirror, and thus forms an image of the sun of 80 centimétres in diameter.
This image is allowed to fall on a radio-micrometer of Prof. C. E. Boys. The tube
of the instrument is stopped down to nearly 1 mm. in diameter, so that only about
00000 part of the solar image is at any moment giving its heat to the instrument.
A slice of limelight is allowed to fall on the mirror of the radio-micrometer,
and is reflected from it on to a horizontal slit in the side of a box which contains
a photographic plate. This plate during an observation is allowed to fall with a
uniform rate by a piece of clockwork. Any motion of the mirror of the radio-
micrometer thus records itself on the plate in a curved line.
The clock of the heliostat is stopped and the image of the sun is allowed to
transit across the mouth of the radio-micrometer, and the curve giving the values
of the heat received from the solar disc is recorded on the photographic plate.
A seconds pendulum swings across the track of the limelight, so that the
photographed curve is notched into seconds of time, and a means thus given of
localising the position of the instrument on the solar disc.
4. The Ultra-Violet Spectrum of the Solar Prominences. By Professor
Grorce HK. Hats, Director of the Kenwood Physical Observatory, Chicago.
The prominence spectrum has been photographed with a large solar spectro-
scope attached to the 12-2 inch equatorial refractor. Several new lines have been
558 REPORT—1891.
thus discovered, and those for which the wave-length has been deduced are given
in the first column of the table. The wave-lengths of the H and K calcium lines
are to be regarded as provisional only, as Professor Rowland has not yet published
the final values. The other columns contain measures of the lines in the hydrogen
series, all reduced to Rowland’s scale. }
Prominences Hydrogen Caleium Hydrogen First Type Stars
Hale Ames Rowland Cornu Huggins
| 3968°56 — 3968-61 (H) — a:
3933 86 = 3933°80 (K) — —
388873 — — — —
3970°11 (2) 3970°25 == 3969°6 3969°6
388914 3889°15 — 3888°5 38882
| 3835-54 8835°6 = 3835-1 38346
37981 3798°0 — BT97°5 37956
3770°8 3770'7 = 3770°0 3768-1
-- 3750715 — 3749°9 3746°1
— 373415 = 3734-2 3730°6
— 3721°8 = 37211 3717-9
— 3711-9 = 3711-1 3707-9
— — —_ — 3699°4
It will be seen that the first two lines are in all probability due to calcium ; they
are narrow and sharp, and fall at the centres of the dark bands in the solar spectrum.
The next line is as yet unaccounted for, but it does not appear to be a component
of the hydrogen line at A3889°14. The line at \3970-11is marked doubtful, because’
it falls very nearly at the position of a ghost of H; everything points, however, to
an independent origin, though the agreement with Ames’ hydrogen line at 48970°25
is far from satisfactory. The remaining four lines are evidently members of the
hydrogen series.
Prominence forms have also been photographed through H and K, the dark
shades allowing the use of a very wide slit. The research is to be continued with
improved apparatus.
5. Report on Researches Relative to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
By Dr. J. Larmor and G. H. Bryan.—See Reports, p. 85.
6. Note ona Simple Mechanical Representation of Carnot’s Reversible Oycle.'
By G. H. Bryan.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Reports and Papers were read :-—
1. Interim Report of the Committee on Researches in Electro-optics.
See Reports, p. 147.
2. Note on the Electromagnetic Theory of the Rotation of the Plane of
Polarised Light. By Professor A. Gray, M.A., F.R.S.E.
Sir William Thomson has explained the turning of the plane of polarised light
in a magnetic field by supposing the ether to have imbedded in it a large number
' This note is reproduced in Par. 38 of the Report on the Second Law of Thermo-
dynamics by the author.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 559
of small gyrostats, having the undisturbed positions of their axes in the common
direction of the magnetic force and the propagation of the beam, and all vibrating
in the same sense. When in consequence of the vibrating motion each gyrostat
has its axis of rotation displaced from this direction, it reacts on the surrounding
medium with transverse force at right angles to the plane through the axis of
rotation and the direction of motion.
By compounding this stress with the elastic forces of displacement of the ether,
differential equations of motion are obtained which are of precisely the form neces-
sary to account for the difference in rate of propagation of the two circularly
polarised rays constituting the plane polarised ray.
It is obviously suggested by the gyrostatic investigation that it ought to be
possible to explain the magneto-optic rotation on the electromagnetic theory of
light as a consequence of -the existence of the small magnets which are supposed
imbedded in the medium with their axes in the direction of propagation of the ray,
and therefore producing the magnetisation which the medium has in that
direction.
In consequence of the motions of the ether, the direction of the chains of
magnetised molecules which are supposed to exist along the direction of magnetisa-
tion (here taken as axis of z) in the undisturbed state of the medium is continually
undergoing change at every point, and thus the direction of the axial magnetic
force along each chain also undergoes alteration. It is obvious that if the dis-
placements be everywhere small, the actual magnitude of this force will sustain
only a very small percentage of alteration, but that each small change of direction
will produce a component maguetic force in each of the two directions at right
angles to the axis. The calling into existence of these components will produce
corresponding electromotive forces tending to increase the displacements.
The electromotive force in the direction of y is given by
where dG/dé stands for the total time rate of change of G, the component of vector
potential in the direction of y. Also since H, the component along 2, does not
perceptibly vary along 2, if the direction of propagation be as taken here along 2,
—0G/dz denotes magnetic induction through unit of area in the plane of yz. Hence
any part of the total time-rate of variation of —0G/0z will denote the space-rate of
variation in the direction of z of an electromotive force parallel to y, provided the
time and space differentiations of the part are commutative.
Now if the displacement of the ether particles from the undisturbed positions
be taken as parallel and proportional to the electric displacement, and C be the
component of magnetisation of the substance in the direction of = due to the exis-
tence of the molecular magnets, then considering the electric displacement fin the
_ direction of x, we see that the component magnetic force in the direction of 2x is
eOOf|0z, and thus the magnetic induction through unit of area in the plane of yz is
peCOf|Oz, where eis a coefficient of proportionality. The time-rate of variation of
this is
But we have by the equations of electric currents
af 1 PadByd Gleee
Ot 4nr\dy Oz) ~ ~ 4m Oz
since there is no conduction current.
Further, by the relation of magnetic force to vectcr potential, 8 = (OF/0z)/p,
and therefore the last equation becomes
Chie, lactelh
Ot 4p On*
560 REPORT—1891. |
Now, since the differentiation of f with respect to ¢ is partial only, we may use
the substitution
OOF MONGH
Oz Ot Ot Oz
Hence differentiating O//0t with respect to z we find
orn eco
peo: Ot dn OF
which gives an electromotive force in the direction of y of amount
eC O°F
4x Oz*
Hence we have finally
0G COF ov
Q= OE ~ de OF ~ Oy
the two first terms on the right making up—d@/dt.
We have therefore
00__PG_«o OF
Ot ~ — Ot ~ 4m Otdz”
But the displacement current in the direction of y is dg/dt, and thus is K/4z,
OQJot. Also, by the equations of currents dy/dt = —1/4zn. 0°G/Oz*.. Therefore we
have the equation “4
K 0Q_d__ 106
4 Ot dt” ~ 4p 02?
which would in the equation already found for 0Q/0¢ yield
OG 10G CF
Odt?~ Kp 02 ~ 4x Otdz*
Similarly for the other component in the case of circularly polarised light we
find the equation
OF 1 0F Cac
Ot? ~ Ky Oz * 4x Otoz
These two equations are identical in form with those given by the gyrostatic
theory, and of course lead to the same results; that is to say, the plane of polari-
sation of an electromagnetic beam will show a turning effect when the beam is
transmitted along the lines of force in a magnetised medium.!
3. On an Experiment on the Velocity of Light in the neighbourhood of .
Rapidly-moving Matter. By Professor Ottver J. Lopan, F.R.S.
An apparatus was described which had been constructed to apply Michelson’s
interference method to a beam of light sent round and round by mirrors between a
pair of circular saws clamped together and rotating rapidly. ‘The results were, at
present, negative.
4. The Action of Electrical Radiators, with a Mechanical Analogy.
By J. Larmor.
In an electrical vibrator of rapid period the currents in the metallic parts are
confined to the surface ; the periodic times are therefore independent of the metals
'It ought to be stated that I understand from a reference in M. Poincaré’s ‘ Thé-
ories de Maxwell’ that a similar theory has been proposed by M, Potier in a note to
his French translation of ‘ Maxwell’s Electricity.’ I have not seen M. Potier’s inves-
tigations, which may have completely anticipated the present note.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 561
of which the vibrators are made, being determined only by their forms, and there
is no considerable loss due to degradation into heat in ‘these conductors, The
uestion occurs, what are the surface conditions that must be imposed under these
circumstances at the boundaries of the dielectric, in order that the vibrations may
be discussed with reference only to the dielectric in which they exist and are
propagated P
It appears that the vibrations are analogous to those of an elastic solid, when
elastic displacement is made the analogue of the electric displacement in the dielec-
tric. It is demonstrable that if the velocity of propagation is the inverse square
root of the specific inductive capacity, this auxiliary solid must be considered as
incompressible, and the scheme of electrodynamics must be that of Maxwell. The
surface condition will then be absolute stiffness in the surface layer for all tangen-
tial displacement, and freedom for normal displacement.
The mathematical examination of a typical case shows that this way of pre-
senting the phenomena is practically exact for all wave-lengths greater than a cen-
timetre for copper or other good conducting metal. For very minute waves the
circumstances are not independent of the material of the conductor, but are similar
to those which actually exist in the case of the metallic reflexion of light-waves.
By aid of this representation a qualitative view of the possible modes of vibra-
tion is rendered feasible in cases where the mathematical analysis would be diflicult
or impossible,”
5. On the Measurement of Stationary Hertzian Oscillations along Wires,
and the Damping of Electric Waves. By Professor D. E. Jones, B.Sc.
An account was given of preliminary experiments made in Bonn (at the
suggestion of Professor Hertz) on electric waves in wires. The first object was to
find a simple method of measuring the disturbance at different points of a wire (or
pair of wires) along which are sent waves which interfere after reflection at the
ends. It was found that satisfactory measurements could be made by inserting a
very small thermo-junction in the circuit at different points, and noting the deflec-
tion of a low-resistance galvanometer connected up to it. The method is delicate
enough to detect and measure exceedingly small currents, such as those produced
by telephones.
The method was applied to measure disturbances along a pair of parallel wires
about 8 cm. apart and each about 130 metres in length, One end of each wire was
connected to a (secondary) metallic plate 40 cm. in diameter. In the first set of
experiments the other (far) ends of the wires were left free. The vibrator was of
the usual type, provided with plates of the same size as those on the near ends of
the wires and facing them. The wave-length of the disturbance along the wires
was about 4°3 metres. On plotting curves with distances from the (far) ends of
the wires as abscissee and galvanometer deflections as ordinates the following
results were obtained :—
I. The disturbance was zero at the end (0) rising to a maximum (51) at 2:2 m.
There was no further absolute minimum, ze. the disturbance did not fall to zero
1 Prov. Roy. Soc. May 1891,
2 Proc. Camb, Phil. Soc. May 1891,
1891. 00
562 REPORT—1891.
at any point. At about 4:6 m. there was a minimum deflection of 11, at 6-7 m. a
maximum of 46, at 9 m. a minimum of 13, at 11 m. a maximum of 23, and so on.
Thus the waves tail off rapidly. There are two complete strongly-marked waves
and indications of a third, after which the disturbance tends to become steady along
the wire.
IJ. When the far ends of the wires were joined together similar results were
obtained, excepting that the positions of maxima and minima were interchanged,
the disturbance, ¢e.g., being a maximum at the ends. The results indicate that only
a small number of waves are sent out by the primary vibrator, and that these are
rapidly damped. In both the above sets of experiments the primary and secondary
plates were 50 cm. apart.
III. (Ends joined). On bringing the secondary and primary plates nearer
together the damping became more and more rapid, as if the secondary more
quickly absorbed the energy radiated out by the primary. When the plates were
5 em. apart only one wave could be detected.
The curves (J, II, III) given above were measured on different days and under
different circumstances. They cease where the errors of observation become com-
parable with the variations to be measured. The author’s method has the advantage
of requiring only the simplest apparatus. The only other published method which
has been used for such measurements is Dr. Rubens’ bolometric method, but Mr.
Bjerknes has obtained similar results to those of the author with an electrometer
instead of a thermo-junction. .
Tn order to find whether the junction produced any disturbance, loops of wire
of varying lengths were inserted at 17 m. from the far end; but loops up to 1 m.
long did not appear seriously to affect the positions of the maxima and minima.
6. On the Propagation of Hiectromagnetic Waves in Wires.
By Water THore.
The following is an account of some experiments made in the physical labora-
tory at Trinity College, Dublin, with apparatus kindly placed at the author's dis-
posal by Professor Fitzgerald,
The experiments are incomplete, inasmuch as Mr. Trouton’s value (0°68 metre)
of the wave-length in air is assumed for the resonating circle which the author
used, The author’s determinations of this wave-length agree with Mr. Trouton’s,
but they were few in number, and made at the very commencement of the work.
These experiments were undertaken with the hope of throwing some light upon
the results previously obtained by Professor Hertz.!| He found the ratio of the
velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves in air to the velocity in copper
wires to be as 75 ; 47, or 1:6. His wave-length in air was 7°5 metres.
Using much shorter waves (0 68m.) and wires of different diameters, the author
obtained a ratio varying from 1°77 for very fine wires to very near unity for thick
wires.
‘he apparatus has been fully described by Mr. Trouton.? The wire used was
soldered at one end to a piece of iron plate (9 x 4cm, and 0°3cm, thick), which was
attached by means of silken cord to the vertical wooden support of the oscillators.
the plate being fixed opposite one of the cylindrical oscillators. The wire was sup-
ported honizontally along the axis of the parabolic cylinder used to concentrate the
radiations. :
In the first few experiments the further end of the wire was bent into a very
small hook, to which a piece of string was attached to keep the wire taut; but
this minute hook was found to cause considerable disturbance at the end which
was never a node, and the distance from the end to the first node along the wire
was always less than the other internodes, The hook was therefore remoyed, and
the end of the wire kept straight.
The resonating circle was 7:5cm. diameter, and was held with its plane parallel
to the wire, and with the spark gap at its greatest distance from the wire.
1 Wiedemann’s Annalen, vol. 34, p. 551.
2 Nature, vol. 39, p. 391; vol. 40, p. 398.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 563
The method of experiment was to adjust the gilt knobs of the oscillators about
5mm. apart, and, starting from the most distant end of the wire, pick out nodes by
careful adjustment of the length of the spark gap in the resonating circle. Two
internodal distances were usually measured, but sometimes three or four.
The lengths of the internodal distances were found to agree well for the same
wire and receiver. The mean of thirteen measurements with a wire 4:9 metres
long and 1°57mm. diameter gave a wave-length of 0:605 metre. Five experiments
with a wire 4 metres long and 2‘9mm. diameter showed the wave-length 0°65 metre.
A brass gas-pipe was next tried. This was 5-6 metres long and 11mm. diameter
and gave a wave-length of 0°62 metre, asa mean of fourteen experiments.
A thin wire, 5 metres long and0:36mm. diameter, gave a wave-length of 0:476
metre (mean of ten experiments).
A very fine wire, 4 metres long and 0 078mm. diameter, gave as a mean of
twelve experiments a wave-length of 0:384 metre.
The author thinks that these experiments show that Professor Hertz’s results
were due to the comparative thinness of the wire he used as judged by the length
of his waves.
\
7. On Reflection near the Polarising Angle from the Clean Surfaces of
Liquids, By Lord Rayieien, Sec.h.8S.
: If the image of the sun, reflected at the polarising angle from the surface of
ordinary water, be examined through a good nicol, no complete extinction can be
observed. At most a dark nebulous patch is seen upon the face of the sun. If,
however, the surface of the water be free from contamination, a well-defined band
crosses the solar disc, coloured above and below, and to all appearance black, or
‘nearly so, at its centre. The width of this band may be estimated at about one-
fifth of the solar diameter. A trace of olive-oil, decidedly short of what is
required to stop the camphor movements, practically obliterates the band. The
colour seen from clean water, which is due to the variation of the polarising
angle with wave-length, may be compensated by holding a 20° water prism
between the eye and the nicol. The band is thus achromatised, but colour is of
course introduced at the upper and lower limbs of the sun.
The deterioration of the band by contamination is not measured by the decre-
ment of surface tension. A strong solution of oleate of soda or a saturated solution
of camphor may give a much better band than distilled water with a somewhat
greasy face. Moreover, different parts of the same surface (over which the tension
is constant) are often observed to produce very different effects.
Precise measures of the ellipticity abundantly confirm these preliminary
results. Sunlight passing through a round hole fitted with cross-wires falls upon a
collimating lens, thence after reflection from an adjustable mirror traverses the
polarising nicol, and after reflection from the horizontal liquid surface passes a
ee ere mica and an analysing nicol. The latter is set alternately to a
eviation of + 30° from the plane of incidence, and the azimuth of the polariser
Tequired to bring the dark spot upon the cross-wires in each case is recorded.
if 2a be the difference of readings, tan 50° tan a, denoted by x, represents the
ellipticity, measuring as it does the ratio of reflection of amplitudes of the two
Principal components. Jamin found for water «= —:00577, and for alcohol
k= +°00208.
In my apparatus, which worked remarkably well, a change of setting of the
polariser of about two minutes was directly apparent when the analyser stood at
+ 30°, and very early experiments showed that the ellipticity of clean water could
barely be measured, While in the ordinary water 2a might lie between 3° and 14°,
the value for clean water seemed not to exceed 2’, Usually no error could be
erceived by mere inspection when the analyser was put over from + 380° to — 80°;
and the mean of long series of alternations gave a difference sometimes in one
irection and sometimes in the opposite. These discrepancies could only be
attributed to real changes in the purity of the surfaces, and evidence gradually
accumulated that the value for a clean surface was not zero, as had been expected,
002
564 REPORT—1891.
but about 2’, and that in the direction opposite to what is found for an ordinary
surface. This 2’ can hardly be other than real, for it has been recovered several
times after complete resetting of all the apparatus.
In any case the ellipticity here presenting itself is exceedingly small, We have
k= +tan 30° tan 1’= +:00037.
The intensity of the light reflected from water at the polarising angle, measured by
x?, is not more than about jy, of that found by Jamin. Alcohol is not nearly so
dependent as water upon the methods for freeing its surface from contamination ;
but, on the other hand, I was unable to apply these methods so completely. The
value obtained was
k= + 00085.
A strong brine, cleansed like the water, gave
c= —‘00042,
About the same value applies to a saturated solution of camphor, while for oleate
of soda the value was ---002. For petroleum again «= +0010.
It is impossible to feel confidence that these small values really express pro-
perties of the liquids whose names are attached to them, What is certain is that,
in a large number of cases, the ellipticity is very much less than has hitherto been
supposed, and it is not improbable that even the residual ellipticity may be due
to contamination, or, if not to contamination properly so-called, to insufficient
abruptness in the transition from the one medium to the other,
SATORDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
DEPARTMENT I.—Puysics.
1. Sixth Report of the Committee on Electrolysis—See Reports, p. 122.
2. Interim Report on the Present State of owr Knowledge in Electrolysis and
Electro-Chemistry.
Mr. W. N. Shaw was not able to present a Report this year.
3. Hlectrolytic Problems. By Rovertr L. Monp.
The author establishes the complete analogy between electric conduction
through electrolytes and what may be called metallic conduction.
He assumes with Wiedemann that the better conducting molecules in the
electrolyte form chains, while the worse conducting molecules form dielectric tubes
surrounding them. According to Clerk Maxwell's theory, electric energy is trans-
mitted through the dielectric along conductors. The author assumes that this
transmission is accompanied by molecular dissociation in the dielectric tubes sur-
rounding each electrolytic chain. With these assumptions he explains the chief
electrical and chemical effects produced during electrolysis,
The author gives an account of experiments he has made to test the validity of
the above views.
4. On Clausius’ Theory of Electrolytic Conduction, and on some Secret
Evidence for the Dissociation Theory of Electrolysis.' By J. Brown.
? See the Report of the Committee on Electrolysis, p. 122.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 565
ve ie
5. Report of the Committee on the Phenomena accompanying the
Discharge of Electricity from Points.—See Reports, p. 189.
j 6. On the Electrification of Needle Points in Air.
| By A. P. Cuartock.
; The author measures the strength of the electrostatic field at the surface of a
needle point by the mechanical force exerted by the field upon the needle parallel
to its axis ; and justifies experimentally the formula
}
}
fa /8P
?
*
where f is the field strength at a point of radius of curvature 7, and P the mecha-
nical pull upon it.
Values of f at the instant of discharge in air are given for air pressures, varying
_ from 10 em. to 76 cm. of mercury ; the measurements having been made on needle
_ points, for which the values of 7 lie between 7 x 10-4 cm. and 6x 10cm. It is
_ shown that for radii less than about 10-? em. the product fx °° is fairly constant ;
its value at 76 cm. mercury pressure being 16°5.
In the light of these results the possible ways are discussed in which resistance
_ to discharge may arise at a point. The conclusion is arrived at that the resistance
at a clean point is due to the formation of Grotthuss chains of the air molecules
surrounding the point ; and it is shown that, on this view, the charges carried by
the gas atoms are probably of the same order of magnitude as those carried by the
same atoms in electrolytes.
The variations of f with air pressure are then referred to, and are shown to be
in accordance with the Grotthuss chain hypothesis so far as they go.
7. On the Measurement of Liquid Resistances.2, By J. SwINBURNE.
To avoid errors due to variations of resistance or polarisation at the electrodes,
the fall of potential over a portion of the electrolyte is measured. Siphon tubes
are arranged to connect the feeling points with vessels containing non-polarisable
electrodes in a suitable electrolyte. Various ways of arranging the apparatus are
described.
8. The Surface-Tension of Ether and Alcohol at Different Temperatures.
By Professor Wittiam Ramsay, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Measurements of the ascent of these liquids in a calibrated capillary tube were
made at temperatures varying from that of the atmosphere to within a short
distance of the critical point. These measurements, combined with determinations
of the angle of contact of the meniscus of the liquid with the walls of a containing
arrow-bore tube, and also with a knowledge of the densities of the liquid and the
Vapour, give data for calculating the surface-tension. The results go to prove
that surface-tension is not a linear function of temperature. It is apparently
elated to the heat of the vaporisation of the liquid in a somewhat simple manner.
_ The angle of contact of the liquid with the tube walls varies in a remarkable
manner with the temperature. While, at temperatures for ether up to 160°, the angle
of contact is a small and a gradually decreasing quantity, at that temperature it is
zero: with rise of temperature above 160°, the angle of contact increases slowly at
first, rapidly as the temperature approaches the critical, until at the critical point it
saright angle. It is remarkable that above 160° no bubble will stick in the tube,
but ascends to the top; whereas below that temperature a bubble will remain in
) Printed in extenso in the Phil. Mag. September 1891.
? Published in full in Electrical Review, August 28, 189".
566 REPORT—1891.
one position, until it is compressed to such an extent that its form becomes lenti-
cular, the edges of the lens being just in contact with the sides of the tube when
it commences to ascend. There appears, therefore, to be a special temperature for
each liquid, at which the angle of contact of its meniscus with the walls of the
containing vessel is zero,
DeparrmMent IJ.—MarueEmarics,
1. Interim Report of the Committee on Mathematical Functions.
See Reports, p. 129.
2. Interim Report of the Committee on the Pellian Equation Tables.
See Reports, p. 160.
(3. On Periodic Motion of a Finite Conservative System.
By Sir Wittiam THomson, Pres.B.S.
4, On a Geometrical Illustration of a Dynamical Theorem.
By Sir Roserr Batt, B.S.
It was observed in this paper that a dynamical system when moving in any
way could be constrained to adhere to the same motion, so that every element
should continue to twist about the same screw as it was twisting about at the
moment. The forces to be applied for this purpose could be simply expressed, and a
geometrical construction was given in the particular case of a rigid body, which
was possessed of three degrees of freedom. It was shown that the screws about
which a body so restricted could twist might be represented by points in a plane
made on two ellipses, one representing the screws about which the body could
twist with zero kinetic energy, the other representing the screws of zero pitch. It
was then shown that two homographic systems of points could be constructed such
that if any point P be joined to its correspondent Q, then the hole of the ray with
regard to the pitch ellipse represents the screw on which a wrench could be placed
which should just steady the motion. The pole of the same ray with regard to the
kinetic ellipse gives the acceleration of the body if permitted to pursue its move-
ment without interference. A complete account of the investigation will shortly
appear in the publications of the Royal Irish Academy.
5. On the Transformation of a Differential Resolvent.
By the Rev. Roperr Haruey, M.A., F.R.S.
If there be two algebraic equations such that they can be changed, the one into
the other, by assuming, without loss of generality, certain relations among their
variables; and if the difterential resolvent of one of these equations is known, how can
we pass directly to the differential resolvent of the other, without having recourse
to a separate and independent calculation? That is the question I propose to
consider in the present paper. Nearly thirty years ago, when seeking to determine
the form of the differential resolvents of two trinomial algebraic equations connected
in the manner above described, I endeavoured to effect a passage from one differ-
ential resolvent to another by a simple transformation, but was stopped by what
seemed to me at the time to be an anomalous result. Fortunately the result was
placed upon record for future discussion ; it will be found in Art. 13 of a paper read
before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester (November 4, 1862),
) Printed in extenso in Phil. Mag. October 1891.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 567
and printed in the second volume of the third series of the Society’s Memoirs, pp.
232-245. A few weeks aco on re-studying this result, I succeeded in clearing up
the supposed anomaly, and in converting one of the differential resolvents into the
other. I will here indicate briefly the method employed, as it appears to admit of
_ general application.
‘The differential resolvents of the equations
; de ies la eR
| y"— ny" + (n—1)v=0 e ’ . ° (8)
nD ]"-—(n—1)" ee =) = = saa
n™{ (n—1)D]" ly — (n—-1)(nD—n—-1)[nD~2)"2y=[n—-lj ae , (8’)
4 grly ={9) P (a’)
respectively, where D =x = and the usual factorial notation
uv
[6]*=(@)(8@—1)(6-2) .,. (@-—a+1)
is followed. The question is, how to pass from (a’) to (8’); or, in other words,
given the differential resolvent of (a) to find that of (@). The following method
is effective.
If in equation (a) we write
—n’, cert ri, (gas yen y’
for n, 2,4 respectively, it becomes
yt +))y"+n'r'=0 , , ° . (y)
which is of the same form as (8). Here
{ 0
Peeyer , a ae ,
ta (nm +1)2’—, or D (n’+1)D’.
_ These substitutions being made in the resolvent (a’) we are led to
4 (a’+1)"4[ —(n’ +1)D’?41)- Py — 2? - (D4 1)]-Pa/y’=0 . (7)
rm,
_ the result given in the paper above cited.
Now, observing that, in general,
pte , -(@f+)) (=1)"* :
[ (n +1)D +1) [ (7 +1)b’—2}"*1
= / —('+)) = aL) el
: [ (n’D =f 1)] [n’D ]" +4
so that (y’) may be written in the form
; (n’ +1)" Mf’ D/P ty’ — n(n 41D 2 2'y’=0 2. (V4)
which contains the common factor (D—1), and therefore admits of a first integra-
tion, Operating with (D—1)-!, and determining the constant by summing for
the (n+1) roots of y’(3y’=n’+1), we obtain the differential resolvent of (y),
_ namely,
(al 41)" [n'D’'}"y’ — 2 (+ LD! = nr’ + 2)[(n’ + 1)D! —2]"-12’y’ =[n’}"'2’ . (72)
_ Dropping accents and writing n—1 for n, we are conducted finally to the equation
(6’), the differential resolvent of (8).
« .
568 REPORT— 1891.
6. On the Transformations used in connection with the duality of Differen-
tial Hquations. By H. B. Exuiort, F.R.S.
The Monge-Chasles-De Morgan reciprocal transformation of partial differential
expressions
v’=p, y’ =], v =pxr+qy—%,
t=, y=9, 2=p'a' + 'y' —2, °
is readily carried beyond the second order of derivatives by noticing that what, is
required is to express the derivatives of p, g with regard to p’, g’ in terms of those
ot p’, g’ with regard to p, g. Now a theory of the reversion of partial derivatives
of two variables with regard to two others by interchange of the dependent and
independent pairs has been developed.
The analogous but simpler reciprocal transformation of ordinary differential
expressions
x =p, y'=pr-y
or
r=p',y=p a’ —y’
amounts only to the interchange of dependent and independent variables in deriva-
tives of p with regard to p’; and a quite complete theory of such a reversion is at
our disposal. One consequence is that any reciprocant gives us on replacing
dp dp b dy dy
ap? dp? da?” dg ~~
a family of curves whose polar reciprocals with regard to the parabola 2? = 2y con-
stitute the same family.
. a self-reciprocal expression, 7.e, the criterion of
7. Note on a Method of Research for Invariants.
By HE. B. Exxiort, F.R.S.
This note was of the nature of an inquiry as to whether adequate use had been
made of methods of direct determination of invariants of a binary form in terms of
its co-efficients when deprived of its second term. ‘The invariants of
-—1 i= —1)(n—2) _. -
, ao cu : + — . +
are as shown by Cayley those functions of a,c, d,. . . whose degree z and weight w
satisfy am = 2, and which are annihilated by the differential operator
(n—2)dd.+(m—S)eda+ ....
= (n=1)f{ 88 Tite \
8. On Liquid Jets under Gravity. By Rev. H. J. Suarpr, M.A.
Tbe motion, which is in two dimensions, is supposed to be symmetrical with
regard to 2”’Ow, which is the axis of the vessel and jet. BEF is the semi-outline
ot the vessel, FJ of the jet. AF is the semi-orifice which is small compared with
the dimensions of the vessel and the depth of the liquid. Gravity acts parallel to
v’Ox. OF is the surface of the liquid, which is maintained steady. AF is
supposed to be so small that it may be considered either as the arc of a circle with
centre O in the surface of the liquid, or as a small straight line perpendicular to
Ox. For simplicity we shall take OA the radius of the circle (or the depth of the
liquid) as unity. If g be the acceleration of gravity referred to this unit, it will
be convenient to put a? for 2g. We shall take O as the origin of Cartesian and
polar coordinates «, y, 7, @ and we shall put 2’ for (2-1). Let x and y be the
stream functions on the right and lefé respectively of AF and let wu, v be the
velocities parallel to Ox, Oy. Further let AF =7z/p where p is a large number.
te
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 569
On the r7ght of AF we take
dx th sie
dgr ar} cos 46 + Sc’,e-?"*'cos pny lL
.
d
— S =v= —ar'sin 16+ Sc’,<-?"”sin pny J
Where c’, is an arbitrary constant and = indicates summation with regard to n
for all integral values from 1 to infinity.
On the deft of AF we take
ay
cas S(ane™™ cos my) + Dene?” cos pny + A
dy . (2)
v= —S(a,e"” sin my) — Scne?™ sin pny J
daze
Where @,, ¢, and A are arbitrary constants and S indicates summation with regard
to m for a fimte number of values of m, the largest of which is supposed to be small
compared with p.
Since the velocities must be continuous on each side of AF, we must have
along AF,
S(a,cos my) =a—A + 3(e,/—e,)cos pny (3
—S(apsin my) + Say = (ep +Cp)sin pny J ; )
These must hold from y=o to y=7/p. But if we expand the left-hand sides by
Fourier’s Theorem we get c, and ¢,’ as functions of n. Since the left-hand side of
the second equation of (3) must vanish when y=z/p, this furnishes one relation
among the constants. We can then show that c, and c,’ are small quantities at
most of the order 1/p?.
It is easy to form from (2) the equation to the outer stream-line BEF. If the
vessel be of finite breadth at infinity, A will be a small quantity of the order 1/p.
y
Sey
®’ Oo A x
Looking now at (2), we see that if OE be the surface of the liquid, « and v must
when «= —1 be small quantities at most of the order 1/p. A and the 3 term
already satisfy that condition. In the S term m has several values. Suppose the
articular m in (2) to be the smallest of these values, and suppose m = log p, then
when w’ = —1 the S term also satisfies the surface condition, and the more accurately
he larger p is, since log p/p diminishes as p increases.
If FJ isa jet we must have, since AF is small, at every point of the jet,
nearly
uP + v? = 297,
But we see at once from (1) that this condition is nearly fulfilled, the error being
of the order 1/p”.
As a particular case, if we give to m in (2) the two values 8 and 9, p will be
oye Bie and the maximum error (which will be at F) will be about
-° 3.
570 REPORT—1891.
If p be large enough, we can by taking a sufficient number of values of m,
make the error of the order 1/p* &c.
Roughly speaking, when the orifice is small compared with the depth of the
liquid, the shape of the jet depends only on the orifice, being almost entirely
independent of the shape of the vessel.
9. The Geometry of Confocal Conics. By Professor T. C. Lewis.
1. If PP’, QQ’ be chords of contact of T in two confocal conics, then a conic
can be described with Q, Q’ as foci which shall touch the conic PP’ at P and P’.
Fie. 1. 2.
rf
S
2, By taking T on the outer of the two ellipses, it follows that the ellipse with
foci at Q, Q’ which passes through T will have contact of the third order with the
confocal through T; and the hyperbola with foci at Q, Q’ which passes through T
will have contact of the third order with the hyperbola whose foci are S and H
which passes through T.
3. In fig. 3 PQ, PQ’, P’Q,.P’Q’ are all tangents to one ellipse confocal with
that through Q, Q’. Let this be ¢, 9. 95 q (fig. 8). The four tangents to an ellipse
intersect in three pairs of points. If each of one pair is on a confocal conic, so also
is each of the others. Q, Q/ lie on one confocal; T, T’ lie on another confocal.
4. As in 1, a conic with P, P’ as foci can be drawn touching the confocal TT’
at T and T’ ». PT—TP’=PT’—-TP’.
*, a circle can be inscribed in the quadrilateral TPT’P’.
Fig. 3. Fia. 4,
5. Asa particular case, when P and Q coincide the two tangents from T meet
the tangent at L in Q, Q’ (fig. 4) which are on a confocal, and the circle inscribed
in TQQ’ touches the ellipse at L.
6. In fig. 8, QP + PQ’/=QP’+ P’Q’. Add to each Qg, + are 9,9, + 9,Q/ ; and let
PP’ be consecutive points; Q being the intersection of consecutive tangents lies on
the inner ellipse. Hence the string which must be placed round the inner ellipse
to stretch to P is equal to the one which must be placed round it to stretch to P’,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. Sal
Hence mode of describing confocal ellipses by placing strings round an ellipse
and keeping them stretched by a pencil point.
And, similarly if an endless string be placed round an ellipse whose circum-
ference is shorter than the string, and if the point M’ be fixed, and a loop of the
string be passed through a small ring at L and pulled tight, then if a pencil be put
through the ring and moved steadily away from the ellipse, a confocal hyperbola
will be described (fig. 5).
Various other cases arise.
7. As long as T is on a confocal ellipse PT — PL is constant.
Also the tangents from T to the circle inscribed in TQQ’ are of constant length.
If the tangent at L meet the confocal ellipse through T in T’ and T”, the
confocal hyperbdlas through 'T’, T” will pass through P, P’ respectively and T’ T’’
—are PP’ is constant.
Hight equal tangents can be drawn from the outer to the inner of two confocal
ellipses.
u, If in fig. 5 the tangent be drawn at M, M’ or L’ to meet the tangent from
T in Q and Q’, then the point of contact of this tangent will be the point at
which either an inscribed or an escribed circle of the triangle TQQ’ will touch the
ellipse.
0. If a triangle be drawn with each side touching an ellipse, then an infinite
number of triangles of equal perimeter can be drawn whose sides touch the ellipse;
their three angular points lying one on each of three confocal ellipses.
10. If the ‘three confocals which are the loci of the angular pvints coincide, the
triangles are inscribed in one and circumscribed about another of two confocal
ellipses.
fin this case their perimeter is a maximum for all triangles inscribed in the
_outer ellipse, and a minimum for all triangles circumscribing the inner ellipse.
11. So for a polygon of any number of sides.
Also each tangent is divided into two sections at the point of contact. If the
polygon has m sides there are 2n-sections; starting with any one of them and
Fie. 5. : Fig. 6.
numbering the sections in order from 1 to , the remaining sections are equal in
‘magnitude to those already passed, occurring in the same order. The sections of the
sides of the triangle in fig. 6 with the same number attached are equal to one another.
10. Some Tangential Transformations, including Laguerre’s Semi-Droites
Réciproques. By Professor R. W. Grnese, M.A.
The equation to a straight line cutting off a length a from the positive axis of x
and making an angle cot -!m with that axis, being «-—a=my, a relation of the
form
am? + 2hma + ba? + 2gm + 2fa+e=O ' : ee (Gu),
572 REPORT—1891,
makes the line a tangent to the conic
Ay? + B+ Ca?—2F xr —2Gay + 2Hy =O “ of fam ri)
If now a second line x—a=m’y be obtained from the first by means of the
relation
pm? + 27’mm’ + gm’? +2q'm+2p’m’+r=O , ’ « (8)
the envelope of this line will in general be of the fourth class. If, however, the
minors of the discriminants of (1) and (5) be connected by the relations
AS OG:
PR Q’ : Romy e . (4)
then the envelope degenerates into two of the second class.
The conditions (4) were obtained thus:—Considering a, m',m as the coordinates
of a point referred to three orthogonal planes, (1) and (8) represent two cylinders,
and (4) gives the conditions that these should have two common plane sections.
The conditions may be geometrically interpreted thus; ¢f two conic cylinders lie
between two parallel planes (t.e. each cylinder touch both planes) their complete
intersection consists of two conics.
Laguerre’s transformation, analytically considered, gives the relation
m* + 2kmm’ +m”? =k? —1 . ‘ ° » (8)
here
P=1—2?, R=1—-F’, Q’=0.
Then by (4), A=C and G=0, and the transformation is seen to be of simple use
only for the case of circles. M. Laguerre’s results, however, of which an account
is given in his ‘Géométrie de Direction, are of exceptional elegance.
11. Note on the Normal to a Conic. By R. H. Pinxerton.
12. On the Importance of the Conception of Direction in Natural Philo-
sophy. By HK. T. Drxon.
This importance has already been recognised in the higher branches of science
in the guise of Vector theories, and the chief reason it has not been made use of in
elementary geometry is the want of a proper definition. Such proper definition
might be deduced from the conception of direction as a relation between two
positions which is independent of the distance between them and of the absolute
position of either of them in space. The concept thus defined is independent of
the conception of a straight line, and so may be used to define it, and is therefore
distinct from the concept defined, by saying that two straight lines which have a
common point have the same or different directions according as they coincide or
not. That some notion of direction is necessary to elementary geometry is shown
by the fact that without it right- and left-handed figures which are equal in every
respect cannot be distinguished; and that the concept as defined is commonly
entertained, is proved by the fact that it follows from Newton’s Laws of Motion
that absolutely fixed directions may be conceived in space, although absolutely
fixed positions cannot.!
1 Vide The Foundations of Geometry (Deighton, Bell & Co.)
‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 573
MONDAY, AUGUST 24,
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Researches on the Ultra-Violet Rays of the
Solar Spectrum.—See Reports, p. 147.
2. Comparison of Eye and Hand Registration of Lines in the Violet and
Ultra-Violet of the Solar Spectrum, against Photographic Records of
the same, with the same Instrument, after a lapse of several years.
By ©. Piazza Suvi, LL.D., F.R.SH.
A comparison of the plates seems to lead to such practically useful conclusions
as the following :—
1. Two photographic representations are far more trustworthy than three or
probably a much greater number of hand-drawn views of solar-spectrum lines,
eyen when the eye imagines it sees them very clearly.
2. The photographie principle records with ease, and the utmost vigour of
black, white and grey of various shades, a world of objects in certain spectral
regions where the eye can see nothing whatever.
3. What photography depicts in such cases is what the human eye ought to
see, and would see were 1t divinely perfect simply as an eye.
4, The ordinary spots, pin-holes and dust-marks, which too often abound in
photography, never assume such shapes as might lead to their being mistaken by
any experienced observer for a single one of Nature's sular-spectrum lines of light
or shade.
5. The frequent errors, and then ail-pervading effects, fallen into by some
photographers in the way of over or under exposure, and over or under develop-
ment, may prevent the absolute intensity of any one line, on one plate alone, being
usefully quoted as ascientificdatum. But the redative intensities, and innumerable
distinctions in hue and shape, of thick or thin, dark or light, closely arrayed or
widely scattered, flutings gradating towards the violet or towards the red end,
and regularly or irregularly spaced lines on the same plate, are full of most
important and instructive particulars. While they mostly hold good also, from
_ plate to plate of the same parts of spectral space, on all the proofs that may be
taken both day after day, and through a very wide range of all the possibilities of
perversion and misuse which may be humanly committed upon this most exquisite
aid, viz. photography, to the noblest of the senses of man, vision.
6. In principle, all this has long been known to advanced workers in every
civilised nation. But as it is not everywhere yet utilised to the extent it might
well be, it is hoped that this further and rather multitudinous example, on an
extreme scale too, of spectral separation, and capable of showing such a Titanic
‘instance of a dark thunder-cloud-looking column as ‘ Great K,’ by pure photo-
graphy only eight months ago, in a solar-spectrum telescopic field which was at the
time absolute emptiness to the eye, may be useful in calling increased attention to
similar and more extensive employments of photography in the future.
8. Note on Observing the Rotation of the Sun with the Spectroscope.
By G. Jounsrone Sronzy, M.A., D.Sc., FBS.
In this note the author described an arrangement for conspicuously exhibiting
to the eye the rotation of the sun by the spectroscope. The sun’s light, after
reflection from the mirror of a heliostat, is received by a telescope lens which
forms an image of the sun on the slit of the spectroscope. The lens is attached to
a vertical board, and two screws are partly screwed side by side into the board
and at some distance above the lens, The projecting heads of the screws rest on a
574 REPORT—1891.
fixed support so that the board can oscillate a little sideways. This carries the
image of the sun backwards and forwards over the slit, so that the light admitted
by the slit is alternately taken from a part of the solar disk near the following
limb which is advancing towards the earth, and from a part near the preceding
limb which is receding. Accordingly the solar lines in the spectrum are alternately
shifted a little—perhaps about one-twentieth or one-thirtieth of a tenthet-metre—
to the right and left, while the earth-lines maintain their position unaltered. The
eye readily detects this motion even when so small.
There is a solar line a little less refrangible than the eighth pair of double
lines in the great B oxygen group, which, with the arrangement described above,
is seen to approach and recede from the double line in sympathy with the motion
of the pendulum, Another line well placed for the observation is the earth-line,
which is a very little more refrangible than D, ; and another convenient group is
where there is a strong iron line on the more refrangible side of D,, about as far
from D, on one side as D, is on the other. There is an earth-line in nearly the
same position. The two appear as a single line when the light is taken from the
preceding limb of the sun, and as a double line when it is taken from the following
limb; and with the pendulum arrangement these appearances alternate.
Of these three the observation on the B line can be well made in the second
spectrum of a Rowland’s grating 1} inch long. The observations near D are
best made in the fifth spectrum.
There are of course multitudes of other lines on which the observation can be
made.
4. On the Cause of Double Lines in Spectra.
By G. Jounstone Stoney, W.A., D.Sc., F.B.S.
The lines of the spectrum of a gas are due to some events which occur within
the molecules, and which are able to affect the «ther. These events may be
Hertzian discharges between molecules that are differently electrified, or they may
be the moving about of those irremovable electric charges, the supposition of
which offers the simplest explanation of Faraday’s law of electrolysis. The
amount of the charge which is associated with each of the bonds, and of which two
or more seem to be present in every chemical atom, is always the same quantity
of electricity. In a communication made to the British Association in 1874 the
author invited attention to this fixed quantity of electricity as one of three funda-
mental units presented to us by nature (see ‘Phil. Mag.’ for May 1881), and
estimated its value, which is about the twentiethet (ze. 1/10*°) of the electro-
magnetic unit of quantity in the ohm series.
Several considerations (of which perhaps the most decisive is the phenomenon
of the reversal of lines) suggest that the source of the spectral lines is to be
sought not in the Hertzian discharges, but in the carrying about of the fixed
electric charges, which for convenience may be called the electrons. The present
investigaticn however is not dependent on this or any other particular hypothesis,
since it is with the laws of the events within the molecules that it is concerned,
and the course of the investigation shows that these laws are the laws of the
motion of separate elements of volume, which may be conveniently thought of as
the motion of those parts of the molecule to which the electrons are to be regarded
as indissolubly bound. An electron, if waved about in some particular way by
the motions within the molecule, would occasion such electro-magnetic waves as
are revealed to us by the spectroscope.
Now the irrotational motion of an element of volume consists in its traversing
some orbit, accompanied perhaps by a simultaneous distortion of its form. We
are only concerned with the orbital motion. This motion may be resolved by
Fourier’s Theorem into the superposition of partials, each of which is a simple
pendulous motion in an ellipse, and each of these partials produces its own line in
the spectrum. Seven constants are required for the full determination of each
partial if the orbit of the electron is a curve of double curvature, or five if it is a
plain curve. Now the observation of a line supplies only two equations between
=
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. O75
these. The wave-length of the line, when corrected for the refraction of the air,
_ gives the periodic time of the motion of the electron in the corresponding partial,
and the brightness of the line gives a quantity proportional to a*+6*,@ and 6
_ being the axes of the ellipse.
But there is one case, and fortunately a case which at all events frequently
oceurs, and that perhaps is universal, in which we receive a very interesting
addition to our knowledge ; explaining on the one hand the double lines that are
so frequent in spectra, and on the other telling us the actual forms of the elliptic
partials of the motion going on in the molecules, ‘Lhis important case occurs
whenever some of the forces which determine the motion of the electron are
feeble compared with the others, and are such as to produce that familiar form of
perturbation which consists in an apsidal motion of the elliptic partials. When
this perturbation prevails, the lines are rendered double by it, and an examination
of the positions and intensities of the two constituents of a double line enables us
to determine (a) the form of the elliptic partial to which they are due, (4) the
time which the electron takes to travel round it, and (c) both the direction and
speed of the apsidal perturbation. Thus the principal double line of sodium is
found to have its source in a long elliptic partial, the ratio of the axes of which
lies somewhere between 11:1] and 13:1. Round this partial the electron travels
about 1,984 times during one revolution of its slow apsidal perturbation, and there
is time for about 386 of these slow apsidal revolutions to take place during each
flight of the molecule. Moreover in this case the apsidal motion takes place in
the same direction as the motion of the electron round the ellipse. An equal
amount of information can be obtained in the case of every other double line that
can be adequately observed.
The author thought he had reason to suspect from observation that almost all
spectral lines are double, and that they appear single only when our spectroscopes
have insufficient revolving power, or when each of the constituents has so widened
out as to obliterate the interval between them, or in the rare cases when the
partial from which they arise being circular one of the two constituents of the
double line is of cypher intensity. If this shall turn out to be the case, there
must be some common cause for the apsidal perturbation, and the author ventured
to suggest as the most probable cause the feeble reaction which the ether exerts
on the electron, consequent on the energy which the molecule imparts to the
gether when producing the electromagnetic waves. <A fuller account of the in-
vestigation is being printed by the Royal Dublin Society in its Scientific Trans-
actions.
5. Seventh Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation.
See Reports, p. 160.
6. Report of the Committee on Meteorological Photography.
See Reports, p. 130.
. Report of the Committee on the Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.
See Reports, p. 140.
8. Report of the Committee on the Reduction of Magnetic Observations.
See Reports, p. 149.
\
_ | It is shown in the investigation that each of the two constituents of a double
line arises from a circular motion. Accordingly they would not suffer further
duplication if an additional apsidal perturbation were introduced,
576 REPORT—1891.
9, Report of the Committee on the Seasonal Variations in the Temperature
of Lakes, Rivers, and Hstuaries. See Reports, p. 454.
10. On the probable Nature of the Bright Streaks on the Moon.
By Dr. Ratpu Copetann, F.R.A.S., F.B.S.L.
In this paper the author described the chief features of the bright lunar streaks,
especially their invisibility when the shadows of the mountains are most con-
spicuous, and their great prominence when the lunar shadows are imperceptible.
It was explained that the bright streaks demanded for their visibility not so
much a high angle of illumination, as a front illumination. In other words, they
become visible when the light falls more or less closely in the line of sight.
If this condition is fulfilled the streaks come prominently into view quite
regardless of the inclination of the surfaces on which they occur. The surfaces
indeed may make almost any angle, either with the line of sight or with the sun’s
rays, provided they are atall turned towards the common direction of the spectator
and the sun.
An important deduction from this fundamental fact is that each elementary
portion of the streak surface is of a form that is symmetrical to the spectator from
whatever point it is seen. The sphere alone appears to fulfil this condition ; hence
it may be assumed that the surface of the streak material must be made up of a
large number of more or less complete spherical surfaces. These minute surfaces
may be either concave or convex. We may therefore regard the streaks as being
produced by a material pitted with minute cavities of syherical figure, or strewn
over with minute solid spheres. In the latter case it is probable that the material
is more or less transparent, or at least translucent.
To test this hypothesis, a plaster model of the moon 22 inches in diameter was
made, on which the bright streaks are represented by lines of minute spherules of
transparent glass attached to the surface. These possess in a marked degree the
desired property of remaining inconspicuous under cross light, while they flash
out brilliantly when lit up from the front. Although the spherules are but 1-50th
to 1-80th inch in diameter, they are still too large in proportion to the model, and
therefore cast perceptible shadows when they would otherwise be invisible. This
might have been largely avuided by the tedious process of partially imbedding
them in the model. The corresponding diame ‘er on the moon’s surface would be
from 2 to 3 miles.
When suitably illuminated the phases of the model were found, on photometric
examination, to follow a law not very unlike that of the lunar phases as derived
by Zéllner from his own observations, and those of Sir John Herschel, the light of
the ‘full moon’ being nearly five times that at quadrature. Without streaks the
model closely agreed with Lambert's formula for a non-reflecting sphere, for which
the full disc is 3°1416 times as bright as the half disc illuminated from the side.
The paper was illustrated by a diagram showing the relative brightness of the
phases as well as by the model and photographs of the same. The model, suitably
illuminated, was also exhibited at the evening conversazioni of the Association.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p. 152.
2. The Causes of Variation of Clark Standard Cells.1 By J. Swinsurne.
The various parts of the cell are examined separately. Any zine will do, if
amalgamated before use. The greatest variations are due to impurities, such as
} Published in fullin Hlectrical Revien,, August 28, 1891.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 577
traces of iron, which are found in even the best purchased sulphate of zine, The
sulphate of zinc solution may also contain basic sulphates, and it is not homo-
geneous after any variations of temperature. This gives rise to variations of the
electromotive force of the cell, and also to large variations of temperature-coeffi-
cient. The mercurous sulphate bought as pure nearly always contains a great
deal of mercuric sulphate. The effects of these and other causes of variation are
discussed, and an amalgam cell, preferably with a non-saturated solution, recom-
mended.
3. A Joint Discussion with Section G. on Units and their Nomenclature was
opened by Professor Otiver J. Loven, F.R.S., followed by W. H. Prexce,
E.R.S.
The following Papers were read in connection with the discussion, viz. :—
fo) ?
Some Revolutionary Suggestions on the Nomenclature of Electrical and Mechanical
Units. By Professor W. Srroup.
Present Practical System of Units——1. The present practical system of units
is yery objectionable on three grounds—
(a) There is no primd facie reason why the practical unit of current should
be equal to 1-10th c.g.s. unit.
(8) The relation between the other practical electric units and the correspond-
ing ¢.g.s. units is much more complex than need be.
(y) The units of work and power are far too small for practical requirements.
2. If we were starting to devise a practical system to-day, such a system could
best be formed by taking 10°cm. as the unit of length, 10-°gm. as the unit of mass,
and the second as unit of time.
8. That in the interests of the ‘ practical’ men of the future and in the inter-
ests of the electrical students of both the present and the future, it is highly desir-
able to initiate a revolution with the object of dethroning the present practical system
of units.
_ Nomenclature.—1. That the term Dyne to indicate 107 of our present (1891)
dynes is objectionable, as custom has restricted the use of Greek derivatives entirely
¢.o.s. units,
That 10’ dynes, ¢f required, might be called a Hebdomodyne, suitably con-
racted, of course, or preferably a joc (joule over centimetre),
2, That the classical languages are of little or no service for the provision of
ames for modern, more or less complex, physical conceptions, and therefore this
iethod of coining words it is desirable to abandon.
3. That for c.g.s. units some system of automatic nomenclature in which every
amie shall be self-explanatory would prove a boon to the teachers and a blessing to
1 student, and that such a system is quite capable of being devised.
‘4. That the prefixes meizo to indicate 10°, and mei to indicate 10-9 may be
und useful.
On a Table to Facilitate the Conversion of Electrostatic and Electromagnetic
Measures into one another.. By G. Jounsons Sronny, M.4., D.Sc., FR.
The fundamental equations of electricity are :— -
/
oe E = at , for the repulsion between two quantities of electricity.
4 ys
PP’ ; ie :
F=0°—_, for the repulsion between two quantities of magnetism, and
4 1891. PP
578 REPORT—1891.
EO - F
F=¢c co for the repulsion between a linear current and a magnet ; a, 6,
2
and ¢ depending on the specific inductive capacities of the
medium for electricity and magnetism.
The dimensions of the various units in electricity and magnetism, if written
out in full, would contain these coefficients, which are so related that abjc? isa
velocity. Our knowledge of the significance of this standard velocity is chiefly
owing to Clerk Maxwell, and the author suggested that it shall be called the
Maxwell. It appears from the electromagnetic theory of light that it is also the
velocity of light.
The above relation may be written in either of the forms,
e e
@=2, =, 010=0,—.
b a
Accordingly, if we choose to confine our attention to the cases in which c*/a has
its unit of value,
b=v [multiplied by a coefficient of dimensions, c*/a, and of unit value] ;
and if, on the other hand, we confine our attention to the cases in which c*/b has
its unit of value,
a=v [multiplied by a coefficient of dimensions, c*/b, and of unit value}.
The first of these assumptions is that the specific inductive capacity for elec-
tricity of the medium (usually air) is taken as our unit of specific inductive
capacity for electricity, and the second assumption is that the specific inductive
capacity for magnetism of the medium is taken as the unit of specific inductive
capacity for magnetism.
Electrical units consistent with the first assumption are called electrostatic
units, those consistent with the second assumption are the electromagnetie units.
In the dimensional equations of the electrostatic system c’/a disappears and is
replaced by unity, in those of the second system it is c?/d which disappears. This
makes the difference between the imperfect dimensional equations of the two
systems, which is therefore only apparent ; and the ratios between the units of
each physical quantity, whether estimated electrostatically or electromagnetically,
are essentially numerical.
Units consistent with both assumptions can only be obtained if we use the
Maxwell velocity as our unit of velocity, in which case @, b, and ¢ can all have
unit values; and the central column of the following table is based on this assump-
tion, and is introduced to afford a common ground up to which it is sufficient
separately to trace from the right and left the numerical relations of the units of
the systems in common use (by the help of the two systems of imperfect dimen-
sional equations), in order to arrive at the numerical relations the whole way
across. The Maxwell must be our unit of velocity in the central column ; but we are
at liberty to choose two other units arbitrarily, and they are so selected as to make
.
the unit of time and the unit of ./LM the same in the central column as in the
two adjoining ohm columns. This reduces the numerical relations to their
simplest form. The table can easily be extended to include the units of every
other electrical quantity.
The name potency is suggested for what is too often miscalled a force, or the
intensity of the field, At every station in space there is potency over the magnet~
ism that is there present, over the electricity, over the mass, and over the volume
oceupied (producing buoyancy), if the surrounding medium is excluded from it.
There are, therefore, four potencies at each point of space, each being one factor of
a force, the other factor being a quantity of magnetism, of electricity, of mass, or
of volume, as the case may be. The author also expressed his hope that the
phrases electromotive force and pressure may be discontinued, for what is in fact
one factor of an energy, the other factor being a quantity of electricity. Voltage,
which has in some degree come into use, was recommended instead.
579
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.
Souq] [¥JUOZTIOY O44 Jo 4UeAOduII oAOME OYY 07 TOI4H094B 4OOITp 0} peonporqUr a1 systIojsy »
‘SuUAnyoo TIO OY} UF sv oUTUS Oy UreUTEI A pur Y “o Je syUN oY} WvU PUL WPT] JO
9 WI/’ =» suorsuomp jo summyoo ax} uy
Aqy00[94 943 9 Ur SomModa @ JO TUN OT9 4Bq7 Pozoo]os OS OLB UUINIOO [TEAM XePL 04} AOJ TF, pur “Ty “Ty Jo sjiun oT, ae ae ke =
AjoMaYT UO YoryWo,0g YIM [worpuapt ‘[ao.10y DATZOMIOAQOO[Y 10 ‘asvq]OA]
O |x| = = Di = mY = x = A (0) =e : * Aqroedvo aatgonput oyroadg
7 *| 0 |= OL] Peg | > og] 09 |> of] 2 | > .or a at = iS) Cee see ae L£q:0vdeQ
TOS ae | 0S) Sl <0 8 <) Of Ses gon] FS con s =: ae ae * uoyonput-Jjog Jo quaroyyao)
SM St RS cel) eto I <a ae eS alle we ee ony: i = - + + + + gomegstsax
ae = — = = N |< 08] «# < n01 had = 4 eae oan * amano,
er i= ag ae — N |> .08 u > «01 ju = "Tea B : O * SSByT
PG el ON | <n 0L N <0] Nu | > og] uw |> wr je a = Trad * + orzq90ra
POT peo WOT N < 0¢| Nw | > 0g] vw | >.20T ju Da = Pree ‘8 + onouseyy
a <a = = = H |< .0¢] ¥v | <.0T M _ oS Pn : euN[oA UO
a
= |. ee - = ei) See aor i _ 7 i i cal
A iH |> or H = | av |< oe} v | <oor iM + EF Pi hc 5 8 + Sonat UO
k «| OM |>o0l | ssnep | > og | Ay = << 01 M A — te ‘+ * © Taseuseyr uO
= >= = > a A |< 08] A | <o0T iA _ - ee ge * —— sumjoA U9
od
=a a a “te a A | > 08] A | >n0% aN = of ee + eS Ss Sse oO
fo" |e) A |< .0r| 310A < 08] Aa = |< 0r we g - g : + ApOLAQo9[ UO
E] A | > OL A = A®@ |> 08] @ |> Or ye da — : * usljousey_ UO
# |x| Ww |> or| emduy = wo |> o¢| » |> Or 7) ga 22 3 pate eat
Prarleaatiey)
= = = = — a |}>0¢} @ | >.01| o1qno — Fp Ga oS ae * outnqoA JO
— — — _ — Wi< o¢|) @ |< y0T!] ommeis — Te. oie v = : o 1:3 | \P (0)
D |x| © | > OL }amomog |} = 0b | >-08|] 2 | > OT 0 va 0 |e eR a Seo monn TO
"a |x| id |< oOL] woany |< og| ad = C1 <0 a 2 eb een ee eso near. 10)
5 SS ee ee ee as a! Le a eee
g 2 JO 4) Jo Ju) JO F1uQ, JO 910 =}
Pals ‘m0 ‘wo “sp'0
“s9'0
E
8
g
a
s
oF 4
ERS ag
egtasoy
BT EEBGe
oO i>]
BUSES
Le)
ark os
o =]
Se as
nm So i>]
bode! ow
S'9 8 Ps
OZ
©24 8
EA iS)
a
<4
tae]
Sk
°
gees | 82
BE ey Bo
8768 Ba
a= 4
quarINg oLIqQoOT
ALLINVAY
Tel tin
580 rEvorT—1891.
Absolute Units of Meusurement. By W. Moon.
The disadvantages of the C.G.S. system of units are that the units are so small
that one can form no conception of their value, and that owing to this smallness it
is necessary to introduce a separate set of practical units for ordinary purposes of
measurement. These disadvantages may be overcome by taking as fundamental
units L and M larger or T smaller.
Of all the systems of metrical units that can be formed by varying L and T by
multiples or sub-multiples of ten, that system is the best that is founded upon the
‘Decimetre, Kilogramme, and Decisecond.’ If the name ‘Instant’ were given to
the Decisecond, the system could be spoken of as the D.K.I. system.
In the D.K.I. system ‘g¢’=981, or nearly unity, so that the weight of a kilo-
gramme could be taken as the unit of force for rough calculations. This would be
a great improvement, since the simplest way to conceive a force is as the weight
of unit mass,
A prepared table shows that all the D.K.I. units are sufficiently large to be
used for practical purposes, and that all the multiples and sub-multiples of them
that would be required could be expressed by the usual Greek prefixes to their
names.
To express the large numbers required for insulation, resistances, and the small
capacities of condensers, the Greek prefixes ‘ omega’ and ‘ omicron ’ might be used
for powers of 10 and 10~" respectively.
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 26.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On the Measurement of Lenses.
By Professor Sitvanus P. Tuompson, F.L.S.
The author described his focometer and some results obtained upon microscopic
objectives and camera lenses. Wide-angled lenses were found in all cases to have
the positions of principal planes inverted.
2. Ona New Polariser. By Professor Strvanus P. Taompson, F.2.S.
3. Some Experiments on a new Method for the Determination of “m,’
By A. G. WEBSTER.
The method is similar to that proposed by Maxwell with the title, ‘ Measure-
ment of a resistance in Electrostatic Measure.’ A condenser is connected in
parallel with the two sets of quadrants of an electrometer, and both are connected
in series with a battery and a high inductionless resistance. Contact being made
and broken after a short time ¢ by means of a Helmholtz pendulum-interrupter,
the potential of the charge of the condenser and electrometer, measured by the
first swing of the latter, is
t
p=p(1-e" wer)
po being the E.M.F. of the battery used, w the large resistance, ¢ and y the respect-
ive capacities of the condenser and electrometer. A second set of experiments, ¢
being disconnected, gave the value of y, which included the capacity of the leading
wires and of an auxiliary condenser inserted for the purpose of making ¢+y andy
more nearly equal, i
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 581
By turning the micrometer screw of the pendulum-interruptor, and thus chang-
ing the distance between the contacts, ¢ can be varied and a large number of points
on the logarithmic curve found. By a process of calibration with the pendulum,
it was found that the electrometer-throws were strictly proportional to the poten-
tials p,. This calibration was made by taking a wso small that the exponential
term vanished and measuring p for various 7's.
_ The resistances used were made by ruling pencil lines upon finely-ground glass,
upon the ends of which a thin film of platinum had been firmly deposited by burn-
ing in and soldering the connecting wires to this, giving a firm and reliable con-
nection to the resistance.
The condenser was a large plate-condenser, 50 cm. in diameter, whose capacity
was found by Kirchhoff’s formula. Three capacities, 350204, 770:513, and
998:459 cm. were used, with resistances of from one-half to five megohms.
The time-constant of the pendulum was found by the method of Pouillet for
short intervals, by means of a ballistic galvanometer. One division of the micro-
meter was found to correspond to
1:1546 x 10-° sec.
In the experiments, readings were taken at intervals between 100 and 2,000
‘micrometer-divisions.
A large number of observations was taken, in which all the measured quanti-
ties c, w, and ¢ were varied.
The value of v arrived at was
2:987 x 10'° cm. sec—!
4. On the Magnetic Field in the neighbourhood of the South London Elec-
trical Railway. By Professor W. EH. Ayrton, F.R.S., and Professor
Ricker, FBS.
Observations were made by means of a mirror galvanometer the period of
which was 10 sec., and which was used as a magnetometer. The instrument was
placed in two rooms about 70 and 180 feet respectively from the centre of the
road, under which the railway runs at a depth of about 70 feet. It is believed that
the earth was acting as the return portion of the circuit. In accord with this
the instrument was found to be in continual vibration. The amplitude of the
swing at the station nearer to the railway was often 50 mm., and the law of decrease
with distance appeared to be inversely as the first power. It is, therefore, evident
that experiments of the most ordinary accuracy could not be made within a very
preat distance of such a railway.
5. On the Periodic Time of Tuning-Forks maintained in Vibration Elec-
trically. By Professor J. Virtamu Jones and T, Harrison.
‘
a
6. Magnetic Experiments made in Connection with the Determination of the
_ Rate of Propagation of Magnetisation in Iron. By F. T. Trovron.
7. On the Connection between the Orystal Form and the Chemical Compo-
sition of Bodies. The Symmetry of Orystals accounted for by the
Application of Boscovich’s Theory of Atoms to the Atoms of the Ohemist.
By Wiu1am Bartow, F.G.S.
__ After mentioning that he read papers on the same subject at the meetings of
the British Association at Aberdeen in 1885 and Leeds in 1890, the author states
that he is now prepared to deal with the matter in a more general way, and to
‘submit proof that the mutual interaction of different kinds of atoms present in
582 REPORT—1891.
simple proportions is competent to produce the various kinds of symmetry
exhibited by crystals if the fundamental doctrine of Boscovich is admitted—that
the ultimate atoms are points endowed each with inertia, and with mutual attrac-
tions or repulsions dependent on mutual distances—repulsion manifesting itself at
the smallest distances and becoming infinite at infinitely small distances.
After referring to the principal views which have been put forward as to the
nature of the molecules or units of crystals he goes on to argue that stable
equilibrium of a group of atoms endowed with Boscovich’s properties is evidently
found in that disposition of the atoms which gives the repulsions greatest play ;
that it is, in fact, the arrangement in which the packing is closest, or, in the lan-
guage of modern conceptions, the arrangement in which the potential energy of
the system is a minimum.
He then proceeds to answer the question, What grouping of a concourse of
atoms will give closest packing? first pointing out that the answer depends on
whether the atoms are of diflerent kinds, and, if they are, on the numerical pro-
portion of each kind present, and also on the relative magnitude of the spaces
they occupy, or, in other words, on their relative capacities for repelling or being
repelled.
For simplicity sake, he takes first the imaginary case of atoms confined to the
same plane, and points out that if there are two kinds of atoms present in equal
numbers, one of which exercises a feebler repulsion than the other, their repulsions
may be so proportioned that closest packing will be attained when one kind of
atom lies at the angles of a system of equal squares fitted close together, the other
at the centres of the same squares.
Te then applies similar reasoning to cases of atoms not in the same plane, and,
after remarking that atoms which are all of one kind will pack closest when their
centres have the relative situation of the centres of a close-packed assemblage of
equal globes—a familiar example of which is found in the stacking of cannon-
shot—he states that the more general case of the closest packing of two or more
kinds of atoms is approximately depicted by the closest packing of globes, if the
globes are of different sizes, to represent the effects of the difference in the repul-
sions exercised by the different atoms.
After saying that the nature of the grouping in which stable equilibrium is
found will depend on the ratio between the lengths of the radii of the globes
employed, the author traces the nature of the grouping for several particular
values of this ratio,
He points out that not only holohedral groupings corresponding to the simpler
forms of the crystallographic systems can be obtained in this way, but that the
more complicated partial symmetry of hemihedral and tetartohedral forms are
also to be obtained.
As examples of the latter he gives a grouping in closest-packing that has the
precise symmetry of zinc-blende ZnS, which, according to Groth, crystallises in
the tetraédrische hemiédrie of the cubic system, and another grouping that has the
precise symmetry of cuprite Cu*O, which, according to Groth, crystallises in the
plagiédrische hemiédrie of the cubic system. The numerical proportion of the
spheres of different radius employed is, in each case, that of the atoms present in
the molecule of the compound represented.
Polar-pyroelectric phenomena and circular polarisation are, the author points
out, associated with peculiarities of the internal symmetry of the groupings, which
correspond in outward symmetry with the bodies displaying these phenomena.
The grouping is portrayed by beads of different colours suspended in space
in the symmetrical manner requisite in each case.
The author concludes his paper by referring to some geometrical properties of
the symmetrical systems of the crystallographer which he has discovered by an
extension of the methods adopted by Bravais and by Sohneke, and which have
greatly facilitated his work in finding symmetrical groupings to fit the forms and
composition of a variety of different substances.
camer
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 583
8. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
of Japan.—See Reports, p. 128.
9. On Phenomena which might be Observable if the Hypothesis that Earth-
quakes are connected with Electrical Phenomena be entertained. By
Professor JouHn Mine, F.R.S.
It seems reasonable to assume that superheated high pressure steam escaping
at a volcanic focus A through fissures to a region B—A and B being more or less
insulated by partially non-conducting material—might also result in the develop-
ment of large quantities of electricity, followed ultimately by violent discharges.
_ If a conductor C electrically connected with the surface, say the ocean, is
separated from B by partially non-conducting matter I, then BIC may be regarded
as a condenser, and the charges at B and C are intensified. Discharges might also
take place between B and C, and the charges at A, B and C would act inductively
at the points a, 4, c, of the surface respectively nearest to them.
The phenomena related to the above hypothesis are as follows:—
1. Earthquakes and Earth-currents——¥rom a comparison of observations at
700 stations in Japan, there seems to be no connection between earthquakes and
_ abnormal disturbances on land lines. It would, however, seem that any subterra-
nean discharge—as, for instance, between A and B—must produce simultaneous
change of potential at a and 4, and that therefore no change of current should be
expected. Thus the hypothesis is not opposed to the facts.
2. Connection between Earthquakes and Volcanoes.—Most earthquakes do not
originate at volcanoes, but below the sea or on the coast-line where flat ground
suddenly slopes down below a deep ocean. From the hypothesis we should expect
that the greatest electric stress, and therefore the greatest disruptive stress, would
be between B and C.
3. Potential at Hot Springs——Measurements made at seven springs in the
same valley extending from Yumoto, 100 to 200 feet above sea-level, to Ashinoyu
3,000 feet above sea-level. Between a hot spring and the earth, 10 to 100 yards
distant, the difference at the foot of the valley is about ‘05 of a volt, but at high
elevations, where the water is most sulphurous, the difference rose to 0°6 volt.
The difference of potential between 4 and a neighbouring point ought to
‘Increase when 6 is a volcanic vent. The existence of sulphurous water, however,
is not to be overlooked.
4, Variations in’ Potential between Water-Bearing Strata and the Superia-
_eumbent Surface.—For more than 100 days a continuous photographic record was
taken of the difference of the potentials of the water in a well 30 feet deep, and of
@ point on the surface of the earth 25 yards off. At the time of three small earth-
aa deflections equivalent to 2 or 3 volts were observed, but they may have
_been due to mechanical disturbance.
9 bi hin del ea
‘10. Experimental Study of a Curious Movement of Ovoids and Hllipsoids.
{ By Professor Luconve.
11. On Vowel Sounds. By Dr. R. J. Liovp.—See p. 796.
12. A Latent Characteristic of Aluminium. By Dr. A. SPRINGER.
According to the author's investigations aluminium is remarkably adapted for
use in the construction of sound-boards by possessing an elasticity capable of
sympathetic vibration uniformly through a wide range of tone-pitch, and by the
absence of higher partial tones during vibration.
584 REPORT—1891.
Secrioy B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor W. C. Roperts-Ausren, C.B., F.R.S-
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The President delivered the following Address :—
THE selection of Cardiff as a place of meeting of the British Association led to the
presidency of Section B being entrusted to a metallurgist. It will be well, there-
fore, to deal in this address mainly with considerations connected with the subject
to which my life has been devoted, and I hope that it may be possible for me to
show that this practical art has both promoted the advancement of science and
has received splendid gifts in return.
It is an art for which in this country we have traditional love; nevertheless.
the modes of teaching it, and its influence on science, are but imperfectly under-
stood and appreciated. Practical metallurgists are far too apt to think that
improvements in their processes are mainly the result of their own experience and
observation, unaided by pure science. On the other hand, those who teach
metallurgy often forget that for the present they have not only to give instruction
in the method of conducting technical operations, but have truly to educate, by
teaching the chemistry of high temperatures, at which ordinary reactions are
modified or even reversed, while they have further to deal with many phenomena
of much importance, whick cannot, as yet, be traced to the action of elements in
fixed atomic proportions, or in which the direct influence of the atom is only
beginning to be recognised.
The development of a particular art, like that of an organism, proceeds from
its internal activity ; it is work which promotes its growth and not the external
influence of the environment. In the early stage of the development of an
industry the craftsmen gather a store of facts which afford a basis for the labours
of the investigator, who penetrates the circle of the ‘mystery ’ and renders know-
ledge scientific. Browning, inspired by the labours of a chemist, finely tells us in
his ‘ Paracelsus ’ :—
To know
Rather consists in opening out a way
Whence the imprisoned splendour may escape,
Than in effecting entry for a light
Supposed to be without.
If it be asked who did most in gaining the industrial treasure and in revealing
the light of chemical knowledge, the answer is certainly the metallurgists, whose
labours in this respect differ materially from others which have ministered to the
welfare of mankind. First it may be urged that in no other art have the relations
between theory and practice been so close and enduring. Bacon, who never
undervalued research, tells us that in the division of the labour of investiga-
tion in the New Atlantis there are some ‘that raise the former discoveries by
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 585
experiment into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms: these we call the
interpreters of nature.’ There are also others ‘that bend themselves, looking into
the experiments of their fellows and casting about how to draw out of them things
of use and practice for man’s life and knowledge . . . these we call the dowry men
or benefactors.’ In reviewing the history of metallurgy, especially in our islands,.
it would seem that the two classes of workers, the interpreters of nature and
the practical men, have for centuries sat in joint committee, and, by bringing
theoretical speculation into close connection with hard industrial facts, have
‘carried us nearer the essence of truth.’
The main theme of this address will therefore be the relation between theory
and practice in metallurgy with special reference to the indebtedness of the
practical man to the scientific investigator.
We will then consider—
(1) Certain facts connected with ‘Oxidation’ and ‘Reduction,’ upon which
depend operations of special importance to the metallurgist.
(2) The influence in metallurgical practice of reactions which are either
limited or reversible.
(3) The means by which progress in the metallurgic art may be effected,
and the special need for studying the molecular constitution of metals
and alloys.
(1) The present year is a memorable one for chemists, being the centenary ot
the birth of Faraday and the bi-centenary of the death of Rotert Boyle. The
work of the former has recently been lovingly and fittingly dealt with in the
Royal Institution, where he laboured so long. I would, in turn, briefly recall
the services of Boyle, not, however, on account of the coincidence of date, but
because with him a new era in chemistry began. He knew too much about the
marvellous action of ‘traces’ of elements on masses of metal to feel justified
in pronouncing absolutely against the possibilities of transmutation, but he did
splendid service by sweeping away the firm belief that metals consist of sulphur,
salt, and mercury, and by giving us the definition of an element. He recognised
the preponderating influence of metallurgy in the early history of science, and
quaintly tells us that ‘those addicted to chemistry have scarce any views but to
the preparation of medicines or to the improvement of metals,’ a statement which
was perfectly correct, for chemistry was built up on a therapeutic as well asa
metallurgic basis. The fact is, however, that neither the preparation of materials
to be employed in healing, nor the study of their action, had anything like the
influence on the growth of theoretical chemistry which was exerted by a few
simple metallurgical processes. Again, strange as it may seem, theoretical
chemistry was more directly advanced by observations made in connection with
methods of purifying the precious metals, and by the recognition of the quantitative
significance of the results, than by the acquisition of facts incidentally gathered in
the search for a transmuting agent. The belief that chemistry ‘grew out of
alchemy’ nevertheless prevails, and has found expression in this Section of the
British Association. As a fact, however, the great metallurgists treated the search
for a transmuting agent with contempt, and taught the necessity of investigation
for its own sake. George Agricola, the most distinguished of the sixteenth-century
metallurgists, in his work ‘De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum’ (lib. v.), written
about the year 1539, disdainfully rejects both the view of the alchemists that
metals consist of sulphur and mercury, and their pretended ability to change silver
into gold by the addition of foreign matter.
Biringuccio (1540) says, ‘I am one of those who ignore the art of the alchemists
entirely. They mock nature when they say that with their medicines they correct
its defects, and render imperfect metals perfect.’ ‘The art,’ he adds, ‘was not
worthy of the consideration of the wise ancients who strove to obtain possible
things.’ In his time, reaction between elements meant their destruction and re-
constitution, nevertheless his sentence ‘ transmutation is impossible, because in order
to transmute a body you must begin by destroying it altogether, suggests that
he realised the great principle of the conservation of mass upon which the science
586 REPORT—1891.
of chemistry is based. We have also the testimony of the German metallurgist,
Becher, who improved our tin-smelting in Cornwall. He is said to have caused
a medal to be struck in 1675, which bore the legend: ‘Hane unciam argenti
finissimi ex plumbo arte alchymica transmutavi,’ though he should have been aware
that he had only extracted the precious metal from the lead, and had not trans-
muted the base one. This is a lapse which must be forgiven him, for his zea
pinguis was the basis of the theory of Phlogiston, which exerted so profound an
influence for a century after his death, and he wrote, ‘I wist that I have got hold
of my pitcher by the right handle, for the pseudo-chemists seek gold, but I have
the true philosophy, science, which is more precious.’
At this critical period what was Boyle doing when the theory of Phlogiston
dawned in the mind of the metallurgist Becher? In 1672 Boyle wrote his
paper on ‘ Fire and flame weighed in the balance, and came to the conclusion that
the ‘ ponderous parts of flame’ could pass through glass to get at melted lead con-
tained in a closed vessel. It has been considered strange that he did not interpret
the experiment correctly, but he, like the phlogistic chemists, tried to show that
the subtilis agnis, the material of fire or phlogiston, would penetrate all things,
and could be gained or lost by them. Moreover, his later experiments showed him
that glass was powerless to screen iron from the ‘effluvium of a loadstone.’ His
experiment with lead heated in a closed glass vessel was a fundamental one, to
which his mind would naturally revert if he could come back now and review the
present state of our Inowledge in the light of the investigations which have been
made in the two centuries that have passed since his own work ceased. If he
turned to the end of the first century after his death he would see that the failure
to appreciate the work of predecessors was as prevalent in the eighteenth century as
in the sixteenth. The spirit of intolerance which led Paracelsus to publicly burn,
in his inaugural lecture at Basle, the works of Galen, Hippocrates, and Avicenna,
survived in the eighteenth century when Madame Lavoisier burnt the works of
Stahl, but it was reserved for the nineteenth century to reverently gather the ashes,
recognising that when the writers of the School of Becher spoke of Phlogiston
they meant what we understand by potential energy.
If Boyle, finding that the Fellows of the Royal Society had not carried out
their intention to build a ‘ Repository and Laboratory,’ sought the School of Mines
and came to the Royal College of Science he would surely thank my colleague,
Professor Thorpe, for his vigorous defence last year, as President of this Section,
of the originality of the work of Priestley and Cavendish, to which Boyle’s own
researches had directly led. We on our part, remembering Berzelius’s view that
‘oxygen is the centre point round which chemistry revolves, would hope to interest
him most by selecting the experiments which arose out of the old metallurgical
operation of separating the precious metals from lead by ‘cupellation.’ When, in
conducting this operation, lead is heated in the presence of air it becomes converted
into a very fluid dross. Boyle had, in 1661, taken this operation as the very first
illustration in his ‘Sceptical Chemist’ in proof of his argument as to the elemental
nature of metals. He would remember the quantitative work of Geber in the
eighth century, who stated that the lead so heated in air acquired a ‘ new weight,’
and he would appreciate the constant reference to the operation of cupellation from
the close of the sixth century B.c., when the prophet Jeremiah wrote, to the work
of Jean Rey in 1629, whose conclusions he would wish he had examined more
closely. Lord Brouncker, as first President of the Royal Society, had called atten-
tion to the increase in weight of the lead in the ‘coppels’ in the Assay Office in the
Mint in the Tower, and Mayo had shown that the increase in weight comes from a
distinct ‘spiritus’ in the air. Boyle would incidentally see that Newton had
accepted office in the Mint, where he doubtless continued his experiments on cal-
cination begun some time before, and, as if to mark his interest in the operation of
assaying, figures are represented on a bas-relief on his tomb in Westminster Abbey
as conducting cupellation in a muffle. The old work merges wonderfully into
the new. Chevreul, in the nineteenth century, confirms Otto Tachen’s view in the
seventeenth, as to the saponifying action of litharge. Deville employs molten
litharge to absorb oxygen dissociated from its compounds, and Graham, by extract-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 587
ing occluded gases from iron and other metals, proves the accuracy of the old’
belief that elastic fluids can freely permeate even solid metals.
We may imagine with what vivid interest Boyle would turn, not merely to the
results of Priestley’s work, but to his methods. Priestley had decomposed litharge
with the electric spark, and had satisfied himself in 1774 by heating red lead that
the gas he obtained in his earlier experiments was really the one now called oxygen.
Boyle would see that in the period 1774-7 Lavoisier, being attracted by the
‘sceptical chemist’s’ own experiment on the heating of lead in closed vessels, over-
threw the Phlogistic theory and placed chemistry on a firm basis by showing that
the increase in weight of lead and tin, when heated in air, represents exactly the
weight of the gaseous body added, and, finally, Dalton having developed the atomic
theory and applied it to chemistry, Berzelius made lead memorable by selecting it
for the first determination of an atomic weight.
Without diverting his attention from the phenomena of oxidation, Boyle would
find questions the interest of which is only equalled by their present obscurity.
He would contemplate the most interesting phase of the history of chemical science,
described by van’t Hoff as that of its evolution from the descriptive to the
' rational period, in the early days of which the impossibility of separating physics
and chemistry became evident, and Boyle would find that chemistry is now
regarded from the point of view of the mechanics of the atoms.
Deville’s experiments on dissociation have rendered it possible to extend to the
groups of atoms in chemical systems the laws which govern the fusion and
vaporisation of masses of matter, and this has produced a revolution comparable
in its importance to that which followed the discovery of the law of definite pro-
portions, for dissociation has shown us that true causes of chemical change are
variations of pressure and of temperature. For instance, oxygen may be prepared
on an industrial scale from air by the intervention of oxide of barium heated to a
constant temperature of 700°, provided air be admitted to the heated oxide of
barium, under a pressure of 14 atmospheres, while the oxygen, thus absorbed, is
evolved if the containing vessel be rendered partially vacuous. It will be evident,
therefore, that at a certain critical temperature and pressure the slightest variation
of either will destroy the equilibrium of the system and induce chemical change.
The aim of Boyle’s chemical writings was to show that no barrier exists between
physics and chemistry, and to ‘ serve the commonwealth of learning hy begetting
a good understanding betwixt the chemists and the mechanical philosophers,’ who
had, as he said, ‘ been too great strangers to each other’s discoveries.” In view of
the dominant lines of research which occupy chemists at the present time, such,
for instance, as the investigations of ‘Osmotic pressure’ and of the application of
Boyle’s own law to salts in solution, he would feel that his hope had been realised,
and that, though he lived a century too soon to take part in Berthollet’s discussion
with Proust, he nevertheless shares Berthollet’s triumph in the long-delayed but
now rapid development of chemistry as a branch of applied mechanics.
We need, however, no longer look at these questions from the point of view of
Boyle, for our own interest in the application of chemical mechanics to metallurgy
is sufficiently vivid, as instances to be given subsequently will show.
Hitherto I have mainly dwelt on questions relating to oxidation, but not less
interesting is the history of the steps by which an accurate knowledge was ac-
quired of the other great process practised by the metallurgist, the one to which
Paracelsus was the first to apply the name of ‘ Reduction.’ Its explanation fol-
lowed naturally from the elucidation of the phenomena of combustion by Lavoisier,
who in continuation of Macquer’s experiments of 1771 proved, in conjunction with
other workers, that carbonic anhydride is produced when the diamond is burnt in
air or oxygen. Carbon has been known for ages as the most important of the
reducing agents, but when, in 1772, Lavoisier heated oxide of lead and carbon
together, he did not at first recognise that carbonic anhydride had been produced,
simply because the volume of the gas set free was the same as if oxygen merely
had been liberated. He soon, however, saw that neither the carbon alone, nor
the oxide of lead alone, gave rise to the evolution of carbonic anhydride, which
resulted from the mutual action of carbon and a constituent of the litharge, ‘This
588 REPORT—1891.
last observation leads us insensibly,’ he adds, ‘ to very important reflections on the
use of carbon in the reduction of metals.’ It most certainly did, and by 1815 an
accurate, if incomplete, view of reduction had passed into the encyclopedias. It
was seen that the removal of oxygen from burnt metals, by carbon, ‘give the
metals,’ as Fourcroy and Vauquelin put it, ‘a new existence.’ Some ten years
later Le Play attempted to show that reduction is always effected by the inter-
vention of carbonic oxide, which elicited the classical rejoinder from Gay-Lussac,
who pointed out that ‘carbon alone, and at very moderate temperatures, will
reduce certain metallic oxides without the intervention of carbonic oxide or of
any other elastic fluid’ I mention these facts because metallurgists are slow to
recognise their indebtedness to investigators, and too often ignore the extreme
pains with which an accurate knowledge has been acquired of the principles upon
which their processes have been based.
The importance of a coherent explanation of reduction in smelting pig-iron is
enormous. The largest blast-furnaces in 1815 hardly exceeded those in use in the
previous century, and were at most only 40 feet high with a capacity of 5,000
cubic feet, At the present day their gigantic successors are sometimes 90 feet
high with a capacity of 25,000 cubic feet. This development of the blast-furnace
is due to the researches of a number of investigators, among whom von Tunner,
Lowthian Bell, and Griiner deserve special mention. We are, however, forcibly re-
minded of the present incompleteness of our knowledge of the mechanism of reduc-
tion, when we remember that the experiments of H. B. Baker have led us to
believe that pure carbon cannot be burnt in perfectly dry and pure oxygen, and
therefore that the reducing agent, carbonic oxide, would not be produced at all
unless moisture be present.
Ludwig Mond, Langer, and Quincke teach us not only that nickel can
separate carbon from carbonic oxide, but the wholly unexpected fact that dry
carbonic oxide can at a temperature of 100° take up nickel, which it again
deposits if heated to 150°. Mond and Quincke and, independently, Berthelot,
have since proved the existence of the corresponding compound of iron and carbonic
oxide, and it may safely be concluded that in the blast-furnace smelting iron this
peculiar action of carbonic oxide plays an important part, and it doubtless aids the
carburisation of iron by cementation. It is truly remarkable that the past year
should have brought us so great an increase in our knowledge of what takes place
in the reduction of an oxide of iron, and in the carburisation of the liberated
metal. My own experiments have, I trust, made it clear that iron can, at an ele-
vated temperature, be carburised by the diamond zn vacuo; that is, in the absence
of anything more than ‘a trace’ of an elastic fluid or of any third element.
Osmond has further shown within the last few months that the action between
iron and carbon is a mutual one, for though carbon in the pure diamond form car-
burises iron, the metal in its turn, ata temperature of 1,050°, attacks the diamond,
invests it with a black layer, and truly unites with it.
The question of the direct carburisation of iron (Darby’s process) by filtering
the molten metal through carbon, promises to be of much importance, for at pre-
sent, as is well known, two millions of tons of steel which are made in the
Bessemer converter in this country alone, are re-carburised after ‘the blow’ by
the addition of spiegeleisen.
Carbonic oxide, moreover, would appear to be more chemically active than had
been supposed ; for during the present year Berthelot has shown that the perfectly
pure gas heated to 500° or 550° produces carbonic anhydride with deposition of
carbon at red heat, not by ordinary dissociation, but by decomposition preceded by
polymerisation. He further shows that carbonic oxide will decompose ammoniacal
nitrate of silver, and thus brings it into close connection with the aldehydes.
(2) In turning to the modern aspects of metallurgical practice, we shall see that
the whole range of the metallurgist’s field of study is changing. It is no longer
possible for him to devise a series of operations on the evidence afforded by a set
of equations which indicate the completion of an operation; he has, as I have already
suggested, to consider the complicated problems which have been introduced into
CO
ee Se
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 589
chemistry from the sciences of physics and mechanics. He has, in fact, no longer to
deal merely with atoms and molecules, but with the influence of mass. As Ostwald
points out, we are reminded that many chemical processes are reciprocating so that
the original bodies may be obtained from the product of the reaction. The result
of such opposed processes is a state of CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM, in which both the
original and the newly-formed substances are present in definite quantities that
remain the same so long as the conditions, more especially temperature and pres-
sure, do not undergo further change. Again, in very many metallurgical processes,
reactions are rendered incomplete by the limitations imposed by the presence of
bodies which cannot be speedily eliminated from the system, and the result may
be to greatly retard the completion of an operation. The time has come when the
aay of dynamic chemistry must be applied to the study of metallurgical pro-
lems if they are to be correctly understood, and it is, moreover, necessary to
remember the part played by the surface separating the different aggregates in
contact with one another. When, for instance, a reaction has to take place accom-
panied by the evolution of gas, there must be space into which the gas can pass.
The rate, therefore, at which change takes place will obviously depend on the state
of division of the mass.
One of the most remarkable points in the whole range of chemistry is the action
engendered between two elements capable of reacting by the presence of a third
body. It may be, and this is the most wonderful fact of all, that merely a trace
of a third body is necessary to induce reaction, or to profoundly modify the struc-
ture of a metal. H. Le Chatelier and Mouret have pointed out that in certain
eases it is inaccurate to say that the third body causes the reaction to take place,
because, after it has destroyed the inter-molecular resistances which prevented the
reaction taking place, the third body ceases to intervene. This is apparently the
case when platinum sponge effects the union of oxygen and hydrogen, or conversely,
when very hot platinum splits up water vapour into its constituent gases, Future
investigation will, it is to be hoped, show whether the platinum does not exert
some direct action in both cases. We can no longer neglect the study of such
questions from the point of view of their practical application. The manufacture
of red-lead presents a case in point. In ‘ drossing’ molten lead, the oxidation of the
lead is greatly promoted by the presence of a trace of antimony, and conversely, in
the separation of silver from molten lead, by the aid of zinc, H. Roessler and
Endelmann have recently shown that aluminium has a remarkable effect in pro-
tecting the zinc from loss by oxidation, and, further, the presence of one-thousandth
part of aluminium in the zinc is sufficient to exert this protecting action on that
metal. I am satisfied that if our metallurgists are to advance their industrial
practice, they must, if I may use such an expression, persistently think in calories,
and not merely employ the ordinary atomic ‘ tools of thought.’ They will then
be able to state what reactions can, under given conditions, take place; to indicate
those which will be completed; and to avoid those that are impracticable.
In France, the country of so many great metallurgists, men like Le Chatelier
and Ditte are doing admirable service by bringing the results of the labours and
teaching of St. Claire Deville within the range of practical men. And if I do not
refer more specifically to their work it is for want of space and not of appreciation,
but a few simple cases of reversible actions will perhaps make the subject clear. In
the blast-furnace the main reducing agent, carbonic oxide, is produced trom the solid
fuel by the reaction CO,+C=2 CO, a reaction which is theoretically impossible
because it is endothermic, and would be attended by absorption of heat. But heat
external to the system intervenes, and acts either by depolymerising the carbon
into a simpler form which can combine with oxygen of the CO, with evolution of
heat, or by dissociating carbonic anhydride sets oxygen free which combines with
the carbon. Reduction of oxide of iron in the blast-furnace is mainly effected by
carbonic oxide according to the well-known reaction
Fe,0, + 3CO = 2Fe + 3C0,.
But the gas issuing from a blast-furnace contains carbonic oxide, an important
source of heat. The view that this loss of carbonic oxide was due to the fact that
590 REPORT—1891.
the contact of the ore and the reducing gas was not sufficiently prolonged, led to a
great increase in the height of blast-furnaces, but without, as Griiner showed,
diminishing the proportion of carbonic oxide escaping from the throat. The re-
duction of an iron ore by carbonic oxide only takes place within certain well-
defined limits, and a knowledge of the laws of chemical equilibrium would have
saved thousands and thousands of pounds which have been wasted in building
unduly high furnaces. I would add that large sums have also been sacrificed in
the vain attempt to smelt oxide of zinc in the blast-furnace, for which operation
patents have frequently been sought, in ignorance or defiance of the readiness with
which the inverse action occurs, so that the reducing action of carbon on oxide of
zinc may be balanced by the re-oxidation of the reduced zinc by carbonic anhydride,
which is the product of the reduction. A further instance may be borrowed from
an electro-chemical process which has been adopted for obtaining alloys of
aluminium. As is well known, all attempts to effect the direct reduction of
alumina by carbon have failed, because the reaction
2(Al1,0,) + 30 =4Al+ 300,
requires 783°2 calories, while only 291 calories would result from the conversion
of carbon into carbonic anhydride, therefore the reaction cannot be effected ; but in
Cowle’s process aluminium is nevertheless liberated when alumina is mixed with
charcoal and strongly heated by the passage of an electric current. This result is
due, not to a simple reduction of alumina, but to its dissociation at the high tem-
perature produced by the passage of a current of 1,600 ampéres between carbon
poles, the liberated aluminium being at once removed from the system by metallic
copper which is simultaneously present and may not be without action itself,
An instance of the importance of these considerations is presented in the
manufacture of steel by the basic process. Much care is devoted to obtain-
ing conditions which will ensure not only the elimination, but the order of the
disappearance of the impurities from the molten pig iron. In the basic process as
conducted in the closed converter, the phosphorus does not disappear until the
carbon has left the fluid bath, whilst, when the open-hearth furnace is used, the
elimination of the phosphorus may be effected before that of the carbon, and it is
asserted that if the carbon goes before the phosphorus is got rid of, a further
addition of carbon is necessary. A. curious and subtle case of chemical equilibrium
is here presented. In the open-hearth furnace and Bessemer converter respectively,
the temperatures and pressures are different, and the conditions as to the presenta-
tion of oxygen to the fluid bath are not the same. The result is that the relative
rates of oxidation of the phosphorus and carbon are different in the two cases,
although in either case, with a given method of working, there must be a ratio
between the phosphorus and carbon in which they disappear simultaneously.
The industrial bearing of the question is very remarkable. In the basic Bessemer
process the tendency of the phosphorus to linger in the bath renders an ‘ after-
blow’ necessary, it may be only of a few seconds’ duration, but much iron is never-
theless burnt and wasted, and Mr. Gilchrist tells me that if this after-blow could
be avoided, a saving of some six per cent. of the yield of steel would be effected
annually, the value of which, at the present rate of output and price of steel, is no
less than a quarter of a million sterling.
The larger loss of sulphur by the steel in the converter than that which occurs
in the open-hearth furnace, and the increase in the percentage of manganese, which
leaves the slag and returns to the bath of metal in the converter at the end of the
‘blow,’ will probably be traced to the disturbance of equilibrium which attends
very slight variations in the conditions, especially as regards temperature and
pressure, under which the operations are conducted.
In the blast-furnace the reducing action must be greatly dependent on the rate
at which alkaline cyanides are formed, and Hempel has recently shown, by the
aid of well-devised experiments, that the quantity of cyanides which may be
obtained at a high temperature from carbon, nitrogen, and alkaline oxides, increases
as the pressure becomes greater.
Metallurgical chemistry is, in fact, a special branch of chemical science which
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 591
does not come within the ordinary sphere of the academic teaching of chemistry.
It is often urged that metallurgical practice depends upon the application of
chemical principles which are well taught in every large centre of instruction in
this country, but a long series of chemical reactions exist which are of vital
importance to the metallurgist, though they are not set forth in any British manual
of chemistry, nor are dealt with in courses of purely chemical lectures. I feel
bound to insist upon this point, because, as Examiner in Metallurgy for the Science
and Art Department, I find that purely analytical and laboratory methods are so
often given in the belief that they are applicable to processes conducted on a large
scale and at high temperatures.
* We are told that technical instruction should be kept apart from scientific
education, which consists in preparing the student to apply the results of past
experience in dealing with entirely new sets of conditions, but it can be shown
that there is a whole side of metallurgical teaching which is truly educational, and
leads students to acquire the habit of scientific thought as surely as the investiga-
tion of any other branch of knowledge.
It is, in fact, hardly possible in a course of theoretical chemistry to devote
much attention to specific cases of industrial practice in which reactions are incom-
plete, because they are limited by the presence of bodies that cannot be directly
eliminated from the chemical system. Take, for instance, the long series of re-
actions studied by Plattner, who published the results of his investigations in his
celebrated treatise, ‘ Die Metallurgische Roéstprozesse,’ Freiberg, 1856, whose work
I have chosen as a starting-point on account of our presence in South Wales near
the great copper smelting district of Swansea. A complex sulphide, of which
copper is the main metallic constituent, contains some fifty ounces of silver to the
ton. The problem may be supposed for the present to be limited to the extraction
of the precious metal from the mass in which it is hidden, and the student deriving
his knowledge from an excellent modern chemical treatise would find the case
thus stated :—
‘ Ziervogel’s process depends upon the fact that when argentiferous copper pyrites
is roasted, the copper and iron sulphides are converted into insoluble oxides, whilst
the silver is converted into a soluble sulphate which is dissolved out by lixiviating
the roasted ore with hot water, the silver being readily precipitated from this solution
in the metallic state.’ .
It is certain that if an observant, chemically-trained student visited a silver
extraction works, and possessed sufficient analytical skill to enable him to secure
evidence as to the changes that occur, he would find a set of facts which his train-
ing had not enabled him to predict, and he would establish the existence of a set of
reactions to the nature of which his chemical reading had hardly given him a clue.
The process to be considered isa simple one, but it is typical, and applies to a
large proportion of the 7,000,000 ounces of silver annually obtained in the world
from cupriferous compounds. He would be confronted with a ton or more of
finely divided material spread in a thin layer over the bed of a reverberatory fur-
nace. Suppose the material is what is known as a complex regulus as imported
into Swansea or produced at Freiberg, to which are added rich native sulphides.
The mixture then consists of sulphides mainly of iron and copper, with some sulphide
of lead, and contains fifty or sixty ounces of silver to the ton, and a few grains
of gold. It may also contain small quantities of arsenic and antimony as arsenides,
antimonides, and sulpho-salts, usually with copper as a base.
The temperature of the furnace in which the operation is to be performed is
gradually raised, the atmosphere being an oxidising one. The first effect of the
elevation of the temperature is to distil off sulphur, reducing the sulphides to a
lower stage of sulphurisation. This sulphur burns in the furnace atmosphere to
sulphurous anhydride (SO,), and coming in contact with the material undergoing
oxidation is converted into sulphuric anhydride (SO,). It should be noted that
the material of the brickwork does not intervene in the. reactions, except by its
presence as a hot porous mass, but its influence is, nevertheless, considerable. The
roasting of these sulphides presents a good case for the study ef chemieal equili-
592 REPORT—1891.
brium. As soon as the sulphurous anhydride reaches a certain tension the
oxidation of the sulphide is arrested, even though an excess of oxygen be
present, and the oxidation is not resumed until the action of the draught
changes the conditions of the atmosphere of the furnace, when the lower
sulphides remaining are slowly oxydised, the copper sulphide being converted into
copper sulphate mainly by the intervention of the sulphuric anhydride formed as
indicated. Probably by far the greater part of the iron sulphide only becomes
sulphate for a very brief period, being decomposed into the oxides of iron, mainly
ferric oxide, the sulphur passing off. Any silver sulphide that is present would
have been converted into metallic silver at the outset were it not for the simuJ-
taneous presence of other sulphides, notably those of copper and of iron, which
enables the silver sulphide to become converted into sulphate. The lead sulphide
is also converted into sulphate at this low temperature. The heat is now raised
still further with a view to split up the sulphate of copper, the decomposition of
which leaves oxide of copper. If, as in this case, the bases are weak, the sulphuric
anhydride escapes mainly as such; but when the sulphates of stronger bases are
decomposed the sulphuric anhydride is to a great extent decomposed into a mix-
ture of sulphurous anhydride and oxygen. The sulphuric anhydride, resulting from
the decomposition of this copper sulphate, converts the silver into sulphate, and
maintains it as such, just as, in turn, at a lower temperature, the copper itself had
been maintained in the form of sulphate by the sulphuric anhydride eliminated
from the iron sulphide. When only a little of the copper sulphate remains unde-
composed, the silver sulphate begins to split up, and the furnace charge must
therefore be immediately withdrawn, or the whole of the silver sulphate would be
converted into metallic silver, partly by the direct action of heat alone, and partly
by reactions such as those shown in the following equations :—
Ag, 80,+4Fe,0,=2Ag+ 6Fe,0, + SO,
Ag, SO0,+ Cu,0 =2Ag+CuS0,+Cu0.
If the charge were not withdrawn, the silver would thus be effectually removed
from the solvent action of water, and the smelter’s efforts would have failed
entirely. The charge still contains lead sulphate, which cannot be completely
decomposed at any temperature attainable in the roasting furnace, except in the
presence of silica, and it is well to leave it where it is if the residue has subse-
quently to be smelted with a view to the extraction of the gold. The elimination
of arsenic and antimony gives rise to problems of much interest, and again con-
fronts the smelter with a case of chemical equilibrium. For the sake of brevity it
will be well for the present to limit the consideration to the removal of antimony,
which may be supposed to be present as sulphide. Some sulphide of antimony is
distilled off, but this is not its only mode of escape. An attempt to remove
antimony by rapid oxidation would be attended with the danger of converting it
into insoluble antimoniates of the metals present in the charge. In the early
stages of the roasting it is therefore necessary to employ a very low temperature,
and the presence of steam is found to be useful asa source of hydrogen, which
removes sulphur as hydrogen sulphide, the gas being freely evolved. The reaction
Sb,S8, + 3H,=3H,S + 28b
between hydrogen and sulphide of antimony is, however, endothermic, and could
not, therefore, take place without the aid which is afforded by external heat. The
facts appear to be as follows: sulphide of antimony, when heated, dissociates, and
the tension of the sulphur vapour would produce a state of equilibrium if the
sulphur thus liberated were not seized by the hydrogen and removed from the
system. The equilibrium is thus destroyed and fresh sulphide is dissociated. The
general result being that the equilibrium of the system is continually restored and
destroyed until the sulphide is decomposed. The antimony combines with oxygen
and escapes as volatile oxide, as does also the arsenic, a portion of which is yola-
tilised as sulphide.
The main object of the process which has been considered is the formation of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 593
soluble sulphate of silver. If arsenic and antimony have not been eliminated, their
presence at the end of the cperation will be specially inconvenient, as they
give rise to the formation of arseniate and antimoniate of silver, insoluble in
water, which may necessitate the treatment of the residues by an entirely different
process from that which has hitherto been considered.
It will have been evident that effecting this series of changes demands the
exercise of the utmost skill, care, and patience. The operations beginning at a
dull red heat, or a temperature of some 500°, are completed at 700°, within a
range, that is, of 200°. Judicious stirring has been necessary to prevent the
formation of crusts of sulphates, which would impede the reactions, and, as has
been shown, an undue elevation of temperature within a very limited range would,
at any stage, have been fatal to the success of the operation. It is difficult to
appreciate too highly the delicacy of sight and touch which enables an operator to
judge by the aid of rough tests, but mainly from the tint of the streak revealed
_ when the mass is rabbled, whether any particular stage has or has not been
reached, and it will be obvious that the requisite skill is acquired solely by obser-
vation and experiment. The technical instructor may impart information as to
the routine to be followed, and the appearances to be observed, but. scientific
Imowledge of a high order can alone enable the operator to contend with the
disturbing influences introduced by the presence of unexpected elements or by
untoward variations in temperature. In the training of a metallurgist it is
impossible to separate education from instruction, and the above description of a
very ordinary operation will show the intimate relations between science and
practice which are characteristic of metallurgical operations. Practice is depen-
dent on science for its advancement, but scientific workers too often hesitate to
attack metallurgical problems, and to devote the resources of modern investiga-
tion to their solution, because they are not aware of the great interest of the
physical and chemical problems which are connected with many very simple
metallurgical processes, especially with those that are conducted at high tem-
peratures.
Proceeding yet one step further, suppose that the copper smelter takes posses-
sion of the residual mass, consisting mainly of oxide of copper, he would smelt it
with fresh sulphide ores and obtain, as a slag from the earthy matters of the ore,
a ferrous silicate containing some small proportion of copper. The displacement
of the copper from this silicate may be effected by fusing it with sulphide of iron,
a fusible sulphide of iron and copper being formed which readily separates from
the slag. By this reaction some twenty thousand tons of copper are added to the
world’s annual production. Proceeding a step further, suppose the smelter to have
reduced his copper to the metallic state. If arsenic had been originally present in
the ore, and had not been eliminated entirely in the roasting, extraordinary dif_i-
culties would be met with in the later stages of the process, in extracting small
quantities of arsenic which resist the smelter’s efforts. Copper, moreover, con-
taining above one per cent. of arsenic cannot be ‘ overpoled,’ as the presence of arsenic
hinders the action of gases on the copper. The amount of arsenic which the copper
smelter has to remove may vary from mere traces up to one per cent., and if the
copper is destined for the use of the electrical engineer, he will insist on its being
as pure as possible, for the presence of a trace of arsenic would materially increase
the electrical resistance of the copper, and would be fatal to its use in submarine
telegraphy. If, on the other hand, the copper is intended for the maker of locomo-
tive fire-boxes, he will encourage the retention of small quantities of arsenic, as
it is found to actually increase the endurance of the copper, and the smelter will
in such a case have no inducement to employ the basic furnace lining which Mr.
Gilchrist has offered him, nor will he care to use the special methods for the
_ removal of arsenic with which he is familiar. It may all seem simple enough,
but the modern process of copper smelting has been laboriously built up, and has a
long and interesting pedigree which may be traced to at least the eighth century,
when Geber described the regulus ‘coarse metal’ as being ‘black mixed with
livid, and our familiar ‘ blue metal’ as being ‘of a most clean and pleasant violet
colour,’ and indicated the reason for the difference.
1891. QQ
594 REPORT— 1891.
(3) The foregoing instances have been given to indicate the general nature of
metallurgical chemistry. It will be well now to show how the great advances in
metallurgical practice have been made in the past, with a view to ascertain
what principles should guide us in the future.
It is a grave mistake to suppose that in industry, any more than in art, national
advance takes place always under the guidance of a master possessed of some new
gift of invention, yet we have been reminded that we are apt to be reverent to
these alone, as if the nation had been unprogressive, and suddenly awakened by the
genius of one man. The way for any great technical advance is prepared by the
patient acquisition of facts by investigators of pure science. Whether the in-
vestigators are few or many, and consequently whether progress is slow or rapid,
will depend in no small measure on the spirit of the nation as a whole. A genius
whose practical order of mind enables him to make some great invention suddenly
arises, apparently by chance, but his coming will, in most cases, be found to have
‘followed hazd upon’ the discovery by some scientific worker of an important
fact, or even the accurate determination of a set of physical constants. No
elaborate monograph need have reached the practical man—a newspaper para-
graph, or a lecture at a Mechanics’ Institute may have been sufficient to give
him the necessary impulse; but the possessors of minds which are essentially
practical often forget how valuable to them have been the fragments of knowledge
they have so insensibly acquired that they are almost unconscious of haying
received any external aid,
The investigating and the industrial faculty are sometimes, though rarely,
united in one individual. Rapid advance is often made by those who are un-
trammelled by a burden of precedent, but it should be remembered that though the
few successes, which have been attained in the course of ignorant practice, may
come into prominence, none of the countless failures are seen.
I would briefly direct attention to certain processes which have been adopted
since the year 1849, when Dr. Percy presided over this Section at Birmingham,
a great metallurgical centre. In that year the President of the Association
made a reference to metallurgy, a very brief one, for Dr. Robinson only said ‘ the
manufacture of iron has been augmented six-fold by the use of the puddling-furnace
and the hot-blast, both gifts of theory’; and so, it may be added, are most of the
important processes which have since been devised. Take the greatest metallurgical
advance of all, the Bessemer process, which has probably done more than any
other to promote the material advance of all countries. It was first communicated
to the world at the Cheltenham Meeting of the British Association, 1856. Its
nature is well known, and I need only say that it depends on the fact that when
air is blown through a bath of impure molten iron, sufficient heat is evolved by the
rapid combustion of silicon, manganese, and carbon to maintain the bath fluid
after these elements have been eliminated, there being no external source of heat,
as there is in the puddling furnace or the refinery hearth. We have recently
been told that at an early and perilous stage of the Bessemer process confidence in
the experiments was restored by the observation that the temperature of the
‘blown’ metal contained in a crucible was higher than that of the furnace in which
it was placed. The historian of the future will not fail to record that the way for
the Bessemer process had been prepared by the theoretical work of Andrews, 1848,
and of Favre and Silbermann, 1852, whose work on the calorific power of various
elements showed that silicon and phosphorus might be utilised as fuel, because
great heat is engendered by their combustion.
The basic process for removing phosphorus, a process of great national import-
ance, the development of which we owe to Thomas and Gilchrist, is entirely the
outcome of purely theoretical teaching, in connection with which the names of
Gruner and Percy deserve special mention. In the other great group of processes
for the production of steel, those in which Siemens’ regenerative furnace is em-
ployed, we have the direct influence of a highly trained theorist, who concluded
his address as President of this Association in 1882 by reminding us that ‘in the
great workshop of nature there is no line of demarcation to be drawn between the
most exalted speculation and commonplace practice.’ The recent introduction of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 595
the method of heating by radiation is, of course, the result of purely theoretical
considerations.
The progress in the methods of extracting the precious metals has been very
great, both on the chemical and engineering sides, but it is curious that in the
metallurgy of gold and silver many ancient processes survive which were arrived
at empirically,—a noteworthy exception being presented by the chlorine process
for refining gold, by the aid of which many millions sterling of gold have been
purified. The late Mr. H. B. Miller based this process for separating silver from
gold on the knowledge of the fact that chloride of gold cannot exist at a bright
red heat. The tension of dissociation of chloride of gold is high, but the precious
metal is not carried forward by the gaseous stream, at least not while chloride of
silver is being formed.
The influence of scientific investigation is, however, more evident in that por-
tion of the metallurgic art which deals with the adaptation of metals for use, rather
than with their actual extraction from the ores.
Only sixteen years ago Sir Nathaniel Barnaby, then Director of Naval Construc-
tion, wrote, ‘ our distrust of steel is so great that the material may be said to be
altogether unused by private ship-builders . . . . and marine engineers appear to
be equally afraid of it.’ He adds, ‘the question we have to put to the steel makers
is, what are our prospects of obtaining a material which we can use without such
delicate manipulation and so much fear and trembling?’ All this is changed, for,
as Mr, Elgar informs me, in the year ending on June 30 last, no less than 401
ships, of three quarters of a million gross tonnage, were being built of steel in the
United Kingdom.
Why is it, then, that steel has become the material on which we rely for our
ships and for our national defence, and of which such a splendid structure as the
Forth Bridge is constructed? It is because side by side with great improvement
in the quality of certain varieties of steel, which is the result of using the open-
hearth process, elaborate researches have shown what is the most suitable
mechanical and thermal treatment for the metal; but the adaptation of steel for
industrial use is only typical, as the interest in this branch of metallurgy gene-
rally appears for the moment to be centred in tiie question whether metals can, like
many metalloids, pass under the application of heat or mechanical stress from a
normal state to an allotropic one, or whether metals may even exist in numerous
isomeric states. ;
It is impossible to deal historically with the subject now further than by stating
that the belief in more than one ‘ modification’ is old and widespread, and was ex-
pressed by Paracelsus, who thought that copper ‘contains in itself its female,’
which could be isolated so as to give ‘two metals’... . ‘different in their
fusion and malleability’ as steel and iron differ. Within the last few years
Schiitzenberger has shown that two modifications of copper can exist, the normal
one having a density of 8:95, while that of the allotropic modification is only 8-0,
and is moreover rapidly attacked by dilute nitric acid which is without action on
ordinary copper. It may be added that Lord Rayleigh’s plea for the investigation
of the simpler chemical reactions has been partly met, in the case of copper, by
the experiments conducted by V. H. Veley on the conditions of chemical change
between nitric acid and certain metals.
Bergmann, 1781, actually calls iron polymorphous, and says that it plays the
part of many metals. ‘Adeo ut jure dici queat polymorphum ferrum plurium
simul metallorum vices sustinere.’ Osmond has recently demonstrated the fact
that at least two modifications of iron must exist.
Professor Spring, of Liége, has given evidence that in cooling lead-tin alloys
polymerisation may take place after the alloys have become solid, and it seems to
be admitted that the same cause underlies both polymerisation and allotropy.
The phenomenon of allotropy is dependent upon the number of the atoms in
each molecule, but we are at present far from being able to say what degree of
importance is to be attached to the relative distance between the atoms of a metal
or to the ‘position of one and the same atom’ in a metallic molecule, whether
the metal be alloyed or free ; and it must be admitted that in this respect organic
ag2
596 REPORT—1891,
chemistry is far in advance of metallurgic chemistry. I cannot, as yet, state what
is the atomic grouping in the brilliantly-coloured gold-aluminium alloy, AuAt,,
which I have had the good fortune to discover, but, in it, the gold is probably
present in the same state as that in which it occurs in the purple of cassius.
Much valuable information on the important question of allotropy in metals has
already been gathered by Pionchon, Ditte, Moissan, Le Chatelier, and Osmond,
but reference can only be made to the work of the two latter. Le Chatelier con-
cludes that in metals which do not undergo molecular transformation the electrical
resistance increases proportionally to the temperature. The same law holds good
for other metals at temperatures above that at which their last change takes place,
for example in the case of nickel above 340°, and in that of iron above 850°.
It is probable that minute quantities of foreign matter which profoundly modify
the structure of masses of metal also induce allotropic changes. In the case of
the remarkable action of impurities upon pure gold I haye suggested that the
modifications which are produced may have direct connection with the periodic
law of Mendeléeff, and that the causes of the specific variations in the properties
of iron and steel may thus be explained. The question is of great industrial im-
portance, especially in the case of iron; and Osmond, whose excellent work I have
already brought before the members of this Association in a lecture delivered at
Newcastle in 1889, has specially studied the influence upon iron exerted by certain
elements. He shows that elements whose atomic volumes are smaller than that
of iron delay, during the cooling of a mass of iron from a red heat, the change of
the 8, or hard variety of iron, to the a, or soft variety. On the other hand,
elements whose atomic volumes are greater than that of iron tend to hasten the
change of 8 toairon. It is, however, unnecessary to dwell upon this subject, as
it was dealt with last year in the Address of the President of the Association.
It may be added that the recent use of nickel-steel for armour plate and the
advocacy of the use of copper-steel for certain purposes, is the industrial justifica-
tion of my own views as to the influence of the atomic volume of an added element
on the mechanical properties of iron, and it is remarkable that the two bodies, silicon
and aluminium, the properties of which when in a free state are so totally different,
should, nevertheless, when they are alloyed with iron, affect it in the same way.
Silicon and aluminium have almost the same atomic volumes,
The consequences of allotropic changes which result in alteration of structure
are very great. The case of the tin regimental buttons which fell into a shapeless
heap when exposed to the rigorous winter at St. Petersburg is well known, The
recent remarkable discovery by Hopkinson of the changes in the density of nickel-
steel (containing 22 per cent. of nickel) which are produced by cooling to —380°,
affords another instance. This variety of steel, after being frozen, is readily
magnetizable, although it was not so before; its density, moreover, is permanently
reduced by no less than 2 per cent. by the exposure to cold; and it is startling to
contemplate the effect which would be produced by a visit to the arctic regions of
a ship of war built in a temperate climate of ordinary steel and clad with some
three thousand tons of such nickel-steel armour ; the shearing which would result
from the expansion of the armour by exposure to cold would destroy the ship.
Experimental compound armour-plates have been made faced with 25 per cent.
nickel-steel, but it remains to be seen whether a similar though lessened effect
would be produced on the steel containing 5 to 7 per cent. of nickel, specially
studied by J. Riley, the use of which is warmly advocated for defensive purposes.
Further information as to the molecular condition of nickel-steel has within the
last few weeks been given by Mercadier, who has shown that alloying iron with
25 per cent. of nickel renders the metal isotropic.
The molecular behaviour of alloys is ndeed most interesting. W. Spring has
shown, in a long series of investigations, that alloys may be formed at the ordinary
temperature, provided that minute particies of the constituent metals are submitted
to great pressure. W. Hallock has recently given strong evidence in favour of
the view that an alloy can be produced from its constituent metals with but slight
pressure if the temperature to which the mass is submitted be above the melting-
point of the alloy, even though it be far below the melting-point of the most easily
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 597
fusible constituent. A further instance is thus afforded of the fact that a variation
of either temperature or pressure will effect the union of solids. It may be added
that B. C. Damien is attempting to determine what variation in the melting-point
of alloys is produced by fusing them under a pressure of two hundred atmospheres,
Italian physicists are also working on the compressibility of metals, and F’, Boggio-
_ Lera has recently established the existence of an interesting relation between the
coefficient of cubic compressibility, the specific gravity, and the atomic weight of
metals.
Few questions are more important than the measurement of very high tempera-
tures. Within the last few years H. le Chatelier has given us a thermo-couple of
platinum with platinum containing 10 per cent. of rhodium, by the aid of which
the problem of the measurement of high temperatures has been greatly simplified.
A trustworthy pyrometer is now at hand for daily use in works, and the liberality
of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers has enabled me to conduct an inyesti-
gation which has resulted in the adoption of a simple appliance for obtaining, in
the form of curves, photographic records of the cooling of masses of metal, A
report on the subject has already been submitted to a Committee, of which the
Director-General of Ordnance Factories is the Chairman; and Dr. Anderson, to
whom I am indebted for valuable assistance and advice, intends to add this new
method for obtaining autographic curves of pyrometric measurements to the
numerous self-recording appliances used in the Government factories which he
controls. It has proved to be easy to ascertain, by the aid of this pyrometer,
what thermal changes take place during the cooling of molten masses of alloys,
and it is possible to compare the rate of cooling of a white-hot steel ingot at defi-
nite positions situated respectively near its surface and at its centre, and thus to
solve a problem which has hitherto been considered to be beyond the range of
ordinary experimental methods. Some of the curves already obtained are of much
interest, and will be submitted to the Section. It is probable that the form of the
_ eurye which represents the solidification and cooling of a mass of molten metal
affords an exceedingly delicate indication as to its purity.
Prof. H. E. Armstrong holds that the molecules of a metal can unite to form
complexes with powers of coherence which vary with the presence of impurity.
Crookes, by a recent beautiful investigation, has taught us how electrical evapora-
tion of solid metals may be set up in vacuo, and has shown that even an alloy may
be decomposed by suck means. We may hope that such work will enable us to
understand the principles on which the strength of materials depends.
Before leaving the consideration of questions connected with the molecular
constitution of metals, I would specially refer to the excellent work of Heycock
and Neville, who have extended to certain metals with low melting-points Raoult’s
investigations on the effect of impurity on the lowering of the freezing-point of
solids. With the aid of one of my own students, H. C. Jenkins, I have further
extended the experiments by studying the effect of impurity on the freezing-point
of gold. Ramsay, by adopting Raoult’s vapour-pressure method, has been led to
the conclusion that when in solution in mercury the atom of a metal is, as a rule,
identical with its molecule. The important research on the liquation of alloys has
been extended by E. Matthey to the platinum-gold and palladium-gold series, in
which the manipulation presented many difficulties ; and EH. J. Ball has studied the
‘eases presented by the antimony-copper-lead series. Dr. Alder Wright has con-
tinued his own important investigation upon ternary alloys, and A. P, Laurie has
worked on the electro-motive force of the copper-zine and copper-tin and gold-tin
series, a field of research which promises fruitful results.
- In no direction is advance more marked than in the mechanical testing of
metals, in which branch of investigation this country, guided by Kirkaldy, un-
doubtedly took the leading part, and in connection with which Kennedy and Unwin
have established world-wide reputations. I would also specially mention the work
which has been carried on at the Government testing works at Berlin under Dr,
Wedding, and the elaborate investigations conductedat the Watertown Arsenal,
Massachusetts, not to mention the numerous continental testing laboratories directed
598 REPORT—1891.
by such men as Bauschinger, Jenny, and Tetmajer. Perhaps the most important
recent work is that described by Prof. Martens, of Berlin, on the influence of heat
on the strength of iron.
I might have dwelt at length on all these matters without doing half the
service to metallurgy that I hope to render by earnestly pleading for the more
extended teaching of the subject throughout the country, and for better laboratories,
arranged on the model of engineering laboratories, in which the teaching is ¢on-
ducted with the aid of complete, though small, ‘plant.’ The Science and Art
Department has done great and lasting service by directing that metallurgy shall
be taught practically, but much remains to be done. With regard to laboratories
in works, which are too often mere sheds, placed, say, behind the boiler-house, when
may we hope to rival the German chemical firm which has recently spent 19,000U.
upon its laboratories, in which research will be vigorously conducted? ‘There is
hardly any branch of inorganic chemistry which the metallurgist can afford to
neglect, while many branches both of physics and mechanics are of utmost
importance to him,
The wide range of study upon which a metallurgical student is rightly expected
to enter is leading, it is to be feared, to diminution in the time devoted to analytical
chemistry, and this most serious question should be pressed upon the attention of
all who are responsible for the training of our future chemists. There can be no
question that sufficient importance is not attached to the estimation of ‘ traces,’ an
analysis being considered to be satisfactory if the constituents found add up to
99°), although a knowledge as to what elements represent the missing 0:1 may he
more useful in affording an explanation of the defects in a material than all the
rest of the analysis. This matter is of growing interest to practical men, and may
explain their marked preference for chemists who have been trained in works, to
those who have been educated in a college laboratory.
The necessity for affording public instruction in mining and metallurgy, with a
view to the full development of the mineral wealth of a nation, is well known.
The issues at stake are so vast, that in this country it was considered desirable to
provide a centre of instruction in which the teaching of mining and metallurgy
should not be left to private enterprise or even entrusted to a corporation, but
should be under the direct control of the Government. With this end in view, the
Royal School of Mines was founded in 1851, and has supplied a body of well-
trained men who have done excellent service for the country and her colonies.
The Government has recently taien a step in advance, and has further recognised
the national importance of the teaching of mining and metallurgy by directing that
the School of Mines shall be incorporated with the Royal College of Science,
which is, I believe, destined to lead the scientific education of the nation.
It is to be feared that as regards metalliferous mining, other than that relating
to iron, our country has seen its best days, but the extraordinary mineral wealth
of our colonies has recently been admirably described by my colleague, Professor
Le Neve Foster, in the inaugural lecture he delivered early in the present year
on his appointment to the chair so long held by Sir Warington Smyth. We
shall, however, be able to rightly estimate the value of our birthright when the
Imperial Institute is opened next year, and the nation will have reason to be
grateful to Sir Frederick Abel for the care he is devoting to the development of
this great institution, which will become the visible exponent of the splendours
of our Indian and colonial resources, as well as a centre of information.
The rapid growth of technical literature renders it unnecessary for a president of
a Section to devote his address to recording the progress of the subject he represents.
As regards the most important part of our national metallurgy, this has, moreover,
been admirably done by successive Presidents of the Iron and Steel Institute, but
it may have been expected that references would have been made to the main pro-
cesses which have been adopted since Percy occupied this chair in 1849. I have
not done so, because an enumeration of the processes would have been wholly in-
adequate, and a description of them impossible in the time at my disposal. Never-
theless, it may be well to remind the Section of a few of the more prominent
————a———<_—<_«£—_—_- — —-_
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 599
additions the art has received in the last half century, and to offer a few statements
to show the magnitude on which operations are conducted. As regards iron, in
the last twenty-five years the price of steel has been reduced from 565/. per ton to 51.
er ton, but, after giving the world the inestimable boon of cheap steel by the
abours of Bessemer and of Siemens, we were somewhat slow to accept the teaching
of experiment as to the best method of treating the new material ; on the other
hand, Hadfield has brought manganese steel and aluminium steel within the reach
of the manufacturer, and J. Riley has done much to develop the use of nickel steel.
Tn the case of copper, we have mainly contributed to extraordinary development
of wet processes for its extraction from poor sulphides, and have met the great
demands for pure metal by the wide adoption of electrolytic processes.
As regards the precious metals, this country is well to the front, for Great
Britain and her colonies produce about 38 per cent. of the gold supply of the world ;
and it may be well to add, as an indication of the scale on which operations are
conducted, that in London alone one ton of gold and five tons of silver bullion
can easily be refined in a day. No pains have heen spared in perfecting the method
of assay by which the value of gold and silver is ascertained, and during my twenty
years’ connection with the Royal Mint I have been responsible for the accuracy
of the standard fineness of no less than five hundred and fifty-five tons of gold
coin, of an aggregate value of seventy millions five hundred thousand pounds
sterling. In the case of the platinum industry we owe its extraordinary development
to the skill and enterprise of successive members of the firm of Johnson, Matthey,
& Co., who in later years have based their operations upon the results of the in-
vestigations of Deville and Debray. Some indication of the value of the material
dealt with may be gathered from the statement that two and a half hundredweight
of platinum may easily be melted in a single charge, and that the firm, in one
operation, extracted a mass of palladium valued at 30,0007. from gold-platinum ore
actually worth more than a million sterling.
I wish it were possible to record the services of those who have advanced
metallurgy in connection with this Association, but the limitations of time render
it difficult to do more than refer to some honoured names of past presidents of this
Section. Michael Faraday, president of this Section in 1837 and 1846, prepared
the first specimen of nickel-steel, an alloy which seems to have so promising a
future, but we may hardly claim him as a metallurgist; nor should I be justified in
referring, in connection with metallurgical research, to my own master, Graham,
president of this Section in 1839, and again in 1844, were it not that his experiments
on the occlusion of gases by metals have proved to be of such extraordinary prac-
tical importance in connection with the metallurgy of iron. Sir Lyon Playfair
presided over this Section in 1855, and again in 1859. His work in connection
with Bunsen on the composition of blast-furnace gases was published in the Report
of this Association in 1847, and formed the earliest of a group of researches,
amongst which those of Sir Lowthian Bell proved to he of so much importance. The
latter was President of this Section in 1889. Sir F. Abel, President of this Section
in 1877, rendered enduring service to the Government by his elaborate metal-
lurgical investigations, in connection with materials used for guns and projectiles,
as well as for defensive purposes. I will conclude this section of the address by
a tribute to the memory of Perey. He may be said to have created the English
literature of metallurgy, to have enriched it with the records of his own observa-
tions, and to have revived the love of our countrymen for metallurgical investiga-
tion. His valuable collection of specimens, made while Professor at the Royal
School of Mines, is now appropriately lodged at South Kensington, and will
form a lasting memorial of his labours as a teacher. He exerted very note-
worthy influence in guiding the public to a just appreciation of the labours of
scientific men, and he lived to see an entire change in the tone of the public
press in this respect. In the year of Percy’s presidency over this Section the
‘ Times’ gave only one-tenth of a column to a summary of the results of the last
day but one of the Meeting, although the usual discourse delivered on the previous
evening had been devoted to a question of great importance— The application
of Iron to Railway purposes.’ Space was, however, found for the interesting state-
600 REPORT—1891.
ment that the ‘number of Quakeresses who attended the meetings of the Sections
was not a little remarkable.’ Compare the slender record of the ‘Times’ of 1849
with its careful chronicle of the proceedings at any recent meeting of the
Association.
In drawing this address to a close, I would point to the great importance of
extending the use of the less known metals. Attention is at present concentrated
on the production of aluminium, and reference has already been made to the
Cowles process, in which, as in that of Héroult, the reduction of alumina is effected
by carbon, at the very high temperature of the electric are; while, on the other
hand, in the Kleiner and similar processes, the electric current acts less as a source
of heat than by decomposing a fluid bath, the aluminium being isolated by electro-
lytic action; and doubtless, in the immediate future, there will be a rapid increase
in the number of metallurgical processes that depend on reactions which are set up
by submitting chemical systems to electric stress. Incidental reference should be
made to the growing importance of sodium, not only in cheapening the production
of aluminium, but as a powerful weapon of research. In 1849, when Percy was
president of this Section, magnesium was a curiosity ; now its production consti-
tutes a considerable industry. We may confidently expect to see barium and
calcium produced on a large scale as soon as their utility has been demonstrated by
research, Minerals containing molybdenum are not rare; and the metal could
probably be produced as cheaply as tin if a use were to be found for it. The
quantities of vanadium and thallium which are available are also far from incon-
siderable; but we, as yet, know little of the action of any of these metals when
alloyed with others which are in daily use. The field for investigation is vast
indeed, for it must be remembered that valuable qualities may be conferred on a
mass of metal by a very small quantity of another element. The useful qualities
imparted to platinum by iridium are well known. A small quantity of
tellurium obliterates the crystalline structure of bismuth; but we have lost an
ancient art, which enabled brittle antimony to be cast into useful vessels. Two-
tenths per cent. of zirconium increases the strength of gold enormously, while the
same amount of bismuth reduces the tenacity to a very low point. Chromium,
cobalt, tungsten, titanium, cadmium, zirconium, and lithium are already well
Imown in the arts, and the valuable properties which metallic chromium and
tungsten confer upon steel are beginning to be generally recognised, as the last
Exhibition at Paris abundantly showed; but as isolated metals we know but
little of them. Is the development of the rarer metals to be left to other
countries? Means for the prosecution of research are forthcoming, and a rich
reward awaits the labours of chemists who could bring themselves to divert their
attention, for even a brief period, from the investigation of organic compounds,
in order to raise alloys from the obscurity in which they are at present left.
It must not be forgotten that metallurgical enterprise rests on (1) scientific know-
ledge, (2) capital, and (3) labour, and that if the results of industrial operations are
.to prove remunerative, much must depend on the relation of these three elements,
though it is difficult to determine accurately their relative importance. A modern
ironworks may have an army of ten thousand workmen, and commercial success or
failure will depend in no small measure on the method adopted in organising the
labour. The relations between capital and labour are of so much interest at the
present time that I do not hesitate to offer a few words on the subject.
Many examples might be borrowed from metallurgical enterprises in this and
other countries to show that their nature is often precarious, and that failure is easily
induced by what appear to be comparatively slight causes, Capitalists might
consequently tend to select Government securities for investment in preference to
metallurgical works, and the labouring population would then severely suffer, It is
only reasonable, therefore, that if capitalists are exposed to great risks, they should,
in the event of success, receive the greater part of the profits. There is a widespread
feeling that the interests of capital and labour must be antagonistic, and as it is
impossible to ignore the fact that the conflict between them is giving rise to grave
‘
+”
f
i
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 601
apprehension, it becomes the duty of all who possess influence to strive not
merely for peace, but to range themselves on the side of justice and humanity. The
_ great labour question cannot be solved except by assuming as a principle that
private ownership must be held inviolable, but it must be admitted that there was
a time when capital had become arbitrary and some kind of united action on the
art of workmen was needed in self-defence. If, however, we turn to the action
of the leaders of trades unions in the recent lamentable strikes, we are presented
with a picture which many of us can only view as that of tyranny of the most
close and oppressive kind, in which individual freedom cannot even be recognised.
There are hundreds of owners of works who long to devote themselves to the true
welfare of those they employ, but who can do little against the influence of the
professional agitator, and are merely saddened by contact with prejudice and igno-
rance. I believe the view to be correct that some system by which the workman
participates in the profits of enterprise will afford the most hope of putting an end
to labour disputes, and we are told that profit-sharing tends to destroy the work-
man’s sense of social exclusion from the capitalistic board, and contents him by
elevating him from the precarious position of a hired labourer. No pains should
therefore be spared in perfecting a system of profit-sharing.
Pensions for long service are great aids to patience and fidelity, and very much
may be hoped from the fact that strenuous efforts are being made by men really
competent to lead. The report of the Labour Commission which is now sitting
will be looked for with keen interest. Watchful care over the health, interests,
and instruction of the employed is exercised by many owners of works; and in this
respect the Dowlais Works, which are being transplanted into your midst at
Cardiff, have long presented a noteworthy example. Workmen must not forget
that the choice of their own leaders is in their own hands, and on this the future
mainly depends. ‘ We may lay it down as a perpetual law that workmen’s associa-
tions should be so organised and governed as to furnish the best and most suitable
_ means for attaining what is aimed at, that is to say, for helping each individual
member to better his condition to the utmost in body, mind, and property.’ The
words will be found in the Encyclical letter which Pope Leo XIII. has recently
issued on the ‘Condition of Labour.’ To me it is specially interesting that the
Bishop of Rome in his forcible appeal again and again cites the opinion of St.
Thomas Aquinas, who was a learned chemist as well as a theologian.
Those of us who realise that ‘the higher mysteries of being, if penetrable at all
by human intellect, require other weapons than those of calculation and experiment,’
_ should be fully sensible of our individual responsibility. Seeing that the study of the
relations between capital and labour involve the consideration of the complex
problems of existence, the solution of which is at present hidden from us, we shall
feel with Andrew Lang that ‘where, as matter of science, we know nothing, we
can only utter the message of our temperament.’ My own leads me to hope that
the patriotism of the workmen will prevent them from driving our national
industries from these shores, and I would ask those to whom the direction of the
metallurgical works of this country is confided, to remember that we have to
deal both with metals and with men, and have reason to be grateful to all who
extend the boundaries, not only of our knowledge, but also of our sympathy.
The following Reports were read :—
‘1. Report of the Committee on International Standards for the Analysis of
Tron and Steel.—See Reports, p. 273,
2, Report of the Action of Light upon Dyed Colowrs.—See Reports, p. 263,
3. Report on the Influence of the silent discharge of Electricity on Oxygen
and other Gases.—See Reports, p. 264.
.
602 REPORT—1891.
4, Report on the Bibliography of Solution.—See Reports, p. 278.
5. Report on the Properties of Solutions.—See Reports, p. 273.
6. Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—See Reports, p. 264.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on the Formation of Haloids.
See Reports, p. 274.
2. The Spontaneous Ignition of Coal. By Professor Vivian B. Lewes.
Ever since Berzelius first suggested that the heat evolved by the oxidation of
the pyrites in coal might have an important bearing on spontaneous ignition, it
has been adopted as the popular explanation of that phenomenon, and although
the researches of Richter and others have gone far to disprove it, this theory is the
generally accepted one. It can be shown, however, that the coals most liable to
spontaneous ignition often contain as little as 0°8 per cent. of pyrites, and rarely more
than 2 per cent., and if this amount were concentrated in one spot, instead of being
spread over a very large mass, and if it were entirely oxidised with the greatest
rapidity, instead of taking months and often years to complete the action, the total
rise of temperature would be totally inadequate to account for ignition of the coal,
which requires a temperature of 370° C. to 477° C., according to its characteristics.
The liability to spontaneous ignition also does not increase with percentage of
pyrites, whilst heaps of pure pyrites free from carbonaceous matter never show any
tendency to serious heating.
The true explanation of the ignition of coal is partly physical and partly che-
mical. Freshly won coal has the power of absorbing from 1°5 to 3 times its volume
of oxygen from the air, and this being rendered chemically highly active, partly
by compression and partly by elimination of nitrogen, attacks some of the bitu-
minous hydrocarbons in the coal, converting them into carbon dioxide and water
vapour. Many causes tend to affect the rapidity of this action, which is the real
source of the heat, and directly the temperature begins to rise, unless the heat
evolved can freely diffuse itself, the chemical action is so energetic that ignition
quickly follows, Up to 38° C, the absorption of oxygen, and consequent chemical
action, goes on so slowly that there is little or no chance of undue heating; but
directly this temperature is exceeded, with some classes of coal ignition is only a
question of time and mass. The action of mass, condition, and temperature can be
beautifully traced in the statistics of spontaneous ignition in coal cargoes, whilst
the bunker fires, which are now becoming perilously frequent on the fast liners, are
due entirely to rise in temperature from the bunker bulkheads being too close to
the hot air up-cast shafts from the boilers and furnaces.
3. On Nickel Carbon Oxide and its Application in Arts and Manufactures.
By Lupwie Monn, F.R.S.
_ The existence of a volatile compound of nickel and carbonic oxide was first
discovered in the author’s London laboratory in October, 1889, in the course of an
’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 603
investigation on whic he was engaged with his assistants, Dr. Carl Langer and
Dr. Friedrich Quincke, into the remarkable property of metallic nickel to induce,
at the comparatively low temperature of 350° C., the complete dissociation of car-
bonic oxide into carbon and carbonic acid, which, according to Victor Meyer and
_ Carl Langer, by the application of heat alone remains incomplete at a temperature
ee ee -
:
4 ‘
of 1,690° C.
A very small quantity of nickel can effect the dissociation of a large quantity of
carbonic oxide, and becomes converted into 2 very voluminous black mass contain-
ing varying quantities of carbon up to 85 per cent. This mass takes fire on expo-
sure to air, so that it had to be cooled with exclusion of air for the purpose of
analysis, which was done in a slow current of carbonic oxide gas. This gas was
subsequently led into a Bunsen burner, so as to keep it out of the atmosphere of
the room. In this way it was observed that when the cooling had proceeded to a
certain point (about 150°C.) the Bunsen flame became luminous and remained so,
and even became intenser, down to ordinary atmospheric temperature. When the
- gas before entering the burner was heated in a glass tube, a metallic mirror was
obtained, while the luminosity of the flame disappeared.
At first this phenomenon was referred to the presence in the nickel of an
unknown element, perhaps to Kriiss and Schmidt’s Gnomium, which at this time
still haunted chemical literature. The metal of the mirror, however, gave all and
every one of the reactions of nickel with remarkable brilliancy, and an approximate
determination of the atomic weight came out so nearly to the very carefully
determined figure of Russel for/nickel (58:58 as compared with 58:74) that there
could be no doubt about its identity with our well-known old friend, whose cha-
racter as a simple body, called in question by Kriiss and Schmidt, was thus
rehabilitated.
In repeating the experiment with carbonic oxide, quite free from hydrogen and
moisture, and only contaminated with nitrogen, the same result was obtained.
After removing the carbonic oxide by cuprous chloride and heating the residual
gas to 180° in aniline vapour, at which temperature nickel, quite free from carbon,
is separated, the volume of the gas expanded considerably, and the gas contained
only nitrogen and carbonic oxide. It was thus .evident that a volatile compound
of nickel and carbonic oxide had been obtained, which, on heating, dissociated into
its constituents. The increase of volume proved that one volume of gas yielded
four volumes of carbonic oxide, and the determination of the amount of nickel
deposited and the carbonic oxide formed led to a proportion of four equivalents of
carbonic oxide to one of nickel. To further study the properties of this compound
it was necessary to produce larger quantities, which took a long time to accom-=
Be: By preparing the nickel in a very fine state of division, at the lowest possi-
le temperature, by reducing the oxide, or, better still, the oxalate, in a current of
hydrogen at about 400° C., and by carefully purifying and regulating the current
of carbonic oxide, the compound was formed quite readily, and the gas passed
through a refrigerator, cooled by ice and salt, was condensed to a liquid.
This liquid is colourless, mobile, highly refracting, possesses a characteristic
odour, and is very volatile. It is soluble in a large number of organic liquids,
such as alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzole, petroleum, tar oils, &c. It boils at
43° CO. and 751 mm. pressure without decomposition, and evaporates rapidly at
ordinary temperatures in a current of other gases. The specific gravity is 13185
at 17° C.; at —25° it solidifies, forming needle-shaped crystals; the pure vapour
explodes when suddenly heated to above 60°, and even when the tube containing it is
scratched roughly with afile. A mixture of the vapour with air explodes violently
on the application of a flame. Both the liquid and the vapour are poisonous, the lat-
ter approximating carbonic oxide in this respect. According to an investigation
kindly undertaken by Professor McKendrick, the liquid dissolved in chloroform
produces, when injected subcutaneously in extremely small doses in rabbits, an
extraordinary reduction of temperature, amounting in some cases to 12°C.
Careful determinations of the quantity of nickel contained in the liquid, made
by introducing a weighed quantity into chlorine water and precipitation of the
nickel from the resulting solution, led to figures agreeing very closely with the
604 REPORT—-1891
formula Ni (CO),, viz., 54:33 and 34:26 per cent. of nickel, the formula requiring
84:28. The vapour density determined by Victor Meyer’s method at 50° was found
equal to 6°01; the formula Ni (CO), requires 5°89.
The compound is chemically very inactive ; generally speaking, it only reacts
with substances having a considerable affinity for nickel, such as the halogens, sul-
phur, oxygen, and oxidising substances, which combine with the nickel and liber-
ate carbonic oxide. Chlorine and bromine when used in excess also enter into
combination with the carbonic oxide. Sulphur in the dry state forms a sulphide
of nickel corresponding to the formula Ni,S,, and dissolved in bi-sulphide of carbon
it forms a sulphide containing more sulphur, but of varying composition. Selenium
acts similarly but very slowly. Tellurium shows hardly any action. Metals (even
potassium) are not acted upon.
Alkalies and acids (even strong hydrochloric acid) produce no change except
they are oxidising agents, such as nitric acid and aqua regia. With metallic salts
no reaction is obtained unless they have oxidising properties as hypochlorites,
which form a higher oxide of nickel, or which are capable of giving off sulphur, such ,
as hyposulphites and bisulphites.
The author has tried in vain to substitute other bivalent groups for the carbonic
oxide in this compound, or to introduce the carbonic oxide by means of this
compound into organic substances. Jxperiments in this direction have covered a
yery wide range and have included, amongst others, the following: hydroxylamine
hydrochloride, phenylhydrazin hydrochloride hydroxylamine, dichloracetic acid,
tetrabromphenolbromide, ethylinechloride, and aceto-acetic-ether, but in no single
instance was the desired result obtained.
On exposure to moist or dry air a flocculent substance, which varies in colour
from a light green to adark brown, is very slowly formed. This substance dis-
solves completely in dilute acids with evolution of carbonic acid; numerous
analyses have not led to a definite proportion between Ni and CO, in this com-
pound, On heating it to dull red heat it turns black. Professor Berthelot, in a
paper recently communicated to the French Academy of Sciences, assumes that
this black colour is produced by the separation of carbon, and bases upon this an
argument that the compound is of a complex composition, and that the nickel car-
bon oxide, on exposure to air, behaves like a real compound radical analogous to
organo-metallic radicals. As, however, the black substance so obtained dissolves
in dilute acids without leaving any residue, and as an exactly similar black sub-
stance is obtained by heating precipitated nickel carbonate, this argument does not
seem to be conclusive, since Professor Berthelot has not substantiated so important
a conclusion by a complete analysis of the black substance.
Professor Berthelot describes in the same paper a very beautiful blue compound
obtained by treating nickel carbon oxide with nitric oxide. Unfortunately he does
not publish an analysis of this beautiful substance either, so that until he has done
so we are unable to judge of its bearing on the constitution of nickel carbon oxide.
With a view to elucidate this constitution the author has, in conjunction with
Professor R, Nasini, of Rome, studied the physical properties of the liquid, more
especially its refraction and dispersion. The details of this investigation have been
communicated to the Accademia dei Lincei at Rome, and have also been published
in the ‘ Journal fiir physikalische Chemie.’
The author has determined the freezing-point of a dilute solution in benzole
containing 4°8991 per cent., and has found the coefficient of diminution ‘2776,
corresponding to a molecular weight of 176°5 ; while nickel carbon oxide requires
170°6. The mean cubical coefficient of expansion between 0° and 36° C, is equal to
‘001853, which is one of the highest coefficients of expansion yet found for any
liquid, and is only slightly exceeded by ethylic ether, ethyl chloride, and silicium
tetrachloride. The indices of refraction and the dispersion for the lines a, 8, and y
of hydrogen, and for the lines of lithium, sodium, and thallium have been deter-
mined at three different temperatures, and are found to be very high. The dis-
persion is about the same as carbon disulphide. The refraction varies very much
with the temperature, the amount of variation being very nearly equal to that of
carbon disulphide. The index of refraction for the D line at 10° C. is 1:46843,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 605
According to Gladstone’s formula this leads to the specific refraction of -8437
and the molecular refraction of 58°63. Under the supposition that the group CO
had the same value in this compound which results from the sum of the atomic re-
fraction of carbon and that of the divalent oxygen molecule in organic compounds,
which is the more probable, as the group CO shows very nearly the same molecular
- refraction in compounds of the most different constitution, such as oxalic acid,
ketones, and carbonyldichloride, the atomic refraction of nickel would come cut
~ equal to 25:02. This figure is very much higher, nearly two and a half times as
high as it is in nickel salts, in which it has been found by Gladstone to be about
- 10; and about four times as high as the atomic refraction of metallic nickel as
determined by Kundt and Dubois and Rubens, viz., about 6.
This difference of the atomic refraction of nickel in this compound and in its
ordinary combinations is by far greater than that found in any other element.
According to the generally accepted view, such differences are due to the element
possessing a large number of valencies, and are proportional to the number of
yalencies of each compound. Nickel is generally bivalent. Its very high atomic re-
_ fraction in nickel carbon oxide would thus lead to the conclusion that in this
compound the nickel exercises a considerably higher valency than two, and that
it has probably reached its maximum of saturation foreseen by Mendeléeff, who
placed this metal in the eighth group of his Periodic System, to be equal to
‘eight; so that the constitution of our compound would be a simple combination of
one octovalent equivalent of nickel with four bivalent equivalents of carbonic oxide,
or that of nickel tetracarbonyl.
All that we definitely know of the chemical properties of the compound is in
accord with this view of its constitution.
A determination of the magnetic rotary power of the compound kindly made
by Dr. W. H. Perkin has shown this to be quite as exceptional as its refraction,
and, with the exception of phosphorus, greater than any substance he has yet
examined.
Professor Quincke, of Heidelberg, has had the kindness to investigate the
magnetic properties of the liquid. He found the constant of diamagnetism, at
16° C., k= —3:131 x 10-1 for magnetic fields of 6,000 to 14,000 C.G.S. units.
This is nearly the same as the constant for ethylic ether = —3:218 x ]0-".
The liquid is an exceptionally bad conductor of electricity. Up to 40 volts no
current was observed to pass, the electrodes of 1 sq. cm. area being 1 cm. apart.
The highly interesting properties of nickel carbon oxide naturally led the
author to try whether he could not obtain similar compounds of other metals.
It seemed a foregone conclusion that cobalt, in every respect so much like nickel,
must give an analogous compound. It seemed probable that other metals of the
eighth group and those standing near to nickel in other groups would also
combine with carbonic oxide. A large number of elements were tried, including
osmium, palladium, ruthenium, rhodium, iridium, and manganese by acting upon
them in the finely divided state with carbonic oxide gas over a wide range of
temperature. The author tried it by double decomposition with numerous com-
pounds, including zinc ethyl and mercury methyl, but, with one sole and single
exception, without success.
This sole exception is iron. This metal, too, had for a long time given
negative results; but by preparing it at the lowest possible temperature by
reduction of the oxalate in a current of hydrogen, and by acting upon this at
about 80° C. with a very slow current of very pure carbonic oxide, the author
succeeded at last, in conjunction with Dr. F. Quincke, in obtaining evidence that a
volatile compound of this element with carbonic oxide exists. The gas obtained
imparted a yellow tinge to a Bunsen flame and yielded slight metallic mirrors
composed of pure iron. The quantity of the iron compound in the gas was,
Owever, extremely small. By passing the gas through heavy tar oils, in which
the compound is soluble, but from which it cannot be separated by fractionation,
as on heating it decomposes the solution into iron and carbonic oxide before it
volatilises, and by determining the iron and carbonic oxide so obtained, it was
ascertained, as far as the very small quantities of the substance available would
7
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;
606 REPORT—1891.
allow, that it contained iron and carbonic oxide in the proportion of 1 equivalent
of iron to 4'126 of carbonic oxide, or very nearly | to 4.
Since these results were communicated to the Chemical Society (June 18,
1891) the author has continued the study of this body, in collaboration with
Dr. Carl Langer, and has obtained it as an amber-coloured liquid, which, on
standing, deposits tabular crystals of a darker colour, and solidifies entirely below
—21° C, to a mass of needle-shaped crystals. It boils at 102° C., but leaves a
small quantity of green-coloured oil behind.
Several analyses and vapour density determinations have been made, but it is
not yet certain whether a pure substance is in hand or a mixture of several iron
carbonyls. The author hopes to be able very shortly to publish a full account
of this interesting substance, which differs considerably in its chemical behaviour
from nickel carbon oxide.
The fact that under ordinary circumstances nickel alone is acted on when
a mixture of this metal with any other metallic or mineral substances is treated
by carbonic oxide gas led the author to institute experiments to ascertain whether
it would not be possible by means of carbonic oxide to extract nickel direct from
its ores, and such metallurgical products as nickel speiss and nickel matte. As the
nickel is volatilised at the ordinary temperature in the form of a vapour dissemi-
nated through other gases from which it can be deposited without first condensing
the nickel compound by simply heating these gases to the moderate temperature of
200° C., as it is thus obtained in the form of bright coherent masses of great
purity, as the carbonic oxide used is completely liberated and can be employed
over and over again, and as small quantities of the poisonous nickel compound
which may escape decomposition would thus never leave the closed apparatus
in which the process would be carried out, it seemed probable that such a process
might be capable of industrial application, and might prove more economical than
the very complicated operations metallurgists have now to resort to to produce
tolerably pure nickel.
Experiments carried out under the author’s instructions by Dr. Langer with a
great variety of nickel ores from all parts of the world, containing from 4 to 40
per cent. of nickel, as well as a number of samples of nickel speiss and nickel
matte, have proved that as long as the nickel is combined with arsenic or sulphur
the process is entirely successful on a laboratory scale. In the majority of cases
the nickel has been extracted almost completely in three to four days.
Such ores or matte or speiss have in,the first instance to be calcined, so as to
convert the nickel completely into oxide. The mass is then reduced in a current
of hydrogenous gases, in practice water-gas, at a temperature of 450° C. It is
cooled down to ordinary temperature and treated with carbonic oxide in a suitable
apparatus. For this purpose any good apparatus for treating solids by gases, of
which a great number are in common use, will answer. Methodical apparatus
moving the reduced ore in a direction opposite to the current of carbonic oxide, at
the same time exposing fresh surfaces, facilitates the operation. After a certain
time the action of the carbonic oxide upon the nickel becomes sluggish. ‘The mass
is then heated to about 350° C. in a current of carbonic oxide, which regenerates
the activity of the nickel. This may be done in the same apparatus, but it is
preferable to use a separate apparatus connected with the first, and from which it
is returned to the first by mechanical means, so that each apparatus can be kept at
the same temperature. The carbonic oxide gas can be employed dilute, as it
is obtained from gas-producers; but since it is continuously recovered, a purer gas
such as can be cheaply prepared by passing carbonic acid through incandescent
coke is more advantageous, as it extracts the nickel more quickly and requires
smaller apparatus. The gas charged with the nickel compound leaving the
apparatus is passed through tubes or chambers heated to about 200° C., in which
the nickel is deposited. The gas leaving these tubes is returned to the first
apparatus and circulates continuously. From time to time the nickel is removed
from the tubes in which it has been deposited. To facilitate this operation thin
nickel sheets bent to fit the tubes are inserted, on which the nickel deposits, and
which are easily taken out. The metal so obtained is almost chemically pure;
ie
a“
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 607
_ only very rarely in the case of certain ores it is slightly contaminated with iron.
__ Its density is equal to that of ordinary sheet nickel. Its mechanical properties
still await investigation.
As the nickel is deposited in perfectly coherent films upon heated surfaces
exposed to the gas containing the nickel carbon oxide, the author finds it possible
to produce direct from such gas articles of solid nickel or goods plated with nickel
‘resembling in every way those obtained by galvanic deposition of metals, and
reproducing with the same exactitude and fineness any design upon such articles.
This result can also be obtained by immersing heated articles in a solution
of nickel carbon oxide in such solvents as benzole, petroleum, tar oils, &c., or by
applying such solution to the heated articles with a brush or otherwise.
These processes open up a wide perspective of useful application, considering
the many valuable properties of nickel, especially its power of resisting atmospheric
and other chemical influences.
4. On the Electrical Evaporation of Metals and Alloys.’
By W. Crooxss, FBS.
5. On the Cause of Imperfections in the Surface of Rolled Copper Alloys.
By T. Turner, A.R.S.M.
In those rolled copper alloys which are of a yellow colour it is common to find
surface stains of a copper colour. These stains render the rolled metal unfit for
many purposes. The cause of these stains has been much discussed, but no
definite evidence as to their origin has been forthcoming. Among the supposed
causes have been overheating during annealing, sulphur in the fuel used, the
presence of soot or ashes, irregularity in the alloy, and the use of an iron stirring-
rod. The author has conducted a number of experiments, and concludes that none
of these causes is responsible for the production of the stains observed, but that
the stains are merely on the surface, and are produced by dirt in some form or
other. The use of wash-water containing chlorides, after pickling, is in the
author's opinion the chief cause of the imperfections (see ‘Trans. Birmingham
Phil. Soc.,’ May 1891).
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—
Ll. Certain Pyrometric Measurements and Methods of Recording them.
By Professor W. C. Roszrrs-Avsten, 0.B., F.R.S.
2. On the Existence of a Compound in Alloys of Gold and Tin.
4 By A. P. Laurm, M.A.
The alloys are prepared by melting the metals in a clay pipe and drawing itito
the stem. ‘They are then used in place of zine in a voltaic cell, consisting of
1 See Proceedings of the Royal Society, 1891.
608 REPORT—1891.
stannic chloride, gold chloride, and gold. The E.M.F.is found to rise abruptly on
passing from alloys containing 36 per cent. to those containing 38 per cent. of tin,
thus indicating the existence of a compound of the formula AuSn. This agrees
with the maximum point in Matthiessen’s conductivity curve for these alloys.
Some preliminary experiments with gold aluminium alloys show that there is a
rise in E.M.F. on passing over Professor Roberts-Austen’s new purple alloy. This
method not only indicates the existence of a compound, but also enables us to cal-
culate approximately the heat of formation of the compound from the rise in
E.M.F. in passing from the alloys below to those above the compound.
3. On the Relation between the Composition of a Double Salt and the Com- ~
position and Temperature of the Solution in which it is formed. By
A. Vernon Haxcourt, F.R.S., and F. W. Houmpnery, of Christ
Church, Oxford.
The particular double salt of which the authors have prepared and analysed
some seventy specimens is ferrous and ammonium chloride, Probably many other
double salts, if similarly examined, would show similar variations. When ferrous
chloride and ammonium chloride are dissolved together in warm water, and the
saturated liquid is allowed to cool, white crystals are deposited, whose composition
varies with the proportion of the two salts in solution and with the temperature at
which the crystals are formed. Since the proportion of the two chlorides in the
liquid and in the crystals which form in the liquid is very different, the compo-
sition of the liquid changes continually during crystallisation, and no two portions
of the double salt are formed under exactly the same conditions. In the authors’
later experiments the variation from the beginning to the.end of a crystallisation
was reduced to about 2 per cent. by taking a crop of crystals weighing only eight
or ten grams from a liquid containing some hundreds of grams of each chloride.
By the use of a water-bath, in which the flask holding the solution was plunged,
warmed by a gas-burner which was governed by a thermostat in the liquid, the
temperature was kept at that point at which crystallisation began within 0°02 C.
The general relations observed are as follows :—The proportion of ammonium
chloride in the salt increases with that in the solution nearly in direct ratio for a
given temperature, the ratio varying from about thrice the proportion of ammonium
chloride in the salt that there is in the solution, at the highest temperature, up to
nearly six times the proportion at the lowest. ‘The same solution yields crystals
containing more ferrous chloride at a higher temperature and less at a lower.
Solutions containing two or more molecules of ammonium chloride to one mole- -
cule of ferrous chloride yield well-formed crystals, white and transparent, having
sides of one millimetre or more in length. When the salt contains twenty or thirty
molecules of ammonium chloride to one molecule of ferrous chloride the crystals are
as large as when the proportion of ammonium chloride is smaller. With less than
two molecules of ammonium chloride the crystals are apt to be very small and to
resemble those of ammonium chloride in form though not in composition.
In most cases the composition of the crystals can be represented by a formula
Fe Cl’, nH*NCl where 7 is integral. Salts have been analysed with closely con-
cordant results in which 2 has the following values :—7, 11, 12, 18, 15, 16, 17,
18, 19, 20, 23. But in some cases, where equal or greater care has been taken that
the conditions may not change during crystallisation, the values of m are not
integral. Also the double salt is hydrated; the determination of the amount of
water presents greater difficulties than the rest of the analysis, a temperature of
about 200°C, being necessary to expel the whole ; the results thus obtained, which
generally agree with the estimation of water by difference, frequently correspond
to 2:5 molecules of water for each molecule of ferrous chloride. Perhaps, there-
fore, the formule of the double salts should be multiplied by two, or some larger
even number.
The whole of the results obtained can be grouped together in a Table, in which
each salt is represented by the yalue of n and is assigned a position showing (1)
the composition, (2) the temperature, of the solution in which it was formed.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 609
|
4. Some Experiments on the Molecular Refraction of Dissolved Electrolytes.
: By Dr. J. H. Guapstons, F.R.S.,and W. Hisperr.
This was a preliminary notice of some experiments undertaken in the hope of
throwing some further light on the nature of electrolytes in solution, and especially
_ on the views advocated by Van t’Hoff, Ostwald, and Arrhenius.
___ It was discovered many years ago that hydrochloric acid had an increased
_ molecular refraction when it was dissolved in water, and it has been more recently
_ observed that this increase has further augmented as the solution is made weaker.
_ It was now found that on raising the temperature 55° there is a distinct reduction
of the molecular refraction. This is scarcely what would be expected from an
_ inerease of ionic dissociation. It would appear that chloride of lithium follows the
_ same law as hydrochloric acid in regard to the effect of dilution, but on raising the
t temperature it was found that the molecular refraction was slightly increased in
_ strong solutions, but decidedly decreased in weak ones. Chloride of sodium shows
much the same molecular refraction at different strengths and in different tempera-
: tures. Sulphate of magnesium was examined as a salt of a different type, but it
' closely resembled the sodium chloride. As the results obtained from these four
electrolytes were so diverse no general conclusions were drawn.
5. The Action of Heat on Alkaline Hypochlorites. By Professor H. M.
McLeop, F.R.S.
6. A Simple Apparatus for Storing Dry Gases. By W. Symons, F.C.S.
Requiring some dry carbonic acid gas and ammonia, with only very limited ap-
pliances at hand, the author was at a loss how to store them. A mercurial trough
was out of the question. Ordinary petroleum as sold in the oil shops suggested
itself. For this purpose a large wide-mouth bottle had inserted into its cork a
short delivery tube with a tap, and a metal funnel, with a long metal tube
reaching nearly to the bottom of the bottle, also with a tap below the funnel.
This is to supply the petroleum. To increase the pressure the tube should be long
enough above the bottle. A glass tube, open both ends, is inserted in the cork, as
large as it can be, say 3-inch internal diameter, or more. This reaches to about
half an inch from the bottom of the bottle. With the cork well secured by
cement or varnish not acted on by petroleum, the bottle can be filled with petro-
eum through the funnel, both taps being open. When full they are closed. A
flass siphon, with one end turned up and the other end a little enlarged to facili-
tate filling it with petroleum, is then inserted in the large tube, the finger being
re pt on the” enlarged end so as to retain the petroleum while inserting it. If the
le be air-tight no petroleum will escape, and this will test the gasholder.
nother tube, with the bottom turned, also fits into the large tube, and the bent
nd must be kept outside it, in the bottom of the bottle, so as to deliver the gas
the bottle. To the upper end of this tube is attached, by india-rubber
ng, the gas-generating apparatus, but witha small Woulfe’s bottle intervening
sa safely bottle to catch any petroleum which may be drawn over by any irregu-
Tity in generating the gas. Of course, the gas must also be passed through a
tying apparatus. When sufficient gas has been collected, both tubes are with-
fawn, and the gas stored for use. When required, petroleum must be put in the
mnel, and the supply regulated by the tap. If the gas is to be stored for some
ime the siphon should remain in the gasholder, and the outer end of it be put into
ottle partially filled with petroleum to provide for the expansion or contraction
the gas by variations of temperature or atmospheric pressure.
610 REPORT—1891.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 235.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives. See Reports, p. 265.
2. Report on Wave-Length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
See Reports, p. 161.
3. Report on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds.
See Reports, p. 275.
4. On the Specific Heat of Basalt. By W.C. Roserts-Austen, C.B.,
F.R.S., and A. W. Ricker, F.R.S.
Having been asked by the Rey. O. Fisher to determine for him the latent heat
of basalt, we made some experiments on a specimen which was furnished to us by
Professor Judd. Fragments of the rock were melted ina platinum crucible, the
junction of a thermal couple consisting of platinum with platinum containing
10 per cent. of rhodium was immersed in the pasty mass, which was then allowed
to cool. The scale of the galyanometer had previously been standardised by an
observation on the solidifying point of pure gold, and this was repeated from time
to time whilst the experiments were in progress. When the spot of light had
reached the desired point, the wires were nipped off close to the basalt, and the
crucible and its contents were plunged into 1,000 grammes of water contained in a
silver calorimeter. The water was stirred by a screw or fan of silver, which was
rotated by an electro-motor. The temperature was read by means of a mercurial
thermometer which had been carefully corrected.
The two main sources of error in the experiments are probably an uncertainty
as to the mean temperature of the basaltic mass, owing to its being a bad con-
ductor of heat, and the fact that in the processes of heating and cooling, it
undergoes more or less important changes of constitution. :
The first error was reduced to small proportions by using small quantities ot
basalt, the most employed rarely much exceeding 20 grammes.
The second error is in part unavoidable ; the rapidly cooled basalt was always
glazed like olivine. We also found that frequent heatings and coolings, and the
nature of the flame, whether oxidising or reducing, employed to heat the mass, —
appeared to affect the results very seriously.
In some experiments the crucible was heated in a small gas furnace, in others —
in a coke furnace. All the former were consistent with each other, and those of |
the latter group in which fresh specimens of basalt were used, were in agreement —
with them. The results obtained with specimens which had been heated two or |
more times in the coke furnace were, however, very irregular, and as we have not _
definitely proved what was the cause of these discrepancies, we publish our results
with acertain amount of reserve. In the following table T is the temperature (Cent.)
of the basalt at the moment of immersion, C is the mean specific heat between
about 20° C. and T :—
oe,
T C Tr. Cc
467 0-199 924 0-282
747 217 977 284
759 223 983 283
792 220 1,090 285
846 257 1,192 290
860 277
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 611
186
s
ge
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 00 120n"
If C,,, be the mean specific heat between two temperatures ¢, and ¢,, we have
_ the relation— ;
C,s(ts — 01) = Cyt, — t,) + Coa(ts—t,).
If then we take the mean specific heat from 20° C.
to 470° to be 0-199
a eOO°S Ala O- 216
MOOS 5 sean OG,
ands spiel S02 8 oe. O20!
we get the following results :—
.
:
The mean specific heat between—
20° and 470° is 0:199
470° ,, 750° ,, °243
7O0c) «5 880° ,, -626
880° ,, +1,190° ,., 323:
As Mr. Fisher was anxious to use our results in some calculations, we supplied
him with approximate numbers before all our observations were completed. They
do not, however, differ much from the above.
The general result seems to be that the specific heat of basalt follows the
_ ordinary rule that the specific heat of a substance is greater in the liquid than in
the solid state. There is a large absorption of heat in the neighbourhood of 800°,
. raises the mean specific heat between 750° and 880° to the large value
of 0°626,
"5. An Apparatus for Testing Safety Lamps.
By Professor F. Crowes, F.C.S.
6. On Didymium from different Sources.
By Professor C. M. THompson, F.C.8.
According to Kiesewetter and Kriiss (Berichte, xxi., 2,313), a solution of the
s from Yttrotitanite from Arendal shows only three bands due to didymium.
examining a moderately concentrated solution after separation from the bulk
if the other metals by precipitation with potassium sulphate, all the bands
shown by an ordinary didymium solution of similar strength were seen.
__ Specimens of didymium from Gadolinite, from Orthite, and from Monazite were
also examined. No differences as compared with didymium from cerite could be
observed sufficiently marked to justify the inference that the bands varied in
strength in an independent manner. .
RR2
612 REPORT—1891.
7. On the Nature of Solution. By Professor W. Ramsay, F.R.S.
8. The Interpretation of Certain Chemical Reactions.
By C. H. Bornamuey, F.0.8.
9. Action of Nitrosyl Chloride on Unsaturated Carbon Compounds.
By J. J. Supporoven, B.Sc., A.LC., F.C.8.
The author, after mentioning the work done by Tilden with regard to the
action of nitrosyl chloride on phenol and on the terpenes,’ and also that of Tonnies
on the action of the same reagent on amylene and anethol,” gave a brief account of
experiments, conducted by himself, on the action of nitrosyl chloride on the follow-
ing substances: ethylene, propylene, amylene, cinnamene; crotonic, oleic, erucic,
and cinnamic acids. Of these ethylene is chlorinated and forms the dichloride
C,H,Cl, ; propylene is practically unacted upon; amylene forms a nitroso-chloride,
C.H,,NOCI, melting at 152°; and cinnamene, a similar compound, C,H,NOCI,
melting at 97°. Crotonic acid is unacted upon even when heated to 90°, while
oleic and erucic acids readily form definite nitroso-chlorides, the former melting at
86° and the latter at 92°. Cinnamic acid is unacted upon when cooled, but forms
the dichloride C,H,O,Cl, when heated to 100°.
The nitroso-chlorides are best prepared by dissolving the substance in chloroform,
cooling to —10°, and then passing the nitrosyl chloride in until there is a strong
smell of it. The chloroform is then evaporated off, and the nitroso-chloride recrys-
tallised from alcohol or chloroform.
These nitroso-chlorides are not merely molecular compounds, but definite and
stable bodies undecomposed by alcohol or water.
Up to the present the author can find no laws regulating the action of nitrosyl
chloride on various carbon compounds, but he hopes to continue the worl at some
future date with that object in view.
10. On the Formation of Peaty Colouring Matters in Sewage by the Action
of Micro-organisms. By W. BE. Avrnny, F.I.C., Assoc.R.O.Sc.L,
Curator, Royal University of Ireland. (Preliminary Notice.)
The author gave a preliminary description of some experiments showing that
when sewage is treated with a plentiful supply of nitre, and kept out of contact
with fresh air, the soluble organic fermentable matters in it are completely
destroyed by the influence of micro-organisms, without undergoing any inter-
mediate stage of putrefaction, and that a liquid is finally obtained deeply coloured
with a brown colouring matter, having similar properties to the colouring matters
in natural peaty waters. The author also showed that the liquid, after the micro-
organisms have died down, probably contains no organic matter save the colouring
matter referred to,
11. On a new Method of Disposal of Sewage, with some references to
Schemes now in use. By C. G. Moor, B.A.
This paper is divided into three headings.
The first gives the titles and objects of a few of the best known schemes,
with some very short remarks as to how far their aims are accomplished.
The second part deals with the method of utilisation of sludge, which the
author has experimented on. He mentioned the important fact that the yield of
ammonia amply pays the cost of this part of the process.
1 Journ. Chem. Soc. 27, 851 and 31, 564.
2 Berichte, 12, 169.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 613
} The third part contains suggestions as to the lines on which one must work to
obtain knowledge as to the best means of precipitation, with a view to subsequent
utilisation.
12. The Reaction of Glycerides with Alcoholic Potash.
By A. H. Auten, F.C.S.
13. Note on the Hlectrolysis of Alloys. By Hunry C. Jenxrys,
Assoc.M.Inst.0.H., F.C.8.
The importance of the question as to whether alloys are capable of being
electrolysed has for a long time been recognised, and has already been under the
notice of a Committee of this Association. Several experimenters have
_ endeavoured to separate the constituents of some alloys by this means, but
hitherto no success in this direction has been recorded.
Doubtless one reason of this negative result may be found in the difficulty of
submitting a metallic bath to a sufliciently large difference of potential, owing to
its very low resistance; but from the same cause there is another reason why
electrolysis should not take place, at least in the case of the majority of alloys, a
reason to which prominence does not hitherto seem to have been given.
The variable polarisation, and the resistance of electrolytic baths generally, have
led to the adoption of the view that in an electrolytic bath the electricity is con-
veyed by some method of convection or of successive molecular discharge,
streams or chains of molecules carrying electrical charges from one electrode to
_ the other. The bath itself is formed of some body whose resistance when pure
_ is extremely high, so that it is usually necessary to add another body to it, an
impurity, which probably acts by increasing the number of free molecules present.
It is easy to imagine that in such an insulating medium molecules can be charged
_ with electricity, which charge they can retain until they reach some body having
a different potential to their own. But free molecules could not retain any
charge if entirely within a conducting envelope, and in contact with it; and
although the possibility of the possession of a gaseous envelope by the molecules
forming a liquid has been recognised, still the conductivity of pure molten metals
is scarcely in favour of any view that there is insulation between their molecules.
If there were any considerable insulation it is difficult to account for the effects
upon electrolytes of very small electro-motive forces, and it will be thus seen
from these considerations that the want of success in the attempts to electrolyse
alloys still leaves quite open the question of their constitution, whilst it is in full
accordance with the conditions of Electrical Potential expressed by Laplace’s
~ equation.
4 From the fact that alloys in many cases form true compounds, which may be
obtained in a crystalline form if proper conditions are chosen, and because the
conditions as to temperature of an electrolytic bath may be those most favourable
for the precipitation of such a compound out of solution, it follows that all
future electrolytic experiments with alloys should be made at temperatures
sufficiently high to fuse any possible compounds, otherwise very deceptive results
Would be obtained, owing to the difficulty of correctly sampling the bath.
614 REPORT—1891.
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor T. Rupert Jonzs, F.R.S., F.G.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The PrusipEnt delivered the following Address :-—
CONTENTS.
1. Introduction. 2. Coal-field of South Wales, as studied by Logan, De la Beche,
and others. 3. Origin of Coal. 4. Area of the Coal-growth. 5. Coal-field of
South Wales: its extent, thickness, and constituent strata. 6. Output of Coal in
South Wales. 7. Varieties of Coal. 8. Constituents of Coal-measures and of
Coal. 9. Fossils of the Coal-measures of South Wales. 10. Extent of the Coal-
measures under the South of England. 11. Conclusion.
1. Introduction.—The black stones that burn probably came to be known by pre-
historic people through accident, here and there, long before any notion of their
worth to the community at large was entertained. Wood at first, and then char-
coal, supplied fuel far into historic times, on every hand, except perhaps in China.
In the first century of the Christian era the Romans, occupying England, met with
coal, and probably learnt its use from the natives. It seems, however, to have
been disregarded during the Saxon conquest and domination of this island ; but by
the beginning of the twelfth century the use of coal was well in hand again, as
shown by old charters relating to places in Scotland and the county of Durham.
The history of the use of coal is treated of in the following books :—‘ The Coal-
fields of Great Britain: their History, Structure, and Resources, with notices of
the Coal-fields of other parts of the World.’ By Edward Hull, M.A., &c., with
maps and illustrations, Svo. London. First edition, 1861; second, 1861; third,
1873; fourth, 1881. ‘Coal: its History and Uses.’ By Professors Green, Miall,
Thorpe, Riicker, and Marshall. Edited by Professor Thorpe. 8vo, London, 1878.
Also in the unpretentious pamphlet, ‘ The History of Coal.’ By the Rey. Thomas
Wiltshire, M.A., &c. 8vo. London, 1878. Of course the most comprehensive
work on the British Coal-measures is the ‘ Report of the Commissioners appointed
to Inquire into the several matters relating to Coal in the United Kingdom,’
3 vols., with maps and sections. Fol. London, 1871. Other valuable works
are: W. W. Smyth’s ‘Coal and Coal-mining, Svo. 1867, and later editions; and
Richard Meade’s ‘Coal and Iron Industries of the United Kingdom,’ &c. 8vo.
London, 1882. ‘Coal; its Geological and Geographical Position,’ by Professor John
Morris, 8vo., London, 1862, although only a pamphlet, is valuable for its
information,
The subject of Coal and the Coal-measures is abundantly treated of in the
scientific literature of this century in nearly all parts of the world, and it would
be useless to endeavour to do justice to its bibliography. Besides having had the
advantage of the labours of the many eminent foreign geologists who have advanced
—
J
\ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 615
our knowledge of the subject in one or other of its various aspects, both by original
research ' and by condensing published results in treatises and manuals for students,”
we have had some of the most enthusiastic students of the natural history of the
Carboniferous strata and fossils in our own country and within our own times,
Their names must frequently occur in speaking of coal and its belongings.
The text-books and manuals of geology by De la Beche, Phillips, Trimmer,
Lyell, Ansted, Jukes, Geikie, Prestwich, Green, Etheridge, and others, are safe
guides; the Memoirs of the Geological Surveys of England and Wales, Scot-
land, Ireland, and India are mines of scientific wealth as regards the same matter ;
our palobotanists Lindley, Hutton, Artis, Witham, Morris, Hooker, Binney,
Bunbury, Dawes, Williamson, Carruthers, Balfour, Kidston, &c. , have given us good
results; and others, not specialists, have written good matter for our consideration.
Abroad, among our American friends, we have, or have had, several of the State
geologists (Emmons, Lesquereux, Rogers, Lesley, Newberry, Dana), who have
studied the Coal-measures with care, besides Steinhauer, Brown, and others; but
no one has so earnestly and successfully given his serious attention to this branch
of geology and paliontology as Sir J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, not long since
President of the British Association when we met at Birmingham in 1886. His
numerous memoirs and his elaborate work on ‘ Acadian Geology ’ supply abun-
dant facts and sound theories in elucidation of the history of the Coal Period.
Sir W. E. Logan, who indeed by his studies in South Wales was the first to give
geologists a clue to the interpretation of much that was very obscure about coal,
worked with Sir J. W. Dawson in the Nova-Scotian coal-field ; and so also did
Sir Charles Lyell, who there and elsewhere devoted much energy and acumen to
the elucidation of the origin and formation of coal.
The indexes of successive volumes of the ‘Geological Record’ show how abun-
dant have been papers and books on Coal, Coal-mines, Coal-fields, Carboniferous
fossils, and correlative studies, within the last few years, abroad and at home. The
subject is so extensive that we must confine ourselves to the coal of South Wales.
2. The Coalfield of South Wales, as studied by Logan, De la Beche, and
others.—Had it been that the stone axe found in Monmouthshire by Edward
Lloyd * were really associated with the outcrop of the coal there, and if truly be-
longing to the Stone-age and used in hewing the coal, as Professor Hull’s mention
_ of it seems to imply,‘ it would, indeed, have been one among the few known
evidences of prehistoric coal-mining, and would tend to show that South Wales
Was among the places first made to yield this ugeful mineral.
At the present day South Wales and Monmouthshire yield coal in greater
quantity and of more value (by over a million pounds sterling a year) than the
coal-fields of Northumberland and Durham, or of Yorkshire and Derbyshire ; and
considerably more (by nearly 5,000,000/.) than that of the Clyde Basin and asso-
ciated coal-fields of Scotland. Indeed, the annual value of the coal produced in
South Wales with Monmouthshire may be said to be about eleven millions out
ot the whole forty-five millions sterling estimated as the value of the coal at the
pit’s mouth throughout the United Kingdom.
The great coal-field of South Wales has the especial credit of having supplied
some of the earliest and most important facts and phenomena illustrative of the
geological succession of the materials of the Coal-measures, and of the natural
history of the coal itself. To the persevering energy and accurate observation of
Sir William E. Logan and Sir Henry T. De la Beche South Wales gave up the
secrets of coal-growth, strengthening some earlier suppositions, correcting others,
’ Especially Sternberg, Brongniart, Goeppert, Petzholdt, Geinitz, Unger, Schimper,
Weiss, Renault, and Grand’ Eury.
* Omalius d’Halloy, Leonhard and Hoernes, Vogt, C. D’Orbigny and Gente,
Bendant, Credner, Lapparent, Contjean, and others.
* “In a steep rock called Craig y park, and others in the parish of Istrayd
Dyvodog, we observed divers veins of coal, exposed to sight as naked as the rock;
and found a flint axe, somewhat like those used by the Americans’ (Phil.
Trans., vol. xxviii., 1714, p. 501; in a letter dated September 22, 1697).
* The Coalfields, &c., 4th edit., p. 12.
616 REPORT—1891.
and establishing a firm basis for the theory that the coal has, for by far the most
part, been formed of plants growing where the coal now lies, although some local
varieties have arisen from the occasional driftage of floating timber and herbage,
and of long-continued maceration of vegetable matter in lakes and pools elsewhere.
Mr. (afterwards Sir) W. E. Logan, having for several years worked on the
geology of South Wales, in 1837 gave his maps and information to the enthusiastic
promoter of the Geological Survey of the British Islands, Mr. (afterwards Sir)
H. T. De la Beche, for public use in the construction of the Survey Map and in
developing the structure of the country. The first volume of the ‘ Memoirs of the
Geological Survey,’ 1846, contains, at p. 145, Sir H. T. De la Beche’s acknowledg-
ment of Sir (then Mr.) W. E. Logan’s gift of the valuable results of his investiga-
tions in the Coal-measures and discovery of the nature and meaning of the frequent
underclays, an account of which Mr. Logan had already published in the ‘ Annual
Report of the Royal Institution of South Wales’ for 1839; in the ‘ Proceedings
of the Geological Society of London,’ vol. iii., February 1840, p. 276, and March
1842, p. 707, &e.: and ‘Transactions of the Geological Society,’ second series,
vol. vi., 1842, p. 491, &e.
The hypotheses of the formation of coal offered by earlier writers are carefully
reviewed in De la Beche’s elaborate memoir; and the growth of opinion as to
coal having been made by plants growing in place is traced from De Luc (1798),
Lindley and Hutton (1833 and 1835), Adolphe Brongniart (1838), to W. E. Logan,
by whom, indeed, it was fully established before 1837. Opinions as to the nature
of the Stigmaria ficoides, so abundant in the ‘underclays,’ are also referred to;
and that it is really the root of Szgillaria is accepted on the good authority of
Brongniart and Binney (p. 150). Dr. Buckland’s summary (in his Anniversary
Addresses to the Geological Society, 1840 and 1841)! of what had been advanced
by British geologists in the elucidation of the Coal-measures and their natural
history comprised mainly the observations made by Ansted, Hawkshaw, Barber,
Beaumont, J. E. Bowman, and particularly W. E. Logan. He stated in
his Address of 1840 that ‘some of the vegetables which formed our beds of
coal grew on the identical banks of sand and silt and mud which, being now
indurated to stone and shale, form the strata that accompany the coal; whilst
other portions of these plants have been drifted to various distances from the
swamps, savannahs, and forests that gave them birth, particularly those that are
dispersed through the sandstones, or mixed with fishes in the shale beds.’
Dr. Buckland’s summary in 1841 is given by De la Beche® ‘as expressing his
opinion that the Stigmaria ficotdes | which was at that time still regarded by many as
an individual floating plant], growing in ponds or lagoons in the localities where we
now discover its remains, by mixture with mud or silts disseminated among them,
formed the underbeds, upon which also grew the plants which now form the coal-
beds, these latter, by subsidence, being covered by sand or mud, forming sand-
stone or shale, between the coal strata, successive coal-beds being formed as the
necessary conditions arose.’ Sir (then Mr.) C. Lyell’s important additions to the
subject, then lately given in his ‘ Travels in North America,’ 2 vols., 1845, quoted
and applied by De la Beche, were subsequently enlarged in his ‘Second Visit,’ &c.,
2 vols., 1849, and in his ‘ Elements of Geology,’ edition of 185], and subsequently.
De la Beche’s Memoir, after having presented some explanations of geological
phenomena, and treated of the general range and occurrence of the Silurian and
Devonian rocks in the southern moiety of Wales and the South-western Counties
of England, proceeds to describe the Carboniferous strata, and at p. 143 takes up
the Coal-measures ; and his work remains a classic authority on the subject. De
la Beche’s account of these strata has not been much modified, except by the
descriptions of many additional fossils, and details about the special characters of
those then known,
Other information, however, on the past and present conditions of the South-
Welsh Coal-field is found in Mr. (now Sir) A. C. Ramsay’s paper ‘On the Denu-
dation of South Wales and the adjacent English Counties,’ in the same volume of
1 Proceed. Geol. Soc., vol. iii., pp. 229 and 487.
* Mem, Geol. Surv., vol. i., 1846, p. 152.
=<
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 617
the ‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey’; and very much has been added by local
observers, as shown by numerous papers on this coal-field and its constituents in
the Reports, Proceedings, and Transactions of the Scientific Societies of South
Wales.
3. Origin of Coal.—Coal is now generally accepted as being a compressed and
chemically altered mass of ancient vegetables. The tissue of some of the trees
and other plants may be detected in the substance more or less distinctly by frac-
ture, by burning, and in thin sections. In some cases trees occur rooted in the
attitude of growth, their stems rising upwards and their roots remaining in or
below the coal. The accumulation of coal as seams of varying thicknesses, in very
numerous parallel beds, can be explained by the gradual and long-continued sub-
sidence of long and wide tracts of old marginal sea-beds, estuaries, and lagoons,
with adjoining lands,! all more or less invested with vegetation. At the same time
limited, isolated, and lenticular patches and nests of pure coal, usually in sand-
stone, have been probably due to floating masses of vegetation, matted plants and
trees, becoming waterlogged and sinking in estuaries and shallow seas.
Some highly bituminous coal, like cannel and torbanite, may have been due to
limited accumulations of macerated plants rotting in water; or to the bursting of
those natural reservoirs, like peat-bogs, and a local arrangement of the resulting
flow of Carbonaceous mud.
Mr. W. Galloway, in his memoir ‘On the Mode of Occurrence of Coal,’ * care-
fully places before his readers the two sets of opinions about the origin and
formation of coal. First, as to the place of growth and of carbonisation being on
the same ground, following De la Beche’s statements and conclusions; and,
secondly, as to the accumulation of vegetable matter, some dead and broken, some
already decomposed, derived from the forests and herbage of marshy lands, and
deposited in great lakes (as expressed by C. Grand’Eury in the ‘ Annales des
Mines,’ 1882), with the St:gmarie living and dying as water-plants (as they were
at first regarded, and thought to have been formed of a central body and long-
spreading arms and leaves); while tall trees grew here and there on the water-
side, until, falling down, they lay prostrate in the black mud; or, breaking off,
left their rotting stumps still standing upright.
Mr. Galloway accepts the latter opinion to some extent, because he finds the
roots in underclays to have no direct communication with the coals above
them,—on account of the presence of persistent shaly layers, or ‘ partings,’
traversing coal-beds, and very intimately passing into the coaly matter itself,—on
account of a seam being cannel-coal, blackband-ironstone, and shale in different
parts of its extent, with a coal lying on it without an intervening underclay ; and
if this shows that a coal can have been formed without an underclay, he argues
that any underclay need not have been necessarily the soil of acoal-seam. He
acknowledges the subject to be one of difficulty ; and it seems to me that some at
least, if not all, of the difficulties have been already removed by De la Beche,
Lesley, Lyell, Dawson, and other observers.
4, Area of the Coal-growth.—For knowledge of what ruled the local occur-
rence of coal, we owe a great debt to Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, who had
studied the geology of the South-western Counties with De la Beche. To him
we are indebted for the approximate demarcation of the bounds and margins of
the Carboniferous Formations, particularly for the probable land-limits and
outward extension of the Coal-measures. In his valuable memoir ‘On the
possible Extension of the Coal-measures,’ * he explained the reasons for his indicat-
ing on the map then communicated to the Geological Society the physical con-
figuration of North-western Europe at the close of the Paleozoic Period, and the
outline of the surfaces which supported the coal-vegetation. He concluded to
1 The Coalfields of Great Britain, 4th edit., p. 81, &c.
2 Report and Transactions of the Cardiff Nuturalists’ Society, vol, xvii. (for 1885),
1886, pp. 20-34.
* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xii., 1856, pp. 38-73; also Report Coal Commission,
aie pp. 424 and 511, with plates; and Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1879, p. 227, plate
618 REPORT—1891.
define the place and range of this old coal-growth of what is now Western
Europe as—
‘An internal sea, around and occasionally over large parts of which the
peculiar vegetation of the time was developed and entombed as the area rose and
sank. A region with a central depressed area, such as Australia is supposed to
present, and going down, by means of a long series of oscillations, would ultimately
present just such an assemblage of deposits as our own Carboniferous group ’ (p. 73).
A further reference to this kind of level or hollow region is as follows :—
‘The large level tracts which lie west of the Blue Mountains in Australia, into
which the Lachlan, the Darling, the Murrumbidgee, and the Darling discharge.’
(Godwin-Austen’s Lecture, Royal Institution of Great Britain, April 16, 1858.)
Such an area had also been indicated in Sir H. De la Beche’s note to p. 296 of
his memoir above mentioned, where he refers to ‘the great area extending from
the country drained by the Volga, eastward through eighty degrees of longitude
into China, and from which the waters find no course outwards to the main ocean
or to the seas connected with it. With a gradual depression—with the detritus
swept in by the rivers—and with a suitable flora and climate, there might here be
both extensive accumulations of vegetable matter grown in place, as well as
limited deposits of drifted plants, under different conditions. De la Beche, more-
over, referred (p. 146) to the long flat coast of the eastern seaboard of South
America, with its great rivers and abundant flora, as being analogous to some
parts, at least, of the areas on which the coal-seams were formed.
The area of coal-growth in this North-west European region is represented on
Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen’s map? as a littoral belt (varying in width as now
exposed at the surface), reaching, in an approximately semicircular or bay. like
shape, from the Elbe near Magdeburg, and north of the Hartz, westward to the
valley of the Ruhr, including a southern extension to Marburg; and, taken up
again, it passes from the Ruhr to Aix-la-Chapelle, and to Namur and Charleroi ;
then by the Franco-Belgian coal-field to Calais, and beneath the valley of the
Thames to Bristol, Forest of Dean, and South Wales, south of the Old Red area,
towards Ireland. On the eastern side of Hereford, and along the east border of
the old rocks of Wales, the range of the coal-growth is shown by the coals
appearing here and there along the Severn and the Dee ; and doubtless it widened
out considerably eastward across what is now England. Continuing northward it
occupied Northumbria, and stretched westward locally between the old Cumbrian
land and the South Highlands; passing around the east end of the latter, it was
strong across what is now Central Scotland, with indications in North Ireland.
Thus the coal-growth invested the southern and western edges of Godwin-Austen’s
‘internal sea’ above mentioned, and extended westward by two outlets: one at
its south-west corner, by South Wales; and the other on the north-west, by
Central Scotland, each into the Irish area, and thus roughly surrounding the
several older Palzeozoic lands of Wales, Iveland, Cumbria, and South Scotland.
In Professor Ramsay’s account of the denuded remnants of the Welsh coal-
fields? the stretch of coal-growth along the border of the old Cambrian land is
clearly indicated in his statement, that—
‘One denuded edge of these accumulations now forms part of the counties of
Pembroke, Caermarthen, Glamorgan, and Monmouth, and is elsewhere exhibited
in the Forest of Dean, the narrow strips of Coal-measures north of May Hill in
Gloucestershire, the Clee Hills (outliers of the Forest of Wyre and Coalbrookdale),
the coal-fields south and west of Shrewsbury, and that of Oswestry, Wrexham,
and Mold. All these are but fragments of one great original coal-field, once
mantling round North Wales and the older rocks west of the Severn and north of _
Bristol Channel.’
Both north and south, however, of the old Cumbrian area are a few seemingly
isolated patches of coal; but the Whitehaven field is really the western portion
of the North-of-England coal-growth ; the coal of Anglesea belongs to the west-
ward extension of the Lancashire field; and that of Ingleton is a remnant of the
northern part of the latter towards the margin of the old Cumbrian land.
YPLI, 9.7.G.S., vol. xii., 1856. 2 Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. i., 1846, p. 314,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 619
5. Coal-field of South Wales: its extent, thickness, and constituent strata,—The
valuable coal-field of South Wales (estimated by some to occupy 640,000 acres,
and stated by others to be 906 square miles in extent) forms an irregular oval
basin or trough lying E. and W. (about fifty-six miles long, from Pontypool to
Caermarthen Bay), with a narrow extension westward beyond Caermarthen Bay, ©
through Pembrokeshire, to St. Bride’s Bay (about seventeen miles long). The
eatest width is about sixteen miles. In 1881 there were 662 collieries at work
(see Hull, 1881). The strata of the whole area have been much undulated and
broken ; on the south they dip at an angle of 45°, and at about 12° on the north.
Great faults, approximately north and south, alter the levels from forty to a
hundred fathoms; they are generally filled with clay; but one, near Swansea,
many fathoms wide, is filled with fragments of the broken strata. (‘Trimmer.)
A strong anticline once passed along the middle of the trough (E. and W.),
with its complemental synclines, one on each side. These have been somewhat
shifted (the eastern moiety towards the S.W., and the other to the N.E.) bya
great oblique fault coincident with the valley of the Neath. Except at Swansea
and Caermarthen Bays, the outcrops of the lowest part of the series of strata, of
irregular width, are continuous around the coal-field. About seven unequal
patches of the upper measures have been preserved from denudation in the
synclines. Two of these areas are in the eastern moiety; both long, but the
southern syncline retains only a narrow and interrupted series of patches.‘ The
Ebbw, the Sirhowy, the Rhymney, and the upper part of the Afon cross the
former; the Taff and the Rhondda, with their branches, cross both synclines;
and the Ely and Ogwr cross the lower syncline. The respective valleys give
local opportunities for opening certain beds, and afford facilities for roads and
railways from the hills to the sea-coast. In the western moiety there are five
circumscribed areas of the upper measures in the two synclines; the united
Amman and Llwchwr River runs between four of them, and the Tawe between
two and across one (just north of Swansea). The favourable position for mining
some of the measures is due to the local angle of dip in the synclinal strata ;
and, indeed, without the anticlinal arrangement some of the coals could never
have been reached even by deep mines.*
Mr. Etheridge (in his new edition of Phillips’s ‘Manual of Geology,’ 1885, p.
238) mentions that in the southern part of the western moiety the Coal-measures
have a thickness of 11,000 feet ; and that on the northern side of the anticlinal axis
there they are 7,000 feet thick, and that near Britton Ferry, in the middle, they
diminish to 4,800 feet on that side.
Taking the whole basin or trough, it may be roundly said that in the north-
east side the coals are mainly coking or partly bituminous ; to the west and north-
west they are anthracitic; and in the south bituminous or gaseous; and more
especially that ‘in the Aberdare area the coals are very free-burning, but at the
same time smokeless; hence their importance for steam purposes, especially the
Aberdare four-foot steam-coal.’ ®
The physical features and structural condition of the South-Welsh coal-field,
also the occurrence of fossils, were succinctly treated of by G. P. Bevan in the
‘Geologist,’ vol. iii., 1860, pp. 90-99.
The order and thickness of the strata belonging to the coal-field of South
Wales as given in Geikie’s ‘Textbook of Geology,’ 2nd edit., 1885, p. 742, are (for
Glamorganshire) :—
Feet.
Upper series: sandstones, shales, &¢e., with 26
coal-seams, more than . : : 3,400
Pennant grit: hard, thick-bedded sandstones,
and 15 coal-seams 3,246
Lower series: shales, ironstones, and 34 coal-
seams j F : F : . . 450 to 850
Millstone-grit.
‘5 1 See Hull’s The Coalfields, &c., 4th edit., pp. 88, &c., and map.
2 Thid., Chap. I. 8 Etheridge, 1885, p. 238.
620 REPORT—1891.
The Coal-measures are thus estimated at 7,496 feet, or nearly 14 mile in
thickness, besides the Millstone-grit and the Carboniferous or Mountain Lime-
stone occupying a stil) lower position.
Differences of observation or of opinion from time to time have caused different
estimates. In 1855 Professor J. Phillips, who took a very strong interest in the
geology of the coal-fields, published the following measurements (in his ‘ Manual
of Geology,’ 1855, p. 201) as representing only a general view, and he indicated
that nearly 12,000 feet thickness may occur near Llanelly :— :
Feet.
Llanelly series, with several beds of coal : 1,000
Penllergare series of shales, sandstones, and
beds of coal—110 beds; 26 beds of coal . 3,000
Central series (Townhill sandstones of Swansea
= Pennant-grit of the Bristol coalfield)—
62 beds; 16 beds of coal . . : 3,246
Lower shales, coals, and ironstones (Merthyr)
—266 beds; 34 beds of coal . = : 812
8,058
Farewell Rock and Gower Shales, above the
Carboniferous Limestone.
Professor Hull! gives about 1,200 to the Coal-measures, with twenty-five seams
of coal of two feet thickness and upwards; making a total of eighty-four feet of
workable coal. In 188] Professor Hull calculated that there remained about
32,166 millions of tons of available coal, which might possibly last for more than
1,000 years at the present rate of consumption.
Mr. E. Rogers, in the ‘Memoirs of the Geol. Survey: Iron-ores,’ Part III.,
1861, p. 169, divides the Coal-measures of South Wales into an Upper and a
Lower series, with the hard siliceous sandstone (locally a conglomerate), known
as ‘Oockshute’ and ‘ White Rocks’ between them. The upper measures, he says,
are mostly micaceous sandstones, locally known as ‘ Pennant Rocks.’ The lower
series is sometimes termed the ‘iron-bearing measures,’ as it contains the bulk of
the ironstone as well as coal, which is bituminous cn the east and gradually less
and less bituminous westward, until after passing the great dyke or fault in the
Vale of Neath it becomes anthracite. The upper series contains few iron-ores, and
the coal is bituminous, even when anthracite exists below it, as in- the Swansea
district and elsewhere.
In his communication to the British Association in 1837,? Sir W. E. Logan
stated that ‘ the non-bituminous coal, or stone-coal, is found on the north side and
at the west end; the bituminous coal on the south side and east end; and that
there is an intermediate region occupied by an intermediate quality.’ These
conditions of the coal-seams indicated to Logan ‘the possibility of a rule in the
change of quality—namely, that it occurs in parallel planes, cutting the seams of
hp without regard to their strike or inclination, and dipping to the south or east
of south.’
These coals begin to become anthracitic at Rhymney ; and the change becomes
gradually more and more marked as we pass by Dowlais, Cyfartha, Hirwain,
Onlwyn, and Neath Valley, to the Swansea Valley,’ according to analyses given
by Mr. David Mushet in the Appendix to his ‘ Papers on Iron and Steel,’ 8vo.,
London, 1840, At page 68 of this book Mr. Mushet notes that ‘in South Wales
as the coals approach the anthracite district they are found to contain 90 per cent.
sa carbon), with no more flame than is necessary to convert the coal into
coke.
Mr. Etheridge (1885) accepts (p. 288) Professor Phillips’s foregoing table ; but
he also arranges the coal-bearing portions as divisible into—1. Upper Pennant
' The Coalfields, &c., 1881, p. 108.
? Report, 1838, Trans. Sect., p. 85.
S Bevan, Geologist, vol. ii., 1859, pp. 78, 79.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 621
series; 2. Lower Pennant series; 3, White-ash series; and gives the following
plan in addition :—
1. Upper or Penllergare series, more than 3,400 feet.
2. Pennant-grit (Swansea), 3,246 feet.
3. Lower Coal-measures, 450 to 850 feet.
At p. 219 he reviews the whole of the series as—
Feet.
Coal-measures . . . 5 ; F : 11,000
Millstcne-grit (‘ Farewell Rock *) . : é 300
Yoredale Rocks? (‘Gower Shale’). : : 1,600?
Scar Limestone c ; 5 . : n 1,900
Lower Limestone Shales 5 5 5 : 400
15,200
making the Coal-measures more than 1} mile thick, and the whole series more
than 23 miles.
Looking at these Coal-measures alone, and considering that slow depression
accompanied their formation, the mind is strained in estimating the time required
for the gradual subsidence to 10,000 feet, with shallow water always in place,
and jungle growing steadily after jungle, inundation following inundation at
intervals,—and is somewhat confused in reasoning on the possible causes and the
exact processes by which not only the sinking of this region of the earth’s crust
was brought about, but how, in turn, the 10,000 feet of new accumulations and
deposits were raised into the great undulations, which Professor Ramsay has
described and depicted in his Memoir before mentioned, and how and when they
were slowly worn down day by day into the present beautifully varied surface of
South Wales and adjacent country.
I may here remark that the analogous coal-field of Nova Scotia, investigated
by Sir W. E. Logan, Sir J. W. Dawson, and others, has a thickness of 14,570
feet, including seventy-six seams of coal and ninety distinct Stigmarian underclays.
Mr. W. Galloway communicated, in 1885, to the Cardiff Naturalists’
Society ! some valuable observations on both the vertical and the horizontal
occurrence of different coals in South Wales; and showed by a map (pl. iii.)
where the‘ steam-coal’ mainly exists in the large eastern third ; the ‘ intermediate
coal’ in the narrow middle third; and ‘anthracite’ in the western third of the
Glamorgan-Monmouthshire area. He refers to the gradual transition from
bituminous to anthracitic coal along a hypothetical plane passing through the
coal-field, with its major axis lying E.N.E—-W.S.W., and its minor axis dipping
at a very low angle towards S.8.E. He accepts Professor Geikie’s tabular scheme
of the strata at p. 24. Mr. W. Galloway has favoured me with the following
remarks on the vertical place of the several kinds of coal in the series:—‘ The
-long-flaming bituminous seams are about 700 yards higher in the ground than the
gemi-bituminous seams; the semi-bituminous, or good steam-coal seams are 200
or 300 yards above the dry steam-coal seams; the last are perhaps 300 yards
above the bastard anthracites ; and these inferior anthracites may be 400 yards or
more above the perfect anthracites. You have thus somewhere about, say, 1,500
or 1,600 yards from the long-flaming coals to the anthracites. It may be a good
deal more in some parts of the coal-field; but, as the deepest shaft is only about
800 yards, we cannot get a direct measurement,’
Of these three sorts of coal—the long-flaming dry coals above have some seams
suitable for gas-making; the middle are caking coal, good for making coke; the
others produce dry steam-coal and anthracites.
6. Output of Coal in South Wales.—The following is the official account of the
quantity of coal raised in South Wales last year as compared with that got ten
years ago :—
1 Trans., vol. xvii., 1886, pp. 20-34.
622 REPORT—1891.
Table showing the Output of Coal in the South Wales District in the years
1880 and 1890.
Increase or
County 1880 1890 Decrease in the
ten years
Tons Tons Tons
Breconshire 4 . e 100,616 259,260 + 158,644
Caermarthenshire . i 625,933 762,032 + 136,099
Glamorganshire : A 15,320,096 21,426,415 + 6,106,319
Monmouthshire 5 , 5,039,549 6,895,410 + 1,855,861
Pembrokeshire . 5 3 79,386 71,908 — 7,478
Totals: South Wales . 21,165,580 | 29,415,025 + 8,249,445
Total Output for the United Kingdom.
Total Increase in
nen 1890 the ten years
Tons Tons Tons
England, Wales, Scotland,
sad! Tooled. h \ 146,969,409 181,614,288 34,644,879
Dr. E. Hull refers to the increased production in the South-Welsh coal-field,
together with remarks on other fields and the future supply and working of coal,
in the ‘Transactions of the Edinburgh Geological Society,’ vol. vi., part 2, 1890,
where also Mr. H. M. Cadell follows with valuable notes on the probable future of
the coal-trade.
7. Varieties of Coal—The coal of the British coal-fields exhibits every variety
of composition between anthracite, which is nearly pure carbon, and the so-called
bituminous coals, such as ordinary coal and cannel coal (hydrocarbons), rich in
hydrogen. Anthracitic beds are rarely seen except in districts where the strata
have been much disturbed, or peculiarly affected by other circumstances. Heat,
whether direct or induced by pressure, vertical or lateral, has probably been the
important agent in depriving coal of its hydrogen with some of its carbon, and
thus changing it into anthracite. Neither in this latter nor in the compact cannel
coal are the laminar structure and symmetrical jointing so distinct as in the
ordinary coals. The last lose their volatile hydrocarbons also by exposure to the
air, at outcrops and in open faults; hence they are not nearly so good for burning
as those got ata greater depth. As it is well to have definite notions as to the
appearance and structure of the different kinds of coal, some notes on the several
sorts will now be offered.1
Anthracite is glossy or semi-lustrous, sometimes iridescent; it ignites with
difficulty, and burns without smoke, and with little flame, on account of no volatile
hydrocarbons being formed during combustion. This purely carbonaceous material
differs from ordinary coal by its brilliant, semi-metallic lustre, its greater density,
hardness, and brittleness, and by its massive and conchoidal fracture with sharp
edges. Some of it can be cut or turned on the lathe into fancy articles.
Called anthracite (from dévpaé, coal) by Karsten and the older mineralogists,
it is also known as mineral carbon, blind-coal, stone-coal, culm, glance-coal, and
non-bituminous coal, It is mentioned by mineralogists and geologists as having
been found at many places in the Alps, Pyrenees, France, Germany, the United
States, and the British Isles, under various geological conditions; but in regular
and extensive beds it occurs chiefly in Pennsylvania, and largely also in South
Wales. It is reported to have been found in China and elsewhere.
’ Much information as to the constitution of coal and its varieties is given in
Roland and Richardson’s Chemical Technology.
=
ie
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 623
In the Franco-Belgian coal-field the coals become more and more anthracitic
as they pass down to greater depths; both kinds, therefore, were of the same age
in formation; in South Wales also, as already stated, the anthracite and the
other coals are all of one age. The squeezing, faulting, and inversions in the
former field are accompanied by an alteration of the highly bituminous coals into
dry coals and anthracite.
An interesting historical sketch of the use of anthracite, and some systematic
remarks on its distribution in South Wales, were given by J. P. Bevan, F.G.S., in
the ‘ Geologist,’ vol. ii., 1859, pp. 75-80.
The anthracite of Pennsylvania is traceable from the inner folds of the moun-
tain chain, where the strata have become more and more crystalline, and contain
graphite as well as this non-bituminous coal, westward into Ohio, where the same
beds consist of ordinary coal. In the eastern part of the Alleghanies the coal has
only 6 to 14 per cent. of volatile matter, further west 16 to 22 per cent., 30 to 35
per cent., and in Ohio 40 to 50 per cent. (Prestwich.) This coal-field before com-
ah was probably 900 miles long by more than 200 broad in some places.
ell.
‘ ‘The depression of strata by accumulated sediment above them may raise their
temperature by the rise of the isogeotherms (surfaces of equal subterranean tempera-
ture), and they may reach a relatively high temperature. ‘Mere descent to a great
depth, however, will not necessarily result in any marked lithological change, as
has been shown in the cases of the Nova-Scotian-and South-Welsh coal-fields,
where sandstones, shales, clays, and coal-seams can be proved to have been once
depressed 14,000 to 17,000 feet below the sea-level, under an overlying mass of
rock, and yet to have sustained no more serious alteration than the partial con-
version of the coal into anthracite. They must have been kept for a long period
exposed to a temperature of at least 212° Fahr. Such a temperature would have
been sufficient to set some degree of internal change in progress had any appre-
ciable quantity of water been present, whence the absence of alteration may per-
haps be explicable on the supposition that those rocks were comparatively dry.’
Coal in contact with granite is changed into anthracite or graphite; when in
contact with volcanic and trappean rocks it may become coke (columnar or other-
wise) or mere soot.
Steam coal is very compact, burns with little smoke, and contains so little
bituminous matter that it is not liable to spontaneous combustion, whether pyrites
be present or not. It is an intermediate kind of coal, having more hydrocarbon
than any anthracite has.
Ordinary coal, common coal, household coal, pit coal, black coal, coal proper,
bituminous stone coal: of this there are several sorts :—
1. Caking coal, coking coal, bituminous coal (not really bituminous, but con-
taining the constituents of bitumen—7 to 9 per cent. of hydrogen, with carbon and
oxygen, or 4 to 6 per cent. of hydrogen and 6 to 8 per cent. of oxygen). When
heated, it undergoes a kind of fusion and ‘cakes’ together, one piece adhering to
another by the soft bituminous matter into which it is mainly changed. Such
coals are used for coking, coke being more or less impure carbon left after the
hydrocarbons have been driven off.
iy : Cherry coal, or soft coal, is thinly laminated, soft, velvety, short-fractured,
table.
3. Splint coal (breaking off in long ‘ boards,’ and into fragments with angular
ends called ‘splints’—Mushet), bone coal, hard coal, free-burning coal, dry coal
(passing into shaly, slaty, and stony coal). This is less bituminous than some of
the foregoing ; burns free and open (that is, without swelling and caking), with a
long smoky flame; with less than 6 to 8 per cent. oxygen and 4 to 6 per cent.
hydrogen; it is also called dry coal. The hard coal comes out in long blocks ; the
cherry coal in short pieces.
Reedy coal has alternate layers of splint coal and bright coal. (Mushet.)
Cannel coal, or parrot coal, is compact, and varies from lustrous to a dull earthy
aspect ; breaks irregularly, but with a conchoidal (shell-like) fracture; can be
1 Geikie, Textbook, &c., 2nd edit., 1885, p. 273.
624 REPORT—1891.
polished and cut into ornaments in a lathe. Yields mineral oil by distillation.
Much used in gas-making ; not fit for coking.
Torbantte, Torbanehill mineral, Boghead cannel-coal, or Boghead coal, is a kind
of dark brown cannel-coal, good for making gas and oil (paraffin, &c.), and gives
a light, spongy coke. It consists of minute light brown granules of hydrocarbon,
with some earthy matter and portions of the tissues of coal-plants.
As a scheme for the general classification of the coals the following table may
be useful :—
Torbanite, cannel-coal, \ Vegetable matter
parrot-coal . ; much altered.
*) Tasmanite, Better-bed
coal, &e, ; 2
Highly Bitu- \ Gas coals .
minous :
\ Spore-coals.
J
. Caking and coking coal, | Laminz of charcoal
Ce Bitu- Household coals . cherry coal, splint | (mother - coal)
eth | coal, and other coals .} andhydrocarbon.
{ Free - burning f 1. Charcoal deposited abundantly at first.
steam coals .| 2. Hydrocarbon partially lost by change.
Semi - bitumi-
nous
Nearly smokeless
Anthracitic . Sie in coal ;
5
r Hydrocarbon nearly all lost by change,
All the hydrocarbon lost by heat under pres-
Anthracite. . Smokeless coal 4 ar.
ie 2. Artificial
8. Constituents of the Coal-measures and of Coal.—Sandstone, shale, coal, and
clay, in successive repetitions, constitute (as we all know) the main materials of the
‘ Coal-measures’ (‘ measures’ being an old mining term for strata). Each of these
substances well deserves the close investigation they have received from numerous
observers. We need not take the sandstone in hand now; it will be enough to
say that the quartz-grains have been derived from the quartz of the same granite
rocks which gave the little mica-flakes to mix with much of the sandstone, and the
kaolin to form the basis of the shales and clays in the same great Carboniferous
formation.
Shales and Ironstone.—The shales are varied; some are almost purely argilla-
ceous; others contain carbonaceous matter in different proportions, even becoming
quite black and bituminous. The lighter coloured shales often have plant-remains,
especially ferns, scattered through them, and even whole stems and branches of
Lepidodendron and Sigilaria, squeezed flat, and reaching long distances. The
darker shales also have plant-remains, but less perfect, and very often shells and
other fossils, including relics of fish and numbers of small bivalved crustaceans ;
with regard to the last, the fishes, when alive, fed on the Cypridz and such like,
and in turn these little Ostracoda ate the dead fishes when they could.
Here and there are more or less continuous layers of zronstone, or more frequently
groups of nodules parallel with the planes of bedding, and containing either parts
of plants, more rarely small limuloids or other crustaceans, or even spiders, scor-
pions, insects, or relics of fishes and amphibia. In some cases the shales are of
marine origin, judging from the character of the shells imbedded in them; but
usually the evidence from the fossils is of a negative character. The shells that
were formerly thought to be mussel-shells, like freshwater Unios, are now known
to belong to a different family ; and, not being quite the same as any known sea-
shell, they may have been estuarine.
The nodular and the flat masses of clay-ironstones in the shales have been due
to the formation of carbonic acid in the water and mud by the decomposition of
vegetable matter and the removal of some oxygen from the peroxide of iron pre-
sent there, and by the carbonic acid thereupon forming carbonate of iron. This
then segregated around some organic object in the mud, and, mingled with clay,
gave rise to nodules or larger masses of argillaceous ironstone.' In consolidating,
{ ee : \ Hydrocarbon lost by heat without pressure.
1 De la Beche, Memoirs Geol. Survey, vol. i., pp. 185, 186.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 625
the nodules frequently split internally, and the fissures of retreat, filled with
calcite, blende, pyrites, or other mineral, constitute septa, or divisions, in the
septarium or septarian nodule. The so-called ‘ beetle-stones’ are septarian nodules
broken across, showing a central and diverging lines.
y The iron-ores of South Wales are fully treated of in the ‘ Memoirs Geol. Surv.,’
: Tron-Ores, Part III., 1861, by E. Rogers, and their fossils by J. W. Salter. From
official sources we learn that the details of Production of Ironstone, chiefly Argil-
- laceous Carbonate from mines under the Cual-mines Regulation Act, for the year
1889 were—
5
7 ri lue | Amount
> ; Total eS LOT ee of metal
q County Quantity quantity ed as : Vien obtain-
_ able
3 Tons Tons | s. d. £ Tons
; Eastern part of . 50 | ll 6 29
Breconshire | Western part of. | 462 | 512 | 9 0 208
Caermarthenshire . A — 118 9 0 53 12.548
Glamorgan- { Eastern part of . “= 4
shire { Western part of . aeaaey ets Ry ee
Monmouthshire F 5 — 17,435 11 6 10,025
24,276 | 41,829 — 21,009 —_
In Mr. J. P. Lesley’s ‘ Manual of Coal,’ &c., 8vo., Philadelphia, 1856, at pp. 22,
&c., the variations in shales, and their passage even into coal, as the proportion of
carbonaceous (vegetable) matter increases by local conditions, are carefully
detailed.
Coal, Mother-coal, Coal-balls, §:c.—The coal itself, to which the shales (‘hbatts,’
‘binds,’ &c., as they are variously termed) usually serve as a roof, or in which
they form ‘partings,’ or thin intermediate layers, comes next to be considered.
Some remarks on the different kinds of coal have already been made. Common
black coal is easily seen to be composed of thin alternate laminz of dull and bright
_ material, and usually the blocks or pieces have flat sides nearly at right angles
with those delicate layers of deposition. These faces are due to shrinkage-joints ;
one is termed the ‘ face’ (as it is presented on the long edge of the seam exposed
in working), or the ‘ bord,’ and the other or cross joint is the ‘end’; the former
is also called the ‘cleat,’ and this term is sometimes applied to both sets of joint-
divisions. The block of coal usually breaks also along the flat lamin, exposing
a somewhat dull, charcoaly surface, more or less interfered with by the next-
lying bright lamina. The dull parts are real charcoal, or decomposed wood, and
soil the fingers when touched; whilst the bright, or hydrocarbon, portion keeps
clean when dry. On the fire the coal breaks more easily along the lamina,
because the bright portion softens and swells up with its bituminous change, and
the ‘mineral charcoal,’ or ‘ mother-coal,’ keeps the portions distinct for a time; so
also the jointings open then, or give way easily to the poker.
The mineral charcoal may readily be seen to be flat fragments of woody tissue
in a carbonised state ; it is more or less impregnated with bituminous and mineral
‘matter from the associated beds, and retains the mineral matter of the original
wood. It is due to ‘the chemical changes experienced by woody matter in decay
in the presence of air,’ when ‘wood parts with its hydrogen and oxygen and a
portion of its carbon, in the forms of water and carbonic acid. . . . Under water,
or imbedded in aqueous deposits, the principal loss consists of carbon and oxygen;
and the resulting coaly product coutains proportionally more hydrogen than the
original wood. This is the condition of the compact bituminous coal.’!
_ The ‘ mother-coal’ necessarily indicates a periodical change (may be that of the
Tainy season) in the formation of a coal-seam, for it lay exposed, as decaying wood,
whilst that which was accumulated just before must have been sufficiently covered
% 1 Dawson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xv., 1859, pp. 627, &c.
‘ 1891. ss
, 7
626 REPORT-—1891.
up by water (a few inches may. have been enough) to undergo the advanced
chemica} change causing a proportional increase of hydrogen. The dead sticks and
stems projecting out of and above the water-covered peaty mass helow would natu-
rally supply the decaying touchwood and charcoal now lying as described above.
Doubtless a progressive change in the elaboration of hydrocarbon soon took
place to some extent, even as it does in peat; but probably it was not completed
in the compact coal until many layers of both vegetable ard earthy matters had
been accumulated (the former in place, and the latter from inundations), and caused
some amount of pressure and consequent heat.
As, under favourable circumstances, the bright coal can be seen to have been
made up of spores, leaves, branches, and stems of special trees and other plants,
the place of growth must have been a swampy forest or jungle, of enormous
extent, probably in a warm (perhaps sub-tropical’) climate, to account for the
hundreds of square miles of continuous coal-seams.
Much has been learnt from the broken and rotting ruins of a forest, standing
on an area of the coal-growth, having been here and there sealed up and preserved
in that original state, before hydrocarbonisation had proceeded far; whilst the
rest of the fallen timber and accumulated relics passed into the state of bright
coal, and became almost indistinguishable as to its structure except under the
microscope after special manipulation, The ‘coal-balls’ of Oldham, in Lancashire,
and the ‘bullions’ at South Owram, in Yorkshire, are calcareo-carbonaceous
nodules, having been formed by the infiltration of water carrying carbonate of
lime from the shells in an overlying shale down into the bed of woody fragments
and other bits of dead plants. The carbonate of lime there segregated from the
mass to certain centres, and preserved, in round nodules, the vegetable structures,
before they were quite decomposed, more or less distinct as they had fallen on the
forest floor. Hooker, Binney, Williamson, and others have elucidated much of the
botany of the coal from this source.
In the Lower Carboniferous series at Pettycur Bay, Burntisland, in the Firth
of Forth, are some well-preserved relics of the materials which would otherwise
have been used to form a coal-seam (referred to by Williamson and Binney). In
this case volcanic material has been ejected into or through a peaty mass, and,
having removed by force some of the soft wet material, has been mixed up with it
and settled down as a hard stratum, with well-preserved fragments of wood and
other tissues, into which carbonate of lime was subsequently intiltered. (Carruthers. )
A third instance was discovered by Mr. Wiinsch, in 1865, in the Lower Car-
boniferous series on the north-eastern shore of the Isle of Arran, where numerous
plant-remains are well preserved in and under volcanic ashes. The strata are
alternate sandy shales, thin coal-seams, and peperino-like tuff. Numerous truncated
trees remain upright, rooted in the shale. Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, Lepidophlovos,
and Halonia, besides Sphenopteris and other ferns, are present.”
Cannel, §c—Under the name of ‘cannel’ are known some important varieties
of coal, useful for distillation and gas-making; and certainly they differed in their
method of deposition both from ordinary coal and in some particulars among
themselves. They all appear to have been formed of vegetable matter that, having
been soaked and macerated to a black pulp, like the most rotten and semi-fluid
peat, in lakes, lagoons, or other limited water-areas, became homogeneous masses
of hydrocarbon, with much still discernible vegetable tissue, and occasionally
with bones, teeth, and scales of fishes, and the low kind of reptiles called Amphibia.
Earthy matter was sometimes mixed with the cannel; and occasionally so much
accumulated that the black mud graduated into carbonaceous shale. Light sub-
stances would also have been blown into the water by wind. According to the
relative abundance of yellow-reddish hydrocarbons and macrospores, or of amor-
tide black substance (carbon) and microspores, is the difference between black and
rown cannel. (Carpenter.)
Elsewhere the condition and place of the cannel are such as to suggest that,
1 A ereat predominance of ferns and lycopods indicates moisture, equability of
temperature, and freedom from frost, rather than intense heat. (Lyell.)
2 Geol, Maz., 1865, and Trans. Geol. Soc., Glasgow, 1882.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 627
like a burst peat-bog of the present day (Buckland), the fluid carbonaceous pulp
escaped from its birthplace, and found local hollows at lower levels that could
receive and keep it. It is also suggested that such black, decomposed, fluid refuse
of a swampy jungle, bordering a lagoon, might drain into the water, and settle as
carbonaceous mud, or as coal itself, among the water-plants there. (Grand’Eury.)
If poured in suddenly, it probably overwhelmed and poisoned many fishes,
‘The cannel coals, being wholly subaqueous, have not formed and do not possess
mineral charcoal,’ (Dawson.)
Torbanite consists almost entirely of minute sub-globular accretions of hydro-
carbon (amber-coloured by transmitted light), derived either from chemical change
of plant-remains, or, more probably, directly from lycopodiaceous spores.
Spore-coal.—Very much of the substance of some coal-beds consists of lycopo-
diaceous spores that have been traced to the great lycopods, Lepidodendron and
Sigillaria, allied to the club-mosses and Selaginelle, and were probably shed
periodically in enormous quantities. (Prestwich and. Morris, Hooker, Binney,
Williamson, Carruthers, Balfour, Huxley, E. T. Newton, Orton, Dawson, Rheinsch,
Wethered, Bennie, Kidston, and others.) Mr. E. Wethered has suggested that the
chief material in common coal was derived from the spores of a water-plant nearly
allied to Jscétes, and that woody material has supplied but little of the hydro-
carbon. He objects to the theory of ‘submerged forests’ because of the difficulty
that Professor Dana has described, resulting in the calculation that for a four-foot
seam of coal there would be required a thickness of 32 feet of accumulated forest
vegetation and 48 feet for four feet of anthracite.1 The macrospores of Isoétes
lacustris have been found in the mud dredged in Loch Coulter, Stirlingshire, by
Mr. Thos. Scott.?
‘Dawson is disposed to think that the tuberin of cork, of epidermis in general,
and of spore-cases in particular, is a substance so rich in carbon that it is very
near to coal, and so indestructible and impermeable to water that it has contributed
more largely than anything else to the mineral.’* Prestwich refers to these, and
especially to gums and resins, as main constituents of the coal; and argues that
the climate was warm and moist, with a larger percentage of carbonic acid than
exists at the present day, and a more rapid plant-growth.*
Messrs. Bennie and Kidston® have not only carefully given the botanical
history of Lepidodendron and Sigillaria, and of their fructification, but have
described the spores met with in their examination of the Scotch Carboniferous
strata, and have given their conclusions as to the nature and condition of the
beds from which the spores were collected. The splint and parrot coals yielded
most; the cherry or soft coals are too far bituminised to show them clearly,
though present. Some fireclays yield them in the upper two or three inches,
Some thin shales (plant-beds and fakes) yield spores, and some have plant-remains
as well. ‘Carbonised wood was common in all the poor or shale-like coals... .
Some of the thin coals were almost entirely composed of such carbonised vegetable
matter.’ Fragments of scorpions and eurypterids occur plentifully in some of
the ‘ old soils’ (fireclays), The former, being land-animals, and probably adapted
o a hot (or, at least, warm) climate, are among the most interesting of the coal-
ossils.
__ Drift-coal.—Formerly, more so than now, it was thought by some that the coal
had been formed by the accumulation of drifted timber and floating masses of
vegetation in rivers and estuaries. There are several difficulties in the way of
this hypothesis. There would have been more ash in the coal, because the water
would shift and deposit sand and clay, together with rafts and grass islands; and
the ash of pure coal agrees in relative quantity and composition with the earthy
matter naturally contained in plants. (Green and others.) How far a calculation
could be made as to a given quantity of ash in coal, and the amount of mineral
» Journ. Roy. Microsc. Soc., ser. 2, vol. v., 1885, pp. 406-420,
2 Report of the Fishery Board, 1890.
* Balfour, Palgontological Botany, 1872, p. 67.
* Geology, vol. ii., 1888, pp. 117-120.
* Proceed. Royal Phys. Soc., Edinburgh, vol. ix. 1886, pp. 82-117.
ss 2
628 REPORT—1891.
matter belonging to plants, as a basis for proving the original quantity of woody’
matter concerned in a given quantity of coal, would be difficult to determine, for
some of the original mineral constituents have been probably removed by per-
colating water.
Professor Lesley has calculated that the Mississippi could not supply by
driftage from the forests of its valley in 100,000 years wood enough for one of the
Schuylkill anthracite beds; mineral sediments would also interfere with the
results. Under favourable conditions, he adds, tropical forests (Central Africa)
and coast-swamps (Florida, Guiana, India) would supply good and sufficient
material. So also the swamps of the ‘ Sunk Country’ of Arkansas and Louisiana,
as well as the ‘Great Dismal Swamp’ in Virginia, for one set of conditions
(Lyell) ; and the mangrove jungles in the West Indies and elsewhere for another.
Fireclay, underclay, undercliff, underbed, seat-earth, seat-stone, bottom-stone,
spavin, clunch, fake, pouncin. This is usually a dense clay,* but sometimes sandy,
and even altogether a hard sandstone (‘ganister’), It varies in colour from
black to white; and is from six inches to ten feet or more in thickness. A
characteristic feature is its being penetrated in all directions by the stigmarian
roots and rootlets of the trees (Sigillaria and Lepidodendron) that grew on it
when it was the soil of the coal-forest, having been slowly deposited by the quiet,
shallow, muddy waters that succeeded the deposition of shale or sandstone by
waters with stronger currents, these last terminating one of the periodical dis-
turbances to which the many stages of gradual subsidence gave rise. Every coal-
bed (or coal-seam, according to the application of those words to either a simple
or compound layer of coal) lies on a more or less distinguishable ‘ underclay’; but
this is often omitted to be recorded in coal-mining sections and documents. Some-
times an underclay forms the roof of a coal; but it is the seat-earth of a coal
lying on it.
Denudation.—Among the many examples of denudation in the Coal-measures,
coal-beds have been washed away from their underclays; but these latter are so
greatly toughened by their contained network of roots that they have more
effectually resisted denudation. Both coals and underclays, however, were not
unfrequently destroyed, or, at least, deeply and widely channelled by contempo-
raneous floods and rivers ; for not only are the ‘ horses,’ ‘lows,’ and ‘ washes’ such
watercourses, but the occurrence of pebbles of coal and small detrital particles
scattered through some of the sandstones are due to similar denudation.*
Sir J. W. Dawson, in ‘ Acadian Geology,’ 1868, p. 189, states :—‘The occa-
sional inequalities of the floors of the coal-beds, the sand and gravel ridges which
traverse them, the channels cut through the coal, the occurrence of patches of
sand, and the insertion of wedges of such material, splitting the beds, .. . are
constantly represented in modern swamps and marshes, more especially near their
margins, or where they are exposed to the effects of ocean storms or river inunda-
tions.’ The great thickness of coal and carbonaceous shale in the Albion Coal-
measures at Pictou, Nova Scotia, were formed in a depression separated by a
shingle bar (conglomerate) from the more exposed flats outside.°
9. Fossils of the Coal-measures of South Wales—An examination, or even an
enumeration, of the fossils would be much more than we have time for now,
whether we took in hand the plants or the animals.
I. Of the characters of the former ® we have indicated some particulars, such as
1 Manual of Coal, &c., 1856.
2 In examining microscopically the ultimate particles of some shales and under-
clays, Mr. W. M. Hutchings has discovered that these are composed of a ‘micaceous
deposit,’ in which there is some fragmental mica, but that the mass appears to con-
sist mainly of minute, rutiliferous, mica-like flakes, regarded by him as of secondary
origin, made from the original components of the stratum. (Geol. J/ag., 1890 and
1891.) Mr. Hutchings kindly informs me that, of the numerous fireclays which he
has examined, several are being used for brick-making. (Letter, May 20, 1891.)
3 De la Beche, Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. i., pp. 173 and 177.
* Logan, De la Beche, Buddle, and others. 5 Dawson, Q.J.G.S., vol. X., p. 46.
6 A useful compendium of our knowledge of coal-plants in 1863, by Professor
John Morris, was published in the Proceed. Geol. Assoc. of that date.
Pot A ay Me ts +
hae eee ee ee ——
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 629
facts about the spores and roots of the gigantic trees of which the humble
Selaginella, Isoétes, Sphagnum, and Equisetum are the living representatives.
Descriptions of their roots, trunks, leaves, woody and other structures have been
given to the world by both Foreign and British palzeobotanists in numerous goodly
memoirs and volumes, illustrated with excellent plates ; and the many ferns, tree-
ferns, and cycadaceous plants (the last known by their fruits chiefly) have been well
described and figured. Kidston’s ‘Catalogue of the Carboniferous Plants in the
British Museum’ gives full references to many of the above, and the others are
well known. With increased knowledge, the supposed dome-like, long-armed,
stigmarian plants, with subaqueous leaves or processes, either floating on or in the
water, or growing on the mud, have become the depressed stools, dichotomous
roots, and innumerable long, narrow, leaf-shaped rootlets of Stgilaria and Lepido-
dendron. (Binney and others.) C. Grand’Eury, however, still distinguishes some
perfectly aquatic and peculiar plants, which floated in the water with their roots
trailing on the bottom ; and of Stigmaria he holds the opinion that it indicates a
formation in deep water, contrary (as he says) to what is generally stated. The
supposed palms have disappeared in the explanation that the supposed fruits are
only the marks of compressed gas bubbles fixed during their escape from the fcetid
black, decomposing mud.”
Great advances have been made by Prof. Dr. W. C. Williamson in the know-
ledge of the lycopodiaceous trees of the coal, which he shows to have partaken
of the exogenous structure of modern trees.
Various more or less artistic representations of ideal coal-forests are to be met
with, both in special books treating of the subject and in treatises on geology in
general. Eloquent descriptions of such a forest by Ansted and Hugh Miller are
quoted by Balfour.’
Of the flora of the Uplands, which were bordered by the peaty coal-swamps,
very little is known; only that the fern fronds and some other plants in the roof
shales, and the occasional either prostrate or snag-like trunks of conifers in the
sandstones were probably brought to lower levels by streams or river-floods.
(Dawson, Lyell, and others.)
II. The fossil animals of the coal are necessarily of very great interest, but
We can now refer to only a few.
1. Of the invertebrates a fair number occur in South Wales, but none of the
myriopods, spiders, scorpions, eurypterids, land shells, and other rare forms known
elsewhere have yet been met with.
In the ‘Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain,’ &c., Iron-Ores,
&c., Part TII., the late Mr. J. W. Salter very carefully classified and tabulated the
fossils found in the ‘ ironstone bands’ of South Wales, describing and figuring the
most characteristic species, He hoped to have taken up the fossils of the coal
bands in like manner, but unfortunately the time never came. His observations,
at p. 220, on the importance of managers of collieries and others making very
careful collections of fossils, with notes on their exact beds, should even now
command attention, He notes as follows :—
Black Band; Anthracomya, Fish remains . é 7 . Brackish
Soap Vein; Worm-burrows, Anthracomya, Ferns. 4 . Brackish
Black Pins; Anthracosia, Dadoxylon, Knorria, and Halonia. Brackish
Ell Balls, above Elled Coal; Asterophyllites, Lepidodendron,
and Ulodendron, Ferns . 5 . . 6 = . Brackish
a Under Big-vein Coal; Anthracosia : ; : : . Brackish
R Over Three-quarter Coal; Anthracomya : : - . Brackish
Will Shone, or Pin Will Shone, over the Bydyllog Coal;
Athyris . : ‘ 3 : ; ; F ; . Marine
Darran Pins; Anthracosia, Anthracomya, Myalina . Brackish
Over Engine Coal; Spirifer and Productus, Fern . 3 . Marine
} Mém. présentés, §c., Acad. Sciences, §c., France, vol. xxiv., No. 1, 1877; and
Annales des Mines, sér. 8, Mémoires, vol. i., 1882, p. 161.
» ? Carruthers, Geol. Mag., 1870, p. 215.
* Paleont. Botany, pp: 70, 71.
630 REPORT—1891.
Black Band, over Old Coal; Anthracosia, Fish Brackish
Spotted Vein; ; Spirorbis ; track of Limulus (2) 6 feet below
the vein . : Brackish
Red Vein; Anthracosia, Modiola, Edmondia (2) ; : Marine?
Blue or Big Vein; Myalina, Anthracosia, Spirorbis Marine ?
Bottom Veins ; ; Fish (8 genera) . Brackish
Rosser Veins (under the Farewell Rock and above the Mill-
stone Grit); Brachiopoda (7 genera), Conchifera (8 genera),
Gasteropoda, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda (9 genera),
Encrinite Stems, Fish remains - Marine
Anthracosia' was originally regarded as Unio by Sowerby, then referred to
Cardinia by Agassiz, and to Pach yodon by Stutchbury; but it was ultimately
defined by W. King as related to Unio, but, being distinct from that genus, it was
named by him Anthracosia. Mr. Salter noticed that it has a wrinkled epidermis,
and considered that it was related to the Myade, and of brackish, if not marine,
habitat. This is the shell composing the so-called ‘ mussel bands’ and ‘Unio
bands’ of the Coal-measures,
Anthracomya, ‘Iron-ores,’ &c., page 229. Mr. Salter indicates that the shells
which he describes under this name have oscillated in catalogues between Avicula,
Modiola, and Unio, and that it has a wrinkled epidermis, like the foregoing.
Anthracoptera” is a triangular shell, with wrinkled epidermis, and belonging
to the same group as the above.
All the forms of this characteristic group of Coal-measure shells are called
Naiadites by Dawson,’ and regarded by him as allied to D'Orbigny’s Byssoanodonta.
Giimbel and Geinitz have described them as belonging to Unio and Anodon ;. and
Ludwig refers Anthracoptera to Dreissena. At all events there is a great prob-
ability of their not being truly marine. They may have lived in the brackish water of
lagoons and creeks in the black, muddy swamps, having some communication with
the sea, and often or occasionally inundated with salt water. (Dawson, Salter, &c.)
Spirorbis carbonarius is frequent in the Coal-measures of South Wales and else-
where. This little annelid, though belonging to a marine genus, is often found
attached to plant fragments i in the coal-shales, These plants may have hung down
into the water and been infested by the annelid; or it may have attached itself to
floating plants which were ultimately drifted ‘pack to the littoral mud-swamp.
This Spir ordis is an important constituent in the Ardwick limestone of Manchester
and Shropshire, but is associated with Ostracoda (Carbonia), which are probably
of brackish-water habitat.
The Brachiopoda are necessarily marine. The fish are not good witnesses, for
they might have migrated to and fro, as some now inhabit both fresh and salt
waters; and some might have been essentially estuarine.
Thus there are few decidedly marine beds in this series, and these, of course,
correspond with the occasional domination of the sea during its inroads and during
extreme depressions of the district.
In addition to the occurrences of fossils in Salter’s list above quoted we may
notice that in the ‘Geol. Mag.,’ 1870, pp. 214-220, is an account of some fossils
discovered by the late Mr. W. ’ Adams, of Cardiff, in 1869, in a ‘Black Band’ in
the Rhymney Valley, about 800 feet higher in the Coal-measures of South Wales
than any hitherto found. The band is calculated to have been rightly 81 feet above
the Mynyddysllwyn coal, from which it is divided by a fault; it is in five layers,
and about 8 feet thick, with its associated shales. One of these in its midst and
the lowest shale carry ‘the fossils, With some plant remains there is Anthracomya,
with Estheria (?) Adamsit, E. tenella, and Leaia Leidy?, all probably of brackish
habitats; also Carbonia Eveline and C. Agnes, Ostracodes typical of a genus which
is found in the black shales, presumably of either fresh- or brackish-water origin,
Mr. Adams also found a shale full of Anthracomya at Aberbeeg, Ebbw Vale, over-
lying the Troed-rhiw-Clawdd coal, and 226 yards below the Mynyddysllwyn coal
(p. 215).
1 Tron- Ores South Wales, pp. 226, 227. 2 Salter, Q.J.G.S., vol. xix., 1863, p. 80.
* Acadian Geol., 1868, pp. 201-203.
¥
|
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 631
2. Of the Vertebrata the fishes enumerated in Mr. Salter’s list are important.
The following are the genera named :—Megalichthys, Rhizodus, Pleuracanthus,
Byssacanthus (?), Paleoniscus, Amblypterus, Helodus, and Poecilodus.
Although reptilian remains are rare in South Wales, yet they are not altogether
wanting. In 1865! Professor (now Sir Richard) Owen described some remains of a
small amphibian (between newt and lizard), found by the late J. EK. Lee in the
lower part of the Middle (or upper part of the Lower) Coal-measures at Llan-
trissant, Glamorganshire. The animal was rather larger than the allied Dendrer-
peton Acadianum, and Professor Owen named it Anthrakerpeton crassosteum, ‘the
thick-boned coal-reptile.’ This paper and its illustrations were reproduced in the
‘Trans, Cardiff Nat. Soc.’
10, Extent of the Coal-measures under the South of England.—Sir H. De la
Beche in 1846? noted that a great sheet of paleeozoic rocks, including the Coal-
measures, extending from Belgium to Central England, had been rolled about,
undulated, crumpled, and then partially worn away before the New Red Sand-
stone and other Mesozoic strata were laid down upon them; and that these, in
their turn, had been denuded so as to expose here and there portions of the under-
lying Coal-measures, though near by a ridge of profitless Mountain-limestone or
other older rock might come to the surface.
In 1856 Mr. Godwin-Austen, following up his reasoning about the areas of
coal-growth (see above, page 617}, explained that the movements of disturbance
which they have undergone had tended to preserve the great Franco-Belgian coal-
band, and had rendered it available; and he proceeded to state that the course of
that band of Coal-measures may be traceable westward, and probably coincided
with, and may some day be reached along the line of, the Valley of the Thames.
Professor Prestwich in 1871 extended this inquiry;* and, having carefully
compared the coal-beds of Somerset and Belgium, described the characters and
relations of the strata in detail, and showed that the coal might be met with at a
workable distance from the surface along a narrow but interrupted curved area
from Westphalia, through Belgium and France, to England; then along the
north-eastern part of Kent (Isle of Thanet, &c.), and through Herts, Bucks,
Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, to the Bristol coal-field, and on to South Wales.
The coincident axis of disturbance is south of the river Thames, in his opinion
throwing off the coal-beds on its northern flank.
Mr. W. Galloway has given in the ‘Cardiff Nat. Soc. Report,’ vol. xvii. 1856,
p. 23, a sketch of the views here alluded to. A full account of the history and
literature of the question of the underground range of the older rocks in the South-
east of England, especially as to the possible occurrence of the Coal-measures, is
published in the ‘ Memoirs of the Geological Survey : The Geology of London and
of Part of the Thames Valley,’ vol. i., 1889, pp. 13-28, by Mr. Whitaker, F.R.5.,
who, having given close attention to this subject, has suggested the following
localities as likely sites in the search for coal in the South-east of England :
St. Margaret’s, Chartham, Chatham, and Shoreham, allin Kent; Bushey (Herts),
Loughton (Essex), and Coombs, near Stowmarket (Suffolk).*
An interesting fact relating to this matter is that in February 1890 the engineer
of a boring at the foot of Shakespear's Cliff, Dover, announced that at 1,204 feet
below the surface there a thin seam of coal was met with, and at several yards
lower down coal eight feet thick was pierced, associated with clays, grits, and
blackish shales. (Newspapers.) Dr. Blanford, in his ‘Anniversary Address to the
Geological Society’ on February 21, 1890, stated that Professor Boyd Dawkins,
in a letter received the day before, had informed him that a coal-seam had really
“been reached at a depth of 1,180 feet, and that this seam is proved to be of Car-
boniferous age by the plant-fossils in the associated clays. . . . The discovery is solely
1 Geol. Mag., vol. ii., pp. 6, 8, plates I. and II.
2 Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. i., pp. 213-214.
* Report Royal Commission Coal-Supply, 1871; Anniv. Address Geol. Soc., 1872;
Popular Science Review, July, 1872 ; and Proceed. Instit. Civil Engineers, vol. xxxvii.,
1874, p. 110, &e., plates VIII. and IX.
* Geol. Mag., November, 1890; Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1890, p. 819.
632 REPORT—1891.
the result of scientific induction, and arrived at by following the line of research first
indicated, I believe, by the late Mr. Godwin-Austen and subsequently by Professor
Prestwich.’ The boring was undertaken with the advice of Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins ;1 and we learn, from his latest Report,? that the Coal-measures were
reached at 1,113 feet below high-water mark, and were penetrated to 1,500 feet;
also that in the #87 feet of Coal-measures six seams were met with, giving an
ageregate of 10 feet of coal. The distance of the Coal-measures below high-water
mark is a near approximation to Professor Prestwich’s computation of the probable
depth at which coal might be found in that part of Kent, namely, 1,000 to 1,100
feet.2 The account of the coal-plants or other fossils from these beds has not yet
been published.
11. Conclusion —The formation and subsequent arrangement of coal and the
Coal-measures have been so ordered that the blessings of civilisation have been
largely enjoyed wherever the fossil fuel at man’s feet has been industriously
worked by his hands, and carefully applied to the improvement of his social
being. These labours of careful perseverance, and arts of skilful manipulation,
have given special characters to those whose energies have been directed to coal-
mining and various manufacturing enterprises ; and all conditions of society have
been influenced thereby.
So also the geologist, chemist, and botanist, seeking out the composition of the
various coals, their local position and extent, their special natural history, the
mode of passage from dead plants to first-rate fuel—in fact, aiming at a complete
mastery over all the mazy: events and complicated results of the coal-formation— _
not only find a useful exercise of their cultivated intelligence and accumulated
knowledge, benefiting all by the practical results, but they widen the mental
culture of others, and show how the study of nature is an indispensable element
in good education, and necessarily productive of lasting benefit to society at large.
Light, heat, motion, fragrance, and colour are all now obtainable from coal.
What more could the sun himself do for us? It is as if the sunshine that
cherished the Inxuriant jungles of the past had been preserved in the coaly mass of
the buried trees. Indeed, the light and heat of former days, expended in thus con-
verting carbonic acid and water into coal, are here stored up for man. By
converting coal into carbonic acid and water he can again evolve that heat and
light, and use them in a thousand ways beneficial to his race—nay, essential to his
very existence as a civilised being. (J. W. Salter and others.)
Nevertheless, a great deal has yet to be learnt about the natural history of
the Coal-measures, the order and extent of the special kinds of their animals and
plants, the time occupied in formation, and the geographical and hydrographical
conditions. At all events, we know that all their strata have been arranged ir
order, have been buried under circumstances favourable to production of the
various coaly fuels, and then turned up in orderly disorder, ready to the hand of
man, and well adapted for his use in this passage-stage of his civilisation and
development, helping him, when intelligent, active, careful, and persevering, to
higher ends. For we cannot doubt that all things here are arranged for his
better being, his progress towards more and more useful arts, wider ranges of
science, and fitter aptitudes of life, of which as yet we have but little conception.
We are still the early settlers in a beautiful world, whose capabilities, imperfectly
known as yet, wait until higher developments of man can understand them fully,
and apply the results to the general good.
' See also Contemporary Review, April 1890; and his Lecture to the Royal Insti-
tution, June 6, 1890.
* Report of Proceed. General Meeting of the South Eastern Railway Company,
July 23, 1891, p. 10; and Financial News, July 24, 1891.
° Proceed, Instit. Civil Engineers, vol. xxxvii., 1874, pp. 16 and 26 of the separate
paper.
“a
=
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 633
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Discovery of the Olenellus-zone in the North-west Highlands.
By Sir Arcutpatp Gurxie, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey.
Ever since the Geological Survey began the detailed investigation of the
structure of the North-west Highlands of Scotland the attention of its officers has
been continuously given to the detection of any fossil evidence that would more
elearly fix the geological horizons of the various sedimentary formations which
overlie the Lewisian gneiss. A large collection of organic remains has been made
from the Durness Limestone, but it has not yet yielded materials for a satisfactory
stratigraphical correlation. The study of this collection, however, has confirmed
and extended Salter’s original sagacious inference that the fauna of the Durness
limestone shows a marked North American facies, though, according to our present
terminology, we place this fauna in the Cambrian rather than in the Silurian
system. Below the Durness Limestone lies the dolomitic and calcareous shaly
group known as the ‘Fucoid beds,’ which, though crowded with worm-castings,
has hitherto proved singularly devoid of other recognisable organic remains. In
following this group southwards through the Dundonnell Forest, in the west of
Ross-shire, my colleague, Mr, John Horne, found that, a few feet below where its
upper limit is marked by the persistent band of ‘Serpulite grit,’ it includes a zone
of blue or almost black shales. During a recent visit to him on his ground, when
he pointed out to me this remarkable zone, I was struck with the singularly
unaltered character of these shales, and agreed with him that, if fossils were to be
looked for anywhere among these ancient rocks, they should be found here, and
that the fossil-collector, Mr. Arthur Macconochie, should be directed to search the
locality with great care. The following week this exhaustive search was under-
taken, and Mr. Macconochie -vas soon rewarded by the discovery of a number of
fragmentary fossils, among which Mr. B, N. Peach, who was also stationed in the
district, recognised what appeared to him to be undoubtedly portions of Olenellus.
The importance of this discovery being obvious, the search was prosecuted
vigorously, until the fossiliferous band could not be followed further without
quarrying operations, which in that remote and sparsely inhabited region could not
be at that time undertaken. The specimens were at once forwarded to me, and
were placed in the hands of Messrs, Sharman and Newton, Palontologists of the
Geological Survey, who confirmed the reference to Olenellus. More recently
Mr. Peach and Mr. Horne, in a renewed examination of the ground, have found, in
another thin seam of black shale interleaved in the ‘Serpulite grit,’ additional
pieces of Olenellus, including a fine head-shield with eyes complete. There may
be more than one species of this trilobite in these Ross-shire shales. The specific
determinations and descriptions will shortly be given by Mr. Peach.
The detection of Olenedlws among the rocks of the North-west Highlands, and
its association with the abundant Salterella of the ‘Serpulite grit,’ afford valuable
materials for comparison with the oldest Paleozoic rocks of other regions, parti-
cularly of North America. The ‘Fucoid beds’ and ‘Serpulite grit’ which inter-
vene between the quartzite below and the Durness Limestone above are now
demonstrated to belong to the lowest part of the Cambrian system. The quartz~
ites are shown to form the arenaceous base of that system, while the Durness
Limestones may be Middle or Upper Cambrian. On the other hand, the Torridon
Sandstone, which Murchison placed in the Cambrian series, can now be proved to
be of still higher antiquity. The marked unconformability which intervenes
between it and the overlying quartzite points-to a long interval having elapsed
between the deposition of the two discordant formations. The Torridon Sand-
stone must therefore be pre-Cambrian. Among the 8,000 or 10,000 feet of strata
in this group of sandstones and conglomerates, there occur, especially towards the -
base and the top, bands of grey and dark shales, so little altered that they may be
confidently expected somewhere to yield recognisable fossils. Already my col-
leagues have detected traces of annelids and some more obscure remains of other
Organisms in these strata. These, the oldest relics of life yet known in this country,
“have excited a vivid desire in the Geological Survey to discover further and more
634 REPFORYT— 1891.
determinable fossils associated with them in the same primeval resting-place. We
shall spare no pains to bring to light all that can be recovered in the North-west
Highlands of a pre-Cambrian fauna.
2. On some recent Work of the Geological Survey in the Archean Gneiss
of the North-west Highlands. By Sir Arcuipatp Geixn, F.BR.S.,
Director-General of the Survey.
For some years past the officers of the Geological Survey have spent much
time and labour upon the investigation of the old or fundamental gneiss of the
North-west Highlands. They have succeeded in showing that it consists mainly
of materials which were originally of the nature of eruptive igneous rocks, but
which by a long succession of processes have acquired the complicated structures
which they now present. No evidence of anything but such eruptive rocks had
been met with until the mapping was carried into the west of Ross-shire. In that
area it had long been known that the gneiss includes some mica-schists and
limestones which were believed to be integral parts of its mass. With the
accumulated experience of their work further north my colleagues were naturally
predisposed to accept this view, and to look on even the limestones as the result
of some crushing-down and re-formation of basic igneous rocks containing lime
silicates ; but as they proceeded in their work they encountered various difficulties
in the acceptation of such a theoretical explanation. In particular they found
that with the mica-schist were associated quartz-schists and graphitic schists, and
that the limestone occurred in thick and persistent bands, with included minerals
like those found in the Eastern Highlands in districts of contact metamorphism.
The microscopic examination of some of these rocks showed them to present
close affinities to certain members of the crystalline series of the Eastern and
Central Highlands, which can be recognised as consisting mainly of altered sedi-
mentary strata (Dalradian series); yet the officers of the Survey could not
separate these doubtful rocks from the surrounding gneiss. The several materials
seemed to pass insensibly into each other in numerous sections, which were
examined with great care. Within the present month, however, one of the
members of the staff, Mr. C. T. Clough, who has been specially engaged in this
investigation, has obtained what may prove to be conclusive evidence on
the subject. He has ascertained that the main bands of graphitic schist occur
evenly bedded in an acid mica-schist, in which also these graphitic layers are
distributed at intervals of an inch or less, These rocks are sharply marked off
from the true gneiss, though where they actually join they appear to be, as it
were, crushed along a line of intense movement. Mr. Clough and his colleagues
are at present disposed to believe that these schists are really an older series of
sediments, into which the original igneous rocks now forming the gneiss were
erupted. If they succeed in demonstrating the correctness of this inference they
will have established a fact of the greatest interest in' regard to the geological
history of our oldest rocks, Already they have shown the thick masses of
Torridon sandstone to be an accumulation of sedimentary materials of pre-
Cambrian age.. They will push back the geological record to a still more remote
past if they can establish the existence of a yet more ancient group of sedi-
mentary strata, among which layers of graphite and beds of limestone remain to
suggest the existence of plant and animal life,
3. Report of the Committee on the Registration of Type Specimens.
See Reports, p. 299.
4. Remarks on the Lower Tertiary Fish Fauna of Sardinia.
By A. Suira Woopwarp, F.G.8.
The author referred to a series of fragmentary fish-remains from the Miocene
of the neighbourhood of Cagliari, Sardinia, collected and submitted for exami-
eo
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 635
nation by Professor D. Loyvisato. A memoir on the subject by Professor F,
Bassani had lately appeared (‘Atti R. Accad. Sci. Napoli, Series 2, vol. iv.,
Mem. No. 3, 1891), and the present communication contained only brief supple-
mentary observations. In addition to the Selachian genera and species recognised
by Bassani, the author identified teeth of Scymnus, Oxyrhina Desort, Galeus,
Aprionodon, and probably Physodon, besides dermal scutes of Trygon. The
collection comprises no evidence of ganoid fishes, and most of the remains of
teleosteans are too imperfect even for generic determination. Traces of Scom-
beroids and Labroids occur, and there is evidence of a new species of the Berycoid
Holocentrum. Teeth of Chrysophrys, Sargus, and other common Mediterranean
genera are abundant; and a few detached yellow teeth represent an indeter-
minable species of Balistes.
5. Evidence of the Occurrence of Pterosaurian and Plesiosaurian Reptiles
in the Oretaceous Strata of Brazil... By A. Smita Woopwarp, F.G.S.
The author exhibited and described two examples of the articular end of the
quadrate bone of a Pterodactyl, and one imperfect propodial bone of a Plesiosaur,
discovered by Mr. Joseph Mawson, F.G.S., in the Cretaceous Formation near
Bahia, Brazil. Though not generically determinable, the fossils are of much
interest as being the first evidence of the reptilian orders in question from the
Mesozoic deposits of South America.
6. The Cause of Monoclinal Fleawre. By A. J. Juxes-Browne, F.G.S.
Folds of the ordinary arch and trough type are generally ascribed to the in-
fluence of lateral pressure; but it is not easy to see how a monoclinal flexure
which appears in section as a flexure connecting two horizontal bars of strata can
have been produced by direct lateral pressure exerted at the ends of the bars.
The author suggests that monoclinal flexuring is a structure impressed upon a
horizontal series of uncompressed strata by the displacement of a subjacent mass of
faulted and flexured rocks, the lateral compression of the deep-seated mass result-
ing in the vertical uplift of certain portions of the ‘cover.’ If a series of stratified
rocks rests in a horizontal position on a mass of ancient rock, which has been com-
pressed, indurated, flexured, and faulted before the deposition of the upper series,
it is supposed that the lower series of rocks would give way under lateral pressure
along the pre-existing faults, and that the blocks which lie between upward diverg-
ing faults would be forced to move upwards, carrying with them those tracts of
the ‘cover’ which rest on them. It is evident that these tracts would be divided
from those resting on blocks defined by downward diverging faults by faults or
monoclinal flexures, the production of a fracture or a flexure depending partly on
the thickness and pliability of the strata forming the cover and partly on the
amount of local uplift. It is conceivable that the displacement might take place
partly by faulting and partly by flexuring, and that what wasa fault near the
plane of unconformity might pass upward into a flexure.
The writer desires criticism on the above suggestion, especially from those who
will have a chance of seeing the grand monoclinal flexures of the Colorado region
during the excursion of the approaching International Geological Congress,
7. Note on an Undescribed Area of Lower Greensand, or Vectian,
in Dorsetshire. By A. J. JuKes-Browne, F.G.S.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]
A recent examination of the ground below the escarpment of the Chalk in
North Dorset has revealed the existence of a tract of Vectian or Lower Greensand
which had not previously been suspected. Reference to the Geological Survey
1 Published in extenso in Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. [6] vol. viii. pp. 314-317.
636 REPORT—1891.
map, Sheet 15, will show that the Gault was supposed to thin out and disappear
near Shaftesbury, so as to allow the Upper Greensand to rest directly on the
Kimmeridge Clay. This proves to be a mistake ; the Gault is continuous into and
beyond the valley of the Stour. Moreover two miles south of Shaftesbury a tract
of sand emerges from beneath the Gault, and forms a terrace which for a little
distance has a separate escarpment of its own.
Near Bedchester this tract of sand is nearly half a mile wide, and thence it can
be traced to Child Okeford, on the eastern side of the Stour valley, its length being
between four and five miles.
Exposures near Bedchester show that it consists chiefly of quartz sand contain-
ing a variable amount of glauconite, some beds being yellow and consisting chiefly
of quartz, others being grey or dark green and containing a large amount of
glauconite. There is also a bed of greenish-black glauconitic clay, 24 feet thick,
consisting of dark purple clay and minute grains of dark green glauconite inti-
mately mixed together. Most of the sand is of fine grain, but there are some thin
layers of coarse sand.
So far as is yet known, and with the exception of a small exposure near Lul-
worth Cove, this is the most westerly tract of Lower Greensand in Jingland.
8. On the Continuity of the Kellaways Beds over extended areas near Bedford,
and on the Extension of the Fuller's Earth Works at Woburn. By
A. C. G. Camron.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]
In this paper further evidence is submitted from different parts of the country,
of the continuity over extended areas of the Kellaways Rock above the Lower
Oxford Clay. Several fine excavations, the result of railway enterprise, have
afforded sections of these beds in places where their presence was only inferred
before. More than the usual thickness is indicated by records recently obtained
from deep sinkings and borings in the Midland districts, especially the Bletchley
boring of 1886-7.
The extraordinary concretionary stones, noticed in Wiltshire by Smith as
characterising this formation, and quarried away years ago at Kellaways for road-
stone, jut out in the Valley of the Churn, near Cirencester, and stand about in
clusters in the Valley of the Ouse at Bedford like gigantic fungi. The plane of
separation of the Upper Oxford and the Kellaways in Bedfordshire is formed by a
shelly calcareous band in contact with a shelly cap to the concretionary stones.
Where this plane is a broken one there is no development of concreted rock, and
the lowest sediment of Upper Oxford clay is loamy, passing down into Kellaways
sand. Above the calcareous band there is sometimes an indurated seam of sandy
marl, breaking into conical forms ; the product, apparently, of stalactitic infiltration.
Pits are opened at the outcrop of the Kellaways (a persistent stratum in the Ouse
Valley) and are carried down through the Lower Oxford (selenite clay), Cornbrash
and Cornbrash clay to Great Oolite limestone, which is quarried for lime-burning ;
the ‘lam earth,’ the loamy portion of the Kellaways, being mixed in the mill with
the Lower Oxford, which is dug for brickmaking. Excellent sections, showing
the above series, are to be seen.
Observations on the extension of the Fuller’s Earth Works at Woburn Sands,
with some description of the beds, are given, and the mining industry now springing
up is commented on.
eee a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 637
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Discovery of the South-Hastern Coal-field.
By Professor W. Boyp Dawsxrns, F'.2.S.
The author pointed out that although the physical identity of the South.
Western coal-fields with those of Northern France and Belgium was recognised
by Buckland and Conybeare as far back as 1826, it was reserved for Godwin-
Austen to point out.the possibility (in 1855) and the probability (in 1858) of the
extension of the coal measures under the secondary rocks of South-Kastern.
These views were ratified by Prestwich, before the Coal Commission in 1866.
After referring to the sub-wealden boring, abandoned when carried to a depth
of 1,904 feet, the author stated that in 1886 he recommended to Sir KE. Watlkin
that a boring should be made on the site of the Channel Tunnel works, almost
in sight of Calais, where the coal measures had been reached at 1,104 feet, and
near the spot where about four hundredweight of bituminous material, possibly
derived from the coal measures below, had been found in the chalk. Professor
Prestwich had pointed out in 1873 the possibility of tunnelling across the
Channel in the older rocks, and Mr. Whitaker had also pointed out in 1886 the
desirability of making trial for coal at Dover.
A shaft was sunk on the west side of Shakespeare’s Cliff to a depth of 44 feet,
and from the bottom of this a bore-hole was carried to a depth of 1,500 feet,
through the following strata: Cretaceous, 500 feet; Jurassic, 613 feet; Coal
measures, 387 feet. The first seam of coal was struck at 1,140 feet, and five
other seams were met with at intervals down to 1,500 feet, giving, according to
Mr. Brady, 10 feet of workable coal in all. These coal measures dipped gently a
an angle of 2 degrees to the south, and are clearly within the limits at whieh ?
mining can be carried on at a profit, for the British coal-fields are worked to
depths of 3,000 feet, those of Belgium to 4,000 feet, and year by year the improved
means of ventilation carry the limit downwards.
The coal is bright and blazing, with cleat slightly lozenge-shaped, and, although
with marks of crushing in two seams, is much less injured in this respect than the
coals of the Boulonnais. Comparison with the Westphalian coal-field, which has
294 feet of workable coal, that of Liége with 212 feet, that of Mons with 250 feet,
and that of Somerset with 98 feet, suggests that the discovery of other and thicker
seams is merely a question of sinking deeper.
In conclusion, the author pointed out the importance of a new coal industry
in the south-east of England, carrying in its train many other industries, and not
improbably reviving under more favourable conditions the ancient wealden iron-
field, while he also indicated the important bearing of these discoveries on the
question of the durability of our coal supply.
The Geology of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
By W. Torrey, F.R.S., Assoc. Inst.C.E.
The object of this paper is to give a summary of some of the more important
facts as to the geological conditions under which petroleum and natural gas are
found in various parts of the world, noting the geological ages of the rocks in
which they occur, and the influence of geological structure in determining this
occurrence.
Few cases are known in which petroleum: occurs in rocks older than the Silu-
rian, and none where the amount is of any importance...
Petroleum occurs, but not in large quantity, in a trachyte-breccia at Taranaki,
New Zealand. In N.W. Hungary it is found in.a trachytic tuff of Miocene age,
_ and in some other areas small indications of petroleum are found in volcanic
638 REPORT—1891.
rocks. These, however, are exceptional cases; for in the great majority of cases
petroleum is far removed from any known indications of true volcanic action,
The great stores of petroleum and gas in Pennsylvania and New York are in
sandstone beds of the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous’ rocks. Of late years
great quantities of gas and oil have been obtained, chiefly in Ohio and Indiana,
from the Trenton Limestone (Ordovician).
The oil- and gas-fields of Pennsylvania and New York have a very simple
geological structure. The rocks lie comparatively undisturbed, being only gently
folded into a series of anticlinals and synclinals parallel with, and along the N.W.
side of, the main axes of the Alleghanies. These folds have themselves a gentle
inclination towards the S.W. In the Alleghanies, and to the S.E. of the range,
where the rocks are greatly disturbed, neither oil nor gas is found. Some of the
larger gas wells are on or near the summits of anticlinals, but many are not so
placed. In the Trenton Limestone fields of Ohio and Indiana tbe productive areas
are mainly over anticlinals, gas occurring at the crown of the arch, oil on the
slopes.
TThe essential conditions for a largely productive field of gas or oil are—a porous
reservoir (generally sandstone or limestone) in which the hydrocarbons can be
stored, and an impervious cover of shale retaining them in the reservoir. It is
also believed that they only occur where, in or under the porous reservoir, there
have been accumulations of fossil remains, the original decomposition of which
yielded the hydrocarbons. In the case of the sandstones the original source was
pos the fossiliferous shales which underlie them; in the case of the Trenton
imestone the source was probably the fossiliferous limestone itself. The lime-
stone is only productive under certain circumstances ; in its normal condition it is
a compact rock, and then it contains neither gas nor oil. But over large areas the
limestone has been dolomitized, and so transformed into a cavernous and porous
rock in which gas and oil are stored. The enormous quantities of gas and oil
given out from beds of limestone and sandstone can be fully accounted for when
their porous nature, thickness, and extent are taken into consideration. Some of
these rocks can contain from jth to 3th of their bulk of oil.
The high pressure under which gas and oil flow from deep borings can in most
cases be fully explained by artesian pressure.
In Kansas gas occurs mainly in the Lower Coal Measures. In Kentucky and
Tennessee oil is found in the Ohio shales (Up. Devonian), in Colorado in shales of
Cretaceous age. In California it is found in Tertiary strata, mostly much disturbed.
In Canada the chief source, in Ontario, is in Devonian rocks, along a well-
marked anticlinal; but gas and oil also occur in the Trenton Limestone. In the
North-West Territories there seem to be great stores of oil in Devonian rocks. Gas
and oil now found in Cretaceous strata of the prairies and Athabasca may have
been derived from underlying Devonian rocks; but in the Rocky Mountains, at
Crow’s Nest Pass, oil is probably native to the Cretaceous beds.
In Mexico, the West Indies, and parts of South America, Tertiary strata seem
to be the chief source of oil. The age of the petroleum-bearing unfossiliferous
sands, &c., of the Argentine Republic (province of Jujuy) is not certainly known;
they have been referred by different writers to various ages from Silurian to
Tertiary ; they are probably sub-Cretaceous. In Europe and Asia the petroleum-
bearing beds are of Secondary or Tertiary age, the Paleozoic rocks yielding only
an insignificant supply.
In North-west Germany we find petroleum in the Keuper Beds, and more or
less in other strata up to and including the Gault. As we pass to the south and
south-east from this district we find, as a general rule, that oil occurs in newer
strata. The various productive horizons of different districts are as follows :—
North-west Germany . ° ° » Keuper to Gault.
Rhone Valley “
Savoy } Sh wi ttige ig! “yg! Ye Jurassic:
aaaeit } . . ‘ . . ° + Neocomian and Cretaceous.
Elsass . < . . 5 . . . Oligocene.
NS ee ————«_~-~—~—~—~—~-~—-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 639
Bavaria : : ‘ 5 : ; . Lower Tertiary (Flysch).
Italy . : ; : : : : . Eocene.
Galicia ‘ 3 :
iorth-east Hungary } Neocomian to Miocene.
Poland
Roumania | Miocene.
Caucasus
The important districts of Baku occur on plains over anticlinals of Miocene beds.
The petroleum-bearing sands are interstratified with impervious clays, separating
the strata into distinct productive horizons.
In Algeria oil occurs in Lower Tertiary heds. The Egyptian petroleum comes
from Miocene strata.
Petroleum seems to be unknown in peninsular India; but it occurs in many
places along the flanks of the Himalayan range, and also in Lower Burma, generally
in Lower Tertiary strata. In Upper Burma and Japan the oil-bearing rocks are
probably Newer Tertiary. In all these areas the beds are greatly disturbed, and
the same is the case with the great Carpathian field; but it frequently happens
that the most productive regions are along anticlinal lines.
In New Zealand oil occurs in Cretaceous and Tertiary strata.
Petroleum and gas almost universally occur associated with brine. This may
come wholly or partly from the decomposition of the animal matter which has
produced the hydrocarbons, together with the remains of the sea-water originally
present in the rocks. But the frequent occurrence of rock-salt in the neighbourhood
of petroleum-bearing districts is worthy of note.
Summary.—The main points to be considered in respect to the geological con-
ditions under which petroleum and gas occur in quantity seem to be as follows :—
1. They occur in rocks of all geological ages, from Silurian upwards. The
most productive areas are Paleozoic in North America, Miocene in the Caucasus.
2. There is no relation to true volcanic action.
3. The most productive areas for oil in great quantity are where the strata are
comparatively undisturbed. Oil, but in less abundance, frequently occurs when
the strata are highly disturbed and contorted, but gas is rarely so found.
4. The main requisites for a productive oil- or gas-field are a porous reservoir
(sandstone or limestone) and an impervious cover.
5. Both in comparatively undisturbed and in highly disturbed areas, an anti-
clinal structure often favours the accumulation of oil and gas in the domes of the
arches.
6. Brine is an almost universal accompaniment of oil and gas.
3. The Origin of Petroleum By O. C. D. Ross.
In the course of introductory remarks the author contends that, owing to the
mystery surrounding the origin of petroleum, and to the paucity of indications
where to seek for it, practical men in this country distrust the permanence of the
‘supply, and hesitate to adopt it for many useful purposes; while the object of
this paper is to suggest a way of resolving the mystery which is calculated to
dissipate that distrust. The theories suggested by Reichenbach, Berthelot, Men-
delejeff, Virlet, Verneuil, Peckham, and others, which are briefly described, make
no attempt to account for the remarkable variety in its chemical composition, in its
specific gravity, its boiling points, &c., and are all founded on some hypothetical
rocess which differs from any with which we are acquainted; but modern geo-
ogists are agreed that (as a rule) the records of the earth’s history should be read
in accordance with those laws of Nature which continue in force at the present
day. £.g., the decomposition of fish would not now produce paraffin oil; hence
we can hardly believe it possible thousands, or millions, of years ago, so long as
it can be shown that any of the ordinary processes of Nature is calculated to
produce it. The chief characteristics of petroleum strata are enumeratedas: I. The
1 See the Chemical Nen's for October 16, 1891.
640 REPORT—1891.
existence of adjoining beds of limestone, gypsum, &c.; II. Volcanic action in close
proximity; III. The presence of salt water in the wells; IV. The great extent
of the production of oil, indicating subterranean receptacles of vast dimensions.
J. The close and invariable proximity of limestone to the wells has been noticed
by all writers, but they have been most impressed by its being ‘ fossiliferous,’ or
shell limestone, and have drawn the erroneous inference that the animal matter
once contained in those shells originated petroleum, but no fish oil ever contained
parafin. On the other hand, the fossil shells are carbonate of lime, and, as such,
capable of producing petroleum under circumstances such as many limestone beds
have been subjected to. All limestone rocks were formed under water, and are
mainly composed of calcareous shells, corals, encrinites, and foraminifera, the
latter similar to the foraminifera of ‘ Atlantic ooze’ and of English chalk beds.
Everywhere, under the microscope, its organic origin is conspicuous. Limestone
is the most widely diffused of all rocks and contains 12 per cent. of carbon.
Petroleum consists largely of carbon, and there is a far larger accumulation of
carbon in the limestone rocks of the United Kingdom than in all the Coal-measures
the world contains. A range of limestone rock 100 miles in length by 10 miles in
width and 1,000 yards in depth would contain 743,000 million tons of carbon, or
sufficient to provide carbon for 875,000 million tons of petroleum. Deposits of
bituminous shale have also limestone close at hand; e.., coral-rag underlies the
Kimmeridge clay, which is more or less saturated throughout with petroleum,
and it also underlies the famous Black-shale in Kentucky, which is extraordinarily
rich in oil.
II. The evidence of volcanic action in close proximity to petroleum strata is
next dealt with, and extracts in proof thereof are given from several writers. In
illustration of volcanic action on carbonate of lime, a sulphur mine in Spain, within
a short distance of an extinct volcano (with which the author is well acquainted),
is mentioned. That petroleum is not far off is indicated by a perpetual gas flame
in a neighbouring chapel and other symptoms; and, these circumstances having
attracted his attention, he observed that Dr. Christoph Bischof records in his
writings that he had produced sulphur in his own laboratory by passing hot
voleanic gases through chalk, which fact further led the author to remark that,
in addition to sulphur, ethylene, and all its homologues (C,H.»), which are the
oils predominating at Baku, would be produced by treating—
ON Ae Dele equiv. of limestone (carbonate of lime) with
oes Ok estas equiv. of sulphurous acid (SO?), and
276) 8) UO... equiv. of sulphuretted hydrogen (HS) ;
and that marsh gas and its homologues, which are the oils predominating in Penn-
sylyania, would be produced by treating—
U2, S54; \ Si axas equiv. of carbonate of lime, with
Aiea, Ag Oacseen equiv. of sulphurous acid, and
Deg digro yes neve equiv. of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Thus, we find that
Carbonate of lime 2Ca?CO8 2(Ca?SO'.H70) (gypsum)
Sulphurous acid 280? yield 48 (sulphur)
and sulphuretted hydrogen 4H?S C*H!4, which is ethylene,
and
Carbonate of lime Ca?CO? | if Ca?SO*.H?0 (gypsum)
Sulphurous acid SO? | yield 35 (sulphur)
and sulphuretted hydrogen 3H?S CH!', which is marsh gas.
These and all their homologues would be produced in nature by the action of
volcanic gases on limestone.
But much the most abundant of the volcanic gases appears (at any rate at the
surface) assteam, and petroleum appears to have been more usually produced
without sulphurous acid and with part of the sulphuretted hydrogen HS replaced
by H?O (steam), or H?O? (peroxide of hydrogen), which is the product that results
} TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 641
a from the combination of sulphuretted hydrogen and sulphurous acid (H*S + SO?
= H?0?+28). Thus
4
Ca?CO$ | “ Ca?SO*.H?O (gypsum)
H’S yiela } and
g 2H?0 J | CH‘, marsh gas
and
2Ca?CO8 { 2Ca’SO".H°O (gypsum)
2H°S yield and
2H?0? | CH", or ethylene.
__ Four tables are given at the end of the paper, showing the formule for the
homologues of ethylene and marsh gas resulting from the increase in regular grada~
tion of the same constituents,
It is explained that these effects must have occurred, not at periods of acute
_yoleanic eruptions, but in-conditions which may be and have been observed at the
present time wherever there are active solfataras, or fumaroles, at work. Descrip-
tions of the action of solfataras by the late Sir Richard Burton and a British
Consul in Iceland are quoted, also a paragraph from Lyell’s ‘ Principles of Geology,’
in which he says that the mud-volcanoes at Girgenti, in the Tertiary limestone
formation, ‘are known to have been casting out water, mixed with mud and drtu-
"men, with the same activity for the last fifteen centuries.’ Probably at all these
solfataras, if the gases traverse limestone, fresh deposits of oil-bearing strata are
accumulating; and how much may there not have been produced during fifteen
_ centuries !
Gypsum may also be an indication of oil-bearing strata, for the substitution
in limestone of sulphuric for carbonic acid can only be accounted for by the action
of these sulphurous gases. The abundance of gypsum in the United Kingdom
indicates that large volumes of petroleum are probably stored in places where it
has never yet been sought for. Gypsum is found extensively in the petroleum
districts of the United States, and it underlies the rock-salt beds of Middlesboro’
(N.E, Yorkshire), where, on being pierced, it has given passage to oil-gas, which
issues abundantly mixed with brine, and under great pressure from a great depth.
III. and IV:—Besides the space occupied by ‘natural gas,’ 17,000 million
gallons of petroleum have been raised in America since 1860, and that quantity
must have occupied 100,000,000 cubic yards ; aspace equal to a subterranean cavern
100 yards wide by twenty feet high and eighty-two miles in length, and it is
suggested that beds of ‘porous sandstone’ could hardly find room for so much;
while vast receptacles may exist, carved by water out of former heds of rock-salt
adjoining the limestone.
This would account for the brine ; and the increase to the molecular volume of
the gases consequent thereon would in part account for the pressure. It is further
suggested that when no such open spaces were available, the hydrocarbon vapours
were absorbed into and condensed in contiguous clays and shales, and perhaps
also in beds of coal, only partially consolidated at the time. There is an extensive
bituminous limestone formation in Persia, containing 20 per cent. of bitumen; and
the theory elaborated in the paper would account for bitumen and oil having
been found in Canada and ‘Tennessee imbedded in limestone, which fact Mr.
Peckham (in his article on Petroleum in the ‘ Encyclopedia Brit. 9th edition)
thought was a corroboration of his belief that some petroleums are a ‘ product of
- the decomposition of animal remains.’
Above all, this theory accounts for the many varieties in the chemical compo-
sition of paraffin oils, in accordance with ordinary operations of Nature during
‘successive geological periods,
4, A Comparison between the Rocks of South Pembrokeshire and those of
North Devon. By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., Sec. Geol. Soc.
_ Theclear succession from the Silurian rocks to the Carboniferous to be observed
_in many sections in South Pembrokeshire offers, in the author’s opinion, the key to
_ .the true interpretation of the succession in the rocks of North Deyon, for there
1891. TT
642 REPORT—1891.
cannot be a doubt that the post-Carboniferous earth-movements which so power-
fully affected and folded the beds in North Devon extended into and produced
almost identical results in South Pembrokeshire. In the latter area, however, the
succession remains clearer, and can be traced more continuously.
The base of the Silurian (Upper Silurian of Survey) is exposed at many
points, and the lower beds, usually conglomerates, repose transgressively on the
Ordovician, and even on some pre-Cambrian rocks. Near Johnston and Stoney
Slade the conglomerate contains numerous pebbles of the Johnston and Great Hill
granite as well as of other igneous masses which were formerly supposed to be
intrusive in these beds. From the Silurian conglomerate to the Carboniferous beds
there does not appear to be any evidence of a very marked break in the series; more-
over, all these beds were folded together and suffered equally by the movements
which affected the area. The axes of the folds strike from about W.N.W. to
E.S.E. The movements, therefore, at this time were in a nearly opposite direction
to those which affected the Ordovician and Cambrian rocks at the close of the
Ordovician period. Within the broken anticlinal folds portions of the old land
surfaces have been exposed in several places by denudation.
The succession exposed in this area and the effects produced by the earth-move-
ments so nearly resemble those already described by the author as occurring in
North Devon, that he is convinced that the beds must have been deposited con-
temporaneously in one continuous subsiding area, and that the differences recognis-
able are chiefly in the basal beds, which were deposited on an uneven land surface.
He believes that the Morte slates of North Devon are a portion of an old land
surface on which the so-called Devonian rocks were deposited, and he also believes
that the Devonian rocks are only the representatives in Devonshire of the Lower
Carboniferous, Old Red Sandstone (and possibly of some of the Silurian rocks), of
Pembrokeshire. A critical examination of the fossil evidence tends strongly to con-
firm this view.
5. Vulcanicity in Lower Devonian Rocks. The Prawle Problem.
By W. A. HE. Ussuer, £.G.S8.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. |
In the area extending south from the Middle Devonian volcanic series of
Ashprington to the Prawle there appears to be no proof of the occurrence of strata
older than Lower Devonian. There is no adequate reason for assuming that Lower
Devonian rocks as old as the Gedinnian occur on the surface, and there is no
certainty that the lowest beds are older than the Lower Coblenzian.
The occurrence of local volcanic action in Lower Devonian time is proved
by a series of diabases and tuffs near Dartmouth, in the Kingswear Promontory,
near Stoke Fleming, and in the line of country west from Torcross.
In association with the northern chloritic band (running from the mouth of
the valley on the north of Hall Sands on the east to Hope on the west) we find
volcanic materials identical in character with varieties of volcanic rocks associated
with the Devonian slates in the line of country west from Torcross; and here and
there in the line of country west from Torcross the volcanic rocks assume a more
or less pronounced chloritic aspect. The junction of the slates on the north with
the northern chloritic band is a strictly normal one, the chloritie rocks being
almost invariably separated from the slates by brown voleanic materials which are
everywhere succeeded by the same type of Devonian slate, and in the Southpool
Creek and many other sections are found to pass insensibly into the chloritie type.
In the Southpool Creek section a hard bluish diabase (? aphanite) occurs in the
chloritic band. In the southern chloritic districts of the Prawle the volcanic rocks
may still be here and there detected by texture or colour. Volcanic rocks occur in
the mica schists of the Start coast, and can be detected even when only a few
inches in thickness. At Spirit-of-the-Ocean Cove chloritic rock with much calc-
spar occurs in association with tuffs and a grey rock with incipient foliation, pre-
senting a slightly gneissoid appearance, and apparently a much sheared diabase.
The association of the chloritic rocks with the mica schists is of as intimate a
—
i TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 643
nature as that of the volcanic materials with the unaltered slates to the north.
From these facts it seems evident that the chloritic series is nothing more than a
Devonian voleanic group, of which the Torcross, Stoke Fleming, Dartmouth, and
Kingswear coast tuffs and diabases were either sporadic offshoots or evidences of
more or less contemporaneous local vulcanicity.
The more evident crinkling of the mica schists in contact with the chloritic
group seems to be due to their comparative softness and greater fissility during the
erumpling and contraction to which both were subjected.
The comparative suddenness of the transition from unaltered to more or less
highly altered rocks may be explained by the lessening of strain (in receding from
the harder masses of ancient rocks, against which the beds were jammed), being
coincident with the thinning out of the volcanic materials northward, and further-
more fayoured by the soft character of the grey slates with limonitic interfilmings
which everywhere bound the northern chloritic band on the north. It is not the
author’s present purpose to enter more particularly into the stratigraphy of this
interesting region, which is not yet thoroughly worked out. It only remains to
acknowledge the prior claim of Mr. Somervail to the suggestion of the identity of
the Devonian diabases with the chloritic rocks."
6. On the Occurrence of Detrital Tourmaline in a Quartz-schist west of
Start Point, South Devon. By A. R. Hentz, W.A., F.G.S.
While examining the Devonian cliffs near Street Gate, at the north-east end cf
Slapton Sands, South Devon, in company with Mr. W. A. E. Ussher, F.G.S., the
author selected a hard micaceous sandstone of fine grain, occurring as a band
between softer rocks, for comparison with a micaceous quartzite or quartz-schist,
previously noticed by Mr. Ussher at a point on the coast south of Start Farm and
west of Start Lighthouse. The quartz-schist occurs as an impersistent band among
the mica-schists west of Start Point.
Mr. A. Harker, F.G.S., on examining the sandstone, at once pointed out the
presence of tourmaline and white mica, of detrital origin; and considered that the
rock had the appearance of having been derived from a tourmaline-bearing granite.
On a careful examination of two slides of the quartz-schist,’ the author detected
a single grain of tourmaline. Six additional slides were forthwith prepared, and
detrital tourmaline was found in them all. One of these slides contains a pellucid
grain of quartz with fluid inclusions and active bubbles ; another contains a grain
erowded with hair-like inclusions and with one fluid inclusion whose bubble is
easily moved by the heat of a wax match. Both these grains could be easily
matched in the quartzes of different granites.
_ The derivation of the quartz-schist from granites of more than one character,
but one of which must have been schorlaceous, seems clearly indicated.
_ The above facts have two distinct bearings, viz.,as to the age of the meta-
morphic schists of South Devon, and as to the derivation of the tourmaline,
__ The two rocks under consideration, viz., the quartz-schist and the Devonian
sandstone, are related to each other in four particulars, insomuch as they contain
four constituents common to both, viz., detrital tourmaline, detrital mica, quartz
_ of fine grain, and iron.
It seems difficult to avoid the conclusion that such similar rocks must be of
like age and derivation; and that as the sandstone is undoubtedly Devonian, the
quartz-schist, one of the metamorphic schists of South Devon, must be of Devonian
age also, and not Archzan, as has been supposed by some geologists.
The derivation of the tourmaline is a more difficult question. Whatever may
be the age of the mass of the Dartmoor granites, those of a schorlaceous character
_ seem to be post-Carboniferous. Moreover, no tourmaline has been noticed in the
1 The views above expressed are those to which the author himself has been led,
_ but they have not yet been fully considered and adopted by the Geological Survey.
‘ * The hand specimen selected for slicing was kindly placed at the author’a
- disposal by Mr. A. Somervail, of Torquay.
TT 2
644 REPORT—1891.
granites trawled in the English Channel. There is thus no recognised source of
pre-Devonian tourmaline in the neighbourhood of South Devon, yet the source of
derivation of the rocks under discussion could not seemingly be remote, or the
tourmaline, quartz, and mica could scarcely have kept together. The tourmaline
granites of Cornwall would meet the case, if any of these are of pre-Devonian age ;
but on this point the author has no information.
Besides the tourmaline observed in the rocks at Street Gate and Start Point,
the author has noticed the same mineral, occurring in the same way, ina sandstone
from near Tinsey Head in Start Bay, and in a sandstone from near Charleton, on
the Kingsbridge estuary, both of Devonian age.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on the Circulation of Underground Waters.
See Reports, p. 300.
2. Note on the Discovery of Estheria Minuta (var. Brodieana) in the New
Red Sandstone. Dy C. EB. De Rance, £.G.8., of H.M. Geological
Survey.
This minute crustacean was first discovered by the Rev. P. B. Brodie, F.G.S.,
in the Rhetic, at Wainlode Cliff, Gloucestershire, and was named after him by
Professor Rupert Jones. it was afterwards found in a band of fine sandstone
occurring in the Keuper marls, at several localities in the Midland counties. Still
later it was discovered in the Letten Kohl of the Baden Trias, which is the lowest
horizon of the German Keuper.
In September of last year I discovered a small assemblage of these shells in
the lowest member of the Cheshire Keuper, viz. the Lower Keuper building
stones; they occurred in a pebble of marl, of a deep purple colour, enclosed in a
pale yellow sandstone, at Broadhurst’s quarry, Alderley Edge. The majority of the
specimens are now in the British and Jermyn Street Museums, and they have been
described by our President, Professor Rupert Jones, in the ‘ Geological Magazine.’
I have failed to find any more, after the most careful search.
It is worthy of note that the oldest-known mammal, Microlestes Moore?, Owen,
occurs in the German Letten Kohl; but in England, where it was discovered by
Mr. Charles Moore in 1858, it is not known below the Rheetic. The small mammal,
and the minute crustacean, occurring both above and below the Keuper marls,
may it not be hoped that the mammal may also be found in England, and support
the views of the late Professor Forbes, that the beds now called Rheetic are really
part of the Trias: a view also held by the late Sir Philip Egerton, on the
evidence of the fish remains.
3, Report of the Committee on Geological Photographs.
See Reports, p. 321.
4. Notes upon Colobodus, a Genus of Mesozoic Fossil Fishes.
By Montact Brownz, F.Z.S., F.G.S.
Colobodus appears to have been first constituted a genus in the year 1837 by
Louis Agassiz (see ‘ Poissons Fossiles,’ Tome IL., ii® partie, p. 237), who gave this
name to some Lepidotus-like teeth (Colobodus hogardi) from the Muschelkalk,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 645
,
which he described thus:—‘ Par leur taille elles tiennent le milieu entre les
Microdon et les Sphzrodus. De formes arrondies et cylindracées vers la base, les
— dents ont leur couronne renflée en forme de massue, et sur le milieu de Ja couronne
séléve encore un petit mammelon tronqué, ce qui a valu 4 ce genre son nom de
Colobodus.’
Since that time teeth of a similar generic character have been described or
figured by various authors, e.g. Count Munster (assuming Asterodon to be identical),
Plieninger, Giebel, Gervais, Meyer, Chop, E. E. Schmid, Alberti, Eck, Winkler,
Giirich, W. Dames, und A.S. Woodward. The typical teeth, however—z.e. those
upon which the ‘nipple,’ or apical tubercle, is present—must be sought amongst
_ the various species of Colobodus and Lepidotus (of Plieninger, 1847); whilst inter-
mediate forms, or those from which the ‘nipple’ has been partly or entirely
_ removed by wearing or by post-mortem abrasion, must be sought amongst those
_ described under the various species of Lepidotus, Spherodus, Gyrodus, ‘ Tetra-
gonolepis’ (of Winkler, and of Agassiz in part}, Tholodus and Thelodus, Eupleu-
_ rodus, Sargodon (not cutting teeth), and even amongst teeth variously attributed
to Sawrichthys and to ‘ Saurians,’ whilst the chisel-shaped, or pre-maxillary, teeth
are probably those attributed to Sargodon tomicus.
Fragments of the head and trunk and scales of Colobodus have been described
or figured by H. B. Geinitz, Meyer and Plieninger, Giebel, Meyer, Quenstedt, Eck,
Kner, H. Kunisch, W. Dames, J. von Rohon, and A. 8. Woodward, and must be
sought amongst the various species ascribed to Gyrolepis and Amblypterus, Lepi-
dotus, Heterolepidotus, Eugnathus, Pleurolepis, Dactylolepis, and also amongst
yarious Ganoid scales (‘Ganoidschuppen’ and ‘ Fischschuppen ’).
Up to the present neither the teeth nor the scales of Colobodus have been recog-
nised as such in Britain by any authors, or, above the Muschelkalk and Lettenkohle,
abroad: its occurrence and recognition, therefore, in the Rhéetic of Britain is
interesting, and:the author exhibited typical and transitional teeth which he found
and recognised in the Rheetic ‘ bone-beds’ of Watchet and Aust Cliff; worn and
abraded teeth (‘Sargodon tomicus’ and ‘Spherodus’) from thence and from
Leicestershire ; and what are probably the larger cutting teeth from Aust and
Leicestershire ; also fine characteristic scales and (P head-) bones showing vermicu-
lated sculpture from Aust. All may, for the present, be referred to Colobodus
maximus .(Quenstedt).
Finally, should Colobodus prove to be identical with Lepzdotus, a further fusion
of Heterolepidotus and Eugnathus will give Colobodus a more extended upward
range than has hitherto been supposed.
5. Report of the Committee on Earth Tremors——See Reports, p. 333.
6. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic Phenomena of Veswvius.
See Reports, p. 312.
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Cause of an Ice Age. By Sir Roserr Batt, F.B.S.
The ordinary statement of the astronomical theory of the Ice Age seems to be
_ founded on a passage in Sir John Herschel’s outlines of Astronomy. It is from
this that Dr. Croll’s theory has been developed. It is the object of this communi-
cation to point out that by what seems to have been a mathematical mistake on
_ the part of Herschel, a wholly erroneous statement of the matter was presented,
646 REPORT—1891.
The error was not perceived by Croll. He, perhaps not unnaturally, accepted
Herschel’s authority on such a matter, and consequently a thorough revision of
Croll’s calculations and his doctrines based thereon becomes necessary.
In a work now in the press, bearing the title of this paper, I have endeavoured
to develop the correct view of the subject, and to rewrite the astronomical theory
of the Ice Age. I may, however, here remark that the error into which Dr. Croll
unfortunately fell was very prejudicial to the conclusion he strove to prove.
Had he been acquainted with the accurate version of the mathematical facts, he
would have been able to show a much stronger case for the astronomical doctrine
of the Ice Age than that he actually presented.
The essential point of the present communication lies in the announcement
that—
If 100 represent the total number of heat units received on a hemisphere of
the earth in a year, then 63 will be the share received during summer, and 37
during winter.
A special importance attaches to these figures from the circumstance that they
are absolutely independent of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, or of the position
of the equinoxes. They depend solely upon the obliquity of the ecliptic, and this
is a magnitude which, so far as our present purpose is concerned, may be regarded
as constant during geological time.
The distribution of the heat just stated is the point which I now desire to
emphasise. Herschel stated the numbers to be 50 and 50. If his attention had
been sufficiently given to the matter, he would have seen that the numbers were
3 and 37. The correction is an important one.
It is to be remembered that the units in which we are reckoning express the
total heat received from the sun. As the sun heat alone preserves the earth
from sinking to the temperature of space, it follows that the sun heat really main-
tains a temperature some hundreds of degrees greater than we would otherwise
have. A fluctuation in sun heat, which appeared small in comparison with the
total amount, might involve a vast change in climate.
Owing to the perturbations of the planets, it will occasionally happen that the
eccentricity of the earth’s orbit will become larger than it is at present. It seems
that the maximum eccentricity is sufficient to produce an inequality between the
duration of summer and winter amounting to 33 days. We have, therefore, the
following possible conditions in either northern or southern hemisphere :—
Summer . . 2 . 199 days. at Summer . ° E . 166 days.
Winter. ‘ A . 166 days. Winter . : : . 199 days.
In each case it must be borne in mind that 63 heat-units arrive in summer
and 37 in winter. If the summer be the lone one and the winter be short, then
the allotment of heat between the two seasons is fairly adjusted. The 63 units
are distributed over the 199 days, and the 37 units over 166 days, and a milder
climate than our present one results. This is the genial inter-glacial state for that
hemisphere. If, however, a torrent of heat represented by 63 units is received
during a brief summer of 166 days, while the balance of 37 units is made to
stretch itself over 199 days, then a brief and intensely hot summer is followed by
a very long and cold winter. As this condition lasts for many centuries it seems
sufficient to produce a glacial epoch.
I have only to add that on this view there must have been not only one but
several Glacial epochs throughout geological time, but they doubtless occurred at
very irregular intervals, and with wide differences in severity. It is, however,
noteworthy that the theory requires that when the northern hemisphere is glaciated
the southern hemisphere shall be in a genial state, and vice versd. It is also to
be observed that so long as the hich eccentricity of the earth’s orbit is maintained
the procession of the equinoxes will cause the glaciation to shift from one hemi-
sphere to another in a period of 10,500 (ten thousand five hundred) years. I do
not mean that this will always be the interval, but it does seem probable that
there may be clusters of two, three, or more ice ages, the individual members of
which are so divided. Tach cluster is separated from the next by a vast period
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 647
_ of hundreds of thousands of years. There is no means, so far as I at present
__ know, of indicating the law of recurrence of ice ages with any further accuracy of
detail.
I would also like to say that while I have here striven to enunciate with
- precision the astronomical aspect of the problem, I am profoundly conscious of
the many geological agents which may contribute to modify the effects of which
‘Tam treating.
2. Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks.—See Reports, p. 276.
3. Notes on the Glacial Geology of Norway. By H. W. Crossxeyr, DL.D.,
F.G.S.
_ Attention was called to a passage in the standard work on ‘ Norway and its
Glaciers’ by Forbes, p. 24, in which itis stated that they are questionable traces of
: glaciers on the Dovre-fjeld, and that nothing decisive of their action, either by
wearing and polishing the rocks where they come into view or in the deposition
of glaciers, could be seen. ‘Nor are the mounds of stone (it is added), which are
abundant enough, sufficiently characteristic to deserve the appellation of moraines.
They are indeed sometimes disposed in flat-topped ridges; but this is due, if I
mistake not, to the eroding action of torrents, which have gradually undermined
them, leaving abrupt talus, which at first resemble moraines, but in their present
form it is difficult or impossible to identify them.’
Since the time of Forbes the deposits of the Glacial epoch have been studied in
greater detail, and it is now possible to assign to their proper places and causes
_ many deposits which it has previously been regarded as impossible to identify.
The description given of the Dovre-fjeld needs many corrections and additions.
‘The plateau is hidden to a considerable extent by a rough layer of stony material,
but wherever the basement rock is exposed glaciation may be found. The mounds
that are alluded to by Forbes are related to the action of ice among the mountains
which bound the Dovre-fjeld. The glaciers in the valleys of those mountains
descended over the Dovre-fjeld, and accumulated their moraines upon it, and
the mounds are the relics of lateral glaciers. As the snows melted, torrents
of water were poured down from the surrounding mountains over the Dovre-
fjeld, larger lakes than those now existing were formed within any hollows and
within the boundaries of morainic dams.
As the climate ameliorated the snows lessened, and the torrents of water weré
less excessive ; but streams and rivers abounded, connecting the diminished lakes.
Owing to these processes, the moraines were swept away to a large extent, only
:
t
4
small mounds being left, and their material was distributed over the surface of
the plateau. Angular blocks were rounded, and glaciated surfaces buried beneath
the débris.
In the deposits of the Dovre-fjeld there is thus every proof—(1) of a period of
extreme glaciation ; (2) of the existence of glaciers descending from lateral valleys
in the surrounding mountains; (3) of the gradual disappearance of these glaciers
and the washing of their moraines over the general surface of the fjeld.
_ Not a few erratic ice-worn blocks also occur, although in many cases they
have been water-worn during the course of the history described.
A, Recent Discoveries concerning the Relation of the Glacial Period in North
America to the Antiquity of Man. By Professor G. FREDERICK
Wricat, F.G.S.A., LL.D., Oberlin, Ohio, U.S.A.
_ Paleolithic implements of the type of those found in the high-level gravel of
the Valley of the Somme, and of various streams of Southern England, have now
been found in similar gravel deposits in no less than seven different places in the
United States—namely at Trenton, New Jersey, by Dr.'C. C. Abbott; at
648 REPORT—1891.
Claymont, Delaware, by Dr, H. T. Cresson; at Newcomerstown, Ohio, by Mr.
W. C. Mills; at Loveland and Madisonville, Ohio, by Dr. M. C. Metz; at Medora,
Indiana, by Dr. Cresson; and at Little Falls, Minnesota, by Miss Babbitt. The
determination of the age of these implements requires a general study of the Glacial
phenomena of the continent.
Through the combined labours of many observers, the southern boundary of
the glaciated region has been carefully traced across the continent, and found to
run in an irregular course from the vicinity of New York City, south-westward
through Cincinnati in Ohio, to Carbondale, about latitude 38°, in southern Illinois,
Thence it bears north-westward, following approximately the course of the Mis-
souri River, and entering Canada a hundred miles or mora east of the Rocky
Mountains. The centre of radiation for this portion of the ice-field was in the
vicinity of the south-east of Hudson Bay, and this portion has been named the
Laurentide glacier. From that centre the ice movement was west and north, as
well as east and south.
Whether the Laurentide glacier became confluent on the west with the
Cordilleran glacier, which occupied the vast region in British Columbia west of
the Rocky Mountains, is still in dispute. But it is certain that the ice from that
centre, as well as in the mountains of southern Alaska, moved outward in all
directions. The glaciation of the Rocky Mountains, and of the Cascade Range
south of the Canadian boundary, was comparatively slight.
The distribution of ice during the Glacial period in North America bears
strongly against all theories which attribute the phenomena to cosmical causes,
There was not a Polar ice-cap, but an accumulation about centres mainly south of
the Arctic Circle. While there is accumulating evideuce pointing to an extensive
elevation of the glaciated areas during the latter part of the Tertiary period, and
of a subsidence at the same time of the Isthmus of Panama. The valleys occupied
by the great lakes were probably mainly formed by erosion during that period
of elevation, the old lines of drainage having been closed up by the débris of the
Glacial period. This is clearly the case with Lake Erie, and, to a large extent,
may be the case with the other lakes. There are positive signs of such old
channels, now buried, leading to the Mississippi from Lake Michigan, and to the
Hudson from Lake Ontario.
The Paleolithic implements discovered in North America are from the terraces
of streams flowing outward from the glaciated region—namely, the Delaware, on
the Atlantic coast, the Tuscarawas, the Little Miami, and the White, in the
Valley of the Ohio, and the Upper Mississippi. Similar terraces are universal
along the streams flowing out of the glaciated region, and are composed mainly of
material which was first transported from the distant north by Glacial ice. They
are doubtless the deposits occurring during the floods which characterised the
closing portion of the Glacial period. Associated with these implements are the
bones of the mammoth and some other animals, now either wholly extinct, or
extinct in that region. In New Jersey the bones of several Arctic species have
been found.
The approximate date of these closing scenes of the Glacial period seems pretty
clearly to be indicated by the recession of the Falls of Niagara and of St. Anthony,
where the conditions are uniform, and the length of the gorges, as well as the rate
of recession, known. In both cases the length is a little over seven miles, and the
rate has been ascertained to be between 3 feet and 5 feet per year. The streams
cannot have been at their work of erosion in those channels much more than
10,000 years. A similar result is obtained independently from calculations
respecting the enlargement of post-Glacial valleys, the erosion of the banks of
Lake Michigan, and the post-Glacial silting-up of many small lakes. But how
much earlier than this man’s advent on the continent may have occurred it is not
80 easy to determine.
The extent of post-Glacial subsidence is much disputed, and has important
bearings on the question of: the continuity of Glacial man with the races now
occupying the continent. The post-Glacial subsidence, of which there seems to be
sufficient evidence, amounts only to about 500 feet in the lower axis of the
Pa pee 4 ea ae ee eee eee ee eee
> her
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 649
Mississippi Valley, to 230 feet on the coast of Maine, and to 500 feet at Montreal
and in the valley of the Ottawa River.
The question of a succession of Glacial epochs has narrowed itself down in
America to the question whether or not there have been two epochs, or one epoch,
with minor halts in the recession of the ice. So far as my own observation goes,
and it has been extensive, the complete separation between the epochs does not
seem to be proved. The forest beds are all pretty well towards the southern part,
of the area, and are many of them probably pre-Glacial, while others are of sucha
nature that they might have accumulated in a comparatively brief episode of oscilla-
tion of the ice front. The terminal moraine of what is called the Second Glacial
epoch, which stretches with a good degree of continuity from the Atlantic to the -
Mississippi, may well enough be regarded as a moraine of retrocession, of which there
are numerous other instances, on a smaller scale, both north and south of this.
5. On the Evidences of Glacial Action in Pembrokeshire, and the Direction of
Ice-flow. By Hexry Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., Sec. Geol. Soe.
The occurrence of ice-scratched rocks and of northern erratics in north-west
Pembrokeshire has already been mentioned by the author, but in this paper he
brings forward much additional evidence to show that, during the glacial period, a
great thickness of land-ice must have passed over Pembrokeshire.
The glacial strize which are so well preserved under the drift along the north-
west coast, especially at Whitesand Bay, show that the ice travelled over that area
mainly from a north-western direction. The presence of erratics from North
Wales and from Ireland would tend to the conclusion that glaciers from these
areas coalesced in St. George’s Channel, and that the ice which overspread Pem-
brokeshire was derived from both of these sources, as well, probably, as from a flow
extending down the channel from more northernareas. Although there are in the
district many northern erratics, notably a large boulder of granite and another of
picrite, which the author found on Porthlisky farm, two miles south-west of St.
David’s, yet by far the majority are of local origin and can be traced back to the parent
rocks. The great igneous masses which now form such conspicuous hills along the
north coast yielded most of the boulders, many of very large size, which are so
freely spread over the undulating land reaching to the coast of St. Bride’s Bay.
There are clear evidences to show that this bay was itself overspread by a great
thickness of drift from these hills. The intervening pre-glacial valleys were also
filled by this drift, and the plains and rising grounds up to heights of between
300 and 400 feet still retain evidences of its former presence, and many perched
blocks. Excellent sections of unstratified drift, containing large ice-scratched
boulders, are exposed in Whitesand Bay, and a thickness of several feet of an
irregularly stratified sand was, some time since, exposed under the boulder clay on
the east side of the bay. Chalk flints have been found at heights of over 300 feet,
probably having been brought from Ireland. The picrite boulder already referred
to has been shown by Professor Bonney to resemble masses of that rock exposed in
Carnaryonshire and Anglesea, and the granite boulder, which before it was broken
must have been over 7 feet in length and 3 to 4 feet in thickness, is identical with
a porphyritic granite exposed in Anglesea, but not found anywhere in Pembroke-
shire. The evidences, therefore, which go to prove that Pembrokeshire was buried
under an ice-sheet that must have spread southwards into the Bristol Channel,
are, the presence of many northern erratics, both as perched blocks and in drifts at
heights above 300 feet, ice-scratched, smoothed and polished rock surfaces, and, in
oe) much crushing and bending of some of the strata ; also great dispersions of
oulders from igneous rocks on the north coast in a south-west direction, and some
well-marked examples of ‘ crag and tail.’
650 REPORT—1891.
6. Note on Boulders at Darley, near Matlock, Derbyshire.
By Herserr Boxrton, Assistant Keeper, Manchester Museum.
During the excavation fur a small lake close to the Midland Railway Station
at Darley, near Matlock, a cluster of fifteen boulders was exposed, the size of
several being sufficient to justify an examination. The size of the largest boulder
was 10 feet x 6 feet x G feet.
The boulders lay in a bed of boulder clay which had a thickness of nine
feet.
The upper part of the clay was of a strong yellow colour and very stiff. Below,
the colour varied from yellow to brown and red, and pockets of sand were com-
mon.
Only two boulders were well rounded, the rest being sub-angular on their upper
half, and fairly angular on the lower.
All the boulders consist of gritstone identical in character with the Chatsworth
grit of the adjoining hills.
No striations occur on the boulders, but this may be due to the original surface
having crumbled away. :
A series of parallel and shallow grooves occurs on the side of the largest boulders,
and a deep hollow has been scooped out of its southern face.
The major axis of the undisturbed boulders was approximately north and
south, the general direction for the cluster being 8° west of north.
The blocks were arranged in the order of their weight in a north to south
direction.
The clay was found to rest upon a deposit of the nature of river gravel.
The writer is of opinion that the clay is redistributed boulder clay brought
down from the adjoining heights, and that the boulders were brought down at the
same time from the line of outcrop of the grit.
He is led to this conclusion by the local character of the boulders, the almost
total absence of foreigners, and the character of the clay. ;
The red and brown colour of the latter at its base seems to show that oxidation
of the contained iron has proceeded for a longer time than in the case of the upper-
most clay.
This would be expected if the clay was redistributed, for the basement mass of
clay must have been the superficial clay of the heights.
The enclosed sand would also indicate the complete disintegration of boulders
of gritstone, &c., whilst the clay was in its primary position.
The amount of disintegration which has taken place since redistribution ‘is
marked by the crumbling surface of the large boulders.
The general direction of the boulders may be explained by noting that the
river flows from north to south.
7. Notes of a Section of Drift at Levenshulme, Manchester.
By Percy F. Kenpaur, F.G.S.
In the construction of a new railway between Chorlton-cum-Hardy and
Fairfield a good opportunity was afforded of studying the effects of land-ice.
The part of the cuttings particularly observed was that extending from Fallow-
field almost to the L. and N.-W. Railway at Levenshulme, in a line almost
accurately from west to east.
Throughout the whole distance the solid geology was displayed with a
covering of boulder clay. The rocks consisted in descending sequence (and from
west to east) of triassic pebble beds (fault), Permian marl, Permian sandstone,
and upper coal measures containing several beds of Ardwick limestone (see
‘Brockbank and De Rance, Mem. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc., 4th Series,
Vol. iv.). The triassic rocks when soft were much mangled and crushed at their -
contact with the drift ; but in places, nearly horizontal intrusions of boulder clay
were interposed between the bedding. These intrusions always entered from the
west.
:
|
i ee all
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 651
At one point the triassic beds rose to within about 2 feet of the top of the
cutting, the ground being nearly level.
At the fault blocks of triassie rocks were dragged over on to the Permian
marls. The marls were greatly mangled, and some erratics of large size
(andesites, &c.) were involyed in their mass, At the base of the marls a coarse
bed of hard breccia occurred and its surface was striated from N. 65° W. It was
observed that this surface was about 16 feet lower than the triassic sandstone, and
therefore the striz could not have been produced by floating ice, for ice which
could clear the ridge to the westward could not ground at a lower level.
The bands of Ardwick limestone had been much ice-worn, and from each
outcrop a long train of boulders stretched away to eastward.
A large boulder of coal measure sandstone (not local) lay embedded in the
base of the boulder-clay, and having lodged against its eastern end a large mass
of Ardwick limestone derived from an outcrop to the westward. The upper
surface of the sandstone boulder was scratched from N.50° W. This stone had
probably been dragged by land-ice across the limestone, and had torn off a mass
which in a transit of 50 yards brought it to a stand, tearing it out of the ice which
moved on and glaciated the upper surface of the boulder. Fragments of each
formation were carried to eastward of the parent mass, but never to westwards.
Several large erratics were observed and, with one exception, all had their long
axes in approximately the same direction, viz—a few degrees north of west.
The exceptional direction was about N. 20° W.
The author is of opinion that the agreement between the direction of—(1) the
boulder-transportal ; (2) the intrusions of boulder-clay ; (3) the orientation of
large boulders; and (4) of ice-scratches upon rock-surface and the upper surfaces
of boulders, constitutes proof of the action of land, and not floating, ice.
8. The Lava Beds of California and Idaho, and their Relation to the An-
tiquity of Man. By Professor G. ‘Freperick Wericut, LL.D.,
F.G.8.A., Oberlin, Ohio, U.S.A.
A brief account was given of the extent of the basaltic beds on the Pacific
Coast, and evidence was presented in proof that they were in the main of post-
tertiary age.
New evidence, collected by Professor Wright and by Mr. Geo. F. Becker,
was presented confirmatory of the genuineness of the Calaveras skull and other
human remains reported upon by Professor Whitney as from under the lava flow
of Table Mountain, near Sonora, California. Evidence was also presented of the
discovery of a small clay image under the western edge of the lava plains of
Idaho, at Nampa. These lava outbursts are correlated with the Glacial period in
the eastern part of the continent.
9. Report of the Committee on Excavations at Oldbury Hill.
See Reports, p. 353.
10. Preliminary Notes on the Excavations at Oldbury Hill.
By Josrrn Prestwicu, D.C.L., F.LR.S.
No rock-shelters like those in Central France have yet been discovered in this
country. In France they occur in a cretaceous district, where the strata weather
unequally, so that projecting ledges of rock are left over recesses worn out by
“natural agencies, and adapted by paleolithic man for his rude dwelling-places.
Large numbers of flint and other implements, mixed with the débris of animals on
which he fed, afford proofs of his habitation. Sites presenting somewhat similar
adaptabilities occur on Oldbury Hill, near Ightham, in Kent. This hill rises
above the level of the surrounding Lower Greensand to the height of 600 feet,
and is capped by some of the hard siliceous grits of the Folkestone beds, which
652 REPORT—1891,
form a flat top to it, 187 acres in extent. Its isolation and commanding position
caused it to be chosen for the site of an encampment, first by the Britons and
subsequently by the Romans. For the same reasons, it had attracted at an earlier
date palolithic man to the district, and he left a considerable number of his flint
implements scattered around and on the slopes of the hill. This led Mr. Harrison
and myself to suppose that the capping of rock, which was underlaid by loose
friable sands, and overhung in places, might have afforded facilities for rock
shelters; and for the purpose of inquiry Mr. Harrison undertook to direct the
necessary search, aided by a grant from the British Association. The summit
of the hill and much of the slopes are, however, so thickly wooded that it
was with difficulty that a proper site could be fixed upon. The one that seemed
tous and others most likely was on the north-east side of the hill, where a large
mass of rock formed a low cliff with a small cavity beneath it. Ixcavations were
accordingly commenced here, but the fallen blocks and the large roots of the
adjacent trees so interfered with the work that, after digging to the depth of 2 to
3 feet without making any discovery, the spot had to be abandoned. It next
occurred to Mr. Harrison that the talus, which extended for some distance on the
slope in front of this ledge of rocks, might have carried with it some of the inhabited
ground, or might have covered some of the original sites. He therefore proceeded
to dig lower down the hill where the ground was undisturbed and free from large
trees.
Here he was successful in finding, at a depth of about 3 feet, a considerable
number of flint implements and a large quantity of chips and flakes, which louk as
though the implements had been made on the spot.
There is little to distinguish these implements from the ordinary valley-
implements that are so common in the Ightham district, except that, on the whole,
they are more carefully finished and of fewer forms. The prevailing forms ati
Oldbury are the small pointed lance-shaped implements worked on both sides, and
the thin, neatly-worked, long, triangular, spear-shaped, of which there are some
highly finished specimens. These are forms which occur at Le Moustier, as do
likewise some of the ruder Oldbury forms. As also at Le Moustier, there is an
absence so far of bone implements, so common in the other Dordogne shelters.
Again, at Oldbury the more ordinary valley-types are wanting; and so also are
rolled and worn specimens so frequent in other localities. The explorations,
however, have been at present on too limited a scale to allow of any general
conclusions being drawn. But as there are still other spots at Oldbury which are
likely to have been used for rock-shelters, it is to be hoped that the work may be
continued, and further information obtained. Mr. Harrison’s Report, which gives
the result of the work up to the present time, is both satisfactory and encouraging.
11. Report of the Committee on Elbolton Cave, near Shipton.
See Reports, p. 351.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers and Report were read :-——
1. On the Occurrence of Pachytheca and a Species of Nematophycus in the
Silurian Beds at Tymawr Quarry, Rumney. By J. STORRIE.
For a long number of years I have been interested in the fossils known by these
names, and for that purpose have collected and sectioned wherever practical all
specimens likely to show structure, and the collection now submitted are the results,
In the Silurian beds exposed near Cardiff, which are over 900 feet in thickness,
I have found Pachytheca in nearly every individual bed, from the very top of the
!
4
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 653
‘Ludlow to the bottom of the Wenlock series, and although Mematophycus has not
occurred in so many beds or has escaped my notice, it has exactly the same range,
as I have found it in the top of the Ludlow and at the base of the Wenlock and in
a considerable number of intermediate beds; still it is only in two beds in Tymawr
Quarry that I have found the two species in question preserved in a state which
allowed of transparent sections being made. The lowest bed is a muddy sandstone,
full of Rhynchonella Stricklandi, and the other being a thin parting on the top of
the Ctenodonta sandstone of Sollas, and about 10 feet above the Rumney grit.
-The specimens from the last bed being much superior to the lower one, I willonly
deal with it. :
This bed is only from 1 to 2 inches in thickness, and contains large numbers
of Discina rugata, of Lingula two species and a large Orbicula with casts of
‘branching Zoophytes of a species not known to me; it is wholly of a marine
character, and at a point west-south-west becomes of a concretionary character,
-every little nodule of which when broken open shows a fragment, or a whole,
Lingula, Discina, Conularia, or other shell; the whole bed is highly impregnated
with iron, which rapidly oxidises when broken and exposed to the atmosphere,
and the difficulty is to understand how perhaps the most mineralised bed of the
section should contain the best preserved specimens of these organisms.
When preserved in mudstone the Pachytheca and Nematophycus do not display
any minute structure, the form and general appearance being the only points to
be recognised.
When preserved in limestone the carbonaceous character is most readily
noticed, but the microscopic details are not very perfect ; its resemblance to fragments
of drift-wood is very striking to the naked eye or when a hand lens is used.
When preserved in concretionary nodules the outer wall is usually perfect, but
the cellular structure of the interior is reduced to a pocket of carbonate of lime or
-oxide of iron.
There are undoubtedly two totally distinct organisms known at present as
Pachytheca spherica; one of which is a perfectly spherical body, variable in size
like the Pachytheca and like it consisting of a more compact outer layer and a less
dense centre, but, however thin this is cut, it never contains any internal structure,
showing only a chitinous-like appearance, with sometimes a fungous-like growth
on the exterior; this, I think, is no doubt the egg of a crustacean, more especially
as Pterogotus has been found in this quarry and in a section of the same beds.
Yesterday, a member picked up a specimen which may likely turn out to be a
fragment of Slimonia.
Pachytheca may be described as a thick-walled globular rind of tubular
tissue, with small intertubular spaces enclosing a small cavity of much looser
and more branched tissue, coral-like in appearance, which is in continuous struc-
tural connection with the radiating thick-walled, slightly branched and rather
densely packed tubes of the exterior, the intertubular spaces in the exterior portion,
as seen in transverse section, being small in comparison with the intertubular
spaces found in Nematophycus. I have examined large numbers of Pachytheca to
see whether any hilum or point of attachment was present, and have never seen
any indication either on the external wall or in the internal structure of any such
as might be reasonably expected to show some differentiation, were there any
ground for believing that it was either a fruit of a conifer, or the conteptacle or
even one of the floats of a seaweed like sargassum or fucus.
Nematophycus occurs principally in small fragments, waterworn and irregular
in shape and never over an inch in length, and in only one specimen have I found
any appearance of branching; in this case it was a small stem from the Discina
bed about }-inch in diameter, rather oval in section and with one branch of barely
4-inch diameter and a i-inch long, which was again forked at the extremity, the
branchlets being about ;‘-inch in length and nearly the same in thickness. The
tissue of the outer part of the stem was slightly differentiated from the interior,
but essentially the structure was the same, and the apparent difference may have
been more dependent on the different degree of oxidisation of the iron in the
weathering of the fossil than any bark-like difference of structure.
654 REPORT—1891
This good piece had no external symmetrical markings visible to the naked
eye, but there are two small depressions similar to the scar of a dicotyledon at
the articulation of a branch and slight indications of a coleorrhiza, as shown
in the section exhibited, and this shows the tissue departing from its normally
perpendicular position, and becoming more horizontal as it nears the depression,
and bending round and running straight towards the scar; this would indicate
that a branch had died off and that the stem increased in size after the death of
the branch.
One peculiar thing about the woody tubes is that they are frequently pene-
trated by the mycelium of a fungoid growth, and in some cases the resting spore
of from twenty to thirty cells is fully formed and appears exactly like a minute
blackberry in the interior of the woody tubes.
The structure of Nematophycus may be described as a mass of endless tubes as
far as can be seen in our local specimens, and each individual tube when examined
with the ;; power seems to be composed of a very delicate wickerwork of inter-
laced fibrille with polygonal interspaces and bearing no resemblance to the
structure of any coniferous wood, sections of several hundreds of which I have
cut and examined from the local beds, at Pwllypant, Caerphilly, &e.
The structure of the stem of Nematophycus is generically, if not specifically,
identical with that described by Mr. Carruthers from the Canadian Devonian
series as Vematophycus Logant, except that the main tubes are only of about half
the size, and the secondary series of tubes, so well seen in the American specimens,
is very much less prominent in our local specimens, and the coniferous glandular
markings of Dawson are seen to be the resting spores of the fungus before mentioned.
The Nematophycus found at Rumney differs also from the Canadian specimens,
in that they show no trace of the concentric rings or the true or apparent
medullary rays referred to by Dawson.
One curious circumstance is that both Nematophycus and Pachytheca are pre-
served without any appearance of flattening in beds in which the pressure has
crushed flat and distorted greatly such firm and solid shells as Discina rugata,
Rhynchonella Stricklandi, and Conularia, which would show that if they were of
an algw-like nature they must have had a power during their life of secreting
mineral matter like certain algee in Devonport Harbour.
2. Report of the Committee on the Lias of Northamptonshire.
See Reports, p. 334.
3. The Mastodon and Mammoth in Ontario, Canada.
By Prof. J. Hoves Panron, W.A., F.G.S.
The writer in this paper gives a complete description of the remains of a
mastodon discovered (1890) in a marl-bed near Highgate, in the Province of
Ontario, Canada, and also the remains of a mammoth found under similar conditions
near Shelburne in the same Province (1889).
Both specimens were discovered by John Jelly, Esq., of Shelburne. The
following measurements are given for comparison :—
Newburg Highgate
Bumbo Mastodon! Mastodon
Longest rib Sp by Sheen) (22 ches . 543 . 555
Humerus cE : BO aes Se Oe Reo)
Radius : 7 sie. Sip mie 5. ge. . 4
Femur ae epee St em ees bys te . 47%
Tibia - . . hear air epee cha BS . 29
Tusk . . s . Feds 104 . . 92 not complete.
Third spinous process UD aio, 62% ; 234 . 233
? The Newburg mastodon is one of the finest ever discoveredin America, The
bones are in a most excellent state of preservation, and sufficient have been obtained
to enable the skeleton to be set up.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 655
The bones obtained of the mammoth are not so numerous, the chief being thirty-
one ribs, one 50 inches in length and 11 in circumference; several vertebrae, some
14} inches across; a massive tusk 12% feet with a portion broken off; and a tooth
weighing 163 lbs. The writer also refers to remains of Proboscoidea found at other
points in Ontario, viz., St. Catharine’s, Dunnville, Goat Island, Niagara Falls, and
-Kimbal, near the western side of the province.
4, Note on the occurrence of Ammonites jurensis in the Ironstone of the
Northamptcn Sands, in the neighbourhood of Northampton. Dy HE. T.
Newton, F.G.S., F.Z.S.
This paper records the discovery, by Mr. Thomas Jesson, of Ammonites jurensis
in the ironstone of the Northampton Sands at Brixworth, near Northampton. A
considerable number of fossils were collected, most of which were referable to
Am. jurensis and Am. opalinus; but with these were also found Am. insignis, Am.
Murchisone, Nautilus, Belemnites, Trigonia compta, Trigonia V. scripta, and
Tancredia.
5. On certain Ammonite-zones of Dorset and Somerset.
By 8. 8. Buckman, F.G.S., Hon. Memb. Yorks. Phil. Soc.
The lower part of the Murchisone-zone is often intimately connected with the
upper part of the Opalinum-zone; but, a little higher, there is a horizon characterised
by numerous specimens of Ludwigia Murchisone. The fauna of this horizon corre-
sponds to the Murchisone-zone of Oppel, and to the Brauner Jura 8 of Quenstedt.
Above the Murchisone-zone a considerable break in the sequence of strata is
frequently met with. In the neighbourhood of Bradford Abbas, however, is
found, superior to the Murchisone-zone, a horizon marked by a very peculiar
fauna, in which Lioceras concavum and species of the genus Sonninia predominate.
Taken in a general sense the fauna of this zone (Concavum-zone) does not agree
with that of Quenstedt’s Brauner Jura 8 or y, or with that of the Sowerby?-zone,
as illustrated hy Waagen, Douvillé, &c. Further, the Sonninie of the Concavum-
zone are, biologically, of an earlier type than those of the Sowerbyi-zone.
Continental authors find a marked stratigraphical and paleontological break
between the Murchisone- and Sowerbyi-zones ; and they wish to draw, at this point,
a dividing line between Lias and Oolite, or between Toarcian and Bajocian. It is
suggested that the absence of the Concavum-zone is the cause of this break ; and, in
former papers to the Geological Society, the author, in supporting the Continental
plan, regarded the Concavum-zone as Toarcian.
In the Bradford Abbas district there is a break above the Concavum-zone. So
far as is known at present, Dundry is the only locality showing a complete sequence ;
but some years ago a quarry—Coombe, near Sherborne—was open, and it yielded
_ a large series of Ammonites indicating a fauna agreeing with the Sowerdyi-zone, as
illustrated by Continental authors. This quarry has been closed for years; and
nothing is known as to how the strata are situated with regard to the Concavum-
zone below, or with superior horizons. Itisricher than Dundry, and is, practically
‘speaking, unique among Inferior-Oolite exposures. It is the only locality in England
which yields this particular fauna, So far as is known, the true Sowerdy2-zone is
absent from ali quarries in Dorset and Somerset, with the exception of Coombe and
-Dundry ; and, therefore, the majority of exposures in the district fully support the
A Continental geologists in their contention as regards a dividing line.
___ Waagen places a zone of Am. Sauzez above the Sowerbyi-zone; and a horizon
_ with this species and with a particular fauna is shown in ‘ the marl with green grains’
_ at Frogden quarry, near Sherborne.
Above this is the zone of Am. Humphriesianus, in which Stephanoceras and
Spheroceras predominate. This is the equivalent of the Coronaten-schichten of
Quenstedt’s Brauner Jura 5. The upper part of the Brauner Jura 4 is the Bifur-
Caten-schichten ; and this corresponds with the Cadomensis-beds of Frogden—a
656 REPORT—1891.
horizon which, containing a fauna distinct from the Humphriesianus-zone, may
therefore be known as the Cadomensis-zone.
The strata above this horizon have usually been called ‘ Parkinsoni-zone.’ There
are several objections to this name; and the strata are capable of more subdivision.
The bed at Halfway House, which yields the large Parkinsonie, is superior to
the Cadomensis-zone. It may be called the Truellii-zone. At the top of the lime-
stone of the Broad-Windsor district Stephan. zigzag, and species of Monphoceras are
found: and this isa still higher horizon (Zgzag-zone). Just below the Fullers’
Earth of this same district, in the Fullers’ Earth itself of Eype, but in the upper
white limestones (about 25 feet thick) of the Bradford-Abbas district, are found
Oppelia fusca and other species indicating a still higher horizon. It is suggested
that the white limestone of the Bradford-Abbas district is contemporaneous with
- the so-called ‘ Fullers’ Earth clay’ of Eype. This horizon may be called the zone
of Oppelia fusca; and whether this zone belongs to the Inferior Oolite or to the
Fallers’ Earth depends on whether the observer be regarding the limestones of the
Bradford-Abbas district or the clay of Eype cliff.
Several Continental geologists, however, commence the Bathonian with the
Cadomensis-zone. To this idea the presence of Parkinsonie and other facts give
considerable support.
6. Notes on the Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of the Zones of the Upper Chalk.
By Georce Ropert VINE.
In the year 1867, in a paper on the Lincolnshire Wolds,! Professor Judd
remarked that ‘the time has not yet come for separating the great mass of the
chalk-formation in this country into zones characterised by their peculiar
assemblages of organic life. Indeed, such a task has not yet been accomplished in
the case of the best-explored districts of the chalk, except in a very imperfect
manner.’ Since these sentences were written the task has been attempted, and to
some extent accomplished, but much still remains to be done by specialists.
The present paper, however, deals with the polyzoa only, and with those of the
Upper Chalk particularly.
In 1870, Mr. C. Evans? gave a section of the Surrey Hills from Croydon,
through the North Downs to Oxted, in which he shows the following succession
for the Upper Chalk :—
+4 (Zone with Micraster-cor-anguinum . . J . Purley beds.
8 es :
ss A 5S a », testudinarium . ; . Riddlesdown beds.
B ( we » Holaster planus : 5 F . Kenley beds.
In 1875, Dr. Charles Barroia, in his ‘ Geology of the Isle of Wight,’ established
four paleeontological divisions of the Upper Chalk, based. on the stratigraphical
divisions of Bristow, Ibbetson, and Whitaker :—
Feet.
Zone with Belemnitella mucronata. . . sé 4 . «| 265,
0 » Micraster-cor-anguinum . i ‘ ; “ 5 ;- 52d
fe a =" cor-testudinarium , . ; ; é <i 60
a9 » Holaster planus . ‘ ; : F ° ‘5 eke (5)
In the neighbourhood of Margate we have, according to Whitaker and others,
the following :—
Zone of Micraster-cor-anguinum . > . . » Margate. .
Ke es cor-testudinarium . 3 ‘ . Ramsgate, &c,
* Holaster planus . , 5 ; 2 . St. Margaret.
In Buckinghamshire and Cambridgeshire only the base of the Upper Chalk is
represented :—
Zone of Micraster-cor-bovis . . ° » Upper Chalk with flints.
* Quart. Jow'n. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p, 235. 2 Proc. Geol. Assoc. for 1870.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 657
_ Whilst in Yorkshire the following zonal divisions are recognised by Professor
Prestwich :—
_ (Zone of Belemnitella mucronata . : : 71 : ;
$3 » Marsupites (testudinarius) and sponges . f Chalk without flints.
= or Micraster-cor-anguinum . . : . Chalk with flints.
‘The typical white chalk,’ says Professor Prestwich,' ‘extends from England
through the North of France, South Belgium, Kast Holland, Westphalia,
Hanover, Denmark, South Sweden, the coast of Pomerania, Poland, Silesia,
Russia ; then in one direction to the Crimea, and in the other, with intervals, to
the south of the Ural Mountains. The pure earthy white chalk is not found out-
side these districts.’
By way of comparison it will be necessary to select, as a type section of the
_ Upper Chalk in France, the petrological zones of M. A. d’Orbigny, which,
_ according to Professor Hébert, may be tabulated as follows :—
Zone of Belemnitella mucronata ., - Meudon, Epernay,.
fe sa quadrata Fi ae i
» <Micraster-cor-anguinum . . Chalk Cliffs east of Dieppe.
3 + cor-testudinarium : + » west of Dieppe.
The most typical zonal succession of the Upper Chalk known to me is found
in the neighbourhood of Salisbury, and from this district I have examined a mass
of well-preserved polyzoa, which had been collected by Dr. Blackmore and his
friends; and it will be more convenient for me to work the other horizons by
reference to this: j
Feet.
A. Zone of Belemnitella mucronata ‘ e - - - about 100
B. ip % quadrata s a 5 : Si» toe oO
C. » ‘Marsupites testudinarius and Holaster pilula . ,, 150
D. x» icraster-cor-anguinum 3 = 5 5 werk ash aL LUO
E. 5 7 » testudinarium . P ‘ - pie 50
The Belemnitella quadrata zone is largely developed at Salisbury because it is
worked for the manufacture of whiting, and I think we may take the collection of
Dr. Blackmore, derived from this particular zone, as fairly representative of the
forms of the horizon. The other zones have yielded a fair proportion of the forms
submitted to me for examination, some of which are quite new to the British
Upper Chalk, or new altogether. From the neighbourhoods of Gravesend and
Chatham I have also a fine series of polyzoa, many examples of which are free
from the matrix, while others—and these are some of the best of the forms—are
attached to flints ; details, however, of the species could not be given in this brief
abstract of my contemplated work.
It was while collecting information for a full description of the polyzoa of the
whole of the cretaceous rocks, that my attention was drawn to certain peculiarities
of the fossils under consideration, and which seemed to me to separate the
polyzoa of one bed from that of another; but though the species from one bed
were not, on the whole, widely divergent in character, the facies of allied forms
generally was well marked, or at least peculiar. These divergencies, therefore, I
do think merit something more than a mere passing notice.
____ Of course, in giving specific or varietal details of our British cretaceous
hee it will be necessary to work along lines so ably planned and utilised by
. A. d’Orbigny in his paleontological studies, but any slavish adherence to his
plan of characterising, or even of classifying species, would retard rather than
_ advance our knowledge of the zonal distribution of the polyzoa. Let any one,
however, who is at all acquainted with the polyzoa of the cretaceous formation,
select and carefully study the species belonging to various genera characterised by
_ thespecific name Meudonensis d Orb. or Parisiensis d’ Orb., and he will soon find when
correlating British forms bearing somewhat similar characters to the species
' Geology, vol, ii. 1888, for Cretaceous zones generally, pp. 299-309,
1891. uv
ae]
658 REPORT—1891.
referred to, the value of the contemplated zonal divisions. I cannot say that I
shall be completely successful in my labours, but I may be able to lay founda-
tions op which some one, far more competent than myself, may build advan-
tageously at least. If, however, I take two or three well-marked types of polyzoa
I shall be able to explain my meaning better.
In 1864 Ignaz Beissel’ described and illustrated a peculiar species of
Entalophora, which, on account of the delicate markings on the surface of the
zoarium, he named £. lineata, from the chalk marl of Friedrichburg. The species
was found in three different localities, and is marked ‘rare.’ When working out
my Cambridge Greensand material? I found that one species in particular was
rather abundant, and, not having at the time any knowledge of Beissel’s description
or species, I named the Greensand form Entulophora striatopora, Vine.? In 1874
Dr. Reuss described and illustrated two species from the Quader Sandstone of
Strechlen, which he called Lntalophora lineata Beiss., and Filisparsa ornata Reuss,
both of which are marked ‘rare.’ Two years before Reuss, in 1872, Stoleezka, in
his ‘ Palesontologica Indica’ (iv. 2, The Ciliopoda), also described £. lineata from
the ‘ Arria loor gruppe bei Yermamoor in Ostandien.’ In 1887, however, Dr.
Marsson * introduced a new genus, Clinopora, for the inclusion of Beissel’s species,
and also a new species in some respects similar to LZ. striatopora Vine, but not so
coarsely marked on the surface. These are:
Clinopora costulata, Marsson . . - (Op. cit. p. 24, pl. II. fig. 2
Aa lineata, Beissel . , - - (id. = >) 3)
After submitting examples of my own species to Dr. Pergens, of Belgium, he
expressed the opinion that as the Cambridge Greensand form was the same as
Clinopora costulata, by right of priority the Riigen form should be characterised as
Clinopara striatopora Vine. For reasons which could be easily given I should
prefer to retain my own name, as given in the last British Association Report,’ as
Entalophora lineata Beissel, Var. striatopora Vine.
There is still another very characteristic polyzoon found in the Cambridge
Greensand, and ‘also in the chalk marl material from Charing, though not
previously recorded by me. This is the Eschara tenuis, Hag.,°® or the Eprdictyon
tenue, Marsson.® ‘The species is rare everywhere. Marsson records it from Upper
Turonian and Middle Senonian, Riigen, but it is present also in the English Chalk
of Salisbury (but rare), in the Delemnitella mucronata zone. The same species is
recorded by Reuss from the marl-beds of the Quader Sandstone of Saxony as
Lanceopora striolata Reuss.’ In the Cambridge Greensand the examples are
very strongly marked on the surface.
In the Riigen example, and also in the Salisbury example, the surface lines are
distinct but faint, and, like Entalophora lineata and its varieties, the facies of the
various examples indicate, to some extent, the horizon from which they have been
derived.
The presence of “ Cretaceous” polyzoa in the Miocene rocks of Australia may
at first seem to upset the usefulness of any attempt to fix the zonal distribution
of species. I possess a slide containiny examples of all the Vincularia species
described by Mr. A. W. Waters in his first paper on the Australian Bryozoa,®
(from Yarra-Yarra, Victoria), but I am not able to deal with these forms in this
abstract ; their presence in Australian rocks may be easily accounted for when we
remember that both in Australia and New Zealand, according to Prestwich,’
there is a considerable development of Cretaceous or Cretaceo-Tertiary strata.
! Die Bryozoen der Aachner Kreidebildung, p. 80, Tab. IX. figs. 116-119, 1865.
2 Proc. Yorksh. Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 6, pl. I. fig. 5, and Lbid. vol. xi. pp. 250-275.
3 Die Bryot. der Weissen Schreibhreide der Insel Riigen, p. 24, &c. 1887.
* Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1890-91, p. 389.
5 L.c. Nachtrag, p. 645.
® Op. cit. p. 17, Tab. I. fig. 4.
” Reuss in Geinitz, Elbthalgebirge, ii. 1874, p. 130, Tab. XXIV. figs. 17, 18.
& Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxvii. p. 309-347, Pl. XIV.
* Geology, vol. ii. p. 308. :
poy
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 659
In his latest paper, however, Mr. Waters,! after reviewing Mr. Ulrich’s work
e Paleozoic Bryozoa* of America, remarks (p. 53): ‘I would urge the
ortance of a thorough comparison of Paleozoic with Cretaceous genera, for
number of known Cretaceous genera is very large, and with these and the
sent fauna comparison can be made, thus giving the best stepping-stone between
e rich carboniferous fauna and the recent.’ Such a comparison would be of
it value to the palzontologist, but the comparison must be made with actual
mples of the fauna from the several formations, and not with figures or mere
iptions of the same. During the last twenty years some thousands of
camples from all formations have passed through my hands, and possibly some
ght could be thrown upon the question indicated by Mr. Waters, but ample
e and special illustrations are necessary to do the work well.
? Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. s. t. vol. viii. p. 53, July 1891.
? Geology and Paleontology, vol. viii. Geol. Survey, Ilinois, 1890,
uv 2
660 REPORT—1891.
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—FRANCIS DARWIN, M.A., M.B., F.R.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The PresIDENT delivered the following Address :-—
On Growth-curvatures in Plants.
A SEEDLING plant, such as a young sunflower when growing in a state of nature,
grows straight up towards the open sky, while its main root grows straight down
towards the centre of the earth. When it is artificially displaced, for instance,
by laying the flower-pot on its side, both root and stem execute certain curvatures
by which they reach the vertical once more. Curvatures such as these, whether
executed in relation to light, gravitation, or other influences, may be grouped
together as growth-curvatures, and it is with the history of our knowledge
on this subject that I shall be occupied to-day. I shall principally deal with
geotropic curvatures, or those executed in relation to gravitation, but the phe-
nomena in question form a natural group, and it will be necessary to refer to
heliotropism and, indeed, to other growth-curvatures, The history of the subject
divides into two branches, which it will be convenient to study separately.
When a displaced apogeotropic organ curves so as to become once more
vertical, two distinct questions arise, which may be briefly expressed thus :—
1. How does the plant recognise the vertical line; how does it know where
the centre of the earth is ?
2. In what way are the curvatures which bring it into the vertical line
executed P
The first is a question of irritability, the second of the mechanism of movement.
Sachs has well pointed out that these two very different questions have been con-
fused together." They should be kept as distinct as the kindred questions how,
by what nervous apparatus, does an animal perceive changes in the external
world; and how, by what muscular machinery, does it move in relation to such
changes ?
The history of our modern knowledge of geotropism may conveniently begin
with Hofmeister’s researches, because in an account of his work some of the points
which re-occur in recent controversy are touched, and also because in studying his
work the necessity of dividing the subject into the two above-named headings,
Irritability and Mechanism will be more clearly perceived.
In 1859” Hofmeister published his researches on the effect of disturbance, such
as shaking or striking a turgescent shoot. This appears at first sight sufficiently
remote from the study of geotropism, but the facts published in this work were
the basis of the theory of geotropism formed by Hofmeister and accepted with
some modification by Sachs. When an upright, vigorously-growing, turgescent
shoot is struck at its base the upper end is made to curve violently towards the
1 Arbeiten, ii. p. 282 (1879).
? Hofmeister, Berichte d. k. Sachs, Ges, d Wiss., 1859.
gq
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 661
side from which the blow came. When the shoot comes to rest it is found to
be no longer straight, but to have acquired a permanent bend towards the side on
which it was struck. In explaining this phenomenon Hofmeister described those
conditions of growth which give rise to what is known as the tension of tissues:
these facts are still an important part of botanical study, though they hold
quite a different position from that assigned to them by Hofmeister. The classifi-
ation into active or erectile tissue and passively extended tissue was then first
made. The pith, which is compressed, and strives to become longer, is the active
or erectile part, the cortical and vasciilar constituents being passively extended
by the active tissue. Hofmeister showed that when the shoot is violently bent
the elasticity of the passive tissues on the convex side is injured by overstretching.
The system must assume a new position of equilibrium; the passive tissues are
now no longer equally resisting on the two sides, and the shoot must necessarily
assume a curvature towards that side on which passive tissues are most resisting.
In a second paper, in 1860, Hofmeister! applied these principles to the explana-
tion of gectropism. It is true that in his second paper he does not refer to the
former one, but I think that it can hardly be doubted that the knowledge which
‘supplied the material for his paper of 1859 suggested the theory set forth in 1860,
He had shown that in the system of tensions existing in a turgescent shoot lay the
power of producing artificial curvatures, and he applied the same principle to the
natural curvatures. When an apogeotropic organ is placed in a horizontal position
Hofmeister * supposed that the resisting tissues on the lower side became less resist-
ing, so that they yielded more readily than those on the upper side to the longitu-
dinal pressure of the turgescent pith. The system in such a case comes to rest in a
new position, the shoot curving upwards ; the passive tissues on the upper and lower
sides once more resist the expansion of the pith in equal degrees. In this way
Hofmeister hit on an explanation which, as far as mechanism is concerned, is in rough
outline practically the same as certain modern theories, which will be discussed in
the sequel.
His views resembled more modern theories in this, too: he clearly recognised
that they were, mutatis mutandis, applicable to acellular * organs, The manner in
which Hofmeister compared the mechanics of multicellular and acellular parts was
curious; nowadays we compare the turgescent pith of a growing shoot with the
hydrostatic pressure inside the acellular organ. Just as the pressure inside a single
eell stretches the cell-walls, so in a growing shoot the turgescent pith stretches the
cortex. As pith is to cortex, so is cell-pressure to cell-membrane. But Hof-
meister would not have accepted any such comparison. In the case of acellular
organs he localised both the erectile and passive tissues in the membrane, The
cuticle was said to be passively extended by the active growth of the inner layers
of the cell-wall.
It is remarkable that the obvious source of power which the pressure of the
¢ell-sap against the cell-walls supplies should have been so much neglected. This
may perhaps be accounted for as a revulsion against the excessive prominence given
to osmosis in the works of Dutrochet.
The great fault of Hofmeister’s views was the purely mechanical manner in
which he believed changes in extensibility in the passive tissues to be brought about,
When an apogeotropic shoot is placed horizontal there would be a tendency,
according to Hofmeister, for the resisting passive tissues along the lower side of
_ the shoot to become waterlogged owing to the fluid in the shoot gravitating
towards that side, They would thus be rendered more extensible, and the shoot
_ would bend up, since its lower parts would yield to the erectile tissues in the
ae
-
centre. Such a conception excludes the idea of gravitation acting as a stimulus,
and tends to keep geotropism out of the category in which it now takes its place
’ Hofmeister, Berichte d. k. Stichs. Ges. d. Wiss. 1860.
? Knight had previously suggested an explanation (Philosophical Transactions,
1806), which is so far similar, that the sinking downwards by gravitation of the
juices of the plant is supposed to be the primary cause of apogeotropism. Knight's
explanation of positive geotropism is practically the same as Hofmeister’s.
* Sachs’ term acellular is, in the present connection, equivalent to unicellular.
’
662 2 REPORT—1891,
along with such obvious cases of response to stimulation as the movements of
Mimosa. In this respect it was a retrogression from the views of some earlier
writers. Dutrochet’s clear statement (1824) as to growth-curvatures being an
affair of stimulus and response will be quoted lower down. ‘Treviranus in his
‘ Physiologie’ (1838) speaks of geotropism as a Trieb, or impulse, and adds that
though there is no question of desire or sensation as in the impulses of animals, yet
geotropism must be thought of as something higher than a merely mechanical or
chemical action.
In taking sucha view Hofmeister naturally neglected the biological side of the
study of geotropism. Now we think of gravitation as a stimulus, which the plant
translates according to its needs. The plant, so to speak, knows where the centre
of the earth is, and either grows away from it, or towards it, according as either
direction suits its mode of existence.
We have seen how Hofmeister’s view enabled him to apply a common explana-
tion to acellular and multicellular organisms. But it led him into an error which
more than counterbalances the credit due to such a generalisation, namely, into
separating what are now universally considered parts of a single phenomenon—viz.,
negative and positive geotropism. He gave totally different explanations of the
bending down of a root and the bending up of a stem. It is well known that he
supposed a root to be plastic, and to bend over by its own weight, like a tallow
candle on a hot day or a piece of heated sealing-wax.
The development of a unified view of heliotropism, geotropism, and other similar
curvatures is a part of my subject, and for that reason the curious want of unity
in Hofmeister’s views is interesting.
In 1865 Sachs published his ‘ Experimental-Physiologie.’ He here accepts
Hofmeister’s views with certain modifications.
Irritability.
When by a touch on a trigger the explosion of a pistol is caused we do not
say that the pistol is irritable, but when in an organism a similar release of
stored-up energy occurs we apply the term irritability to the phenomenon, and we
call the influence which produced the change a stimulus. At this time (1865)
there was, as far as I can discover, no idea that growth-curvatures were pro-
duced by external influences acting as stimuli. Gravitation and light were sup-
posed to act.directly, and not as releasing forces. This is all the more remarkable,
because Dutrochet' had expressed with great clearness the conception which we
now hold. He wrote:—‘La cause inconnue de l’attraction n’est que la cause
occasionelle du mouvement descendant des racines et de V’ascension des tiges;
elle n’en est point la cause immédiate; elle agit dans cette circonstance comme
agent nervimoteur. Nous verrons plus bas de nouvelles preuves de la généralité
de ce fait important en physiologie, savoir que les mouvements visibles des
végétaux sont tous des mouvements spontanés, exécutés i occasion de l’influence
@un agent extérieur et non des mouvements imprimés par cet agent.’ Nothing
could be more to the purpose than this, and it is one of the most curious points in
the history of the subject that the botanical mind should have taken more than
fifty years to assimilate Dutrochet’s view.
In 1868 Albert Bernhard Frank published his valuable ‘ Beitriige zur Pflanzen-
physiologie,’ which was of importance in more than one way. In this work the
term ‘ geotropism’ was first suggested in imitation of the existing expression ‘ helio-
tropism.’ This uniformity of nomenclature had an advantage beyond mere con-
venience, for it served to emphasise the view that the curvatures were allied in
character. His criticisms of Hofmeister and Sachs were directed against the
following views:—(i.) That roots and other positively geotropic organs bend
owing to plasticity. By repeating and varying certain older experiments, Frank
helped materially to establish the now universally accepted view that positive
: Recherches anat. sur la Structure intime, &c. 1824, p. 107. Dutrochet, however,
Was not consistent in this matter, and later on gave explanations as mechanical as
Hofmeister’s. i
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 663
“geotropism is an active, not a passive, curvature, and that it depends, like apo-
geotropism, on unequal distribution of longitudinal growth. Here, again, he
introduced unity, bringing what had been considered different phenomena under
acommon heading. By studying the distribution of growth and of tension in a
variety of curvatures he helped still more to unite them under a common point
of view.
(ii.) He showed that Hofmeister’s classification of organs into those (1) which
have and (2) which have not tension, was valueless in connection with growth-
curvatures; that is to say that apogeotropism is not necessarily connected with
the form of longitudinal tension found in growing shoots, and that the distinct kind
of tension existing in roots has no connection with their positive geotropism. His
work thus served to bring the subject into a more purely physiological condition,’
not only by his downright opposition to a mechanical theory backed by the great
name of Hofmeister, but also by giving importance to physiological individuality.
In 1870 Frank published a more important work, ‘ Die natiirliche wagerechte
Richtung der Pflanzentheilen.’ This paper not only tended to unite geotropism
and heliotropism by proving the phenomena described to be common to both
categories, but it more especially widened the field of view by showing that
horizontal growth must be considered as kindred to vertical growth, and thus
introduced a new conception of the reaction of plants to light and gravitation
which has been most fruitful.
Frank showed that certain parts of plants, for instance the runners of the
strawberries, even when kept in the dark, grow horizontally, and when displaced
from the horizontal returned to it. Here, said Frank, is a new type of geotropism,
neither positive nor negative, but #ransverse. Ten years later Elfving,! working in
Sachs’ laboratory, got similar results with rhizomes of Scirpus, &c. These experi-
ments are more conclusive than Frank’s in one way, because the strawberry runners
when darkened were in abnormal conditions, whereas the rhizomes used by Elfving
were normally freed from light-effects. When a rhizome which has been placed
so as to point obliquely upwards moves down towards the horizontal position it
is, according to the old nomenclature, positively geotropic, and, vice versd, when it
reaches the horizontal from below it is negatively geotropic. But it cannot be both
positively and negatively geotropic. We are bound to assume that it is so organised
that it can only assume a position of rest, and continue to grow in a straight line
when it is horizontal, just as an ordinary geotropic organ cannot devote itself to
rectilinear growth unless it is vertical. In this way Frank’s conception of trans-
verse geotropism paved the way for the theory that there are a variety of different
organisations (or, as we may now say, irritabilities) in growing plants; and that,
whether a plant grows vertically upwards or downwards or horizontally, depends
on the individual and highly sensitive constitution of the plant in question. It is,
of course, true that those who seek for mechanical explanations of growth curva-
tures might be able to find such a one for transverse geotropism. But when Frank’s
conception has once been seized such views are less and less acceptable ; and, judg-
ing from my own experience, I cannot doubt that Frank’s work deserved to have
a powerful effect in preparing the minds of physiologists for a just view of
irritability.
The belief in transverse geotropism received interesting support from Véchting’s?
work on the movement of certain flowers which retain a horizontal position under
__ the influence of gravitation.
“J Frank’s views, it may be added, were accepted by my father and myself in our
_ ‘Power of Moyement,’ in which the term diageotropism was proposed, and has
_ been generally accepted, for transverse geotropism. Nevertheless, though Frank
_ was undoubtedly right, his views were strongly opposed at the time. He held
: similar views on the effect of light, believing that the power possessed by leaves of
_ placing themselves at right angles to the direction of incident light must be con-
» sidered as a new type of heliotropic movement, transverse or diaheliotropism.
Frank's views were criticised and opposed by De Vries,? who, by means of experi-
|
CE eee
a
———
’ Elfving, Sachs’ Arbeiten, 1880. * Die Bewegung der Bliithen und Friichte, 1882.
2 De Vries, Sachs’ Arbeiten, 1872. Y
.
664 REPORT—1891.
ments carried out in the Wiirzburg laboratory, tried to show that Frank’s results
can be explained without having resort to new types of geo- or heliotropism. De
Vries believed, for instance, that a leaf may be apheliotropic and apogeotropic,
and that its horizontal position under vertical illumination is due to a balance
struck between the opposing tendencies, one of which calls forth an upward, the
other a downward curvature.
The same point of view occurs again in Sachs’ paper on ‘ Orthotrope and Pla-
giotrope Plant-members.’’ Sachs holds to the opinion that Frank’s theory is
untenable, that it is upset by De Vries, and that the oblique or horizontal position
is to be explained as the result of a balance between opposing tendencies.
In a paper published the following year (1880)? [ attempted to decide between
the opposing views. My experiments proved that at least certain leaves can place
themselves at right angles to the direction of incident light when there is no
possibility of a balance being struck. The outcome of my experiments was to
convince me that Frank’s views are correct, namely, that the quality of growth
called transverse heliotropism does exist.
This view was accepted by my father in the ‘Power of Movement.’ The
conclusions of Véchting, in the ‘ Bot. Zeitung,’ 1888, and Krabbe in Pringsheim’s
‘ Jahrbiicher,’ 1889, vol. xx. are on the same side of the question.
The general result of these confirmations of Frank’s conception has been to
bring to the front a belief in the individuality of the plant in deciding what shall
be the effect of external conditions. Such a view does not necessarily imply
irritability in a strict sense, for Frank himself explained the facts, as we shall see,
in a different way. But it could not fail to open our eyes to the fact that in
growth-curvatures as in other relations to environment external changes are
effective as guides or sign-posts, not as direct causes.
Frank saw clearly that plants may gain such various aptitudes for reacting to
light and gravitation as best suit their modes of life.
In stating this view he refers to the influence of the ‘Origin of Species,’
which had shown how any qualities useful to living things might be developed by
natural selection. Frank described the qualities thus gained under the term
polarity. He supposed that the cell-membranes of a transversely heliotropic leaf
(for instance) were so endowed that a ray of light striking it obliquely from
base to apex produced an increase of growth on the side away from the light :
while a ray oblique from apex to base caused a reverse movement. The polarity-
assumption of Frank is a purely gratuitous one, and, if strictly interpreted, hardly
tends to bring growth curvatures into harmony with what we know of the relation
of life to environment.
It will no doubt appear to be a forcing of evidence if, after such a statement as
the last, I still claim for Frank that he led the way to our modern view of
irritability. I can of course only judge of the effect of his writings on myself, and
I feel sure that they prepared me to accept the modern views. It must also be
insisted that Frank, in spite of his assumption of polarity, seems to have looked
at the phenomena in a manner not very different to ours of the present day.
Thus he compares the action of gravitation on plants to the influence of the
perception of food on achicken. He speaks too of custom,’ or use, building up the
specialised ‘instinct’ for certain curvatures. These are expressions consistent
with our present views, and I think that Vines‘ is perfectly just in speaking of
Frank’s belief in different kinds of irritability, although in so judging he may
perhaps have followed equity rather than law.
One of the chief bars to the development of our present views on irritability was
the fact that simple growth in length is influenced, and markedly influenced, by
differences in illumination, Plants grow more quickly, ceteris partbus, in darkness
than in light. With this fact to go on, it was perfectly natural that simple
mechanical explanations of heliotropism should be made. De Candolle, as is
well known, explained such curvatures by the more rapid growth of the shaded
side. Thus it came about that heliotropism was discussed, for instance, in Sachs’
' Sachs’ Arbeiten, 1879. 2 Journal Linn. Soc. 1880.
3 Loe. cit. p. 91. * Vines’ Physiology.
= = 2
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 665
«Text-Book,’ edit. 4, 1874, under the same heading as the influence of light on
rectilinear growth.
Shortly afterwards, in 1876, a pupil of Sachs, Miiller-Thurgau, published * a
research carried out in the Wiirzburg Laboratory, which is of some importance.
In the introductory remarks he wrote :—‘ It has been hitherto supposed that helio-
tropic curvatures depend on a difference in intensity of illumination on the two
sides. Sachs came toa different opinion in his work on geotropism: he found
himself compelled to believe that in heliotropic just as in geotropic curvatures it is
not a question of different intensities on opposite sides, but rather that heliotropic
effect depends on the direction of the light.’ *
Miiller’s research gave weight to this union of geo- and heliotropie effects by
showing a number of resemblances in the manner and form of the two curvatures.
Again, when it was found® that apheliotropic organs are influenced by light and
darkness in precisely the same manner as positively heliotropic ones, it became
clear that the mechanical explanation of De Candolle was untenable for negatively
helictropic organs. It might still no doubt be upheld for positively heliotropic
organs, but as a matter of fact it was not so upheld. There was a tendency
to unify our view of growth-curvatures, and the union of the two forms of
heliotropism gave strength to the movement. Nor was this all; when it became
clear that light did not produce heliotropic curvatures by direct mechanical effect
it was natural to remember that gravitation has none either; we cannot point to
any reason (except the crudest ones) why the lower side of a horizontal stem, or
the upper side of a horizontal root, should grow the faster for the direct effects of
gravitation. That being so, light and gravitation could be classed together as
- external agencies acting, not directly, but in some unknown indirect manner. I do
not imply that such a result followed immediately, but that the line of research
above alluded to helped in some degree to lead the way to a belief in growth-
curvatures as phenomena of irritability.
When my father was writing our book, ‘The Power of Movement in Plants’
(1880), in which he adopted to the fullest extent a belief that growth curvatures
are phenomena of irritability, the only modern statement of such a view which he
could find was in a passage by Sachs,‘ where he writes that ‘The living material of
plants is internally differentiated in such a way that different parts are supplied
with specific energies resembling those of the sensory-nerves (Sinnesnerven) of
ee Anisotropy in plants fulfils the same purpose as do sense-perceptions in
animals,’
The idea of irritability as applied to growth curvatures is expressed with suffi-
cient clearness in the ‘Power of Movement.’ Thus for the case of geotropism we
wrote (p. 521): ‘ Different parts or organs on the same plant, and the same part in
different species, are thus excited to act in a widely different manner. We can see
no reason why the attraction of gravity should directly modify the state of
turgescence and subsequent growth of one part on the upper side and of another
part on the lower side. We are therefore led to infer that both geotropic, apogeo-
tropic, and diageotropic movements, the purpose of which we can generally
understand, have been acquired for the advantage of the plant by the modification
of the ever present moyersent of circumnutation. This, however, implies that
gravitation produces some effect on the young tissues sufficient to serve as a
guide to the plant.’ A similar view is given for heliotropism, It should be noted
that the essence of the view, namely, that light and gravitation act as guides or
landmarks by which the plant can direct itself, can be held without a belief in
circumnutation.
In Pfeffer's admirable ‘ Pflanzenphysiologie,’ 1881, the conception of stimulus
1 Flora, 1876.
2 In his Vorleswngen, p. 854, Sachs states that he wrote Miiller-Thurgau’s intro-
duction.
3 Schmitz, Linnea, 1843; Miiller-Thurgau (Flora, 1876); F. Darwin, Sachs’
Arbeiten, 1880. The two latter researches were carried out under the direction of
Sachs in his laboratory.
* Sachs (Arbeiten, ii. 1879, p. 282).
666 : REPORT—1891.
and reaction is fully given, and is applied, among other cases, to that of heliotropism
and geotropism. Ptefter states clearly, and without reserve or obscurity, the view
that light and gravitation act as stimuli or releasing forces, in manners decided by
the organisation of the plant. Pfeffer seems to me to be the first writer who has
treated the subject fully and consistently.
In Sachs’ ‘ Vorlesungen,’ 1882, a view similar to that briefly sketched in his
paper of 1879 is upheld. Geotropism and heliotropism are described as Reiz-
erscheinungen, z.e. phenomena of stimulation. The phenomena in question are
described under the heading Anisotropy, a word which expresses, according to
Sachs, ‘ the fact that different organs of a plant under the influence of the same
external forces assume the most varied directions of growth.’ In another passage *
he states that the anisotropy of the different organs ‘is nothing else than the ex-
pression of their different irritability to the influence of gravity {and] light, &c.’
Vines,® who has recently (1886) summarised the evidence on growth curvatures,
and whose researches on kindred subjects entitle his opinion to respect, accepts
fully the view that gravitation, light, &c., act as stimuli.
It is not necessary to trace the subject further, the views under discussion being
now well recognised canons of vegetable physiology. :
I cannot, however, omit to mention Pfeffer’s* brilliant researches on the
chemotaxis (irritability to certain reagents) of low organisms, such as antherozoids
and bacteria. To take a single instance, Pfeffer showed that the antherozoids in
responding to the effect of malic acid follow precisely the same law that in animals
correlates the strength of stimulus and amount of effect. This result, although it has
no direct connection with growth-curvatures, is nevertheless of the highest import-
ance in connection with the general question of vegetable irritability.
Nor can I omit to mention the ingenious reasoning by which Noll® localised
the seat of irritability in a vegetable cell. He points out how in acellular plants,
such as Caulerpa or Derbesia, the flowing protoplasm may travel from positively
geotropic root to apogeotropic stem, and he argues from this that the motile
endoplasm cannot be the seat of specific irritability. The flowing plasma
which is always changing its position with regard to external forces must be as
fully incapacitated from responding to them as though the plant were turning on
a klinostat. It follows from this that it must be the stationary ectoplasm which
perceives external change. From a different point of view this is what we should
expect-——we should naturally suppose that the part which regulates the growth of
the membrane, and therefore the curvature of the cell, should be the irritable
constituent of the cell contents. ;
In attempting to trace the history of the establishment of growth-curvatures as
phenomena of irritability, I have been forced to confine myself to a slight sketch.
I have found it impossible to give a full account of the course of research on the
subject. I have given an account of some of the halting-places in the journey of
thought, but not of the manner in which belief has travelled from stage to stage.
Far greater knowledge than mine would be required to compile such an itinerary.
Mechanism.
The first step m advance of Hofmeister’s views was the establishment that the
curvatures under consideration are due to unequal growth, that is to say, to an
excess of longitudinal growth on the convex than the concave side. It is not,
however, easy to say how far Hofmeister had this idea, for it, in fact, depends on
how we define ‘growth.’ Hofmeister knew, of course, that the convex side of @
curved shoot was longer than it had been before the curvature occurred ; this is a
mathematical necessity, But he also made out the important point that the con-
cave side increases in length during the curvature. These permanent elongations he
must have known to be growth, but his attention was directed to what is, after all,
the more important point, namely, why it was that unequal elongation took place.
Sachs, in. his ‘ Experimental-Physiologie,’ held that growth curvatures are due
1P. 855. 2 Pa6a9: 8 Physiology of Plants.
4 Tubingen. Untersuchwngen, vol. i. 5 Sachs’ Arbeiten, vol. ii. p 466.
i i i | ae
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 667
to unequal growth. In his Text-Book (1874), English translation, 1882, p. 853,
the author, referring to Hofmeister’s work, says: ‘I pointed out that the growth
of the under surface of an organ capable of curving upwards was accelerated, and
that of the upper surface retarded; I did not at the time express an opinion as to
whether these modifications of growth were due to an altered distribution of plastic
material or to a change in the extensibility of the passive layers of tissue.’ Frank's
already quoted paper made valuable contributions to the subject. He showed
that the epidermic cells on the convex side of the root are longer than those on
the concave side,—that is, they have grown more; he explained apogeotropic
curvatures in precisely the same way. He showed, moreover, that the sharp
eurve close to the tip of a geotropic root, and the long gradual curve of an
apogeotropic shoot, are necessary consequences from the manner in which growth
is distributed in these parts. He demonstrated that rectilinear growth and
geotropic curvature require the same external conditions; that, for instance, a
temperature low enough to check growth also puts a stop to geotropism.
The distribution of longitudinal growth which produces geotropism was after-
wards studied by Sachs,! who thoroughly established the fact that the convex
side grows faster, while the concave side grows slower, than if the organ had
remained vertical and uncurvyed.
These facts are of interest in themselves, but they do not, any more than
Frank’s results, touch the root of the matter. Until we know something of the
mechanics of rectilinear growth, we cannot expect to understand curves produced
by growth. The next advance in our knowledge did in fact accompany advancing
Imowledge of rectilinear growth. It began to be established, through Sachs’
work, that turgescence is a necessary condition of growth. A turgescent cell is
one which is, as it were, over-filled with cell sap; its cell-walls are stretched by
the hydrostatic pressure existing within. In osmosis, which gives the force by
which the cells are stretched, a force was at hand by which growth could be con-
ceived to be caused. The first clear definition of turgor, and a statement of its
importance for growth, occurs in Sachs’ classical paper on growth.”
As soon as the importance of turgor in relation to growth was clearly put
forward, it was natural that its equal importance with regard to growth curvatures
should come to the fore, and that increased growth on the convex side (leading to
curvature) should be put down to increased internal cell-pressure in_ those tissues.
In the fourth edition of Sachs’ ‘ Lehrbuch,’ 1874, Eng. tr. 1882, p. 834, such a view
is tentatively given, but the author saw very clearly that much more evidence was
needed before anything like a conclusion as to the mechanism of movement could
be arrived at. The difficulty which faced him was not a new one—in a slightly
different form it had occurred to Hofmeister—the question, namely, whether the
curvatures of acellular and multicellular organs depend on the same or on different
causes. If one explanation is applicable to both, then we must give up as a
primary cause any changes in the osmotic force of the cells. For no change in the
pressure inside a cell will produce a curvature in that cell, whereas, in a multi-
cellular organ, if in the cells in one longitudinal half an increase of osmotic sub-
stances takes place, so that the cell walls are subject to greater stretching force,
curvature will take place.
On the other hand, if the cause of bending of acellular and multicellular organs
is the same, we must believe that the curvature takes its origin in changes in the
cell-walls. In an acellular organ, if the cell membranes yield symmetrically to
internal pressure, growth will be in a straight line; if it yields asymmetrically it
will curve. Thus, if the membrane along one side of a cell becomes more or less
resisting than the rest of the membrane, a curvature will result.
If we are to apply strictly the same principle to acellular and multicellular
organs, we must suppose that the whole organ curves, because each individual cell
behaves like one of the above described free cells, the curvature of the whole
resulting from the sum of the curves of the separate cells. This was Frank’s view,
and it also occurs in Sachs’ Text-Book, 1874, Eng. trans., 1882, p. 842.
Are we bound to believe that the mechanism of acellular and multicellular
1 Arbeiten, i. p. 193, June 1871. 2 Thid. p. 104, Aug. 1871. iow
668 REPORT—1891.
curvatures is so strictly identical as Frank supposed ? In the first place, it is not
clear why there should be identity of mechanism in the movements of organs or
plants of completely different types of structure. The upholders of the identity
chiefly confine themselves to asseveration that a common explanation must apply
to both cases. I believe that light may be thrown on the matter by considering
turgescence, not in relation to growth, but in regard to stability of structure.
An acellular organ, such as the stalk of the sporangium of Mucor, owes its
strength and stiffness to the tension between the cell contents and the elastic cell-
wall, but it does not follow from this that in multicellular organs strength and stiff-
ness are due to the sum of the strengths of its individual cells. Indeed, we know
that it isnot so; thestrength of a multicellular organ depends on the tension between
pith and cortex. It is, in fact, a model of the single cell; the pith represents the
cell-sap, the cortex the cell-wall. Here, then, it is clear that the function performed
by the cell-wall in one case is carried out by cortical tissues in the other. If this
is the case for one function there is no reason why it should not hold good in
another, viz., the machinery of movement.
If we hold this view that the cortex in one case is analogous with a simple
membrane in the other, we shall not translate the unity of acellular and multicellular
organs so strictly asdid Frank. Indeed, we may fairly consider it harmonious with
our knowledge in other departments to find similar functions performed by morpho-
logically different parts. The cortex of a geotropic shoot would thus be analogous
with the membrane of a geotropic cell in regard to movement, just as we know that
these parts are analogous in regard to stability.
In spite of the difficulties sketched above, one writer of the first rank, namely,
H. de Vries, has upheld the view that growth curvatures in multicellular organs *
are due to increased cell-pressure on the convex side; the rise in hydrostatic pres-
sure being put down to increase of osmotic substances in the cell-sap of the tissues
in question. Such a theory flowed naturally from De Vries’ interesting plasmolytic
work.” He had shown that those sections of a turgescent shoot which were in
most rapid growth show the greatest amount of shortening when turgescence is
removed by plasmolysis. This was supposed to show that growth is proportional
to the stretching or elongation of the cell-walls by turgor. Growth, according to
this view, consists of two processes: (1) of a temporary elongation due to turges-
cence, and (2) of a fixing process by which the elongation is rendered permanent.
De Vries assumed that where the elongation occurred, its amount must be propor-
tional to the osmotic activity of the cell contents; thus neglecting the other factor
in the problem, namely, the variability in the resistance of the membranes. He
applied the plasmolytic method to growth curvatures, and made the same deductions.
Te found that a curved organ shows a flatter curve® after being plasmolysed. This,
according to his previous argument, shows that the cell-sap on the convex is more
powerfully osmotic than that on the concave side. This again leads to increased cell-
stretching, and finally to increased growth.
The most serious objection to De Vries’ views is that the convex half of a
curving organ does ot contain a greater amount of osmotically active substance.*
It must, however, be noted in the heliotropic and geotropic curvature of pulvini,
there is an osmotic difference between the two halves °—so that, if the argument
from uniformity is used against De Vries (in the matter of acellular and multi-
cellular organs), it may fairly be used in his fayour as regards the comparison of
curvatures produced with and without pulvini.
It is not easy to determine the extent to which De Vries’ views on the mechanics
of growth curvature were accepted. The point, however, need not detain us,
for the current of conviction soon began to run in an opposite direction.®
' Bot. Zeitung, 1879, p. 835. 2 Ibid. 1877, p. 1.
? Frank made similar experiments but failed to find any diminution of curvature.
* Kraus, Abhand. Nat. Gesell. zu Halle, xv., 1882. See also a different proof by
Wortmann, Deutsch. Bot. Gesell. 1887, p. 459.
® Hilburg in Pfeffer’s Tiibingen. Untersuch., vol. i., 1881, p. 31.
® An opportunity will occur later on for referring to some details cf De Vries’
work not yet noticed.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 669
Sachs! had already pointed out that attention should be directed to changes in
extensibility of cell-walls as an important factor in the problem.
Wiesner, in his ‘Heliotropische Erscheinungen,’* held that the curvature of
multicellular organs is due both to an increase of osmotic force on the convex
side, and to increased ductility * of the membranes of the same part. He repeated
De Vries’ plasmolytic experiments, and made out the curious fact that in many
cases the curvature is increased instead of being diminished. He attributed the
result to the concave tissues being more perfectly elastic than ductile convex
tissues, so that when turgescence is removed the more elastic tissues shorten most,
and, by diminishing the length of the concave side, increase the curvature.
Strasburger, in his ‘Zellhiiute,’ 1882, suggested that growth curvatures are
due to increased ductility of the convex membranes, and gave a number of instances
to prove that a change to a ductile condition does occur in other physiological
processes, such as the stretching of the cellulose ring in CEdogonium to a uniform
thin membrane, the branching of Cladophora, and the escape of sexual products in
certain algze.
We now pass on to the work of two observers, Wortmann and Noll, who have
devoted special attention to mechanism of curvatures. Wortmann* started on the
assumption, already several times mentioned, that the growth-curvature of acellular
and multicellular organsmust haveacommon cause. He began by testing Kohl’s state-
ment® that when the sporangiferous hypha of a Phycomyces curves apogeotropically
or heliotropically, &c., there is a collection of protoplasm on the concave wall.
Wortmann principally investigated the curvature discovered in Phycomyces by
Errera,® which can be produced by contact. When the hypha is touched with a
glass filament or with a platinum wire, or by allowing a speck of indian ink to dry
on it, it curves over towards the touched side. The hypha is so highly sensitive to
contact that it curves in from three to six minutes; it is clearly a growth-curva-
ture, for it only occurs in the part of the hypha which is growing. In curvatures
thus produced, as well as in apogeotropic and heliotropic curvatures the accumula-
tion of protoplasm on the concave side is, according to Wortmann, clearly visible,
and, what is more important, the membrane becomes thicker on the concave side,
sometimes twice as thick as on the opposite side of the cell. In consequence of the
unequal thickening of the membranes, the cell is supposed to yield asymmetrically
eee, and the necessary consequence is that the cell grows into a curved
orm.
In applying the same method of investigation to multicellular parts, Wortmann
followed Ciesielski,’? who noticed that in geotropically curved roots the cells of the
concave (lower) side of the organ are much more densely filled with protoplasm
than are the convex cells. Sachs® describes a similar state of things in the halms
of grasses, and Kohl, again, in tendrils and the stems of climbing plants.
Wortmann first of all made sure that no redistribution of protoplasm could be
observed in the zrdividual cells of curving multicellular organs. If each cell be-
haved independently like a free cell, we might expect to find a collection of proto-
plasm on the concave wall of all the constituent cells of a curving shoot. But this
is not the case. Nor at first could any microscopic differences be made out between
the concave and convex tissues of a curving shoot. But when the stimulus was
made to act for a long time, differences were apparent. A young Phaseolus plant
was placed so that the epicotyl was horizontal and was forced to grow in the
horizontal direction by a thread attached to the end of the stem, passing over a
pulley and fastened to a weight. Here the geotropic stimulus could continue to act
1 Lehrbuch, ed. 4, Eng tr. p. 835.
2 Wiener Sitzungsb. vol. 1xxxi. 1880, p. 7; also in the Denkschriften, 1882.
8 Weinzierl, Sitzwngsb. Wien, 1877, showed that strips-of epidermis taken off the
convex side of heliotropically curved flower-stalks of tulip and hyacinth were about.
twice as extensible when stretched by a small weight, 7°5 grammes, as approximately
corresponding strips for the concave side.
‘ Bot. Zeit. 1887, p. 785.
5 Bot. Hefte, Marburg, Heft y. [I have not seen Kohi’s paper.]
* Bot. Zeitung, 1884. 7 Cohn’s Beitrage, 1872, p. 1.
* Vorlesungen, p. 842.
670 REPORT—1891.
for 24-86 hours, and under such conditions a marked change in the tissues was
visible. The cells of the cortex on the upper side became densely filled with pro-
toplasm, while the lower cortical cells were relatively poor in protoplasmic contents,
The same changes in the membranes occur as those noticed in Phycomyces, that is
to say, the walls of the cortex on the upper side are very much thicker than those
on the lower side.'
Since the walls of the cortical cells have become more resisting on the upper
than on the lower side, then (assuming the osmotic expanding force to be the same
in both cases) the growth will be quicker on the lower side, and the shoot will
curve upwards. Wortmann states that his observations account for the fact that
the convex side grows quicker, not merely than the concave, but than a normal
unbent shoot. But he does not seem to have compared the thickness of the conyex
cell-walls with the normal, although he states that they are poorer in protoplasm
than is usual, and from this it may, according to his views, be perhaps assumed
that the membranes are abnormally thin.
Wortmann points out that his views account for two well-known features in
growth curvatures, viz., the /atent period and the after-effect. If a curvature can
only occur when a difference in structure of cell-walls has arisen, it is certainly
natural that some time should occur before the curvature is apparent. Ido not
lay much stress on this part of the subject, as I feel sure the whole question of
latent period needs further investigation. With regard to after-effect it is true
that Wortmann’s views account for the continuance of curvature after the stimulus
has ceased to act.
Wortmann attaches great importance to another point in his theory, which,
could it be established, would be of the greatest interest, and would unite under a
common point of view, not only acellular and multicellular organs, but also naked
protoplasm, e.g. the plasmodia of myxomycetes. The view in question was tenta-
tively suggested by Sachs,? and mentioned by Pfeffer * in a similar spirit. The
apogeotropic curvature of a phycomyces-hypha is supposed to be due to the
unequal thickening of the membrane on the upper and lower sides, and this to
be due to the migration of protoplasm from the lower to the upper side of the
cell. In the same way in a multicellular organ the protoplasm is supposed to
migrate from the lower cortex and pith to the upper cortex and pith, such
migration being rendered possible by the now generally admitted intercellular
protoplasmic communication. Thus the apogeotropism of a cell or a multicellular
part would be due to the apogeotropism or tendency to migrate vertically upwards
of the protoplasm. There are great difficulties in the way of accepting this
attractive theory.
Noll * states that when a curved phycomyces-hypha, in which protoplasm has
accumulated in the upper (concave) side, is reversed so that the mass of protoplasm
is below, it does not migrate upward again, as might be expected. Moreover he
points out that in Nitella and in Bryopsis the circulating protoplasm continues in
movement, and does not accumulate in any part of the cell. Lastly, there seems,
as Noll points out, a difficulty in believing in the migration of protoplasm through
the very minute pores by which the plasmic strands pass from cell to cell. There
seems much probability in Noll’s view that the plasmic strands only serve for the
passage of impulses, or molecular changes, and that they consist of ectoplasm alone,
not of the endoplasm which Wortmann describes as the migratory constituent of
the cell.
Wortmann’s theory has been criticised by Elfving.? The essence of Elfving’s
paper is that appearances similar to those described by Wortmann can be produced
by curvatures not due to stimulation. Thus, when Phycomyces is made to grow
against a glass plate it is mechanically forced to bend. Yet here, where there is
no question of stimulation, the plasma collects along the concave side of the cell.
' Both protoplasmic change and thickening of cell-walls occur to some extent in
the pith.
2 Lehrbuch, 1874; English tr. 1882, p. 841.
® Phlanzenphysiologie, ii. p. 331. * Sachs’ Arbeiten, 1888, p. 530.
5 Finska Vet. Soc. Férhand, (Helsingfors), Bd. 30, 1888.
>
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 671
Elfving concludes that the visible changes are the result and not the cause of the
curvature. Elfvying also produced curvature in Phaseolus by bending the apex of
the plant towards its buse and tying in that position. Under these conditions the
convex side of the shoot showed the changes described by Wortmann in geotropic
plants. Here again Elfving gives reason to believe that the thickening of the
eell-walls is a result, not of curvature, but of strain mechanically produced.
When a plant is prevented from executing an apogeotropic movement it is clear
that a longitudinal strain is put on the upper (concave) side. But the longitudinal
strain in Elfving’s plants is on the convex side. Therefore, if, as Elfving believes,
the visible changes are due to strain, they should, as they do, occur on the convex
side in his experiments, on the concave in Wortmann’s.
Wortmann replied in the ‘ Bot. Zeitung,’ 1888, p. 469, and attempted to explain
how Elfving’s results might be explained and yet his own theory hold good. The
reply is by no means so strong as the criticism, and it must be allowed that
Elfving has seriously shaken Wortmann’s argument.
Somewhat similar criticisms have been made by Noll.' In the acellular plants,
Derbesia and Bryopsis, Noll studied growth-curvatures, and was quite unable to
detect any thickening of the concave cell-walls, except when the curvatures were
very sudden, and in these cases the result could equally well be produced by
mechanical bending.
Noll further points out what is undoubtedly a fault in Wortmann’s theory,
namely, that he explains the retardation on the concave rather than acceleration
on the conyex side. This criticism is only partially just, for though Wortmann’s
description only shows a relative thinness of the walls on the convex side, yet it is
clear he beligved there to be an absolute diminution of resisting power on that
side.
Noll’s experiments with grass-halms show clearly that acceleration of growth
on the convex side is the primary change, rather than retardation along the concave
half. When the halms are fixed in horizontal glass tubes, so that they are stimu-
lated but unable to bend, the lower half of the pulvinus forms an irregular out-
growth, increasing radially since it is not able to increase longitudinally.
A similar argument may be drawn from Elfving’s experiments. He found that
the pulvini of grass-halms placed on the klinostat increase in length. This experi-
ment shows incidentally that the klinostat does not remove but merely distribute
equally the geotropic stimulus: also that geotropic stimulus leads to increased, not
to diminished growth. The same thing is proved by the simple fact that a grass
halm shows no growth in its pulvinus while it is vertical, so that when curvature
begins (on its being placed horizontal) it must be due to acceleration on the conyex,
since there is no growth or the concave side in which retardation could occur.
_Noll’s view is that the primary change is an increase in extensibility of the tissues
on the convex side. This view he proceeded to test experimentally, A growing
shoot was fixed in a vertical position, and a certain bending force was applied to
make it curve out of the vertical, first to the right and then to the left. If the
cortical tissues are, at the beginning of the experiment, equally resisting all round,
it is clear that the excursions from the vertical to the right and left will be equal.
As a matter of fact the excursions to the right and left were nearly the same, and
the difference was applied as a correction to the subsequent result. The shoot was
then placed horizontally until geotropic or other curvature was just beginning,
when the above bending experiment was repeated. It was then found that when
it was bent so that the lower side was made convex, the excursion was greater
than it had been. In the few experiments given by Noll the excursion in the
opposite direction (stretching of the concave side) was less than it had been, and
he states that all the other experiments showed a similar result. The increased
extensibility of the convex side is clearly the most striking part of the phenomenon,
but I fail to see why Noll takes so little notice of the diminution in the extensi-
bility of the concave side, which is only mentioned towards the end of his paper.”
Yet such a diminution is a necessary factor in the mechanism of curvature. It
should be noted that results like Noll’s might be obtained under other conditions
1 Sachs’ Arbetten, 1888, p. 496. ? Loe. cit. p. 529.
672 REPORT—1891.
of growth-curvatures. Thus if De Vries’ view were the true one and the curvature
were due to difference in osmotic force on the convex and concave sides, the shoot
would react differently in the two directions; for instance, the concave side would
be the more easily compressed. Noll and Wortmann’s explanations differ in
this : the former lays the greater stress on the increased extensibility of the convex
side, the !atter on the diminution of that of the concave side. Again, Wortmann
explains the difference in extensibility as due to differences in thickness of the
cell-walls. Noll gives no mechanical explanation, but assumes that the ectoplasm
has the power of producing changes in the quality of the cell-wall in some unknown
way.
“in the early stages of curvature, a phenomenon takes place to which Noll
attaches great importance as supporting his view. When.a curved organ is
plasmolysed, it suffers a diminution of curvature, as De Vries showed, but Noll’
has proved that in the early stages of curvature a contrary movement occurs, that
is to say, the curvature is increased. This seems to show that the yielding of the
convex side is owing to a ductility, which prevents its holding its own against the
more perfect elasticity of the concave side. But this is only the beginning of the
phenomenon ; as the plasmolysing agent continues to act, a reverse movement takes
place, the well-known flattening of the curvature described by De Vries. It is to
me incomprehensible how in a given condition of cell-walls these results can occur
in different stages of plasmolysis. I can understand one occurring when the curva-
ture is recent, and the other, the flattening of the curve, occurring when the ductile
convex parts have reacquired elasticity. The fact undoubtedly is as Noll describes
it: his explanation seems to me inadequate.
We have now seen that the most acceptable theory of the machinery of these
curvatures is in its main features akin to Hofmeister’s, the power of elongation
supplying the motive force, while the varying extensibility of the membranes
determines the nature and direction of the bend.
The question now arises: Is it possible by these means to account for all the
facts that must be explained. Taking the theory for which there is most to be
said on experimental grounds—viz., Noll's—it will be noted that it is essentially
connected with the doctrine of growth by apposition. The question, therefore,
whether the apposition-theory is sufficient to account for the phenomena of
ordinary growth, may be applied mutatis mutandis to growth curvature. This
doctrine in its original purity absolutely requires turgescence to account for the
elongation of growth. The older layers, separated from the ectoplasm by the
younger layers of cell-wall, can only be elongated by traction. Growth by intus-
susception does not absolutely require this force; the theory that the micelle are
separated by traction, and thus allow intercalation of fresh micelle, is a view for
which Sachs is chiefly responsible.
Since surface-growth by apposition is absolutely dependent on the traction
exercised by cell-pressure, it is a fair question—how far growth is influenced by
forcible elongation. Baranetzky * states that when a plant is subject to traction,
as by even a small weight attached to the free end, the rate of growth is lowered.
Ambronn,? as Zimmermann points out in the same connection, found no increased
elongation of collenchyma when stretched for some days by means of a weight.
A greater difficulty is that growth may be absolutely and at once stopped by
placing the growing organ in an atmosphere free from oxygen.* Such treatment
apparently does not diminish turgescence, yet growth stops. If the cell-walls are
increasing in length by mechanical stretching, and if the turgor is not interfered
with, increase in length ought to continue. The same thing applies to curvatures.
Wortmann has shown® that in an atmosphere of pure hydrogen a geotropic
curvature which has begun in ordinary air cannot continue ; in other words, after-
effect ceases. This seems to me inexplicable on Noll’s or Wortmann’s theories ;
the convex side has become more extensible than the concave, turgescence, as
far as we know, continues, yet no after-effect is observed. The same result may
1 The similar results obtained by Wiesner are noticed above.
2 Mém. Acad. St. Pét. v. vol. xxvii. p. 20. 3 Pringsheim’s Jahrb. xii.
4 Wieler, Pfeffer’s Untersuch. Bd, i. p. 189. 5 Bot. Zeit., 1884, p. 705.
———-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 673
be gathered from Askenasy’s' interesting experiments on the growth of roots.
He showed that lowering the temperature has an almost instantaneous inhibitive
effect on growth, Thus maize roots (at a temperature of 26°6°) growing at the
rate of 33 divisions of the micrometer per hour, were placed in water at 5°, and
absolutely no growth occurred during the following ten minutes, in which the
thermometer rose to 6:5. This result is to some extent more valuable because we
know from Askenasy’s” other results that the turgor, as estimated by plasmolytic
shortening, is about the same whether the root is in full growth or not growing at
all. This, however, is not conclusive, for if the growing cell-walls were ductile they
might shorten but little although under great pressure, whereas the non-growing
cells might shorten a good deal, owing to their more perfect elasticity ;* therefore,
Askenasy’s plasmolytic results are not in this particular connection of great
importance, except as showing that the non-growing roots were certainly to some
extent turgescent.
There are other facts which make it extremely difficult to understand how
surface-growth can depend on cell-pressure. Nageli* pointed out that the growth
of cylindrical cells which elongate enormously without bulging outwards laterally,
is not explicable by simple internal pressure. An internodal cell of Nitella
increases to 2,000 times its original length, while it only becomes ten times
as wide as it was at first. The filaments of Spirogyra become very long, and keep
their orginal width. Niigeli found that in Spirogyra the shortening produced by
plasmolysis was practically the same in the longitudinal and in the transverse
direction. He therefore concluded that the growth of Spirogyra cannot be
accounted for by the cell-wall being differently extensible along different axes.
But it must once more be pointed out that this type of plasmolytic experiment has
not the force which Nigeli ascribes to it. If the cell-wall stretched hke putty in
one direction and like india-rubber in the other, there might be no piasmolytic
shortening in the line of greatest growth. Nevertheless, in spite of this flaw in
Nigeli’s argument, great elongation in a single direction remains a problem for
those who believe in surface-growth by apposition.
The point of special interest is that differences in extensibility in different
directions cannot be supposed to exist in a homogeneous membrane. If any purely
physical characters can explain the facts, they must be architectural characters.
That is to say, we must be able to appeal to remarkable structural differences along
different axes if we are to explain the facts. Such structural differences do, of
course, exist, but whether they are sufficient to account for the phenomena is
a different question. Strasburger® supposes that the elasticity of a cell-wall
depends on the last-formed layers, and as in these the microsomes are seen
arranging themselves in lines or patterns, we have a heterogeneity of structure
which may or may not be sufiicient.
We have now seen that it is difficult to believe, although it is not incon-
ceivable, that the extending force of cell-turgor, combined with differences in
extensibility of the membranes (depending on structural characters), may account
for the phenomena of rectilinear growth. But, even if we allow that this is so,
how are we to apply the same explanation to growth-curvatures ? How are we to
account for the rapid changes in extensibility necessary to produce geotropic or
heliotropic curvatures? The influences which Strasburger and Noll suppose to act
on the cell-walls and render them ductile cannot account for extensibility in one
direction only. Nor does Wortmann’s theory, that difference in extensibility depends
on difference in thickness, meet the case completely. What we need is an increase
1 Deutsch. Bot. Ges., 1890, p. 61. ‘This paper contains an excellent discussion on
the mechanics of growth, to which I am much indebted.
2 Loe. cit. p. 71.
3 Wiesner (Sitz. Wien. Ahad., 1884, vol. lxxxix.-xc., Abth. i. p. 223) showed that
under certain conditions decapitated roots grow much more quickly than normal
ones, yet the amount of plasmolytic shortening is less. Decapitated: growth, 79 per
cent.; plasmolytic shortening, 8 percent.; normal: growth, 39 per cent, ; shorteping,
13 per cent.
4 Starkekorner, p. 279. . 5 Zellhdute, p. 194.
1891. > 4
‘
674 REPORT—1891.
in longitudinal, not in general extensibility. I presume that these writers might
say that the excess in longitudinal extensibility is always present whether general
extensibility is greater or less. In the meanwhile we must pass on to more
recent researches connected with surface-growth by apposition.
In Strasburger’s later work, ‘ Histologische Beitrige,’ 1889, his views on growth
have undergone considerable modification. The study of certain epidermic cells,
of the folds in membranes, and the repetition of Krabbe’s work on certain
bast fibres, have convinced him that apposition does not account for all forms of
erowth. Krabbe! showed that in full-grown sclerenchyma (e.g. in Oleander)
local widenings occur without any such amount of thinning in the membrane as
would occur if the bulging were due to stretching. ‘The only possible explanation
seems to be that there is a migration of new material into the cell-wall. Such
intussusception might be, as Nageli supposed, a flow of fluid out of which new
micellze crystallise ; but it is now established that cellulose arises as a modification
of protoplasm, so that it would harmonise with our knowledge of the origin of
cellulose if we assume that intussusception was preceded by a wandering of proto-
plasm into the cell-wall. Such a state of things would render possible the
regulation of longitudinal growth in the case of Nitella and Spirogyra, already
alluded to, as well as in growth curvatures. This view might also harmonise with
Wiesner’s? theory that the cell-wall contains protoplasm as long as it continues to
Tow.
For the sake of brevity I content myself with the above examples: I think it
will be allowed that there is a focussing of speculation from many sides in favour
of ‘active’ surface-zgrowth—or, what is perhaps a better way of putting it, in
favour of a belief that the extension of cell membranes depends on physiological
rather than physical properties, that it is in some way under the immediate
control of the protoplasm. We may take our choice between Wiesner’s wall-
protoplasm (dermatoplasm), protoplasmic intussusception as conceived by Stras-
burger, or the action of the ectoplasm in the manner suggested by Vines,’ who
supposes that the crucial point isa change in the motility of the protoplasm, not
of the cell membrane. The latter theory would undoubtedly meet the ditficulties—
if we could believe that so yielding a substance as protoplasm could resist the force
of turgor.
The great difficulty is, it seems to me, that since e.g.in Caulerpa, surface-growth
is clearly due to stretching, as Noll has demonstrated, and since in osmotic cell-pres-
sure a stretching force does exist, it cannot be doubted that turgor, and ordinary
physical extensibility are conditions of the problem. This remains true in spite of
Klebs’* curious observations on the growth of plasmolysed alge, or in spite
of the fact that pollen tubes may grow without turgor, in spite of the same
being perhaps true of young cells filled with protoplasm.’ In the face of all these
facts, osmotic pressure in the cell must remain a vera causa tending to surface-
rowth.
i Tf we accept some form of ‘ active’ surface-growth, we must deal with turgor in
another way, although to do so may require a violent exercise of the imagina-
tion. Are we to believe, for instance, that the function of turgescence is the
attaining of mechanical strength? If we hold that cell-walls increase in area
independently of turgor, we shall be forced to invent a hypothesis such as the
following—which I am far from intending to uphold. It is possible to imagine
that the function of the force of turgor is merely to spread out the growing mem-
brane to its full extent, and, as it were, to make the most of it. Turgor would in
this respect play the part occupied by the frame used in embroidery, making it easier
to carry on the work satisfactorily, but not being absolutely necessary, When
1 Pringsheim’s Jahrb. xviii. 2 Sitz. Wien. Akad. 1886, vol..xciii. p. 17.
3 Sachs’ Arbeiten, 1878, and Physiology, 1886. See also Gardiner, on protoplasmic
contractility, in the Annals of Botany, i. p. 366. Pfeffer has, I think, shown that
Vines’ and Gardiner’s theories assume the existence of too great strength in the
ectoplasm. See Pfeffer in Abhkandl. der kh. Séichs. Geselisch. xvi. 1890, p. 329.
4 Tiibingen. Untersuchungen, ii. p. 489.
5 See Noll, Wiirzbwrg. Arbeiten, iii. p. 530,
«
a
j TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 675
,
)
q
4
mechanical strength is gained by turgor (as in Mucor), instead of by brute strength
of material, as in a tree-trunk, a great economy in cellulose is effected. If turgor
layed our hypothetical part of smoothing out the membrane and insuring that
it shall occupy as large a space as possible, it would effect the same kind of
economy. °
Tt is not necessary to inquire how far this hypothesis accords with our know-
ledge of cell mechanics. It is only put forth as an example of the difficulties in
which we land if we seek fora new function for turgor. We are, indeed, surrounded
by difficulties ; for, though the theories which are classed together as protoplasmic
have much in their favour, they, too, lead us into an zmpasse.
Circumnutation.
I shall conclude by saying a few words about the theory of growth-curvatures
put forward in the ‘ Power of Movement in Plants.’ Ican here do no more than
discuss the relation of circumnutation to curvature, which is the thesis of the book
in question, without attempting to enter the arena with regard to the many
objections which have been raised to other parts of our work.
A distinguished botanist, Professor Wiesner, of Vienna, published in 1881 a
book, ‘Das Bewegungsvermogen der Pflanzen,’ entirely devoted to a criticism of
the ‘Power of Movement.’ It is founded on a long series of experiments, and is
written throughout in a spirit of fairness and candour which gives it value, apart
from its scientific excellence, as a model of scientific criticism. The words
written on the title-page of the copy presented to my father are character-
istic of the tone of the book:—‘ In getreuer Opposition, aber in unwandelbarer
Verehrung.’ A letter printed among my father’s correspondence shows how
warmly he appreciated his opponent’s attack both as to matter and manner,
Wiesner’s opposition is far-reaching, and includes the chief theoretical conclusion
of the book, namely, that movements such as heliotropism and geotropism are
modifications of circumnutation. Neither will he allow that this revolving nuta-
tion is the widely-spread phenomenon we held it to be. According to Wiesner,
many parts of plants which do not circumnutate are capable of curving geo-
tropically, &c.; he is, therefore, perfectly justified, from his own point of view,
in refusing to believe that such curvatures are derivations from circumnutation.
He points out that our methad of observing circumnutation is inaccurate, inasmuch
as the movement is recorded in oblique projection. This we were aware of,! and
I cannot but think that Wiesner has unintentionally exaggerated its inaccuracy ;
and that, if used with reasonable discretion, it cannot lead to anything like such
faulty records as in the supposititious cases given by our critic. However this may
be, Wiesner’s results are perhaps more trustworthy than ours, and should receive
the most careful consideration.
Wiesner’s conclusions, taken from his own summaries, are as follows :—
The movement described as circumnutation is not a wide-spread phenomenon in
plants. Stems, leaves, and acellular fungi are to be found which grow in a per-
fectly straight line. Some roots grow for considerable periods of time without
deviating from the vertical. When circumnutation does oecur, it cannot be
_ considered to have the significance given to it in the ‘ Power of Movement.’ The
movements observed by Wiesner are explained by him in three different ways:—
i. As the expression of a certain irregularity in growth depending on the want
_ of absolute symmetry in structure, and on the fact that the component cells of the
organ have not absolutely similar powers of growth.
ii. As the expression of opposing growth-tendencies. Thus certain organs have
inherent tendencies to curve in definite planes—for instance, the bending of the
hypocotyl in the plane of the cotyledons. Wiesner believes that such tendencies,
_ when combined with others—heliotropic, geotropic, &c.—lead to alternate bendings
in opposite directions, according as one or other of the components is temporarily
the stronger.
ili, Wiesner allows that circumnutation does exist in some cases. This last
1 Power of Movement, p. 8.
“
to
676 REPORT—1891.
class he considers a small one; he states, indeed, that ‘nearly all, especially the
clearly perceptible circumnutations, are combined movements belonging to the
second of the above categories,
Although, I have perhaps no right to such an opinion without repeating
Wiesner’s work, yet I must confess that I cannot give up the belief that circumnu-
tation is_a widely-spread phenomenon, even though it may not be so general as
we supposed.
If, then, circumnutation is of any importance we are forced to ask what is its
relation to growth-curvatures. It was considered by my father to he ‘the basis
or groundwork for the acquirement, according to the requirements of the plant, of
the most diversified movements.’! He also wrote: * ‘ A considerable difficulty in
the way of evolution is in part removed, for it might be asked how did all these
diversified movements. . . . first arise? As the case stands, we know that there
is always movement in progress, and its amplitude, direction, or both, have only to
be modified for the good of the plant in relation to internal or external stimuli.’
Those who have no belief in the importance of circumnutation, and who hold
that movements may have arisen without any such basis, may doubtless be
justified in their position. I quite agree that movement might be developed
without circumnutation having anything to do with the matter. But in seeking
the origin of growth-curvatures it is surely rational to look for a widely-
spread movement existing in varying degrees. This, as I believe, we have in cir-
cumnutation: and here comes in what seems to me to be characteristic of the
evolution of a quality such as movement. In the evolution of structure, each
individual represents merely a single one of the units on which selection acts.
But an individual which executes a number of movements (which may be purpose-
less) supplies in itself the material out cf which various adapted movements
may arise. Ido not wish to imply that tentative movements are of the same
order of importance as variations, but they are undoubtedly of importance as
indication of variability.
The problem may be taken back a stage further; we may ask why circumnuta-
tion should exist. In the ‘ Power of Movement’ (p. 546) we wrote: ‘ Why every
part of a plant whilst it is growing, and in some cases after growth has ceased,
should have its cells rendered more turgescent and its cell-walls more extensile
first on one side then on another . . . is not known. It would appear as if the
changes in the cells required periods of rest.’ Such periods of comparative rest are
fairly harmonious with any theory of growth; it is quite conceivable by intus-
susceptionists and appositionists alike that the two stages of elongation and fixation
should go on alternately,® but this would not necessarily lead to circumnutation. It
might simply result in a confused struggle of cells, in some of which extension, in
others elongation, was in the ascendant; but such a plan would be an awkward
arrangement, since each cell would hinder or be hindered by its neighbour. Per-
fection of growth could only be attained when groups of contiguous cells agreed
to work together in gangs, that is, to pass through similar stages of growth syn-
chronously. Then, if the different gangs were in harmony, each cell would have
fair play, elongation would proceed equally all round, and the result would be
circumnutation.t Whether or no any such origin of cireumnutation as is here
sketched may be conceived, there can be no doubt that it had its origin in the laws
of growth apart from its possible utilisation as a basis for growth-curvature.
It is, however, possible to look at it from a somewhat different point of view,
namely, in connection with what Véchting has called rectipetality.2 He made out
the fact that when an organ has been allowed to curve geotropically, helio-
tropically, &c., and is then removed from further stimulation by being placed on
' Power of Movement, p. 3. * Loc. cit., p. 4. ,
* Strasburger, Histolog. Beitrdge, p, 195, speaks of the pause that must occur
after the formation of a cellulose lamella. Hofmeister, Wiirttemburg. Jahreshefte,
1874, describes the growth in length of Spirogyra as made up of short intervals of
rapid growth alternating with long pauses of slow growth. -
* I purposely omit the circumnutation of pulvini.
5 Die Bewegung dex Bliithen und Friichte, 1882.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 677
the klinostat, it becomes straight again. This fact suggested to Véchting his
conception of rectipetality, a regulating power leading to growth in a straight line.
It may be objected that such a power is nothing more than the heredity, which
moulds the embryo into the likeness of its parent, and by a similar power insists
that the shoot or root shall take on the straight form necessary to its specific
character. But the two cases are not identical. The essence of rectipetality is the
power of recovering from disturbance caused by external circumstances. When an
organ has been growing more quickly on one side than another, the regulating
power reverses this state of things and brings the curving organ back towards
the starting-point. We have no means of knowing how this regulating power
acts in undisturbed growth. It is possible to imagine a type of writability which
would insure growth being absolutely straight, but it is far more easy to conceive
growth as normally made up of slight departures from a straight line, constantly
corrected. In drawing a line with a pencil, or in walking towards a given point,
we execute an approximately straight line by a series of corrections. If we may
judge in such a matter by our own experience, it is far more conceivable that
the plant should perceive the fact that it is not growing absolutely straight and
correct itself, than that it should have a mysterious power of growing as if its free
end were guided by an external force along a straight-edge. The essence of the
matter is this: we know from experiments that a power exists of correcting
excessive unilateral growth artificially produced; is it not probable that normal
growth is similarly kept in an approximately straight line by a series of aberrations
and corrections? If this is so, circumnutation and rectipetality would be different
aspects of the same thing. :
This would. have one interesting corollary: if we fix our attention on the
regulating power instead of on the visible departures from the straight line, it is
clear that we can imagine an irritability to internal growth-changes existing in
varying intensities. With great irritability very small departures from the
straight line would be corrected. With a lower irritability the aberration would
be greater before they are corrected. In one case the visible movement of
-circumnutation would be very small, in the other case large, but the two processes
would be the same. The small irrecular lateral curvatures which Wiesner allows
to exist; would therefore be practically of the same value as regular circumnutation,
which he considers comparatively rare.
_ The relation between rectipetality and circumnutation may be exemplified by
an illustration which I have sometimes made use of in Jecturing on this point. A
skilful bicycle-rider runs very straight, the deviations from the desired course are
comparatively small; whereas a beginner ‘wobbles’ or deviates much. But the
deviations are of the same nature; both are symptoms of the regulating power of
the rider.
We may carry the analogy one step further: just as growth-curvature is the
- continuance or exaggeration of a nutation in a definite direction, so when the rider
curves in his course he does so by wilful exaggeration of a ‘ wobble.’
It may be said that circumnutation is here reduced to the rank of an acci-
dental deviation from a right line. But this does not seem necessarily the case.
A bicycle cannot be ridden at all unless it can ‘ wobble,’ as every rider knows who
has allowed his wheel to run into a frozen rut. In the same way it is possible
that some degree of circumnutation is correlated with growth in the manner
suggested above, owing to the need of regular pauses in growth. Rectipetality
would thus be a power by which irregularities, inherent in growth, are reduced
to order and made subservient to rectilinear growth. Circumnutation would
be the outward and visible sign of the process,
I feel that some apology is due from me to my hearers for the introduction
of so much speculative matter. It may, however, have one good result, for it
shows how difficult is the problem of growth-curvature, and how much room there
_ still is for work in this field of research.
678 REPORT—1891.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Fourth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of reporting on
the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in
the Fauna and Flora.—See Reports, p. 354.
2. Report of the Committee appointed to report on the present state of our
knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, and to take steps to
investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fawna.—See Reports, p. 357.
3. Fifth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of taking steps
for the establishment of a Botanical Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon.—
See Reports, p. 358,
4. Report of a Committee appointed to make a digest of the observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels which have been
carried on by the Migration Committee of the British Association.—See
Reports, p. 363.
5. Fourth Report of the Committee for the purpose of collecting information
as to the Disappearance of Native Plants fron: their Local Habitats.—
See Reports, p. 359.
6. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of arranging for the
occupation of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation at Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 364.
7. Report of the Committee appointed for Improving and Experimenting
with a Deep-sea Tow-net.—See Reports, p. 382.
8. Non-sexual Formation of Spores in the Desmidiacee.
By A. W. BEnNeErt.
In at least two gatherings of Desmids from the neighbourhood of Hindhead in
Surrey, I have come across a phenomenon which I am not aware has been recorded
before in this family of Algze, viz. the formation of parthenospores without conju-
gation. The species was in all cases Closterium lanceolatum, Ktz., and I have at
present seen four examples of it. In two of them one spore, in the other two
two spores, were formed within the frond. They appeared spherical or ellipsoidal
according to the view in which they were seen, and with perfectly smooth surface.
The fronds were distinctly alive, and the longitudinal chlorophyll-bands had under-
gone but little change from their ordinary form, except where interrupted by the
intervention of the spore. A similar phenomenon has been recorded in the allied
Zygnemacezx.
9. On a simple Apparatus for the Cultivation of small organisms in Hang-
ing Drops, and in various Gases, under the Microscope. By Pro-
fessor MarsHatt Warp, F.R.S.
The author has found it necessary to devise a culture-chamber capable of sup-
plying relatively large quantities of gases to the ordinary hanging-drop cultiva-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 679
tions of yeasts, bacteria, &c. ; it must also be firm, strong, and readily taken to
pieces and sterilised by heat.
He has accomplished this by taking a piece of thick-walled glass tubing, about
3 inch in diameter and 3 inches long ; the two ends are softened and slightly drawn
to narrow tubes, not too thin. The piece of glass now looks like a narrow tube with a
thick-walled bulb in the middle. One face of this central bulb is then ground flat,
until a hole about } inch in diameter is cut through ; a similar hole is then ground
in the opposite face of the bulb. The apparatus is now ready to be put together.
It is sterilised at 150° C., and cemented by paraffin (or by gelatine in acetic acid),
by one of the ground faces, to a broad glass slide properly sterilised. Sterilised cot-
ton-wool is stuffed into the two narrow tubulures, and the hanging-drop culture,
properly prepared on a sterile coverslip is cemented (by means of sterilised oil,
vaseline, or paraffin, &c.) over the upper hole of the chamber.
The apparatus is now ready for use if the culture is required in air only; a
slow diffusion of air and retardation of evaporation may be insured by simply wet-
ting the cotton-wool in the tubulures with pure water.
If it is necessary to pass gases into the culture, one of the stuffed tubulures is
‘connected by means of caoutchouc tubing (sterilised in corrosive sublimate, abso-
lute alcohol, and boiling) with the appropriate gas apparatus. The pressure can
be regulated by the stuffing in this, the proximal tubulure, and by clip or screw-
taps. The stuffed exit tubulure is also protected by caoutchouc tubing and a clip.
If a very strong cover-slip and careful cementing are employed, the author finds
that a very good partial vacuum can be obtained, and even retained for some
hours. This is very useful in cases where it is necessary to remove the oxygen or
carbon-dioxide from the imprisoned atmosphere. This may be accomplished more
or less readily by attaching bulbs containing an alkaline solution of pyrogallic
acid, or a solution of potassium hydrate. Obviously the apparatus can also be used
for testing the effect of poisonous gases, or for observing the action of light of
different intensities, or of various low temperatures, and so forth. Obviously, also,
it may be used for testing the action of different coloured lights, and of darkness,
&ce., with certain simple modifications, eg. employing different coloured glass
tubing, or opalescent or blackened glass for making the culture-chamber, and
adding various screens, covers, &c., as required.
10. On some Simple Models illustrating the Vascular System of Vertebrates.
By Professor W. N. Parker.
11. On the Progress of the Investigation of the Natural History of the
Friendly Islands. By J. J. Lister.
At the meeting of the British Association at Bath in September 1888, a Com-
mittee was appointed for the purpose of taking steps for the investigation of the
Natural History of the Friendly Islands and other groups in the Pacific visited by
H.M.S. Egeria.
I was then starting to join the Egeria, and a grant of 100/. was voted to assist
me in carrying out the object of the Committee. At the next meeting the Com-
mittee reported that I had joined the Zyerta on her arrival at Tonga and was
carrying on my researches.
I beg leave to offer the following brief account of the further steps that I took
in pursuance of my object.
FLM.S. Egeria arrived at Tongatabu on May 23, 1889, and after a short visit
to the neighbouring island of Eua, I left Tonga for a cruise among the islands
lying to the northward, between Tongatabu and the Equator.
In the course of this cruise the Eyeria called twice at Samoa, and also visited
Viti Levu, the principal island in Fiji, and made surveys of Fakaofu in the Union
Group, and Canton (or Mary) Island in the Phoenix Group, besides touching at
several of the neighbouring islands.
680 REPORT—1891.
On returning to Tonga I had the opportunity of visiting Falcon Island, which
was thrown up by volcanic eruption in 1885, and some of the other less accessible
islands of the group.
After the departure of the Eyeria in November, I paid two visits to the Vavau
Islands in the northern part of the Tonga group, and owing to the courtesy of
Mr. S. Parker of Eua I stayed two weeks with him on that island.
I finally left Tonga on April 24, 1890, and returned to England at the end of
the following September. My collections have been disposed of as follows :—
The geological specimens have been placed in the Woodwardian Museum at
Cambridge. Specimens of the skins and eggs of the rarer birds and my collections
in other groups of animals, in the British Museum of Natural History. The
collections of dried plants, in the Herbarium of the Royal Gardens at Kew. A
small collection of the skulls of the natives of Fakaofu and Tonga in the Museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons.
The examination of the material is still in progress, but the following papers
have appeared :—
‘ Woodwardian Museum Notes, Sections IV. and V.’ by Alfred Harker,
M.A., F.G.S., ‘Geological Magazine, April 1891.
‘ Rocks from the Tonga Islands,’ ! by the same author, ‘ Geological Magazine,’
June 1891;
together with the following by myself :—
‘A Visit to the newly-emerged Falcon Island, Tonga Group,’ ‘ Proceedings
of the Royal Geographical Society,’ March 1890.
‘ Notes on the Natives of Fakaofu,’ read before the Anthropological Society,
March 1891.
‘Notes on the Birds of the Phoenix Islands,’ read before the Zoological
Society, April 21, 1891.
‘Notes on the Geology of the Tonga Islands,’ read before the Geological
Society, June 24, 1891,
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee nominated for the purpose of arranging for the
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples. See
Reports, p. 365.
2. On some Species of Diatoms with Pseudopodia,
By J. G. Greneett, £.G.S., F.RILS.
The diatoms are two small species of Melostra and Cyclotella Kiitzingiana,
which occur mainly as isolated frustules and are non-motile. They have been
found in London, Hertfordshire, and Wiltshire. The pseudopodia are delicate,
often invisible till the material is dried on a cover glass. Comparatively thick ones
are occasionally found. Gentian violet and methylene blue are good stains for
them. The pseudopodia are apparently non-retractile, generally straight, some-
times branched, but those of the earliest gathering in April were often repeatedly
branched. Their number is fairly constant. Most of them are placed fairly sym-
metrically round the edge of the valves. The length varies from two-and-a-half
to nine times the diameter of the frustule. The diatoms are sometimes connected
by broad bands which seem to be anastomosed pseudopodia. Very similar bands
* This paper includes the description of the specimens collected by Captain C. F.
Oldham, R.N., in his survey of 1890.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 68)
are found amongst the Heliozoa. The protoplasmic nature of the pseudopodia is
inferred from the following facts :—
They are destroyed by nitric acid and by a lowred heat; they give no cellulose
reaction with Schultze’s solution or with iodine and sulphuric acid; they stain
readily with Kleinenberg’s hematoxylin; they also stain with borax carmine,
picro-nigrosin and alcoholic saffranin. Pseudopodia similar in shape are found
amongst the Heliozoa generally, but pseudopodia agreeing with these in the
minutest details are found on some specimens of Archerina Boltoni, a Heliozoon
which occurred in vast numbers with the diatoms in London. Other as yet un-
determined Heliozoa occurring in the same water have very similar pseudopodia.
3. On Nuclear Structure in the Bacteria. By Harotp WaceEr.
Owing to the small size of the cells in the bacteria, the presence of a nucleus,
or of anything akin to nuclear structure in them, has not yet been satisfactorily
demonstrated. Dr. P. Ernst, has, however, described certain bodies which to him
appeared to be of the nature of nuclei, inasmuch as they possessed a reaction
towards reagents different from that observed in spores.
It is interesting to note that in the closely allied group of the Cyanophycee,
Scott and Zacharias have been able to detect structures resembling a nucleus.
__ According to Biitschli, the central portion of the protoplasmic contents of the
bacterium cell is to be regarded as of the nature of a nucleus, in that it takes up
very readily certain aniline dyes. It should be noted, however, that such stains
as hematoxylin, carmine, saffranin have but little staining power for the contents
of the bacterium cell, compared with such stains as gentian violet, fuchsin, &c.,
which stain them deeply, but which also stain the protoplasm of the cells of higher
plants almost as deeply as the contents of the bacterium cell. This seems to show
that the bacteria contain very little of the chromatic substance which is found in
the nuclei of the higher plants. The author of this paper has for some time
been working at the bacteria in the hope of elucidating this point, and has
obtained a bacillus in which a distinct nuclear structure can be observed.
The bacillus referred to forms a thin scum on the surface of water containing
Spirogyrain a state of decay. The cells, which consist of short rods, occur either
singly or in pairs. They are about 2°5 to 3 » in length, and from 1°83 to 15 p in
diameter, and when seen in a fresh state one or more brightly refractive granules
can be observed in each cell. In cover-glass preparations stained with fuchsin, all
stages in the division of the bacillus could be observed. The preparations should
be made during the earlier stages of the development of the scum on the surface of
the water, while the bacillus is in a healthy state of division.
In the centre of each cell a substance deeply stained by the fuchsin is found.
This in young cells consists of two rods placed side by side, with a less deeply
stained substance between them, the whole being surrounded by a very thin
“membrane which is only visible at the two ends. This is the structure which we
may call a nucleus. It is surrounded by a space containing a substance which is
only slightly stainable, and this again is surrounded by a deeply-stained membrane,
outside which is the slightly stained gelatinous envelope. Previous to its division
the cell elongates; the nucleus also elongates and contracts slightly about the
middle of its length. A dumb-bell shaped structure is thus obtained. The two
rods divide completely, so as to form two groups, containing two rods each, which
remain connected together for some time by the less deeply-stained portion of the
nucleus. The constriction becomes more and more pronounced, until finally the
two halves of the nucleus are completely separated. The outer capsule or cell-
__ wall has meanwhile been contracting towards the middle, the contraction keeping
pace with the division of the central mass. This contraction goes on until at a
certain stage a delicate transverse partition appears, dividing it into two; each
half contains one of the halves of the original nucleus. Ultimately the two halves
become completely separated, and two new cells are formed.
In the majority of cases the cells are completely separated before the division
682 REPORT—1891.
of the nucleus again begins, but in many instances the nuclear rods were seen to
be dividing in cells which were still connected with each other.
After atime the division of the cells takes place less rapidly, and finally ceases
altogether. The division of the nucleus becomes very irregular, and at the time
when cell division has ceased the nucleus has become broken up into granules which
are distributed irregularly in the contents of the cell.
This breaking up of the nucleus appears to be preliminary to the formation of
spores, although the formation of spores has not been satisfactorily observed.
5. A Discussion was held on the Systematic Position of certain Organisms
that are regarded by some Naturalists as Animals, and by others as
Plants.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Anatomical Nomenclature. By Professor W. Krause, Gottingen.
The subject of the paper, ‘ Anatomical Nomenclature,’ may seem to be only of
interest to the anatomist in the dissecting-room. This is, however, an error, for
the names of several parts of the body occur in every branch of Biological Science,
Zoology, Embryology, &c., and especially in the practice of Medicine and Surgery.
There have been and there are many complaints that a great many parts of the
body have not one but several different anatomical names, for instance—conarium,
pineal body, epiphysis. This state of things has every year become worse and
worse ; in Germany, especially, it has become almost insupportable.
The reason is obvious. Germany was and is not united in the administration
of the internal affairs of the single states, and every state, and even every little
university, has had and has to-day its own anatomical nomenclature. If one com-
pares the anatomical papers and the handbooks of different nations, one meets with
the same difficulties. In Germany, however, there are still greater difficulties to
face. Here in the same university sometimes different anatomical nomenclatures
exist. Much time and labour are lost by student and teacher owing to these
differences.
This labour is completely lost, because it is and it must be of little importance
whether this or that name be given to a particular muscle or a particular artery.
Sometimes confusion and misunderstandings arise, but the worst is that the mere
reader is unwilling or does not care to translate the anatomical terms of an author,
foreigner or otherwise, into his own anatomical terminology. So reading becomes
superficial; the reader understands the words but not the real meaning of the
author. This state of things cannot last, and so a Committee has been elected for
preparing, not a new one, but at least a homogeneous nomenclature. This Com-
mittee consists of seventeen anatomists, of whom twelve are Germans and four or
five from other countries. Sir William Turner from Edinburgh and Professor
Cunningham from Dublin represent Great Britain. This Committee has begun to
work in earnest, and has already done much. The author referred to a little
paper, only three pages, which contains nothing but the names of the muscles of
the human body, but much work had to be done before it was completed. Now
Germans can, at least, answer the question, if a foreigner should ask, ‘ What is
the German name for a certain muscle?’ A year ago no German anatomist could
have given any answer but ‘I do not know, some call it the trapezius, others the
eucullaris.’. In conclusion, the author said, ‘ In two or three years we shall have
finished the whole, and then we shall ask the anatomists of other countries to
give their candid opinion on the results of our labours.’
Some general principles have already been laid down by the Committee.
Firstly : The name should be as short as possible.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 683
Secondly: Personal nomenclature should not if possible be used. There are
some anatomical names which are known in every country, as ‘ Hunter’s canal,’ but
a great many are known only in one country. There are little nodules on the
margin of the semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery: some call them ‘nodes
of Arantius,’ others the ‘nodes of Morgagni’; but Arantius certainly never saw
them. There is a prominence on the external ear of man, in Germany known as
*Darwin’s prominence,’ but in England it is often called ‘ Woolner’s tip,’ and so on.
Thirdly: No part of the body should have more than one name; more
synonyms only cause confusion. This name shall always be a Latin one; every
nation can afterwards easily translate it after its own fashion. Latin is the only
real international language, and by adopting it we hope to have a sound
foundation.
ee ee
Notre.—Anyone who may wish to have a copy of the paper referred to above is
requested to apply to the author.
2. On Fertilisation and Conjugation Processes as allied Modes of Proto-
plasmic Rejuvenescence. By Professor Marcus Hartoe, M.A., D.Sc.,
F.L.S.
8. A Preliminary Classification of Sexual and allied Modes of Protoplasmic
Rejuvenescence, §c.' By Professor Marcus Harroc, M.A., D.8e.,
F.L.S.
I. The following modes of rejuyenescence occur in cellular and in certain apo-
eytial organisms :—
A. Prastoeamy: the fusion of cytoplasts into a plasmodium, the nuclei
remaining free (Myxomycetes).
B, Karyocamy: the union of cells (gametes), cytoplast to cytoplast and
nucleus to nucleus, to form a 1-nucleate cell, the zygote. The following
variations occur :—
1. Isocamy. The union of gametes undistinguishable in size, form,
and behaviour; this may vary as follows :—
(a) MutripLe: between several gametes (up to 6).
(5) Binary: between a pair of gametes ;
or, from another point of view—
(c) INDIFFERENT: between any gametes of the species.
(d) Exogamovus: between gametes of distinct broods only
( Ulothriz).
(ce) Enpogamous: between gametes of the same brood only
(Hydrodictyon).
2, Anisogamy: the union of two gametes differing chiefly in size; the
smaller (mzcro-) gamete is male, the larger (mega-) gamete, female.
3. Hyppranisocamy : the female gamete, at first active, comes to rest
before fusion with the male (Lower Melanophycee).
4, Oocamy: The female is never actively motile; the male is termed a
spermatozoon, the female an oosphere.
From another point of view karyogamy is—
5. ZOoIDIogAMOUS: one gamete at least is actively motile (flagellate,
ciliate, or amceboid).
6. SieHonocamovs: karyogamy is effected by a tubular outgrowth
from one or both of the gametes (Phanerogams).
1 Examples are only given in cases where it is necessary, from the introduction
of new terms, or where the examples are not generally familiar.
684 REPORT—1891.
II. In apocytial fungi multinucleated masses of protoplasm (gametoids) may
conjugate to form a zygototd, by a siphonogamous process. The union
may be tsogamous (most Mucorint), or anisogamous (M. heterogamus,
Vuill, some Chytridiec).
III. Gametes may be classified as follows :—
A. According to their formation—
1. Evscuist: formed by repeated complete divisions from a parent cell,
the gametogonium.
(a) Evruyscutst: each nuclear division is accompanied by cell
division.
(6) Brapyscuist: the nuclear divisions are completed before any
cell division takes place (spermatozoa of Lumbricus).
(c) Isoscuisr: the brood-cells of a gametogonium are all equal
and functional.
(d) Antsoscuist: the brood cells are unequal, some of them
being reduced to aborted or degraded gametes (spermatozoa
with ‘nucleated blastophore, ‘ovum’ with polar bodies of
most Metazoa).
2, Hemiscuist: the divisions are limited to the nucleus, none occurring
in the cytoplasm (ovum with polar nuclei of many Arthropods).
8. AposcHist: the cell divisions do not occur, but a cell directly assumes
the behaviour of a gamete (Volvow).
4, Sympuyric: the gameto-nucleus is formed by the fusion of several
nuclei (oogametes of Peronosporee, isogametes of Dasycladus).
B, According to their behaviour, as—
1. Facunrative: retaining the power of development if karyogamy
fails to occur.
2, OBLIGATORY: with no power of independent development.
IV. PaRraGENEsts will include the following modes of rejuvenescence, usually
grouped under the terms ‘ parthenogenesis,’ ‘ apogamy’ (pro parte), &c. :—
A. Trur PArtHENoGENESIS: the direct development of a facultative gamete
without karyogamy. This may occur in the case of—
(1) Isogametes; (2) Anisogametes, male (microgametes of Lctocarpee),
and female; (8) Oogametes (Zzparis, drone egg),
B. SIMvLATED PARTHENOGENESIS :—
1. CrntuLaR: a cell assumes directly the behaviour of a zygote (azy-
gospores of Conjugate).
2, ApocyTIAL: a multinucleate mass of protoplasm assumes directly
the behaviour of a zygotoid (azygospores of Mucorinz).
C, MrtvaAGAMETAL REJUVENESCENCE :—
1. Unicariunar: a single cell in the neighbourhood of the gamete
assumes the form and behaviour of the zygote (formation of
‘adventitious embryos’ in embryo-sac of Funkia, Citrus, and
Calebogyne). “7
2. MULTICELLULAR: a mass of cells in the position where gametes
should be produced, assumes the character of the young organism
formed by the zygote (‘Apogamy’in prothallus of Pteris cretica,
&e.).
D. Paracamy or ENDOKARYOGAMY: vegetative or gametal nuclei lying in a
continuous mass of cytoplasm fuse to form a zygote nucleus.
be
a
\
TRANSACTIONS OF SHCTION D. 685
1. Progamic paragamy: the fusing nuclei are the normal gameto-
nuclei of the progamous cell (ovum which has formed one polar
body in Pterotrachea, Astropecten).
2. Apocytial paragamy: the vegetative nuclei of an apocytium fuse to
form a zygote nucleus (‘ oospores’ of Saprolegniee).
4. On Recent Investigations of the Marine Biological Association (Fishery
and Physical). By W. L. Cauperwoon, Director.
1, Fishery Investigations.—In the absence of general returns as to the increase
or decrease of any particular fishery in a given locality, we at Plymouth are from
time to time discussing the local fisheries. Papers have now been published on
the mackerel, herring, long-line, z.e. cod, conger, skate, &c., pilchard, and lobster
fisheries, the object being to show, as time goes on, any changes that may take
place in the relative abundance of the various fishes.
Three investigations, started within the present year, which it is hoped will
prove of great value to the fishing population of this country, are :—
a. The attempt to produce an artificial bait for use in long-line fishing. This
investigation is being carried on by a chemist from Professor Meldola’s laboratory.
Considerable advance has been already made towards a satisfactory solution of this
difficult problem.
6, An inquiry into the occurrence of anchovies off the south-west coast of
England. At present no net small enough in the mesh to capture anchovies is
employed, but these fishes appear so often when the ordinary pilchard nets become
entangled, as to suggest that they must be present in considerable quantities.
Anchovy nets have therefore been constructed and will be used during the pilchard
season this autumn.
e, An investigation into the condition of the North Sea Fisheries, at present
declared to be rapidly declining :—
1. To draw up a history of the North Sea trawling grounds, comparing the
present condition with the condition, say, twenty to thirty years ago,
when comparatively few boats were at work.
2. To continue, verify, and extend observations as to the average sizes at
which prime fish (soles, turbot, brill) become sexually mature.
3. To collect statistics as to the sizes of all fish captured in the vicinity of
the Dogger Banks and the region lying to the eastward, so that the
number of immature fish annually captured may eventually be esti-
mated,
4. To make experiments with beam-trawl nets of various meshes, with a
view to determine the relation, if any, between size of mesh and size
of fish taken.
2. Physical Investigations.—A regular survey of the English Channel has been
commenced not only in the deep water but in the various estuaries.
A Meteorological Station of the second order has been recently established
where observations at 9 A.M. and 9 p.m. will be taken daily with wet and dry bulb
‘thermometers, barometer, rain-cauge, anemometer, and sunshine recorder.
2 5. On the Growth of Food-fishes and their Distribution at different ages.
By J. T. Cunyincuam, M.A.
_ As the result of observations extended over the past two years, I have reached
some conclusions as to the rate of growth of certain food-fishes, the age at which
they begin to breed, and their distribution at different ages.
(1) Rate of growth and age of sexual maturity.—Numerous specimens of the
Flounder (P/. flesus), were reared from the larval state in the Aquarium of the
_ Plymouth Laboratory. Measured in April, when a year old, they varied from 4
to 19 cm, (about 14 to 74 inches). Specimens obtained in the Cattewater, and
686 REPORT—1891.
known to be not less.than a year old, are from 12 to 19 cm. in length. None of
these captive flounders nor any taken in the Cattewater were sexually mature, but,
according to Dr. Fulton, of the Scottish Fishery Board, sexually mature flounders
have been observed which were only 7 inches long. I conclude therefore that (a)
the rate of growth varies greatly for different individuals, but its maximum for the
first year is 19 cm. or 7} inches, (6) sexual maturity is not reached till the end of
the second year, although the minimum size of sexually mature individuals may he
slightly exceeded by some specimens in one year’s growth.
I have obtained similar results for the Plaice (Pl. platessa) and the Dab (Pi.
limanda).
(2) Dieie Diuitions="The young of the above-mentioned species in their first year,
and of certain round fish, especially Gadus luscus and G', minutus, occur in shallow
water, within the 10-fathom line. But there has hitherto been considerable diffi-
culty in obtaining young specimens of other more valuable species in order to study
their rate of growth. These species, namely, the Sole, Turbot, Brill, Lemon Sole,
Meerim (Arnoglossus megastoma), do not pass the first year of their lives in shallow
water. I have obtained young Soles in the larval state in tidal pools at Mevagissey,
and young Turbot and Brill 2 to 3 cm. in length are commonly found from June to
August in Plymouth Sound and Sutton Pool, swimming at the surface in a semi-
metamorphosed stage. ‘Soles a little over 16 cm. in length are frequently taken in
Plymouth Sound in summer ; these are just over one year old and are not sexually
mature. Turbot 23 to 34 cm. long I have taken in 5 to 7 fathoms; these also are
over one year old and not sexually mature. But the young stages between 3
months and 12 months old have not been taken in shallow water, and apparently
live at depths greater than 10 fathoms. It seems that our commoner and more
valuable food-fishes do not attain to sexual maturity till the end of their second
year, that their size at this age is subject to great individual variation, and that
the young in the first year of growth have a characteristic distribution. Investiga-
tion of the deeper water from this point of view is now being carried on at
Plymouth.
6. The Reproduction of the Pilchard. By J.T. Cunninenam, M.A.
In a paper published in the ‘Journal’ of the Marine Biological Association in
1889, I described the egg of the Pilchard, obtained from the sea by the tow-net,
and identified by comparison with the mature egg taken from ripe female Pilchards.
The distinguishing features are four in number: (1) size 1°65 to 1:72 mm. in
diameter, (2) the very large perivitelline space, (8) the vesicular composition of
the yolk, (4) the large single oil-globule in the yolk.
Professor Pouchet, who has studied the Sardine at the Marine Laboratory of
Concarneau, persists in denying that this egg obtained by me is that of the Pilchard,
believing that the egg of the Sardine or Pilchard is not pelagic. My identi-
fication confirmed that suggested by Raffaelle from observations at Naples. Marion
at Marseilles ® has entirely confirmed my results and also traced the growth of the
Sardine at that place, showing that it reaches a length of 9 to 13 cm. in one year.
This year at Plymouth, in June, I obtained ripe female Pilchards, but no males,
However, I placed the ripe unfertilised ova in clean sea-water, and found that after
twenty-four hours the ova were alive and floating, the perivitelline space was
formed, and the eggs presented all the characteristic peculiarities I had previously
attributed to the ova of the Pilchard. I also at the same time obtained the same
eggs in process of development from the sea, by means of the tow-net. In July I
obtained the alevins of the Pilchard at the surface near the Eddystone, a number
of specimens varying from ‘8 to 2°5cm. in length. I hope to trace their further
growth and compare it with that of the Mediterranean Sardine. The ripe Pil-
chards at Plymouth are 28 to 25 cm. long, ripe adult Sardines in the Mediterranean
are only 15 to 18 cm.
1 See ‘Rapport sur le Lab. de Concarneau for 1889, in Journal d’Anat. et de
Physiol., 1890.
2 Annales du Musée @ Histoire Nat. de Marseille, ‘Zoologie Appliquée,’ 1891.
P
: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 687
7. Observations on the Larve of Palinurus vulgaris.
By J. T. Cunninewam, M.A.
On July 9 and 16 of the present year I obtained a large number of the
Phyllosoma larvee of Palinurus vulgaris. Previously, in the summer of 1889,
_ the eggs of this species were hatched in the tanks of the Plymouth Laboratory of
_ the Marine Biological Association, and I preserved a number of the newly hatched
- larve. The latter are 3:1 mm. in length from the front of the cephalon to the end
of the abdomen. The largest of these taken in the sea are 7 mm. in length. I
_ find that the first maxilliped is not absent altogether at any of the stages I have
_ obtained; it is represented in the newly hatched larve as a small but distinct
conical process, and does not increase or decrease in any way up to the oldest stage
I have obtained. In the Phyllosoma of 7 mm. the antenne are more developed,
the fourth and fifth ambulatory appendages, present at hatching as minute processes,
have developed considerably, the fourth being already biramous. Richter’s state-
ment therefore (‘Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zoologie,’ 1873) that the first maxilliped is
entirely absent in Palinurus phyllosoma in the earliest stages is not true in the
case of P. vulgaris. I find also that stages of Phyllosoma figured and described by
Claus (2d¢d. 1863) from 3°5 mm. to 21 mm. in length, are certainly larve of
P. vulgaris, although this identification seems never to have been definitely
made before.
——- <<
8. Distribution of Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Gill.
By J. T. Cunninewam, M.A.
I obtained this species in large numbers on July 9 of the present year when
trawling with a small beam-trawl about two miles north of the Eddystone, in
about twenty-seven fathoms of water. Day mentions only one specimen found in
British waters, namely, one taken by Thos. Edward in a rock-pool at Banff. This
specimen wasa male. The species is distinguished by having only two rays in
the anterior dorsal fin in the male, this fin and the pelvic fins being rudimentary
in the female. The fish is quite transparent when alive, and scaleless; the mature
male is about 4 cm. in length, the female smaller. There is a good paper on the
Species by R. Collett, of Christiania, in ‘Proc. Zool. Soc.’ for 1878. It is there
stated that the fish is fairly common in the Christiania Fjord, thirty specimens
_ having been taken there. A few specimens have been taken near Bergen, at
Christiansund, and also in Bohuslan, in Sweden. JI took in a single haul about
_ 100 specimens, more than all those that had been taken in Norway and Sweden
_ since 1843, when the species was first discovered. All my specimens were adult
or nearly so, which agrees with Collett’s conclusion that the fish is an annual,
dying after breeding. Mr. E. W. L. Holt also took many specimens of the same
at in Ballinskelligs Bay, thirty fathoms, on August 21,1890. The shrimp
wl used by me was lined inside with mosquito netting, on purpose to retain
small animals. Probably the species is fairly abundant between twenty and thirty
fathoms, on smooth sandy ground, all along the British and Irish coasts.
eS". Ss eer rceSS—<(C_
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Facts regarding Prothalli and the Propagation of Ferns.
By E. J. Lowe, F.R.S., F.L.S.
Occasionally in a batch of seedling ferns there will occur several plants of some
rangely marked variety identical in their characters and growing so closely to-
ther that it is difficult to separate them. I have long suspected these were pro-
uced on the same prothallus; indeed this seemed evident in four instances of
’
688 report—1891.
remarkable seedling Athyriums, yet the development was too far advanced for
absolute certainty. To examine this carefully, a number of Scolopendriums were
planted in the prothallus state, and on the young fronds appearing, two were
noticed identical in character and unusual in form, which when examined were
found to have their origin in one well-developed prothallus. With a penknife it
was possible to divide the prothallus so as to secure the two plants, which were
planted in a pan and have not since been disturbed.
Prothalli were then planted from a pan of mixed muricate and undulate Scolo-
pendriums, and these were divided before the formation of fronds into two equal
parts, in some examples the two plants resulting were alike, in others they differed
but showed their muricate and undulate origin.
The next experiment was dividing the prothallus into four equal parts. This
was done in January 1888. Every division grew and spread in a more bush-like
manner than is the case with undivided prothalli, but up to July 1890 there was
no sign of any frond. It appeared evident that the male and female organs of
generation were on separate divisions. To test this, in May 1890 another prothallus
was planted in close proximity to one of these, in fact made to actually inter-
mingle, and in August fronds appeared, The other divisions except four were
similarly treated, and all have now produced fronds. The spores had been sown
in August 1887, and divided on January 12, 1888, so that the prothallus exhibited
has been in this condition four years. The usual time from prothallus to frond
being only a few months. ;
In an interesting example of the lady fern (alluded to in the next paper), a pro-
thallus produced three plants exactly alike and having two kinds of fronds. It was
from a mixture of eight varieties, and these show the parentage of six, and now and
then seven. They have the lax pinne of wncum, the cruciate pinne of Victoria,
the projected pinne of projectum, the lunulate pinnules of Frizellie, the cruciate
pinnules of erucipinula, the truncate terminals of trwncatum, and occasionally the
cresting of multifidum. This fern has reproduced six and occasionally seven
characters. According to the doctrine of probability it is 720 to 1 against the
production of six varieties on the same plant, and 5,040 against seven.
Turning to other means of reproduction, experiments are required in order to
ascertain why the bulbils that form on some frords do not always produce plants
like the parent, and why it is possible to transfer the bulb-bearing character to
other varieties. Scolopendrium densum often produces much more coarse and less
divided ferns than itself. [Densum and one of its coarse bulbils were exhibited. ]
The beautiful plumose shield fern known as plumosodivisolobum has produced
two plants from its bulbils that are strikingly distinct from the parent and each
other; one is densely imbricate and procumbent like the parent, whilst the other
is as finely divided as Todea superba, and is erect in habit.
Again, aposporous plants, that is those raised from the prothalli direct without
the intermediate spore, also vary. [An aposporous plant of Clarissima of the
Lady fern was described.] Even plants raised from bits of the stipes of plumose
Scolopendriums produced a marginal belt.
There are so many truths yet to learn with regard to ferns that it is desirable
that some younger man should take up these inquiries.
2. On Ferns and their Multiple Parents. By E. J. Lows, F.R.S., F.L.8.
Colonel Jones and myself read a joint ‘paper on abnormal Ferns at the Bath
meeting of the British Association, which is printed in full with illustrations in
the third volume of the ‘Annals of Botany.’ The present paper is a report on
further experiments, and of the surprising discoveries that have resulted.
Since 1887 other hybrids have been obtained, and although these hybrids are
more or less sterile, a few plants (grandchildren of the original parents) have been
raised, and they differ so much from the parent that nearly all resemblance has
disappeared. What will be the characters of the great-grandchildren is now in
eourse of proof, It is very different in the case of the offspring of crossed varieties ¢
bas
>
'
p
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 689
they are copiously fertile, and when sown alone reproduce their varietal form.
Not only have certain forms been imparted to other Ferns, but even variegation,
notably so in the Shield Fern and the Hart’s-tongue. In the latter spores from a
normal but variegated form were sown thickly with a plumose (or crispum form)
and a branching form, and their offspring have become variegated. By sowing a
muriate and a plumose Hart’s-tongue together, muriate plumose varieties have also
resulted.
For illustrating multiple parentage the Hart’s-tongue has been selected, as the
simple, strop-shaped fronds are best able to show the various departures from the
normal form.
In repeating the experiment of mixed spores the varieties in each case have
been limited to three or four, so that the resultant changes could be more narrowly
investigated. Distinct mixtures were sown in 1887, 1888, 1889, and 1890, and
the results in all the experiments established the fact that the antheridia of more
than one variety have assisted in the impregnation, The varieties had con-
spicuously distinct characters, and in the example of 1888 the spores were
gathered from a dwarf spiral form, a muricate or warty form, an undulate and a
ramose one; more exactly speaking, the varieties were spirale, wndulatum, muri-
catum, and keratoides. The parents were exhibited as well as three of their
children, the latter having the names of quadriparens, Darwiniana, and echinatum.
‘These unmistakably show on each plant the characters of the whole four parents.
In the hundreds of these seedlings, as might be expected, the majority show only
the characters of two parents, in a less though considerable number the characters
of three, whilst a small number exhibit those of the four parents. The plants in
the 1889 experiments are from a muricate, a branched, and a cup-bearing form,
known as peraferens, the object being to obtain cups on a branching muricate
Fern, as this was a desideratum. There was no previous example of more than
one cup on a frond. In the seedlings a divided frond can be observed with eups
on each division, a tasselled form with a rosette in place of an actual cup, and in
another example a marginal row of small cups; and all are muricate. It is worth
remarking that the seedlings from mixed spores never seem to produce any plants -
that exactly resemble any one variety ; they are all combinations; in other words,
--antherozoids from a number of different antheridia are required for fertilisa-
| tion. In sowing varieties of the Lady Fern I have raised the combination of five
and six. This is alluded to in my paper ‘On Prothalli.” These plants that give
evidence of multiple parentage were obtained in the identical manner formulated
before they had any existence. Spores require to be sown thickly to enable the
_prothalli to intermingle, otherwise they are only fertilised from the same prothallus.
If we take the reasoning of Sir John Herschel on the doctrine of probability, and
apply it to these experiments, the chances against the reasoning adopted being
‘incorrect are as great as that of the haphazard distribution of the stars. These
‘experiments regarding the changes in animal and vegetable life were commenced
forty years ago. Bearing to some extent on this subject, experimenting on the
_Mimulus, a yellow variety was crossed with a spotted one, and the seedlings were
spotted; later on, and further up the same stem, two blooms were this time
_ crossed with a yellow one, but the seedlings were still spotted. The effect of the
first cross had become a part of the life-history of the plant ; in a second experi-
“ment the same plant was simultaneously crossed with pollen from two other
varieties, and several of the seedlings are combinations of the three. It requires
dexterity in crossing the Mimulus, as the pistil is as sensitive as the sensitive
‘Mimosa. Natural changes are slow, but culturally we can accelerate that process
that continues age after age. The germ once changed, the new element is re-
tained, which becomes combined with others until the normal appearance is lost.
_ The illustration of the Hart’s-tongue shows this alteration, helped on as it were by
artificial means that have accelerated the process, and these changes will continue
whilst the world lasts. Affectionate respect causes tablets to be erected in
Memory of the departed, but age obliterates this record. It is, however, far
different with the philosopher who has discovered great truths; he has erected a
Monument to himself ‘more lasting than brass.’ Time wears away the hardest
1891. YY
4
690 REPORT—1891.
rock, but it will require the crumbling of this world to obliterate the truths that
have been taught by Charles Darwin.
3. The Ciliated Organs of the Leeches. By Professor Gison.
Tt is well known that the segmental organ of the Chetopods terminates in the
ccelom in the form of a funnel-shaped and ciliated structure.
In the leeches, on the contrary, though it is generally taught that there exists
a similar feature, our knowledge of it is imperfect.
Several authors confess that they have not been able to detect in these worms
any relation between the segmental organ and certain ciliated bodies that have
been regarded by others as terminal funnels or nephridiostome.
f have undertaken with one of my pupils, Dr. Bolsius, several researches in
order to resolve if possible that interesting question. I shall content myself with
an extremely short account of the results we arrived at up to the present as
regards the genus Wephelis.
The ciliated organs of the Nephelis are not funnel- but cup-shaped bodies, with
a non-perforated bottom. The sides of the cup are composed of large bilobed
cells. The bottom, on the contrary, consists only of smaller and non-ciliated cells.
This cup lies enclosed in the cavity of a large vesicle, from the sides of which it
vibrates freely, being only suspended by a smali number of large connective cells.
The vesicle is only a dilatation of one of these non-contractile blood-vessels that
represent, according to the view of Dr. Bourne, the greatly modified celom of the
leeches. It lies at a certain distance from the segmental organ, and is ordinarily
separated from the same by muscles or connective cells.
The result of these observations is that the ciliated organs of the WNephelis
deserve by no means the name of funnels, and that there is no anatomical
connection between them and the segmental gland.
We can assert also that this gland does not open into the ccelom, at least not
in certain genera of leeches, and especially the Nephelis, as it does in the well-
known case of the Chetopods.
The absence of connection between the ciliated bodies and the segmental
gland seems to be a result of the profound modification the coelom undergoes
in these remarkable forms of annelids.
The terminal or coelomic part of the segmental organ is separated from the
rest of the gland, and as this separation is not followed by immediate degeneration
of the nephridiostome, it seems evident that the latter—that is to say, the cup-
shaped organ—acquires at the same time a new significance and another
physiological function. :
As regards this new function we may propose two hypotheses which do
not exclude each other :—
1. The cilia cause the blood to run through the non-contractile capillaries ;
at least they help tts motion through the coelomic system.
2. The organ is a place of proliferation of the blood-cells.—In fact the
cup-shaped organ is ordinarily crowded with blood-corpuscles, the nuclei of which
are often remarkable for their chromatophile power. We detected also amongst
them several phases of karyocinesis. ‘
These results, I think, are noteworthy for anyone who is interested with
the position of the formation and evolution of the segmental organs and with the
kidney-theory. They will soon be published in full in the Louvain Review
‘La Cellule.’
4. Some Points in the Early Development of Mus musculus and Mus decu-
manus: the Relation of the Yolk Sac to the Decidua and the Placenta.
By Arraur Rosrnson, WD.
1. At the seventh day the ovum consists of a large yolk sac and a small mass
of primitive epiblast which rests upon one pole of the ovum, The ovum is con-
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. byl
tained within a crypt in the distal wall of the uterine cavity, and the uterine
epithelium is disappearing from the walls of the crypt.
2. A few hours later the primitive epiblast divides into formative epiblast and
trophoblast.
3. During the latter part of the seventh day the trophoblast rapidly increases,
becomes closely attached to the decidua, and pushes the formative epiblast towards
the yolk sac, which becomes invaginated. The non-invaginated portions of the
yolk sac lie in direct contact with the decidua, in which numerous slit-shaped blood
spaces have appeared.
4, In the early part of the eighth day the walls of the ovular crypt, which
sprang from the distal side of the uterine cavity, fuse with the proximal wall of
that canal, and thus the crypt is converted into a closed space, and the continuity
of the uterine canal is interrupted. The greater part of this space is occupied by
the ovum, but at the mesometrial and anti-mesometrial ends portions of the cavity
remain, and are transformed into maternal blood sinuses. The blood in the meso-
metrial sinus bathes the proximal end of the trophoblast, and that in the anti-
mesometrial sinus bathes tine distal end of the yolk sac. Further, by the
disappearance of the inner wall of the slit-shaped spaces at the sides of the yolk
sac the maternal blood is brought into direct relation with a large part of the
circumference of the yolk sac, and spaces which have in the meantime appeared in
the trophoblast also become filled with the same fluid.
5. During the ninth day the ccelom is formed, and the allantois, which is a solid
mass of mesoblast containing no diverticulum from the alimentary canal, grows
into the ccelom, but it does not become attached to the trophoblast until the
eleventh day. ;
6. Between the ninth and the seventeenth days the decidua reflexa gradually
separates from the distal wall of the uterus, and the continuity of the uterine canal
is re-established. The decidua reflexa is reduced to a thin membrane, and the
circulation within it ceases. When these changes are accomplished the distal part
of the vitelline cavity is obliterated by the apposition of its walls, but the proximal
portion remains; and by means of diverticula, which project from it into the
placenta, the intimate relation of the yolk sac to the maternal blood is maintained
after the circulation in the decidua reflexa has terminated.
7. The close relation of the yolk sac to the maternal blood suggests the idea
that the sac itself is an important agent in the early nutrition of the embryo, and
the peculiar relationship of the hypoblast to the placenta indicates the possibility
_ that the hypoblast cells play some special part in embryonic nutrition.
9. Observations upon the Development of the Spinal Cord in Mus musculus
and Mus decwmanus: the Formation of the Septa and the Fissures.
q By Arruur Rosinson, M.D.
1, At the eleventh day the spinal cord is a hollow rod of nucleated protoplasm.
2. Within a few hours the neuroblasts are differentiated.
3. On the twelfth day the formation of the grey matter commences, and the
‘rudiments of the white columns appear.
4, The antero-lateral white columns consist of nerve fibrils derived from the
neuroblasts of the cord embedded in a spongioblastic reticulum.
5. The posterior white columns are formed by the processes of the neuroblasts
of the spinal ganglia.
6. The spongioblasts of the dorsal and ventral wails of the central canal are
rawn out into two septa, an anterior and a posterior, which extend respectively to
the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the cord.
_ 7. The extension of the anterior septum is due to the formation of the anterior
commissures and the shrinking of the central canal.
__ 8, The extension of the posterior septum is due principally to the formation of
_the posterior columns, but also to the formation of the posterior commissure and
the shrinking of the central canal.
¥ 32
692 REPORT—1891.
9. The anterior septum does not form a complete partition between the two
sides of the cord. It is traversed by the transverse fibres of the commissures.
10. The posterior septum is traversed by the transverse fibres of the posterior
commissure, but it forms a complete partition between the posterior white
columns,
1l. There ts no posterior fissure, and the posterior septum is not a septum of
pia-mater, but of spongioblastic fibrils ; it is, therefore, essentially a portion of the
cord substance, not of its sheath.
12. The anterior fissure is formed in the usual manner, and contains a fold of
pia-mater.
6. On the Innervation of the Epipodial Processes of some Nudibranchiate
Mollusca. By Professor W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., and J. A. CLuss.
In 1889 one of us (W. A. Herdman) read a paper at the Newcastle-on-Tyne
meeting of the British Association on the structure and functions of the cerata in
Nudibranchs, in which these dorso-lateral processes were regarded as being pro-
bably epipodial outgrowths. In other papers published since we have compared
the conditions of these structures in various genera of Nudibranchs, and have
tried to show that they are all modifications of simple lateral epipodial ridges.
The question has, however, been raised lately by Pelseneer and others as to
whether the so-called epipodia of mollusca are all homologous structures, and one
of the subjects of controversy now is the origin of the nerve supply in various
forms, it being supposed that where the processes are innervated from the pleural
ganglia they are pallial in their nature, and where supplied from the pedal ganglia
they are to be regarded as outgrowths from the foot.
Consequently, it seemed to us of importance to determine afresh the origin of
the nerves supplying the cerata in several different types of Nudibranchiata,
especially as the results of former investigations, depending entirely, we believe,
upon minute dissection, are puzzling, and to some extent contradictory. We have
traced the nerves from the ganglia, by means of serial sections, in representatives
of the genera Polycera, Ancula, Tritonia, Dendronotus, and Eolis, with the follow-
ing results :—
In Polycera quadriineata the cerebral and pleural ganglia are completely fused
to form a cerebro-pleural mass. The ‘epipodial’ nerves are found arising from
the ventral and posterior part of this mass (ze, distinctly from the pleural ganglia),
and they run along the sides of the back to supply the ceratal ridges.
In Ancula cristata the pleural ganglia are fairly distinct from the cerebral. In
a specimen cut into about 500 sections, we find in the 100th section or so from the
anterior end six distinct ganglia (the cerebral, pleural, and pedal pairs) surrounding
the cesophagus. A few sections further back the cerebrals disappear, and then
the epipodial nerves are found arising from the dorsal edge of the pleural ganglia.
The nerves soon turn posteriorly, and then give off their first branches dorsally.
These branches enter the mesoderm of the body wall, and can then be traced back
through over a hundred sections to the first pair of cerata, which they enter. The
main nerve passes back to the remaining cerata.
In Tritonta and Dendronotus also the epipodial nerves arise from the pleural
ganglia; but in Zolis (or Facelina) coronata we find that the main nerves to the
cerata arise distinctly from the pedal ganglia. We have also traced in the same
series of sections the ordinary pedal nerves to the foot proper, so there can be no
question as to the nature of the ganglia from which the nerves arise. The
epipodial nerves spring from about the middle of the pedal ganglion, rather on the
dorsal surface, and, after a short course, pass through the muscular layer of the
body wall and are distributed to the clumps of cerata.
But in addition to these main epipodial nerves in Eolis, we find also a nerve
arising from the compound ganglionic mass, immediately ventral to the eye
(probably therefore from the pleural element), which goes to the front cerata.
This pleural nerve has its origin distinctly anterior to the origin of the main
epipodial nerves from the pedal ganglia.
Sap
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 693
We arrive, then, at the curious result that the innervation of the ceratal
processes is not the same in all these Nudibranchs. In Polycera, Ancula, Tritonia,
and Dendronotus the epipodial nerves arise from pleural ganglia, or from the
yentral and posterior parts of cerebro-pleural masses; while in Eol’s the chief
epipodial nerves are from the pedal ganglia, but there are also smaller nerves from
the pleurals. In the ordinary Rhipidoglossate gastropod, such as Trochus, the
epipodial ridges and processes are supplied, according to Pelseneer, by nerves
arising from the dorsal part of the elongated pedal ganglia. So, judging from the
nerve supply alone, it might be said that the cerata of Folis are pedal in their
nature, and homologous with the epipodial processes of Trochus, while those of
Ancula and the rest are totally distinct structures of pallial! origin. But these
dorso-lateral processes in the various Nudibranchs are so much alike in their
relations, and are connected by such series of gradations, that it is difficult to
believe that they are not all homologous, and the presence of the accessory
epipodial nerve in Folvs arising from the pleural ganglion suggests the possibility
of another explanation, viz.,that these outgrowths, starting at first as pedal
structures innervated by nerves from the pedal ganglia, may have acquired,
possibly as the result of having moved further up the sides of the body, a supple-
mentary nerve supply from the adjacent integumentary nerves arising from the
pleural ganglia, and this supplementary supply, while remaining subordinary in
folis, may in the other types have gradually come to supplant the original
epipodial nerves, which are now no longer found in such forms as Polycera and
Ancula. This is at present only a suggestion, which, however, we hope to be able
either to disprove or support by the examination of the nerves of a number of
additional Nudibranchs.
7. Exhibition of a New Apparatus for Opening and Closing a Tow-Net by
Electricity, By W. EH. Horie and L. F. Massry.
8. Evhibition of, and Remarks upon, some Young Specimens of Echidna
aculeata. By Professor W. N. Parker, Ph.D.
The specimens are from the collection of the late Professor W. K. Parker, who
_ received them from Dr. KE. P. Ramsay, Curator of the Australian Museum,
_ Sydney. They are much curved towards the neutral side, the snout pointing
backwards, and the tail, in the older of the two stages, forwards. The younger
stage measures along the dorsal curve, from the end of the snout to the tip of the
tail, 12 cm., the greatest diameter of the body being 3 cm.; the corresponding’
measurements of the older stage are respectively 21:5 cm. and 6 cm. In the
latter the body is covered with short scattered bristles. In both stages the snout
is very similar in form to that of Ornithorhynchus, and is covered by a thick
horny layer, but in other respects the specialisation characteristic of Echidna is
already apparent. The gape is narrow, and extends only a short distance down
the snout, and the manus, even in the younger stage, is already much larger and
stronger than the pes. The tail is short and conical. There is no caruncle, or
“ego-breaker,’ in the snout, such as is seen in pet of tho ea
e
t
A few points in the structure of the fore part of the head in the older stage
were described. The mouth has the narrow and tubular form seen in the adult,
and the long tongue has a horny tip. The glands in relation with the mouth and
‘Nose are very numerous. There is no trace of any teeth-rudiments, and in many
other respects the structure of the head shows extreme specialisation. Jacobson’s
organ is large and highly developed ; a well marked ‘ turbinal’ is present in it.
: 1 T.e. dorsal to the foot, whether there is a distinct pallium present or not.
694 REPORT— 1891.
9. Experiments on Respiration in Tadpoles of the Common Frog (Rana
temporaria). By Professor W. N. Parker, Ph.D.
After referring to the great power of adaptation to external conditions seen
amongst amphibious larvee, the author described some experiments on frog tad-
poles, which, although not yet complete, show as follows :—
1. Soon after the lungs become functional—z.e. in tadpoles measuring more than
20 mm, in length—the gills are no longer sufficient for purposes of respiration,
and the animals die in a very short time if prevented from coming to the surface
to breathe.
2. If tadpoles are prevented from using their lungs from an earlier stage
onwards the gills remain perfectly functional, and development proceeds as usual.
At metamorphosis the fore limbs are slow in becoming free, owing to the retention
of the operculum, that on the same side as the spiracle appearing first. Eventually
a slit-like spiracle is present on either side. In respiration the mouth is opened
and closed as in the tadpole. Specimens of branchiate frogs were exhibited in
which the tail had shrunk to less than half its original length.
10. On the Arrangement of the Living Fishes, as based upon the Study of
their Reproductive System. By Professor G. B. Howss, F.L.8., F.Z.8.
On comparing the urino-genital organs of those Osteichthyes having a non-
abbreviated kidney with the same organs of the higher vertebrata and the
Elasmobranchs, the female genital duct and the kidney are seen to be inversely
proportionate in length. No feature more fully characterises the development
of the Miillerian duct than the accompanying abbreviation of the kidney and the
disappearance of its head segment. The persistence of the last-named among
the Osteichthyes, and its possible retention of the renal function in rare cases,
taken in conjunction with the mode of development of the ovary duct in these
fishes, point to the conclusion that the latter is in no way homologous with the
Miillerian duct as ordinarily understood. Balfour's belief that the genital ducts
are homologous in both sexes of the Teleostei is supported by the facts of anatomy ;
and comparison of the reproductive system of the Ganoids with that of the
Teleosteans shows the two to be modifications of the same common type; and
the absolute structural community of the parts in the males and females of the
Sturiones, while further confirming Balfour's doctrine, is opposed to Jungersen’s
implication that the subtle differences in the mode of development of the ducts in
the opposite sexes of the Teleostei are indicative of their non-homology.
The facts above alluded to justify us in regarding the genital ducts of the
Osteichthyes not only as homologous in the two sexes end primarily independent
of the genital glands, but as distinct structures sui generis probably unrepresented
in all other vertebrates.
The Plagiostomi and Holocephali, in which vasa efferentia are present and the
kidney becomes an accessory to reproduction in the male, may be grouped together
into a Nephrorchidie Series, as distinguished from an Euthorchidic Series embracing
the Osteichthyes (Ganoids and Teleosteans). Comparison of the pori-genitales in
relation to the coalesced ureters of the Marsipobranchii with the corresponding
parts of the females of those Teleostei destitute of genital ducts, especially in
consideration of the facts concerning the development of the parts recorded by
Scott, Liszt, and others, supports Rathke’s conclusion that the ancestors of the
first-named fishes must haye possessed genital ducts. The Osteichthyes, although
specialised in respect to many features of their organisation, have, together with
the Marsipobranchs, retained the least modified type of urino-genital system
known for living vertebrates. W. N. Parker’s recent and important discovery,
that while in Protopterus a Miilierian duct is present vasa efferentia are absent,
the testicular products being discharged through a duct more nearly comparable
to that of the bony fishes than to the genital ducts of any other vertebrates,
suggests that the development of vasa efferentia and the assumption of a genital
<7 ye
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 695°
function by the Wolffian duct, may have been effected subsequently to the
formation of the Miillerian oviduct. And further comparison of the Dipnoi with
the Elasmobranchii suggests that the former may have struck off from the
Holocephalic branch of the latter before the differentiation of the ancestors of its
existing members.
The following diagram expresses the relationship of the reproductive system of
fishes, as estimated upon the foregoing considerations :—
11. On the Recent Visitation of Plutella Crucifera. By W. Fream,
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read:—
1. On the Artificial Production of Rhythm in Plants.
By Francis Darwin and Dororuea F. M. PErtz.
The apparatus employed is a new form of klinostat designed by the Cambridge
Scientific Company. The plant to be experimented on is fixed to a spindle, which,
by means of a clockwork escapement, makes a sudden semi-revolution every half
hour. Thus the plant is subjected to a series of alternate and opposite influences
from light or gravitation as the case may be. To take the case of gravitation,
the plant will tend to curve upwards during the first half hour, and during the
second interval (when the horizontal spindle has made half a turn) it will tend to
_ curve geotropically in the opposite direction. ;
Under these conditions it is found that a rhythmic state is induced which
closely resembles the periodicity in rate of growth which is set up in plants by
the alternation of day and night.
___ A remarkable result is obtained by stopping the clockwork—that is to say, by
substituting a continuous for a changing stimulus. The plant continues to curve
_ with an acquired rhythm just as if the clockwork were still in action; it has, im
fact, learned and remembered the half-hourly period. This is precisely similar to
certain natural rhythms—for instance, to the ‘sleep’ of flowers, which for a short
time continue to open and shut although kept constantly in the dark,
2. On Floating Leaves. By Professor Miat, F.L.S.
696 } REPORT—1891.
3. Notes on Internal Phloém in the Dicotyledons. By D. H. Scort, IA.,
Ph.D., FU8., Assistant Professor in Biology (Votany), Royal College of
Science, London.
The questions discussed in this paper are :—
(1) The relation of internal (or intraxylary) phloém to the vascular bundles and
to the pith. Do bicollateral bundles exist? Views of De Bary, Hérail, Van
Tieghem, Weiss, and Lamounette. Cases in which internal phloém is accompanied
by centripetal medullary wood. Significance of this. Phylogenetic importance
of Lamounette’s view of the medullary nature of internal phloém. Bearing of the
question on general Dicotyledonous anatomy.
(2) Systematic importance of internal phloém. Numerous orders in which
this character is constant.
(3) Structure of the root in plants which have internal phloém in the stem.
Changes in the position of the phloém in the transitional region, Plants which
have internal phloem in the root.
(4) Physiological significance of internal phloém with reference to recent views
as to the function of the phloém in general. :
4, On the Occurrence of Diastase in Pollen,
By Professor J. R. Gremn, M.A., B.Sc.
Though recent researches have led to the discovery of the various points of
interest connected with the morphology of the pollen grain and the pollen tube,
but little attention has been given to the details of its physiology. It is known
that the contents of the ripe grain, besides its protoplasm, include proteid and
carbohydrate bodies, the latter being in part starch, in part some form of sugar.
That these are reserve materials, intended to be used during the growth of the
pollen tube, seems to admit of no question. Indeed Van Tieghem has shown that
like other storehouses of reserve materials, the pollen grain of some plants contains
certainly one ferment or enzyme leading to the utilisation of these stores, the fer-
ment invertase which is capable of inverting cane sugar.
Starch being of such frequent occurrence in pollen, attention was directed in
the experiments now briefly to be summarised to the possibility of there being also
present some form of diastase. The pollen taken for investigation was that of the
lily and that of the sunflower. A starch paste of about 1 per cent. strength was
the medium on which to test the action. In the first experiments the contents of
one ripe anther of a lily were mixed with 5c.c. of this paste and exposed in a test
tube for some hours to the temperature of about 20° C. A precisely similar
tube was boiled and set aside with the other to serve as a control. The diastatic
action slowly became evident, the unboiled starch paste passed through the several
stages of soluble starch and dextrin to sugar, the boiled one remaining unchanged.
Sunflower pollen gave a similar result.
Diastatic action being so established, it remained to see whether diastase itself
was present or whether the change was brought about by the pollen grain apart
from such a body. Diastase being readily soluble in water or in glycerine, an
attempt was made to prepare it from the pollen cells. A quantity of the pollen of
the sunflower was collected and ground up between two glass surfaces with some
dilute glycerine. When the pollen was completely broken up, as shown by
microscopical examination, it was left in contact with the glycerine for twelve
hours and then filtered free from débris.
A similar experiment to the first was then arranged, the glycerine extract being
used instead of the pollen grains. In this case again, in the unboiled tube the
starch gradually disappeared by the usual stages, and there was simultaneously a
gradual and increasing appearance of sugar.
The germination of the pollen grain thus, so far as its reserve of starch is con-
cerned, proceeds upon the same lines as the germination of the complex bodies
which we know as seeds,
mera ey ey
9
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 697
p
.
,
Further experiments are in progress which will deal with the fate of the nitro-
genous and fatty reserves, and further with the subsequent growth of the pollen
tube and the way in which this latter structure is enabled to avail itself of the
nutritive materials among which it finds itself during its passage down the tissue
of the style.
5. The Presence of a Diastatic Ferment in Green Leaves.
By 8. H. Vines, M.A., F.B.S.
The author was led to investigate this point in consequence of the statement
recently made by Wortmann?! that green leaves either do not contain any diastatic
ferment, or contain it in so minute a quantity that its physiological importance is
practically mi. Wortmann accounts for the well-known tact that starch is trans-
formed into sugar in green leaves by attributing the chemical change to the direct
action of the living protoplasm.
The author’s observations lead him to the quite contrary conclusion, yiz., that
diastatic ferment is present (probably at all times) in green leaves; and that its
physiological activity is so well marked that it appears superfluous to invoke, as
Wortmann does, the direct action of the protoplasm in the conversion of starch into
sugar in the living leaf.
The author's method of experimentation consisted in mixing equal volumes of
leaf-extract and starch-solution ; and then, after the mixture had been allowed to
stand for some hours, volumetrically determining the amount of sugar present by
means of standard Fehling’s solution.
The leaf-extract was prepared by triturating leaves with distilled water (100 c.c,
of water to 100 crammes of leaves), and then at once pressing the mass through a
strainer. A turbid, more or less acid extract is thus obtained. In the earlier ex-
periments a filtered clear extract was prepared; but filtration was abandoned,
for it was found that a clear extract was much less active than a turbid extract.
Probably Wortmann’s negative results are to be mainly ascribed to the use of
filtered extract.
The starch-solution was prepared by boiling starch with distilled water, in the
proportion of ‘5 gramme of the former to 100 c.c. of the latter. The vessel was closed
with a plug of cotton-wool whilst the liquid was boiling, to prevent the access of
bacteria, and was allowed to cool for some hours; a certain amount of sediment
was deposited at the bottom of the vessel, but only the nearly clear supernatant
liquid was used for experiment. The starch used appeared, on microscopical
examination, to consist of a mixture of wheat-starch with some potato-starch.
The mixture of leaf-extract and starch-solution was usually allowed to stand all
nicht (about fourteen to sixteen hours). A sample of the leaf-extract, diluted to the
corresponding strength, was in all cases analysed for sugar, and in most cases a larger
or smaller amount of sugar was found to be present in it. In some cases a control
experiment was made in which the leaf-extract had been dozled before being mixed
with the starch-solution ; in these cases the amount of sugar ultimately determined
did not exceed that found to be originally present in the leaf-extract, thus show-
ing that the boiled extract had not affected the starch. In others, again, thymol or
boracic acid (‘5 percent.) was added to the mixture in order to prevent any possibility
of the interference of bacteria; in these, the amount of sugar ultimately determined
‘was about the same as that in the simple mixture of leaf-extract and starch-solu-
tion alone, showing that the results obtained were not in any degree due to the
action of bacteria. The whole experiment was generally completed within twenty-
four hours, and the flasks containing the mixture were not artificially heated but
were kept on’ the laboratory table during the night whilst the action was pro-
ceeding. Sa nae ;
In his experiments Wortmann made use of the colour-reactions, given with
odine by solutions of starch and dextrin, for the purpose of determining the
amount of action, if any, of the leaf-extract on the starch-solution. The author,
however, discarded this method altogether ; for, according to Wortmann’s own
1 Bot. Zeitung, 1890.
698 REPORT— 1891.
showing, it is not one which can give satisfactory results; he preferred the more
laborious but more definite method of determining the sugar present by means of
standard Fehling’s solution. This method involved careful preparation of the
liquids to be tested, so that they should be quite clear and colourless. At the close
of the period of digestion, the liquid was neutralised with lime-water, and then
boiled and filtered through 5 grammes of recently ignited animal charcoal until all
the colour was removed ; the charcoal was well washed, the washings being added
to the filtrate, which was then made up to standard volume, when it was ready for
the determination of sugar. The liquids belonging to each experiment were all
sitnultaneously treated in precisely the same manner. The determination of sugar
was effected by allowing the liquid to drop from a graduated burette into a fixed
quantity of boiling standard Febling’s solution, continuing the boiling for three
minutes. The purity and the uniform strength of the Febhling’s solution were
carefully attended to. The amount of the reducing substance was, in all cases,
calculated as dextrose.
In order to determine whether or not the substance in the liquids which reduced
Fehling’s solution really was sugar, a quantity of leaf-extract was made, filtered, and
dialysed: the resulting clear solution evaporated to dryness. A residue was thus
obtained which smelt strongly of sugar, and which dissolved readily in water; the
strong watery solution of the substance gave a well-marked reaction with sodium
acetate and phenyl-hydrazine hydrochloride, a reddish-yellow precipitate being
formed on warming, consisting of tufts of large acicular crystals, The solution did
not, however, have any rotatory effect on polarised light when examined in the
polarimeter. There can be no doubt that the substance is a sugar, and presumably
it should be maltose; but it does not resemble maltose in being strongly dextro-
rotatory. In order to determine whether or not it is capable of undergoing
alcoholic fermentation, some yeast (10 c.c.) was added to some of the pure sugar-
solution (100 ¢.c.) and the mixture wus kept for twenty-six hours in an incubator
at about 386°C. It appeared to be fermenting, and when distilled, a liquid came
over of sp. gr. ‘997, which would correspond to about 2 per cent. of alcohol: this
liquid also gave the iodoform reaction. The sugar in question appears, therefore,
to be fermentable.
A further peculiarity, which may be of some importance, is that the erystals of
the phenyl-compound produced in the phenyl-hydrazine hydrochloride test are
soluble in absolute alcohol, giving an orange-coloured solution, but they are almost
insoluble in ether ; whereas the crystals formed (phenylglucosazone) when dextrose
is similarly treated are readily soluble in both alcohol and ether, giving a yellow
solution.
The sample of the sugar above described was obtained from a mixture of
800 c.c. of leaf-extract (prepared from 750 grammes fresh lawn-mowings con-
sisting chiefly of grass, with some clover and Achillea) with 900 c.c. starch-
solution, The sugar obtained included that which was originally present in the
leaf-extract, as well as what was formed from the added starch.
The following will serve as an example of the experiments, and of the results
obtained :—Six flasks were prepared, and were allowed to stand overnight for
144 hours: the leaf-extract was prepared from fresh lawn-mowings.
Dextrose
C.c. CC. per cent.
No. 1.—50 leaf-extract +50 starch-solution . . . . » gave 0793
» 2.—50 i (boiled) + 50 7 . F ‘ . » 0450
5 3.—50 a +50 * +thymol . a A 93) 20740:
» 4—50 i +50 en + boracic acid 3 grm. » 0690
» 5.—50 om +50 distilled water . P a 5 3, °0440
», §.—50 starch-solution +50 ,, 4 ‘ ‘ : - s » none
The sugar was estimated as fractions of grammes of dextrose in 100 c.c. of
liquid. Similar results were obtained with leaf-extracis of the Marrow (Cucurbita
ovifera), the Sunflower (Helianthus annuus), and the Dwarf Runner (Phaseolus
vulgaris) ; also with those of the Lime (Tilia europea) and of the Dwarf Runner
when a 1 per cent. solution of dextrin was used.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 699
In the two following cases results were obtained which appear to be at
yariance with the preceding ; in both of them the percentage of sugar present in
the mixture of leaf-extract and distilled water was greater than that in the mixture
of leaf-extract and starch-solution.
Rheum hybridum (extract strongly acid, digestive period 24 hours) :—
Dextrose
C.C. Cc. per cent.
No. 1.—50 leaf-extract +50 starch-solution . - gave 1587
» 2.—50 ac +50 distilled water ° * ». 2102
3 3.—650 starch-solution +50 “6 - x * 5, mere traces
Daucus carota (extract slightly acid, digestive period 4 hours; the whole
experiment was completed in a single day) :—
Dextrose
C.C. c.c. per cent.
No. 1.—50 leaf-extract +50 starch-solution - - gave ‘1052
» 2.—-50 fr, +50 distilled water : j » 1250
» 3.—50 starch-solution +50 e 5 = oS, Cees
» 4.—50 leaf-extract (boiled) + 50 starch-solution e wl 5g OBET
» 5.—50 a » +50 distilled water Py 4 65300800
It is probable that in these cases the starch-solution added to the leaf-extract
(No. 1 in both) was not in the least degree attacked. The peculiarity to be
accounted for is the large amount of sugar present in the diluted leaf-extract
(No. 2in both). It isclear, in the case of the carrot, that the amount of sugar
originally present in the leaf-extract (see Nos. 4 and 5) was about ‘08 per cent. ;
the excess of sugar in No. 2 (about ‘045 per cent.) appears to be due to the actron
of the diastatic ferment upon starch contained normally in the leaf-extract. The
presence of added starch-solution (Carrot, No. 1) appears to have actually impeded
the action of the ferment upon the leaf-starch already present.
The experiments were carried on from the end of June to the middle of
August, 1891.
The author is aware that various points connected with this research require
more complete investigation; he is, however, unable to continue the work at
atts but hopes to return to it next year. The foregoing facts will, he
elieves, suffice to prove that Wortmann’s conclusion as to the absence of diastatic
ferment from green leaves, or its unimportance, is based upon insufficient evidence.
Tt may be objected that the amount of ferment-action indicated in the foregoing
experimental results is very small, but much weight cannot be attached to this
objection. What the results really indicate is that the amount of diastatic
ferment which can, at any one time, be extracted from a leaf is small; but doubt-
less the secretion of the ferment goes on continuously, so that the total ferment-
action in, say, the course of a warm night would be very considerable—quite
sufficiently so to account for the conversion of starch into sugar which actually
occurs, without the direct intervention of the living protoplasm.
As a conclusive piece of evidence in support of his view, Wortmann cites an
experiment which shows that if a leaf be kept in an atmosphere of CO,, the starch
which it contains is not converted into sugar; and he infers that this is due to an
arrest of the action of the protoplasm upon the starch in consequence of the
absence of free oxygen. It appears to the author that this inference is not the
true one to be drawn from the fact as stated : a more satisfactory explanation would
seem to be that, in the absence of free oxygen, the secretion of diastatic ferment by
the protoplasm is arrested, and that it is on this account that the conversion of
starch into sugar does not proceed.
The author desires to acknowledge the valuable ‘help which he has received in
this work from Mr. Manley, Assistant in the Chemical Laboratory of Magdalen
College, Oxford.
700 REPORT—1891.
6. On the Nuclei of the Hymenomycetes. By Hanoup Wacmr.
In this paper an account is given of some observations upon the structure and
changes which take place in the nuclei of the basidia of Agaricus (Stropharia)
stercorartus. Rosenvinge states that the young basidia cf the various species of
Hymenomycetes which he has examined never contain more than one nucleus,
In A. stercorarius and other species of Agarici which I have examined, I haye
found in the very young basidia ¢wo nuclei; these probably pass into the basidia
from the hyphe. At this early stage each basidium contains a small quantity of
protoplasm and one’ or more vacuoles,
The two nuclei fuse together to form a single large nucleus which is placed near
the centre of the basidium. The basidium then becomes filled with a dense
protoplasm containing no vacuoles.
The structure of the nucleus is similar to that of the higher plants; it consists
of a nuclear membrane enclosing a dense nucleolus and a thread-like network.
The nucleolus stains very deeply, the threads slightly.
As the basidium increases in size so also does the nucleus. The latter places
itself near the apex.of the basidium. ‘The nuclei vary in size, generally speaking
they are from 3’ to 4 .in diameter, but some of them have a diameter of 4°5 to
5p. The nucleoli are about 1:9 to 2 z in diameter.
The nucleus now divides, first of all into two and then into four, The division,
svhich is an indirect one, takes place before the appearance of the sterigmata.
Previous to the division, the nucleus elongates slightly towards the apex ; its
outline becomes somewhat irregular; the thread-like network accumulates at the
apex, and the nucleolus takes up its position at the opposite end of the nucleus.
The nucleolus gradually disappears, and at the same time a group of deeply stained
short threads or granules appears in place of the thread-like network at the upper
end of the nucleus.
At this stage the nuclear membrane seems to have disappeared, but a some-
what irregular and somewhat clear space surrounds both the nucleolus and the
deeply stained chromatic elements. These latter separate into two groups which
pass to either side of the basidium. In this way two new nuclei are formed
which are small at first, but gradually increase in size, and have a structure similar
to that of the parent nucleus. The two new nucleoli appear to be formed from
the chromatic elements. The two nuclei then elongate and divide in the same
manner as the primary nucleus. The four nuclei thus formed have a structure
similar to the parent nucleus, but are much smaller.
Previous to the development of the sterigmata, they pass to the lower end of
the basidium, where they come into such close contact with each other as to
appear as if fused together ; it is not quite certain whether fusion does or does not
take place; in any case they undergo certain changes resulting in the accumulation
of a more or less irregular mass of chromatin on their walls. This chromatin
presents the appearance of a very loose network surrounding the four nucleoli.
While these changes are taking place, the four sterigmata appear at the apex
of the basidium. At the apex of each sterigma a spore is produced ; protoplasm
from the basidium passes into the spores.
The nuclei at the base of the basidium now separate and pass to the apex;
each nucleus takes up a position at the base of one of the sterigmata, and this
position they retain for some time. The protoplasm of the basidium becomes
more and more vacuolated as it decreases in amount. Finally, nearly the whole
of it passes into the spores.
The outline of each nucleus gradually disappears; the nucleolus becomes
smaller—small enough to pass without difficulty into the spore, but whether such
a passage takes place or not I haye not been able to determine. The spores
certainly do not contain a nucleus until a very late stage, e.g. after the formation
of the thick spore membrane.
When the spores are ripe they are seen to contain two nuclei, probably derived
a the single nucleus which passes into them in some way or other from the
asidium.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 701
7, New Form of Appendicularian ‘ Haus.’ By Geo. Swainson, F.L.S. |
‘Haus’ was the name given by the Russian naturalist, Von Mertens, to the
large transparent envelope or sac so rapidly formed by the Appendicularia, Orko-
pleura cophocerca, as a secretion from the ectoderm which he met with in the arctic
seas in 1829. He asserted that this envelope was an organ of respiration, consist-
ing of a regular network of vessels, in which the circulation of blood-corpuscles
was evident. This was greatly doubted by Professor Huxley as being, if true,
‘unique and startling,’ and constant search was made for other specimens but with-
out success until 1858, when Professor Allman captured another and very different
form of ‘ Haus’ in the Clyde.! Since then Von Mertens’ species has been seen
and described by Fol.”
Fishing off St. Anne’s Pier (Lancashire) with a small bottle attached to my
surface net in June, 1890, I captured a new form of this ‘ Haus’ (see drawing
annexed), but unfortunately lost it hefore I had time to properly examine it.
There was no doubt about the tunicate body of the Appendicularia with its
‘ stigmata,’ &c.; but the gelatinous envelope or sac appeared to have two whips or
fan-like organs. Professor Herdman on seeing my drawing at once suggested
these were probably the optical expression of the tail of the Appendicularia turned
upon itself.
4 This diaphanous sac was shaped very like a bishop's mitre and into it the salt
water was constantly being driven by the lashing whips, and I saw an oval body
ejected from it, which I now believe to have been a fertilised ovum.
Fortunately on the third of this present August I was successful in capturing
second specimen, brought along by a strong tidal current from the North-west
Atlantic. On examining it in a watch-glass I found Dr. Herdman was quite
right, for the tail of the Appendicularia formed the upper side of the mouth of the
sac, while the other side of the opening was made of the thickened and folded edge
of the gelatinous membrane which was connected with and secreted by the posterior
part of the Appendicularia.
The constant lashing of the tail was responded to by a co-ordinate muscular
action in this thickened membrane, and the whole gelatinous mass was carried
about through the surrounding water by these continuous vibrations. Although
constructed for a similar purpose, the size and form of the ‘ Haus ’ in my specimens
differed very much from’ both Allman’s and Von Mertens’, being about half the
size and possessing neither the ‘double fans’ of Allman’s nor the ‘ horns’ of Von
_ Mertens’, and the bifurcation of the sac being most distinct and noticeable.
1 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 1859. ,
_? ‘Etudes sur les Appendiculaires du Detroit de Messine’ in Mém. Soc. Phys.
Ffist. Genéve, vol. xxi.
702 REPORT—1891.
Like Professor Allman I must deny the possession of blood-vessels, or that the
‘Haus’ has any respiratory function, although I must admit there were some
grounds for Von Mertens’ idea in the very perceptible systole and diastole seen in
the thickened lamine of the horns of the mitre, in apparent response to the vibra-
tion of the tail. By this means the water contained in the envelope was con-
stantly renewed, and the ova therein protected duly oxygenised.
I feel quite certain that this is the main function of this ‘ Haus,’ and that Dr.
Allman was correct in calling it a nidamental covering for the ova, for in the en-
velopes of both my specimens were ova to be seen, while in those of Dr. Allman
there were young Appendicularie.
This sac is probably a primitive test, resembling the transparent test of Clavelina,
and this supports the idea of Professor Herdman that the Appendicularise were an
early offshoot from the ancestral chordate form. In the Appendicularia there is
no separate peribranchial cavity within which the ova can be fertilised and
developed.
This envelope is only loosely attached to the animal’s body, for in the struggle
of the creature to get away from the strong light thrown upon it by the micro-
scope it made a most vigorous contraction, and thereby jerked itself free from the
membrane, leaving it behind in a limp, collapsed condition, without apparent
vitality of any kind.
8. On the Customary Methods of Describing the Gills of Fishes.
By Professor G. B. Howzs, F.L.8., F.Z.8.
The gills of Marsipobranchs and Plagiostomes are not unfrequently enumerated
in relation to the opposite walls of the visceral sacs which give origin to them,
while those of the higher fishes are enumerated in relation to the opposite faces of
the septa which bear them. The confusion arising out of this is well known to
teachers, and is in itself sufficient to justify the introduction of a revised nomen-
clature for the parts concerned. The facts of development show (i.) (on the
assumption that the mandibular or mouth cavity is serially homologous with a
pair of post oval visceral clefts) that each gill lies in front of its corresponding
skeletal arch ; (ii.) that the saccular type of gill met with in the Marsipobranchs
and Plagiostomes is that from which the pectinate one of the higher gnathosto-
matous fishes has been derived, and (iii.) that a mandibular gill has no existence
in living fishes, Gills of the Marsipobranch-Plagiostome type may be conveniently
described for general anatomical purposes as Cystobranchie@, and those of the
higher Teleosteoid type as Pectinobranchie ; while the parts of the individual gills
should be in both and in all cases enumerated in relation to the visceral pouches
from which they'arise. Thus, the spiracular gill of Elasmobranchs (often termed
the mandibular pseudobranch) should be described as the hyoid hemibranch, and
the opercular gill of the higher fishes (often termed the hyoid pseudobranch) as
the first branchial hemibranch.
The well-known series of buccal filaments met with in certain Chelonia appear
to have the fundamental relationships of gill folios, and in view of the discovery
by Dohrn, Platt, and others that the buccal sac would appear, from its mode of
development in the Teleostei, to be the morphological equivalent of a pair of gill
pouches, the possibility that these filaments may (at any rate for the most part)
represent mandibular gills of a reversional character must not be overlooked.
9. Exhibition of a very small Parrot from the Solomon Islands.
By Canon Tristram, F.R.S.
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—E. G. Ravenstery, F.R.G.S., F.S.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The PREsIDENT delivered the following Address :—
The Field of Geography.
Ir behoves every man from time to time to survey the field of his labours, and to
render an account unto himself of the work he has accomplished, and of the tasks
which still await him, in order that he may perceive whether the means employed
hitherto are commensurate with the magnitude of his undertaking, and likely to
lead up to the desired results.
Such a survey of the ‘Field of Geography’ I propose to make the subject of
my address to-day. You are aware that this field is a large one, that its boundaries
are defined no more precisely than are the boundaries of other fields of human
research, and that the fellow-labourers who join us in its cultivation are not always
agreed as to the tasks that are peculiarly their own, or as to the methods in accord-
ance with which their work should be carried on. By some of our neighbours we
have not infrequently been accused of encroachments, and of overstepping our
legitimate boundaries in order to invade adjoining fields already in the occupa-
tion of others, who are not only willing to cultivate them, but even claim to be
better qualified than we are. There is undoubtedly some truth in this reproach,
for, although there have been, and perhaps still are, geographers who would limit
their task to a mere description of the earth’s surface, there are others, to judge
_ them by their performances, to whom earth and universe, geography and cosmo-
graphy, are synonymous terms.
If, as a lexicographer, I were merely called upon to define the literal meaning
of the word ‘geography,’ I should content myself by saying that it meant a
‘description of the earth.’ This, however, is merely the translation of a name
given to our department of knowledge in an age when all natural science was
descriptive, and scientific inquirers were still content to collect facts, without
attempting to reduce them to a system. The ancient name, however, has been
- retained, notwithstanding that our conception of the duties of the geographer has
undergone a notable change. The German word ‘ Erdkunde,’ although too com-
prehensive, would perhaps be preferable, but could be rendered only by the word
‘geology,’ a term already appropriated to quite a distinct department of science,
which has much in common with geography, and may even be described as its
offspring, but is most certainly not identical with it.
Very varied have been the views as to what geography shouldembrace. Whilst
Ptolemy would confine the duties of the geographer to the production of a correct
map of the earth’s surface, others fell into the opposite extreme, and were
unable to resist the temptation of embellishing their ‘systems of geography’ with
historical excursions, and with information of the most varied kind, only remotely,
if at all, connected with their subject. But whilst the geographer should guard,
on the one hand, against being drawn away from his legitimate task, he should not,
704 REPORT—1891.
on the other, allow himself to be intimidated by those who, on the pretence of
creating a geographical ‘ science,’ would frighten him away from fields of research
which his training enables him to cultivate to greater advantage than can be done
by representatives of other departments of knowledge.
But whatever changes may have taken place respecting the aims of the
geographer, it is very generally acknowledged that the portraiture of the earth’s
surface in the shape of a map lies within his proper and immediate domain. And
there can be no doubt that a map possesses unique facilities for recording the
fundamental facts of geographical knowledge, and that with a clearness and per-
spicuity not attainable by any other method. You will not, therefore, think it
strange if I deal at considerable length with the development of cartography, more
especially as my own labours have in a large measure been devoted to that depart-
ment of geographical work. An inspection of the interesting collection of maps of
all ages which I am able to place before you will serve to illustrate what I] am
about to say on this subject.
You may take it for granted that maps have existed from the very earliest
times. We can hardly conceive of Joshua dividing the Promised Land among the
twelve tribes, and minutely describing their respective boundaries, without the
assistance of a map. The surveyors and land-measurers of the civilised states of
antiquity undoubtedly produced cadastral and engineering plans, which answered
every practical requirement, notwithstanding that their instruments were of the
simplest. This is proved by a plan of Rome, the only document of the kind which
has survived, at least in fragments, to the present time. It is engraved on slabs of
marble on a scale of 1:300, and was originally fixed against a wall of the Roman
Town Hall, so that it might be conveniently consulted by the citizens.
Of the existence of earlier maps of the world or even of provinces, we possess
only a fragmentary knowledge. Anaximander of Miletus (610-546 B.c.) is credited
among the Greeks with having produced the first map, His countryman Hecataeus
the Elder, who had seen many lands, and of whom Herodotus borrowed the terse
saying that Egypt was the gift of the Nile, about 500 years before Christ, exhibited
to his fellow-citizens a brazen tablet upon which was engraved ‘a map of the entire
circuit of the world, with all its seas and rivers,’ and pointed out to them the vast
extent of the Empire of Darius, with whom they were about to engage in hostilities.
But his warning proved in vain, and their disregard of the teachings of geography
had, as usual, to be dearly paid for.
That maps grew popular at an early age is proved by Aristophanes, who, in
his comedy of ‘ The Clouds,’ 425 B.c., has a map of the world brought upon the
stage by a disciple of the Sophists, who points out upon it the position of Athens
and of other places familiar to the audience.
A real advance in cartography was made when Diczarchus of Messana (890-
290 z.c.) introduced the parallel of Rhodes, as a separator between the northern
and the southern habitable worlds. This ‘diaphragm’ was intersected at right
angles by parallel lines representing meridians. This system of graduating a map
was accepted by Eratosthenes (276-196 B.c.), and appears to have kept its hold
upon the more scientific cartographers up to the time of Marinus of Tyre, the
immediate predecessor of Ptolemy. Whether the map of the Roman Empire,
which Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, caused to be placed under a portico,
and which was based upon itinerary surveys begun forty-four years before Christ,
was furnished with parallels and meridian we do not know. It probably resembled
in appearance some of our medieval maps, like that of Richard of Haldingham,
still preserved in the cathedral of Hereford. Widely different from it were the road-
maps or ‘ Itineraria picta’ of the Romans, of which ‘ Peutinger’s Table’ is a well-
known example of a late date.
Such, then, were the maps which existed when Ptolemy of Alexandria
appeared upon the field, and introduced reforms into the methods of representing
the earth’s surface which fully entitled him to the foremost place among ancient
cartographers, and which inspired his successors when the study of science revived
in the fifteenth century.
Ptolemy, like all great reformers, stood upon the shoulders of the men who had
oe
~
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION &. ‘705
preceded him, for before a map like his could be produced much preliminary work
‘had been accomplished. _Parmenides of Elea (460 B.C.) had demonstrated that
our earth wasa globe, and Eratosthenes (276-196 B.c.) had approximately deter-
mined its size, Hipparchus (190-120), the greatest astronomer of antiquity, the
‘discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes, and the author of a catalogue of stars,
had transferred to our earth the auxiliary lines drawn by him across the heavens,
He had taught cartographers to lay down places according to their latitude and
Jongitude, and how to project a sphere upon a plane. It is to him we are indebted
for the stereographic and orthographic projections of the sphere. Ptolemy himself
_ inyented the tangential conical projection.
The gnomon or sun-dial, an instrument known to the Chinese 600 years before,
Christ, had long been used for the determination of latitudes, and the results were
_ elatively correct, although uniformly subject to an error of 16 minutes, which
_ was due to the observers taking the altitude of the upper limb of the sun,
_ when measuring the shadow case by their dial, instead of that of the sun’s
_ entre,
: It was known, likewise, that differences of longitude could be determined by
the simultaneous observation of eclipses of the sun or moon, or of occultations of
stars, and Hipparchus actually calculated Ephemerides for six years in advance to
facilitate computations. Ptolemy himself suggested the use of lunar distances.
But so imperfect were the astrolabes and other instruments used by the ancient
_ astronomers, and especially their time-keepers, that precise results were quite out
_ of the question.
Ptolemy, in fact, contented himself with accepting eight latitudes determined
by actual observation, of which four were in Egypt, whilst of the three longitudes
_ known to him he only utilised one in the construction of his map. Unfortunately,
the one selected proved the least accurate, being erroneous to the extent of 32 per
_ -cent., whilst the error of the two which he rejected did not exceed 13 per cent.!
_ This want of judgment, pardonable, no doubt, under the circumstances, vitiated
_ Ptolemy’s delineation of the Mediterranean to a most deplorable extent, far more
so than did his assumption that a degree only measured five hundred stades, when
_ in reality it measures six hundred. For whilst the breadth of his Mediterranean,
being dependent upon the relatively correct latitudes of Alexandria, Rhodes,
Rome, and Massilia, fairly approximates the truth, its length is exaggerated to the
»extent of nearly 50 per cent., measuring 62° instead of 41° 40’. This capital error
of Ptolemy is due therefore to the unfortunate acceptance of an incorrect longitude,
quite as much as to an exaggeration of itinerary distances. It is probable that
Ptolemy would have presented us with a fairer likeness of our great inland sea
had he rejected observed latitudes and longitudes altogether and trusted exclusively
to his itineraries and to such bearings as the mariners of the period could have
“supplied him with.
_ No copy of Ptolemy’s original set of maps has reached us, for the maps drawn
_ by Agathodzmon in the fifth century are, under the most favourable circumstances,
werely reductions of Ptolemy’s originals, or they are compiled from Ptolemy’s
*Geography,’ which, apart from a few explanatory chapters, consists almost wholly
of lists of places, with their latitudes and longitudes.
An examination of Ptolemy’s maps shows very clearly that they were almost
wholly compiled from itineraries, the greater number of which their author borrowed
from his predecessor Marinus. It shows, too, that Ptolemy’s critical acumen as a
compiler cannot be rated very high, and that he failed to utilise much information
of a geographical nature which was available in his day. His great merit consisted
m having taught cartographers to construct their maps according to a scientific
LL << = —--
* The three longitudes are the following :—
Result of ancient Adopted by Actual differ-
observations Ptolemy ence of longitude
Arbela , - 45° E. of Carthage . . . 45° . 34°
J Babylon . . 12° 30’ E, of Alexandria . my L8o, 80! 14° 18’
Rome . . 20° E. of Alexandria ; . 23° 60! 2 Lie oe
) 1891. ; PAY
706 REPORT-—1891.
method. This lesson, however, they were slow to learn, and centuries elapsed
before they once more advanced along the only correct path which Ptoltmy had
been the first to tread.
During the ‘Dark Ages’ which followed the dismemberment of the Roman
Empire there was no lack of maps, but they were utterly worthless from a
scientific point of view. The achievements of the ancients were ignored, and the
principal aim of the map-makers of the period appears to have been to reconcile
their handiwork with the orthodox interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. Hence
those numerous ‘wheel maps,’ upon which Jerusalem is made to represent the:
hub, whilst the western half of the disk is assigned to Europe and Africa, and the
eastern to Asia.
As it is not my intention to introduce you to the archeological curiosities of
an uncritical age, but to give you some idea of the progress of cartography, I at
once pass on to the Arabs.
The Arabs were great as travellers, greater still as astronomers, but con--
temptible as cartographers, Their astronomers, fully possessed of the knowledge
of Ptolemy, discovered the error of the gnomon, they improved the instruments
which they had inherited from the ancients, and carefully fixed the latitudes of
quite a number of places. Zarkala, the Director of the Observatory of Toledo, even
attempted to determine the difference of longitude between that place and
Bagdad ; and if his result differed to the extent of three degrees from the truth,
it nevertheless proved a great advance upon Ptolemy, whose map exhibits an error
amounting to eighteen degrees. Had there existed a scientific cartographer among
the Arabs, he would have been able, with the aid.of these observations and of the
estimates of distances made by careful observers like Abul Hasan, to effect most
material corrections in the map of the known world. If Edrisi’s map (1154) is
better than that of others of his Arab contemporaries, this is simply due to his.
residence at Palermo, where he was able to avail himseif of the knowledge of the
Italians,
Quite a new epoch in the history of Cartography begins with the introduction
of the magnetic needle into Europe. Hitherto the seaman had governed his course:
by the observation of the heavens; thenceforth an instrument was placed in his
hands which made him independent of the state of the sky. The property of the
magnet or ‘loadstone’ to point to the north first became known in the eleventh
century, and in the time of Alexander Neckam (1185) it was already poised upon a
pivot. It was, however, only after Flavio Gioja of Amalfi (1802) had attached to.
it a compass-card, exhibiting the direction of the winds, that it became of such
immediate importance to the mariner. It is only natural that the Italians, who
were the foremost seamen of that age, should have been the first to avail themselves
of this new help to navigation. At quite an early date, as early probably as the
twelfth century, they made use of it for their maritime surveys, and in course of
time they produced a series of charts upon which the coasts frequented by them, from
the recesses of the Black Sea to the mouth of the Rhine, are delineated for the first
time with surprising fidelity to nature. The appearance of these so-called compass-
charts, with gaily coloured roses of the winds and a bewildering number of rhumb--
lines, is quite unmistakable. A little consideration will show you that if the varia-
tion of the compass had been taken into account in the construction of these charts,
they would actually have developed into a picture of the world on Mercator’s projec-
tion. But to deny them all scientific value, because they do not fulfil this condition, is
going too far. As correct delineations of the contours of the land they were a great
advance upon Ptolemy’s maps, and it redounds little to the credit of the ‘learned ”
geographers of a later time that they rejected the information so laboriously
collected and skilfully combined by the chart makers, and returned to the defor-
mities of Ptolemy. The adjustment of these charts to positions ascertained by
astronomical observations could have been easily effected. An inspection of
my diagrams will prove this to you. The delineation of Italy, on the so-called
Catalan map, is surprisingly correct; whilst Gastaldo, whose map of Italy is nearly
at
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 707
_ two hundred years later, had not yet been able to emancipate himself from the
overpowering authority of Ptolemy. And in this he did not sin alone,-for Italian and
_ other cartographers of a much later time still clung pertinaciously to the same
error.
; There were others, however, who recognised the value of these charts, and
embodied them in maps of the entire world. Among such were Marino Sanute
. (1820) and Fra Mauro (1453), both of whom made their maps the repository of
_ much information gathered from the Arabs or from their own countrymen who
had seen foreign parts. Fra Mauro, more especially, has transmitted to us a
picture of Abyssinia marvellously correct in its details, though grossly exaggerated
in its dimensions.
Another step in the right direction was taken when the cartographers and
ilots of Portugal and Spain returned to the crude projection of Dicaearch,
_ Eratosthenes, and Marinus, which enabled them to lay down places according to
latitude and longitude upon their ‘ plane charts.’
; Germany, debarred from taking a share in the great maritime discoveries of the
_ age, indirectly contributed to their success by improvements in mathematical
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geography and the introduction of superior instruments. The navigators of the
early middle ages still made use of an astrolabe when they desired to determine a
latitude, but this instrument, which in the hands of an expert observer furnished
excellent results on land, was of little use to a pilot stationed on the unsteady deck
of a vessel. Regiomontanus consequently conferred an immense service upon the
mariners of his time when, in 1471, he adapted to their use an instrument
already known to the ordinary surveyors. It was this cross staff which Martin
haim introduced into the Portuguese navy, and which quickly made its way
mong the navigators of all countries. Most observations at sea were made with
is simple instrument, variously modified in the course of ages,-until it was super=
ded by Hadley’s sextant. In the hands of the more skilful navigators of the
Seventeenth century, such as Baffin, James, and Tasman, the results obtained with
the cross-staff were correct within two or three minutes,
_ Far greater difficulties were experienced in the observations of longitudes,
unar eclipses were most generally made use of, but neither the Ephemerides of.
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708 REPORT—1891.
Regiomontanus, for the years 1474 to 1506, which Columbus carried with him on
his voyages, nor those of Peter Apianus, for 1521-70, were sufficiently accurate to
admit of satisfactory results, even though the actual observation left nothing to be
desired. Errors of 30 degrees in longitude were by no means rare, and it was only
when Kepler had published his ‘ Rudolphine Tables’ (1626), which according to
Lalande formed the basis of all astronomical calculations during a century, that
more exact results were obtained. The suggestion to determine longitude by
means of lunar distances or occultations of stars bore no fruit at that time, as the
knowledge of the complicated motion of the moon was still very imperfect. Still
less was known about the movements of the satellites of Jupiter which Galileo
had first espied in 1610 when looking at that planet through his telescope. They
became available only after tables of their revolutions and eclipses had been
published by Cassini in 1668.
Another suggestion for the determination of longitude was made by Gemma
Frisius in 1580, namely, that a clock or timekeeper should be employed for the
purpose. One of Huygens’s pendulum clocks was actually carried by Holmes to
the Gulf of Guinea, but the results obtained were far from encouraging.
The difficulties which still attended the determination of longitude in the six-
teenth century are conspicuously illustrated by the abortive attempts of a Congress
of Spanish and Portuguese navigators who met at Badajoz and Yelves in 1524
for the purpose of laying down the boundary line, which Pope Alexander VI. had
drawn ata distance of 370 Spanish leagues to the west of Cape Verde Islands,
to separate the dominions of Spain from those of Portugal. Not being able to
agree either as to the length of a degree, nor even as to that of a league, they sepa-
rated without settling the question placed before them.
So uncertain were the results of observations for longitude made during the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, that it was thought advisable to trust to the
results of dead-reckoning rather than to those of celestial observations. But the
method of dead-reckoning is available only when we have a knowledge of the size
of the earth, and this knowledge was still very imperfect, notwithstanding the
renewed measurement of an arc of the meridian by Snellius, the Dutch mathema-
tician (1615). This measurement, however, is remarkable on account of its having
for the first time applied the exact method of triangulation to a survey.
The problem of measuring the ship’s way had been attempted by the Romans,
who dragged paddle-wheels behind their ships, the revolutions of which enabled
them to estimate the distance which the ship had travelled. But time, the
strength of the wind, and the pilot’s knowledge of the qualities of his ship, still
constituted the principal elements for calculations of this kind, for the ‘catena a
poppa’ which Magellan attached to the stern of his ship was merely intended to
indicate the ship’s leeway and not the distance which it had travelled. The log,
which for the first time enabled the mariner to carry out his dead-reckoning with
confidence, is first described in Bourne's ‘ Regiment for the Sea,’ which was pub-
lished in 1577.
The eminent position which Italian cartographers occupied during the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries had to be surrendered by them, in the beginning of the
sixteenth, to their pupils, the Portuguese and Spaniards, upon whom extensive
voyages and discoveries had con:erred exceptional advantages. These, in turn, had
to yield to the Germans, and later on to the Dutch, who were specifically qualified to
become the reformers of cartography by their study of mathematics and of the
ancient geographers, as also by the high degree of perfection which the arts of
engraving on wood and copper had attained among them. German mathematicians
first ventured to introduce the long-neglected geographical projections of Hip-
archus and Ptolemy, and devised others of their own. Werner of Niirnberg
1514) invented an equivalent heart-shaped projection, whilst both Apianus and
Staben (1520 and 1522) suggested equivalent projections. Still greater were the
services of Gerhard Cremer, or Mercator (1512-94), the Ptolemy of the sixteenth
century, who not only introduced the secant conical projection, but also invented
that still known by his name, which was calculated to render such great service to
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 709
the navigator, but was nevertheless not universally accepted until the middle of
the fifteenth century, when the medizeval compass and piane charts finally dis-
appeared.
The German cartographers of that age are to be commended, not because they
copied Ptolemy’s maps—for in this they had been preceded by others—but because
they adopted his scientific methods in producing maps of their own. Their reforms
began at home, as all reforms should. They were amply supported in their efforts
by the many astronomers of note of whom Germany then boasted, and by quite a
staff of local ‘geographers,’ of whom nearly every district of the empire boasted
the possession of one. Among these local maps, that of Bavaria, by Philipp
Bienewitz, or Apianus (1566), holds a distinguished place, for it is the first map on
a large scale (1 : 144,000) based upon a regular survey. Its errors in latitude do
not exceed 1’, and those in longitude 3’, which is marvellously correct considering
the age of its production. Like most maps of the period, it is engraved on wood,
for though the art of engraving on copper was invented in Germany before 1446,
and the first map was engraved there in 1450, copper engraving only became
general at a much later date.
Perhaps the earliest general map of Germany, and certainly one of the most
interesting, was that which the famous Cardinal Nicolas of Cues or Cusa com-
pleted in 1464, the only existing copy of which is to be found in the British Museum,
where it was ‘ discovered’ by Baron Nordenskjéld. Mercator’s map of Germany,
published more than a century after that of the learned Cardinal (in 1585), was
naturally far more complete in all respects, and was certainly far superior to the
maps of any other country existing at that time. This fact is brought home to us
__ by an inspection of a collection of maps to be found in the well-known Theatrum
Orbis of Ortelius (first published in 1570), where we may see that the maps
supplied by Humphrey Lloyd and other British cartographers are still without
degree lines.
But when we follow Mercator, or, in fact, any other cartographer of the period,
into regions the successful delineation of which depended upon an intelligent inter-
pretation of itineraries and of other information collected by travellers, they are
found to fail utterly. Nowhere is this utter absence of the critical faculty more
glaringly exhibited than in the maps of Africa of that period.
Among the Dutch cartographers of that age one of the foremost places must be
accorded to Waghenaer of Enkhuizen, whose ‘ Mirror of the Sea,’ a collection of
_ charts published in 1583, enjoyed a considerable reputation among British seamen.
Other famous Dutch publishers of charts were Ortelius, Janssen, Blaeuw, and
Vischer, who accumulated large stocks of copper plates, which constituted valuable
heirlooms, and, not unlike the plates of certain modern map-publishers, supplied
edition after edition without undergoing any change, except perhaps that of the
date. :
The age of great discoveries was past. All blanks upon our maps had not yet
been filled up, but the contours of the great continents stood out distinctly, and in
the main correctly. Discoveries on a large scale had become impossible, except in
_ the Polar regions and in the interior of some of the continents ; but greater precise-
ness had to be given to the work already done, and many details remained to be
filled in. In this ‘Age of Measurements,’ as Peschel significantly calls it, better
‘instruments, and methods of observation superior to those which had sufficed
hitherto, were needed, and were readily forthcoming.
Picard, by making use of the telescope in measuring angles (1667), obtained
results of a degree of accuracy formerly quite unattainable, even with instruments
of huge proportions. For the theodolite, that most generally useful surveying
instrument, we are indebted to Jonathan Sission (1737 or earlier). |More impor-
tant still, at all events to the mariner, was the invention of the sextant, generally
ascribed to Hadley (1731), but in reality due to the genius of Newton. Equally
important was the production of a trustworthy chronometer by John Harrison
(1761), which first made possible the determination of meridian distances, and is
invaluable whenever a correct knowledge of the time is required. One other instru
710 REPORT—1891.
ment, quite recently added to the apparatus of the surveyor, is the photographic
camera, converted for his especial benefit into a photogrammeter. This instrument
can perhaps never be utilised for ascertaining the relative positions of celestial bodies,
but has already done excellent service in ordinary surveying, especially when it is
required to portray the sides of inaccessible mountains.
But the full fruits of these inventions could be enjoyed only after Bradley had
discovered the aberration of light (1728) andthe nutation of the earth’s axis (1747) ;
Domenique Cassini had furnished trustworthy tables of the refraction of light ; and
the complicated movement of the moon had been computed by Euler (1746), Tobias
Mayer (1753), Bradley (1770), and, more recently by Hansen.
Positively novel methods for determining the latitude and longitude of a place
can scarcely be said to have been proposed during this period, but many of the
older methods only became really available after the improvements in the instru-
ments indicated above had taken place, and the computations had been freed
from the errors which vitiated them formerly.
Real progress, however, has been made in the determination of altitudes,
Formerly they could be ascertained only by trigonometrical measurement, or by a
laborious process of levelling, but since physicists have shown how the decrease of
atmospheric pressure with the altitude, and the boiling-point of water depending
upon this decrease, afforded a ready means of determining heights, the barometer,
aneroid, and boiling-point thermometer have become the indispensable companions
of the explorer, and our knowledge of the relief of the land has advanced rapidly.
Equally rapid have been the improvements in our instruments for measuring
the depth of the ocean, since a knowledge of the configuration of its bed was
demanded by the practical requirements of the telegraph engineers.
And in proportion as the labours of the surveyors and explorers gained in pre-
ciseness, so did the cartographer of the age succeed in presenting the results achieved
in a manner far more satisfactory than had been done by his predecessors. His
task was comparatively easy so long as he only dealt with horizontal dimensions,
though even in the representation of these a certain amount of skill and judgment
is required to make each feature tell in proportion to its relative importance,
The delineation of the inequalities of the earth’s surface, however, presented far
greater difficulties, The mole-hills or serrated ridges, which had not yet quite
disappeared from our maps in the beginning of this century, failed altogether in
doing justice to our actual knowledge. The first timid attempt to represent
hills as seen from a bird's-eye view, aud of shading them according to the steep-
ness of their slopes, appear on a map of the Breisgau, published by Homann in
1718. We find this system fully developed on La Condamine’s map of Quito,
published in 1751, and it was subsequently popularised by Arrowsmith. In this
crude system of hill shading, however, everything was left to the judgment of the
draughtsman, and only after Lehmann (1783) had superimposed it upon a ground-
work of contours, and had rerulated the streneth of the hatching in accordance
with the degree of declivity to be represented did it become capable of conveying
a correct idea of the configuration of the ground.
The first to fully recognise the great importance of contours was Philip
Buache, who had prepared a contoured map of the Channel in 1737, and suggested
that the same system might profitably be extended to a delineation of the relief
of the land; and this idea, subsequently taken up by Ducarla of Vabres, was for
the first time carried into practice by Dupain-Triel, who published a contoured
map of France in 1791. Up to the present time more than eighty methods of
showing the hills have been advocated, but it may safely be asserted that none
of these methods can be mathematically correct unless it is based upon horizontal
contours.
The credit of having done most towards the promotion of cartography in the
course of the eighteenth century belongs to France. It was France which first
equipped expeditions to determine the size of the earth; France which produced
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 711
the first topographical map based upon scientific survey—a work begun by César
Frangois Cassini in 1744, and completed by his son five years after his father’s
death ; it was France again which gave birth to D’Anville, the first critical
cartographer whom the world had ever seen.
Delisle (1675-1726), a pupil of Cassini’s, had already been able to rectify the
maps of the period by utilising the many astronomical observations which French
travellers had brought home from all parts of the world. This work of reform
was carried further by D’Anville (1697-1782), who swept away the fanciful lakes
from off the face of Africa, thus forcibly bringing home to us the poverty of our
knowledge ; who boldly refused to believe in the existence of an Antarctic con-
tinent covering half the southern hemisphere, and always brought sound judgment
to bear upon the materials which the ever-increasing number of travellers placed
at his disposal. And whilst France led the way, England did not lag far behind.
In that country the discoveries of Cook and of other famous navigators, and the
spread of British power in India, gave the first impulse to a more diligent cultiva-
tion of the art of representing the surface of the earth on maps. There, to a greater
extent than on the Continent, the necessities of the navigator called into existence
a vast number of charts, amongst which are many hundreds of sheets published by
Dalrymple and Joseph Desbarres (1776). Faden, one of the most prolific pub-
lishers of maps, won distinction especially for his county maps, several of which,
like that of Surrey by Linley and Gardner, are based upon trigonometrical surveys
carried on by private individuals. England was the first to follow the lead of
France in undertaking a regular topographical survey (1785). Nor did she lack
critical cartographers. James Rennell (b. 1742) sagaciously arranged the vast
mass of important information collected by British travellers in India and Africa ;
but it is chiefly the name of Aaron Arrowsmith (died 1823) with which the glory
of the older school of English cartographers is most intimately connected. Arrow-
smith became the founder of a family of geographers, whose representative in the
third generation, up to the date of his death in 1873, worthily upheld the ancient
reputation of the family. Another name which deserves to be gratefully remem-
bered is that of John Walker, to whom the charts published by our Admiralty
are indebted for that perspicuous, firm, and yet artistic execution which, whilst it
_ enhances their scientific value, also facilitates their use by the mariner.
Since the beginning of the present century Germany has once more become the
head-quarters of scientific cartography ; and this is due as much to the inspiriting
teachings of a Ritter and a Humboldt as to the general culture and scientific
training, combined with technical skill, commanded by the men who more
especially devoted themselves to this branch of geography, which elsewhere was
too frequently allowed to fall into the hands of mere mechanics. Men like
_ Berghaus, Henry Kiepert, and Petermann, the best-known pupil of the first of
_ these, must always occupy a foremost place in the history of our department of
knowledge. Berghaus, who may be truly described as the founder of the modern
school of cartography, and who worked under the immediate inspiration of a Ritter
and a Humboldt, presented us with the first comprehensive collection of physical
maps (1837). Single maps of this kind had, no doubt, been published before—
Kircher (1665) had produced a map of the ocean currents, Edmund Halley (1686)
had embodied the results of his own researches in maps of the winds and of the
variation of the compass (1686), whilst Ritter himself had compiled a set of
ies maps (1806)—but no work of the magnitude of Berghaus’s famous
Physical Atlas had seen the light before. Nor could it have been published even
‘then had it not been for the unstinted support of a firm like that of Justus Perthes,
ady the publisher of Stieler’s Atlas (1817-23), and subsequently of many other
works which have carried its fame into every quarter of the globe.
_ And now, at the close of this nineteenth century, we may fairly boast that
the combined science and skill of surveyors and cartographers, aided as they are
by the great advance of the graphic arts, are fully equal to the production of a
‘map which shall be a faithful image of the earth’s surface. Let us imagine for one
‘Moment that an ideal map of this kind were before us, a map exhibiting not merely
_ the features of the land and the depth of the sea, but also the extent of forests and
712 REPORT—1891
of pasture-lands, the distribution of human habitations, and all those features the-
representation of which has become familiar to us through physical and statistical
atleses. Let us then analyse the vast mass of facts thus placed before us, and we:
shall find that they form quite naturally two well-defined divisions—namely, those
of physical and political geography, whilst the third department of our science,
mathematical geography, deals with the measurement and suryey of our earth, the
ultimate outcome of which is the production of a perfect map.
I shall abstain from giving a laboured definition of what I consider geography
should embrace, for definitions of this kind help practical workers but little, and will
never deter anyone who feels disposed and capable from straying into fields which
an abuse of logic has clearly demonstrated to lie outside his proper domain. But
I wish to enforce the fact that topography and chorography, the description of
particular places or of entire countries, should always be looked upon as integral
portions of geographical research. It is they which furnish many of the blocks
needed to rear our geographical edifice, and which constitute the best training
school for the education of practical geographers, as distinguished from mere:
theorists.
That our maps, however elaborate, should be supplemented by descriptions will
not even be gainsaid by those who are most reluctant to grant us our independent
existence among the sciences which deal with the earth and its inhabitants.
This concession, however, can never content us. We cannot allow ourselves to be
reduced to the position of mere collectors of facts. We claim the right to discuss:
ourselves the facts we have collected, to analyse them, to generalise from them,
and to trace the correlations between cause and effect. It is thus that geography
becomes comparative; and whilst comparative physical geography, or morphology,
seeks to explain the origin of the existing surface features of our earth, comparative
political geography, or anthropo-geography, as it is called by Dr. Ratzel, one of
the most gifted representatives of geographical science in Germany, deals with man
in relation to the geographical conditions which influence him, It is this depart-
ment of geography which was so fruitfully cultivated by Karl Ritter.
Man is indeed in a large measure ‘the creature of his environment,’ for who
can doubt for a moment that geographical conditions have largely influenced
the destinies of nations, have directed the builders of our towns, determined the
paths of migrations and the march of armies, and have impressed their stamp even.
upon the character of those who have been subjected to them for a sufficiently
extended period.
The sterile soil of Norway, bordering upon a sea rich in fish, converted the
Norwegians first into fishermen, and then into the bold mariners who ravaged the
shores of Western Europe and of the Mediterranean and first dared to cross the
broad waves of the Atlantic. Can it be doubted that the uniformly broad plains
of Eastern Europe contributed largely to the growth of an empire like that of
Russia, stretching from the Arctic to the Black Sea; or that the more varied con-
figuration of Western and Southern Europe promoted the development of distinct
nationalities, each having a history of its own, and presenting individual traits
which characteristically mark it off from its neighbours ?
The intelligent political geographer cannot contemplate the great river systems.
of the continents without becoming aware that their influence has been very
diverse, and is not solely dependent upon size or volume. The rivers of Siberia,
ice-bound during the greater part of the year, run to waste into an inhospitable
ocean, which even our modern resource of steam has failed to render really acces-
sible. They contrast very unfavourably, notwithstanding their huge size, with the
far smaller rivers of Northern Europe, which open freely into the sea and afford
navigable highways into the very heart of the continent. And these European
rivers, fed as they are by rains falling in all seasons, and by the ice stored up in
the recesses of the Alps, again differ very widely in their character from the rivers.
of tropical regions, dependent upon an intermittent supply of rain. Again, who
can look upon such mighty rivers as the Amazon and Mississippi without becoming
conscious of the fact that they have given geographical unity to regions of vast
eee =
a
ad
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 713
extent, which, had their drainage been different, would have presented all the
variety which we meet with in Europe—a variety which has proved so favourable
to the progress of human culture and civilisation ?
It is an old remark that climatic conditions exercise a most powerful influence
upon man, and that the development of countries, where Nature yields the neces-
saries of life without requiring a serious effort on the part of the inhabitants, has
been very different from those whose climatic conditions compel the putting forth
of a certain amount of well-directed energy to make life bearable, or even possible.
These instances of the dependence of human development upon natural resources
and geographical features might be multiplied, and their study must at all times be
profitable and instructive. It must not, however, be assumed for one moment that
this dependence of man upon Nature is absolute. The natural resources of a
country require for their full development a people of energy and capacity; and
instances in which they have been allowed to lie dormant, or have been wasted, are
numerous. What were America and Australia, as long as they remained only the
homes of the wandering savages who originally inhabited them; and what has
become of certain countries of the East, at one time among the most flourishing
regions of the earth, but presenting now a most deplorable picture of exhaustion
and decay? The geographer must not shut his eye to the fact that the existing
state of affairs is not merely the outcome of given geographical conditions and
natural resources, but has in a large measure been brought about by man’s conquests
over the forces of Nature. Wedo not exaggerate, for instance, when we assert
that the introduction of steam as a motive force has largely changed the geographi-
cal relations of countries. By facilitating intercourse between distant regions, and
encouraging travel, it has tended to uniformity among nations, and rendered avail-
able for the common good resources which otherwise must have lain fallow. A
tunnel, such as that under the Saint Gotthard, may not have ‘abolished’ the Alps,
but it certainly has brought the populations who occupy their opposite slopes
nearer to each other, and has given a new direction to commerce.
Perhaps one of the most instructive illustrations of the complex human agencies
which tend to modify the relative importance of geographical conditions is pre-
sented to us by the Mediterranean. The time when this inland sea was the centre
of civilisation and of the world’s commerce, whilst the shores of Western Europe
were only occasionally visited by venturesome navigators or conquering Roman
hosts, does not lie so very far behind us. England, at that period, turned her face
towards Continental Europe, of which it was a mere dependency. The prosperity
of the Mediterranean countries survived far into the middle ages, and Italy at one
time enjoyed the enviable position of being the great distributor of the products of
the East, which found their way across the Alps into Germany, and through the
gates of Gibraltar to the exterior ocean. But a change was brought about,
partly through the closing of the old Oriental trade routes, consequent upon the
conquests of the Turks, partly through the discovery of a new world and of a
maritime highway to India. When Columbus, himself an Italian, returned from
the West Indies in 1493, and Vasco da Gama brought the first cargo of spices from
India in 1499, the star of Italy began to fade. And whilst the spices of the Indies
and the gold of Guinea poured wealth into the lap of Portugal, and Spain grew
opulent on the silver mines of Mexico and Peru, Venice was vainly beseeching
the Sultan to re-open the old trade route through the Red Sea. The dominion of
the sea had passed from Italy to Spain and Portugal, and passed later on to the
Dutch and English. But mark how the great geographical discoveries of that age
affected the relative geographical position of England! England no longer lay on
the skirts of the habitable world, it had become its very centre. And this natural
advantage was enhanced by the colonial policies of Spain and Portugal, who exhausted
their strength in a task far beyond their powers, took possession of tropical countries
only, and abandoned to England the less attractive but in reality far more valuable
regions of North America. England was thus enabled to become the founder of
real colonies, the mother of nations ; and her language, customs, and political insti-
_ tutions found a home in a new world.
And now, when the old highway through the Red Sea has been reopened,
714 RErORT—1] 891.
when the wealth flowing through the Canal of Suez is beginning to revivify the
commerce of Italy, England may comfort herself with the thought that in her own
colonies and in the states which have sprung up across the Atlantic she may find
ample compensation for any possible loss that may accrue to her through geographi-
cal advantages being once more allowed to have full play.
I am afraid I have unduly tried your patience. I believe you will agree with
me that no single individual can be expected to master all those departments which
are embraced within the wide field of geography. Even the master-mind of a
Humboldt fell short of this, and facts have accumulated since his time at an appal-
ling rate. All that can be expected of our modern geographer is that he should
commund a comprehensive general view of his field, and that he should devote his
energies and capacities to the thorough cultivation of one or more departments that
lie within it.
The following Papers were read :—
1, The Art of Observing. By Joun Cones, F.R.A.S., Map Curator and
Instructor in Practical Astronomy and Surveying to the Royal Geo-
graphical Society.
In this paper the art of observing with portable instruments, for latitude and
longitude, is described, as well as the use of such simple surveying instruments as
the plane table and prismatic compass. The different methods suitable to explorers
of fixing positions by astronomical observations are explained, and the manner in
which they may be taken so as to eliminate errors is pointed out. The latter part
of the paper deals with surveying, fixing heights by barometer, route surveying in
a jungle or forest, and concludes with a description of the Solar Compass attach-
ment, as applied to theodolites for finding the true meridian, and some remarks on
Mercator’s projection in cases where it is required to lay down bearings, &c., or
plot a route. The author also calls attention to the faet that such instruments as
the plane table and prismatic compass might be used with advantage in schools,
and that such practical teaching in the field could not fail to give pupils a more
intimate knowledge of the principle on which maps are constructed and surveys
carried out than they could gain in any other way.
2. Recent Geographical Progress in Great Britain.
By J. Scorr Ke.rre.
Mr. Keltie referred to the efforts made by the Royal Geographical Society
during the last twenty-six years to improve the position of geography in British
schools. For about twenty years the Society offered prizes annually to be com-
peted for by the pupils of the great public schools; but very few schools availed
themselves of the examination, and so few candidates came forward that the
scheme was dropped. The Society also instituted a course of lectures by eminent
men of science on various aspects of geography, in order to improve the prevailing
conception of the subject, but this also had little result.
In 1884 the Society appointed Mr. Keltie to conduct an inquiry into the posi-
tion of geography in educational institutions in Great Britain and in the Continent
of Europe. He visited the leading schools in the British Islands, conferred with
the University authorities of Oxford and Cambridge, and inquired into the posi-
tion of the subject in the examinations for the public service. He visited France,
Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Holland, and made inquiries con-
cerning other European countries, as well as the United States of America. Mr.
Keltie also collected the materials for an exhibition of appliances used in geogra-
phical education. He presented to the Society a report on the results of his
inquiry. The exhibition was held in London, Birmingham, Bradford, and Edin-
burgh, and in connection therewith a series of lectures on various aspects of geo-
——— ae
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 715
graphy were given by a number of specialists. On the basis of the report and its
recommendations, the Council of the Royal Geographical Society took action in
order to improve the position of geography in the British Islands. The result
during the past six years has, on the whole, been satisfactory.
Lecturers (ranking with professors) of geography have been appointed at the
Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, where before the subject was not recog-
nised. The Oxford lecturer, Mr. H. J. Mackinder, has been most successful, and:
at that university the subject is taking an important place, both on its own
account and in its relations to the historical and scientific studies of the university.
Tt is hoped that in Cambridge equally satisfactory progress will be made.
The great public schools are influenced by the universities; but as yet the
general subject is not recognised in these schools as it ought to be, though physical
geography is generally taught. Even in these schools, however, there are signs
of improvement. Among the mass of middle-class schools, the subject is spread-
ing, and a higher conception begins to prevail.
In the elementary schools, which are now under Government jurisdiction, the
programme prescribed is highly satisfactory, though unfortunately the subject is
not compulsory. In the training colleges or normal schools the position of geo-
graphy is, on the whole, satisfactory; the Royal Geographical Society awards
prizes each year on the results of the examinations in geography in the normal
schools. 3
In the lectures which are given all over the country to thousands of students
by members of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, geography holds an
important place. What is known as commercial geography is also attracting
great attention.
As a result of the action of the Society the general conception of geography has
greatly improved in England; the leaders of the movement of reform, following
Ritter and Peschel and their disciples, regard geography mainly as dealing with
tke earth’s surface as the topographical environment of humanity.
3. Trees and Prairies. By MitLer Curisty.
4. The Homology of Continents. By Dr. Hucu R. Mitt, F.R.S.E.
5. On the Comparative Value of African Lands. By ArtHuR Sitva Ware,
F.RS.E., Secretary to the Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
This paper explained the principles on which a novel map of Africa has been
designed by the author to illustrate (1) areas of highest resistance against the
European domination, (2) areas of highest relative value to the European Powers,
and (3) the intermediate or transitional regions. A free reading of the map shows
the lines of least resistance against the European domination in Africa.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Acclimatisation.! By Ropurr W. Ferrin, M.D.
The subject of acclimatisation increases in importance every year, and during
the past few years many papers have been read in reference to it. It is therefore
very difficult to find anything new to say about it. There are two schools of
? Printed in full in the Scottish Geojraphical Magazine, p. 647, December 1891.
716 REPORT—1891.
thought, the one regarding acclimatisation as impossible, the other more sanguine
and pronouncing it possible. Probably the truth will be found to be a mean between
the two. In considering the subject, it is necessary tospecify first, the various nations.
who are to be acclimatised, and secondly, the places where they are to be located.
As regards the first point, the national characteristics, habits, customs, and environ-
ment must be taken into account, and with respect to the second, the nature of the
country, its climatology, its inhabitants, their mortality and endemic diseases must
be brought under survey. The next point is to classify the various European
nations, and it becomes evident that they can only become readily acclimatised in
the temperate zone, where climatic and other conditions are approximately akin to-
their present habitat.
In reference to Europeans becoming acclimatised in the Tropics, what are-
those factors which prevent it or which must be overcome before it is
possible? They are as follows :—Heat, cold, damp, various endemic diseases,
especially malaria, and those constitutional conditions induced by climate which
either destroy the immigrants or diminish their fertility after one or two genera-
tions. Progress has been made during recent years in enabling persons to reside:
longer and to enjoy greater health in the Tropics. What probability is there that
science will accomplish still more in rendering acclimatisation possible for
Europeans in tropical countries ?
2. Changes in Coast Lines. By Dr. J. S. Pune.
Dr. Phené pointed out that the changes in the configuration of the coast lines
of the earth exceeded even the large estimate of those who attributed so much to
erosion by rivers, glaciers, and general aqueous causes. The contiguous currents
in the Gulf of Florida, which originated the Gulf Stream, attested by the results
of their operation decades of millions of years; and the configuration of what
were now the British Islands appeared mainly due to that influence.
3. Morocco as a Field for Geographers. By J. E. Bupcerr Meakin.
Only a small portion of the country is at all fairly known, and on the whole it
may be considered, not only for geographers, but for all men of science, as virgin soil.
Only one traveller has explored the famous Atlas to any extent, and given to
the world satisfactory maps and other topographical data. This is the Baron de
Foucauld, who travelled some years ago in the disguise of a Jewish Rabbi. The
failure of all others who have attempted this task has been due to their unsuit-
ability, chiefly arising from their ignorance of the people and the language. Rohlfs
penetrated as far as De Foucauld, on the whole, but had no means of preserving a
scientific record. The only authority with regard to the flora and geology of any
portion of the highlands is the work of Hooker and Ball. There is no reliable
map of Morocco, the only real attempt having been made by Capt. Baudouin, for
the French War Office, in 1848. This is compiled partly from actual observation
and the records of travellers, but for the most part depends on the vague informa-
tion of natives.
The configuration of the Atlas is considerably different from that shown on
most maps. Instead of one long chain stretching in a south-westerly direction, it
is in reality composed of three more or less parallel lines, which are best defined as.
the Medium, the Great, and the Lesser Atlas; the first named being the northern-
most, and the last bordering on the Sahara. Of these only the centre of the Great
Atlas has been to any extent explored.
4. On the Aborigines of Western Australia. By Miss E. M. Currxe.
The monastic settlement of New Nursia, seventy miles from Perth, in Western
Australia, is the most striking refutation of the generally received belief in the
irredeemable degradation of the Australian aborigines. Founded in 1846, by two
xh ay
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 717
Spanish Benedictines, Fathers Serra and Salvado, who gradually won the con-
fidence of the natives by sharing their pursuits, it now forms a flourishing
industrial colony, consisting of a monastery, church, and schools; surrounded by a
vast cultivated domain, workshops for different trades, and a native village of
about fifty cottages inhabited by as many Christian families. One of the girls
trained here is in receipt of a Government salary as head of the post and telegraph
office ; in which, when absent on sick leave, she was efficiently replaced on short
notice by one of her companions. The boys, too, learn with great facility, and
many of them prove steady tradesmen or trustworthy servants and foremen.
Tn the wild state these aborigines are cannibals who devour the flesh of their own
kinsfolk and exhume for food bodies after three days’ burial. They believe in an
omnipotent creator and an evil principle, but do not propitiate either by worship ;
regard the moon as maleficent, the sun as a benefactor, and the stars as a numerous
family sprung from the marriage of several couples amongst them. The soul is
believed to survive after death in a disembodied state, and to transmigrate into the
body of others, remaining in that of the last of the party who approach to invite
it. They are grouped in families of ten or twelve under the absolute rule of the
head, but no longer, as formerly, form tribes by the agglomeration of these
families. ‘The men are prohibited from marriage before the age of thirty, have
often but one wife, sometimes two, and a larger number only when they adopt
those of relatives or friends left otherwise unprotected. Defective infants and
superfluous girls are killed, but the others are reared with great tenderness, which
is also exhibited to aged parents.
5. The Application of Indian Geographical Survey Methods to Africa.}
; By Uieut.-Colonel T. H. Honpicu, R.L.
The origin of the paper is requests from private sources for information as to
the best methods of commencing surveys in Africa. These surveys may be assumed
to be of a geographical rather than a revenue class, and to have in view objects
similar to those obtained by the geographical surveys carried out by Indian survey
officers. An outline of the methods proposed may be summarised as—
1. The adoption of a rapid system of triangulation along the most important
lines for first survey.
2. The extension of a graphic system of mapping from these lines by means
chiefly of native labour.
The most important lines for first survey are the international boundary lines.
Until lately England has been peculiarly free from the necessity of demarcating or
maintaining national boundaries. Even India offers but a comparatively short
line for defence. The new partition of Africa largely increases her responsibilities
in this respect, though there may be no immediate cause for action.
There is, however, a great necessity for a topographical acquaintance with the
boundaries adopted. Only a small portion of them apparently follow permanent
natural features, the rest being defined by rivers, &c.
Danger of river boundaries and uncertainty of some other forms of boundary.
It would appear, then, advantageous to commence triangulation along the
boundary lines. This is, however, so far a national or international question, and
consequently in these preliminary stages of survey State assistance might very
well be expected, and Imperial resources drawn upon for carrying it out.
1. What are these resources ?
2. What is the nature of surveys already existing in Africa ?
3. What is the nature of the survey we ought to build up?
Replying to 2 and 3 we find that if a continuous and comprehensive scheme is
to be adopted, with unity of design for all the scattered districts of the African
colonial system, nothing has very much been done as yet which would assist us in
carrying out our scheme. This scheme should be largely borrowed from experi-
ences in Asia, A consideration of it shows (in reply to 1) to what extent Imperial
1 Printed in full n the Proveedings of the Royal Geographical Society, p. 596,
October 1891.
718 REPORT—1891.
survey resources might be utilised during the processes of laying out the pre-
liminary lines of triangulation. From this triangulation the extension of topo-
graphy would thereafter probably depend on private enterprise.
Then follows a short consideration of the general topographical processes as
carried out by natives of India, of the value of such native labour, and of the
possibility of raising survey establishments in Africa similar to those which have
done such excellent work in Asia.
6. Bar-Subtense Survey.! By Colonel Henry Taynur, Indian Survey.
The paper dealt with a system of survey carried out by Colonel Tanner during
the past four years in the Punjab Himalayas, with suggestions as to its adapt-
ability for isolated surveys of unexplored countries.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Paper was read :—
1. Suggestions for the Revision and Improvement of the Large Scale Maps of
the Ordnance Survey. By Henry T. Crook, 0.2.
Reforms having been promised in the Ordnance Survey productions, it is desira-
ble to consider whether the large scale plans and maps answer the requirements of
those who chiefly use them, namely, engineers, geologists, and other scientific men,
and those engaged in the administration of imperial and local affairs. The purposes
which the Cadastral Survey has to subserve are constantly increasing with the
advance of scientific knowledge. It is admitted that the production of this class of
maps is a proper function of Government. The efficiency of the organisation and
the accuracy of the work done by the survey department is not disputed, but there
is room for much improvement in the style of maps published, and in the amount
of information conveyed. No adequate provision has been made for the revision
of the survey, and in consequence a very large portion of the maps is obsolete.
The author makes suggestions for clearing off the arrears of revision work, and for
maintaining the survey maps reasonably up to date. He proposes that the country
should be divided into districts under superintendents, each district office being
charged with the revision of the maps of its district within a limited period. He
suggests that the services of these district offices might be at the disposal of anyone
requiring plans or maps with manuscript corrections up to date on payment of
suitable fees. He thinks by these means the cost of maintaining the survey would
be materially reduced. Then follow some suggestions for improving the six-inch
county maps, and he concludes by urging that the scale of prices should be revised,
and that better indexes should be provided for the different maps.
2. Mr. Ravenstein explained a Series of Maps illustrating his
Presidential Address to the Section.
3. A Local Collection of Maps was described by the Librarian of the
Public Library.
. } Printed in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, p. 675, November
1891.
:
-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 719
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Antarctic Exploration. By E. Detmar Morean,'
The author pointed out that no serious attempt has been made to explore the
South Polar region since the expedition under Sir James Ross fifty years ago.
He urged that it was the duty of the British Government to take the work in hand,
and to send an expedition equipped to spend a year in the highest attainable
latitude.
2. Photography applied to Exploration.? By James THomson.
3. Journeys to the Lake Ngami Region. By Harry D. Buckie,
4, A Visit to Kilimanjaro and Lake Chala. By Mrs. French SHELDON.
Mrs. Sheldon succeeded in descending to the small crater, Lake Chala, at the
S.E. foot of Kilimanjaro. The results of her observations will be found in the
‘ Proceedings, R.G.S.’ for July 1891.
5. The Geography of South-West Africa.2 By Dr. Henry ScHLICHTER.
South-West Africa is in many respects only imperfectly known to geographers.
Our information about Great Namaqualand, the western Kalahari, the large Kaoko
district, and the belt between the Atlantic Ocean and the highlands of the interior
is by no means satisfactory. Since Germany has acquired territories in South-
West Africa many scientific and other travellers have traversed the German sphere
of influence, and hereby contributed to our knowledge of the country. But geo-
graphical science has not yet gained much by these recent German explorations,
for, with the exception of a few books and scientific publications, all the information
has reached the public and been preserved only in various German papers and
periodicals, mixed with many more or less unimportant colonial matters. The
author has therefore tried to collect the geographically important facts from these
sources.
Moreover, the old explorations of South-West Africa needed revision. Mr.
Theal, who has searched the archives of the Cape colony, has recently discovered
that the Orange River was known before Gordon reached it in 1777, and that in
1761-62 a well-equipped expedition penetrated into the interior of Namaqualand,
much farther north than Paterson, Gordon, and other travellers did. In 1791-92
a second exploring party reached a point still further north. But these interesting
journeys were soon afterwards forgotten. The author has found that the British
Museum contains the full diary (printed in Amsterdam, 1778) of the first of these
expeditions, and as Mr. Theal has given only short reports, without going into
geographical details, the author has examined this diary and compared it with the
literature of the present and the last century. He finds that this old expedition is
of considerable importance for our knowledge of South-West Africa.
The object of the author in this paper, therefore, is to collect and criticise the
new and old reports unknown to geographers and to give a correct account
of the present state of the geography of South-West Africa.
1 See Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, p. 632, October 1891.
2 Printed in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, p. 669, November
1891,
8 Published in full in the Scottish Geographical Magazine for September and
_ October 1891.
720 REPORT—1891.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
1, The Siam Border.’ By Lorp Lamineron.
2. Colorado. By Dr. Bet.
3. The Physical and Industrial Geography of Florida.
By Axtuur Monreriors, F.G.S., F.R.GS.
General.—Florida is a peninsula with certain unique characteristics. Though
an integral part of North America, a large portion of it belongs, climatically and
botanically, to the West Indies. The southern half of the peninsula is sub-
tropical, the extreme south tropical. Florida lies between 24° 25’ and 31° 0’
N, Lat. ; 80° 2’ and 87° 37’ W. Long. Its area is 58,680 square miles—about
that of England and Wales. Of this, 4,440 square miles are water. The extreme
length is 465 miles, of which 400 miles belong to peninsular Florida and 65 miles
to continental Florida. The average breadth of the peninsula is 100 miles. The
coast line is variously estimated—about 1,200 miles is approximate. Florida,
though the largest of the States E. of the Mississippi, is one-third the size of
California. It is forty-five times the size of Rhode Island. The west, south, and
east coasts are much influenced by the Gulf Stream, which escapes into the Atlantic
through the Florida Strait ; as it turns northward along the S.E. coast, it is a
volume of water 2,000 feet deep, 30 miles wide, flowing with a velocity of five
miles an hour, and possessing a temperature of 84° Fahr. The most remarkable
inlet is the Indian River, on the E. coast. It is about 130 miles in length from
N. to §., is salt and tidal, has an average width of a mile, and is seldom further
than a mile from the ocean. The southern extremity of the peninsula is a net-
work of lagoons and reefs united and formed by mangroves, and presenting to the
Gulf Stream the long barrier of coral reefs known as the Florida Keys.
Surface.—With the exception of Louisiana, Florida has the lowest average
altitude of any State in the Union. The low watershed of the peninsula follows
the anticlinical whose axis runs N. and S. through the central and northern
regions, and it spreads out here and there into a low group of rolling hills. The
loftiest point is Table Mountain, by Lake Apopka, and is barely 500 feet. The
altitude of the great swampy tract called the Everglades (10,000 square miles),
which lies in the extreme south, is, at its northern point, 16 feet, and at its
southern point 5:5 feet above sea-level. The majority of the lakes are situated in
the higher rolling country at altitudes from 150 to 300 feet; but there are many
that are low—e.g. Okeechobee (1,000 square miles), 20:44 feet. The main aspect
of the surface is rolling country with light sandy soil, and heavy and continuous
forests of long-leaved yellow pine (Pinus australis), pitch pine (Pinus cubensis).
Low hummocks frequently occur with clayey soil, topped with fibrous humus, and
having dense growth of cypress (Taxodium distichum), red bay (Persea caro-
dinensis), live oak (Quercus virens), palmetto, magnolias, mahogany, swamp ash
(Fraxinus viridis), Ficus aurea, &c. Numerous rivers and streams, and about
1,500 lakes and ‘springs,’ diversify the surface. Swamps and ‘ prairies’—low
grassy land with standing water—are frequent.
Hydrography.—Forida is dominated by water. It has numerous rivers, and
streams, and lakes. Nineteen of its rivers are at present navigated by steamers
to a total distance of 1,000 miles. The waterway navigable by boats is nearly
ten times this length. The only important rivers that empty into the Atlantic
are the St. Mary’s and St. John’s Rivers. The former forms the natural boundary
* Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, p. 701, December 1891.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 73
between Georgia and Florida. The latter rises within ten miles of the Ocean into
which, after a N.W. course of 300 miles, it flows. Into the Gulf of Mexico flow
the Caloosahatchee, draining Lake Okeechobee; the Peace River, which rises in
the highlands west of Lake Kissimmee, and flows S.W. ; the Withlacoochee, rising
in the same highlands, and flowing N.W.; the Suwannee rising in the Okefenokee
swamp of Georgia; and the Apalachicola.
Of lakes and ‘springs’ there are about 1,500. Some are mere expansions of a
river’s course, but the majority occur in the high rolling district which runs N.
and S. through the peninsula. Okeechobee (1,000 square miles) is the largest.
The water is quite clear. The springs are sulphurous, and occur everywhere.
Silver Spring, 200 yards in diameter and 30 yards deep, is the largest.
Chimate.—The water surface of Florida is 4,440 square miles. The isotherms run
from W. to E. in an E.N.E.—N.E. direction. The isotherm of 75° mean annual
runs from Tampa Bay to Cape Canaveral, and represents that of theimportant section
of central or semi-tropical Florida, The average mean of Jacksonville, the in-
dustrial capital, and the northern limit of the orange belt, for twenty years has
been for January 55° and for August 82°. At Key West, sub-tropical Florida,
the mean for January is 71:04°, and for August 84:33°. The annual mean
humidity is 68:8. Rainfall during the five winter months at Jacksonville = 16-62 ;
at Key West 9:10. The annual rainfall at Jacksonville is 54 inches. The pre-
vailing winds are from the S.E., blowing from the tropics over the heated Gulf
Stream and N.E., also over the stream. ‘This makes the E. coast milder than the
W. The W. coast also occasionally suffers from a cold ‘ snap,’ which has descended
the Mississippi Valley.
Geology and Sou.—As far as has yet been ascertained, the oldest strata are,
if not coeval, at least similar or equivalent to the Tertiaries of the Thames Valley,
or those of the Paris Basin. But all the divisions of the Tertiaries are represented.
The Eocene is present in great depth; the Miocene and Pliocene are less thick ;
Pleistocene beds are very thick. Fossil remains have been found, not only of the
mastodon, but of hippopotamus, rhinoceros, tiger, hyena, lion, elephant, and llama.
An anticlinal, with an axis parallel to the peninsula, runs through central and
northern Florida. True coral rock is found continuously in the south and in many
districts further north. Under this are dense beds of limestone, consisting of shells
of marine organisms. Cf. reef-limestones of Cuba. The soil is divided into—(1)
hummocks; (2) ‘pine’ or sand lands. Hummock land is low-lying clayey soil, in
which much potash and phosphorus (from decaying vegetation) are found. The
sand lands contain 50 per cent. soluble matter—are a mixture of sand and clay—
of very various mineral character, but uniformly light to work.
Vegetatton.—F lorida may be divided into three zones according to vegetation.
(1) The northern or continental portion. (2) The central or semi-tropical portion,
whose southern limit extends from the Caloosahatchee on W. coast (26° 35’ N.L.) to
the Indian River inlet (27° 30’N.L.). Iso-floral lines may be drawn from W. to E.
across the peninsula in a direction varying from N.E. to N.N.E. The three divi-
sions might be called southern, semi-tropical, and sub-tropical. Of the 200 species
of forest trees about 38 per cent. are tropical, and similar to those of West Indies.
Many of these trees grow luxuriantly on the Keys and extreme south, but dwindle
and become mere bushes at the northern limit of the belt—26° 35’ N.L. to 27° 30’
N.L. from W. to E. The following fruits are cultivated with great success :—(1)
in north: pear, peach, grape, and orange (risky); (2) in central or semi-tropical
belt: orange, lemon, lime, pine-apple, persimmon ; (3) in sub-tropical belt: lime,
pine-apple, banana, cocoanut. A large number of tropical fruits are being tried.
Sugar and rice are grown extensively in lowlands north of Okeechobee.
_ Industries.—Fruit growing, vegetable raising, and lumbering are main indus-
tries. Recently extensive phosphate beds have been discovered in river valleys,
and great outputs been registered. Kaolin of superior quality has been discovered
8. of Lake Harris and elsewhere. Cotton and tobacco are largely grown in N.
Oyster and sponge fisheries employ thousands of hands. The ranches of Lee
County are famous for their large herds, and infamous for quality of same.
_ Inhabitants.—The aboriginals were Miccosukies, These have disappeared, the
1891. 3A
722 REPORT—1891.
remnant mingling with the Seminoles, who were originally Creeks, but in seceding
from that tribe under leadership of Secoffee (1750 a.p.) were styled Seminoles—
runaways, vagabonds. Not more than 300 Seminoles now in Florida—chiefly in
Everglades. Negroes, old Southerners, northern immigrants, and foreigners
(chiefly English) make up, in this order of proportion, the population, which in
1880 was 269,000, and is now estimated at nearly 500,000.
4, The Volta River. By G. Dosson.
5. The Bakhtiari Country and the Karun River.! By Mrs. Bisxor.
6. Physical Aspects of the Himalayas, and Notes on the Inhabitants.”
By Colonel Henry Tanner.
7. On the proposed Formation of a Topographical Society in Oardiff.
By E. G. Ravensten, F.R.G.S.
} See Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, p. 633, October 1891.
? Published in full in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, p. 581, November 1891.
ee
Sxction F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT oF THE SEctION—Professor W. CunnineHam, D.D., D.Sc., F.S.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The PrestpEnt delivered the following Address :—
Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism in Economics.
THe year which has elapsed since this Association met at Leeds has afforded
ample evidence of the vitality of economic studies in England at the present time.
It is no small proof of a widely diffused desire to~ pursue such investigations
seriously that a second edition of such a substantial volume as our late President’s
‘Principles of Economics’ should have been called for within a few months of the
issue of the first. While, too, economics alone among sciences has been hitherto
unrepresented by any journal or review published in England, the year which has
passed has seen first one and then another quarterly periodical started with the
avowed object of catering for the wants of economic students. The larger of these
magazines has come into being as the organ of an Association which is designed to
do other work for our science besides that which it has already undertaken.
Both of these new ventures deserve a hearty welcome from this Section,
though in different ways, for they have emanated from different sources. The
* Review ’ bears on the forefront that it hails from Oxford; while the ‘Journal’
and its destinies have been often talked over at Cambridge, and it seems to me, at
least, to be full of the Cambridge spirit. The old contrast between these two
Universities comes out strongly and distinctly. The intense interest which Oxford
has always shown in the study of man and of conduct has put her in practical
touch with many sides of actual life, and has caused her to be the mother of not
a few great movements. But in Cambridge we are so engrossed in the study of
things that we have no time to spare for trying to know ourselves. If we ever
do give our thoughts to man, we like to think of him as if he were a kind of
thing ; so that we may apply the same methods which we are wont to use in the
study of physical phenomena. If we turn our attention to history, we try to
classify the various forms of constitution that have existed on the globe, and then
we call the result Political Science. We may devote ourselves to Ancient or
Modern Literature, but they seem to interest us not as vehicles of thought or as
forms of art, but as the bases of Philological or Phonological Science. If we
investigate human industry, we like to treat the individual as if he were a mere
mechanism, and busy ourselves in measuring the force of the motives that may be
brought to bear upon him. It is when we deal with physical things that we can
be precise ; this we are determined to be at all hazards; and of course we may
always attain to precision in our statements on human affairs so long as we are
content to be superficial, and are not at pains to penetrate to the very heart of the
matter. But indeed there are dangers on either hand, whether we give ourselves
as best we may to the study of Man, and deal with Economics in its more human
aspects; or whether we are chiefly interested in the study of things, and try to
342
724 REPORT—1891.
make the fullest use we can of the methods and conceptions of physical science for
investigating certain aspects of human affairs. In the new periodicals.there is an
excellent corrective against either evil, since the Oxford ‘Review’ is largely
written by Cambridge men, and the ‘Journal,’ which exemplifies the Cambridge
spirit, is edited by an Oxford Professor.
It might almost seem that with all this new activity there is not so much
occasion as there used to be for these annual reunions in Section F. But indeed
it isnot so. There is much needful work, which will hardly be done at all unless
it is done here. There are certainly two ways in which this Section offers great
opportunities for promoting economic science, and opportunities which are not
available elsewhere in England. Some points may be rendered clearer by debate,
and this Section affords an open field for such discussions. It is frequently useful.
to throw out some hypothesis as a tentative explanation of some group of facts;
and the conversations which take place here may help to confirm or to correct a
suggestion thus hazarded. A similar result might be obtained by rejoinders in
the magazines, but there is, at least, a saving of time when opponents can meet
face to face and thresh out their differences by means of talk.
It may easily occur, too, that interesting problems are raised and stated rather
than solved by the papers read before this Section; and the power we have of
selecting special committees, to work throughout the year at some particular point
in order to report to this Section at a subsequent meeting, is an instrument for
advancing knowledge which we cannot but value highly.
These advantages might, I conceive, be found in connection with any of the
sciences which are represented in the different sections of this Association. But
there are reasons in the very nature of our science which render it specially
advantageous for economists to take part in such a gathering as this. Our science,
as treated by Mill, and I name him because, whatever our differences may be, I
feel sure we should all regard ourselves as his disciples, rests on certain assump-
tions, and takes for granted results which it does not profess to have investigated
independently, Many of its premises are derived from some branch of physical
science. As Mill has taught us, Political Economy assumes the facts of the
physical world.’ But that is a large order; and the economist may often be
doubtful what he is at liberty to assume as a physical fact. A meeting of the
British Association, where many specialists are brought together, may surely be
turned to good account in connection with this difficulty, In previous years we
have learnt from one of the Sections what we may assume about the future pro-
duction of gold; while we have heard from another what we may take for
granted about the physical possibilities of procuring additional subsistence. We:
hope to learn from other specialists this year on the one hand about the prospects
of our coal supply and on the other in regard to the physical effects of prolonged
hours of work. It is no small advantage to have the annual opportunity of
finding more definitely what physical facts we may assume as the bases for
economic argument.
Once more—and here we come to the feature which distinguishes our science
from the work of so many of the other Sections—Political Economy, as Mill has
taught us, also assumes the facts of human nature; but human nature and human
institutions vary from age to age, and among different races and in different regions..
It has sometimes been a complaint against economic science that it assumes a
certain type of human being as though it were universal, and that it also takes for
granted the excellent but insular institutions under which we live; on this point I
shall have more to say presently. But holding, as I do, that some such assumption
may often be a convenient instrument for scientific investigation, I would yet urge
that there can be few better correctives to possible exaggeration and one-sidedness.
(from the undue extension of our hypotheses) than that of meeting men who are:
habituated to different temperaments and different institutions from our own, e.g.
to the habits and institutions of our fellow-subjects in India. This Association has
proved to be a convenient centre, which attracts economists from other lands. It
is with genuine pleasure that I welcome, in your name, the visitors from other
1 J.8. Mill, Principles of Political Economy, p. 13.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 725
_ countries who have honoured us by joining our gathering to-day. By our inter-
course with them we may surely help to correct insular prejudices, which are
; hastily formed and are not unlikely to affect our assumptions about human nature.
It has been from time to time the task of Presidents of this Section to deal, in
an opening Address, with some fresh economic problem that had forced itself upon
ublic attention in the immediately preceding year. I must crave your indulgence
if I make no such attempt to-day. For the last thirteen years I have given such
time as I could spare from clerical duty and the routine of teaching to the study of
English industry and commerce in the past, and I have made no pretence of keeping
myself fully informed about the burning questions of the present day. To me the
burning controversies of two or three centuries ago are much more fascinating,
_ because we generally know ' how they ended, and we can hope to decide with some
approximation to truth who was in the right and who was in the wrong, or how
_ far both were in the wrong. But after all English history is continuous, and the
economic life of to-day is the outcome of the economic life of the past. I do not
- think it will be wholly idle if I try to set before you, however broadly and super-
ficially, some thoughts about economic affairs to-day, as they appear to one who
| has spent many hours in trying to habituate himself to the various phases of
economic life and opinion in England during stages of her development which have
passed away for ever.
Is:
During the century which succeeded the Crusades there seems to have been a
very rapid development of English industry and commerce; and if we tried for a
little to place ourselves in thought in that period, we should find ourselves in a
world that was strangely like and yet strangely unlike our own. The dialect
would be unfamiliar, if not unintelligible ; though we might recognise the well-
known churches at Westminster, and Salisbury, and Durham, the aspect of the
landscape with the open fields would be monotonous, the houses would appear mean
and poor, and most of the towns would seem to be big and sleepy villages. While
these were the external characteristics, the habits of thought would strike us as
equally strange, since each village, and each town, was so curiously isolated from its
neighbours. The ideal of good management in every village, controlled as it prac-
tically was by a manorial bailiff, was that it should be self-suflicing and supply its
own wants from its own resources, that it should only buy from the outside world
what it could not produce for itself and could not do without, and should only sell
to the outside world what it had to spare asa surplus. In the towns which were
becoming centres of trade there was more enterprise, but it was carefully controlled
and organised so as to minister to the good of the particular town. No business
man had a wider view; his town was the economic unit, and afforded the means
by which he was able to enjoy unimpeded intercourse with the inhabitants of other
owns. The prosperity of the town was the economic ideal, and the rivalry of two
wns in the same county, like Lincoln and Boston,? was as keen as the jealousy
tween French and English fishermen to-day. There appears to have been some
collective buying of foreign wares for the common advantage of the townsmen,’
ut all industry: and commerce were organised and regulated under municipal
uthority with the view of making them subservient to the advantage of the town
where they were carried on. The manner in which the townsmen contributed to royal
axation rendered them not unnaturally jealous of anyone who tried to evade his
air share of public burdens by taking advantage of the facilities which their town
ered for carrying on his trade without helping to discharge the public obliga-
ons. The fact remains that in the thirteenth century commerce was intensely
unicipal, that the legal forms which were in vogue for recovering debts took this
| Some few, like the Newfoundland fisheries dispute, never come to anend. It
as decided in 1697, and settled in 1713 and 1763; it was finally laid to rest in 1783,
mut it seems as lively as ever.
2 P. Thompson, History of Boston, 54.
* Quarterly Journal of Economies, V., 343,
726 REPORT—1891.
municipal type, while writers on political and economic matters! seemed to assume
that the city was the sort of group-to be regulated and taken into account.
In Tudor times this local and municipal economy was rapidly superseded by a
larger system. There had been a decided growth of national feeling and a great
deal of national regulation for commerce during the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, and as this larger economic life developed the old municipal institutions
were to some extent superseded. In some cases the old institutions had come to
be cramping and positively noxious, so that industry sought other centres and
commerce betook itself to new channels. The precise story of the growth of this
national economic life in England and the corresponding decadence of the old muni-
cipal institutions for industry and commerce is not easy to trace. It may suffice to
say that in the time of Elizabeth the change was practically complete ; and the sub-
sequent development of economic life can be most easily followed when we look at
it from a national rather than a municipal standpoint. From that time onwards
there was, comparatively speaking, free intercourse between the different parts of
the country ; each district, instead of being an isolated unit organised for itself, as
it had been in the time of the first Edward, was treated as contributing its quota
to the material welfare of the nation; the prosperity of England as a whole, and
the consequent strength of England as a political power, were the ideals which
economists kept consciously in view, and which gave the framework for all their
projects and all their writing on economic topics.
Here, then, from the time of Elizabeth onwards, we have to deal with a larger
economic organism—the Nation, not merely the town—but we still find people
pursuing the old economic policy, though they applied it ona much more extended
scale than before. Their leading economic idea was to render the nation self-
sufficing ; to develop its resources, to procure from other countries what England
needed and could not produce for herself, and to sell them the surplus of our native
commodities. If we were able to open a new market for English exports, we
congratulated ourselves that we had got a vent for our surplus. If we introduced
a new industry, like the silk trade, we rejoiced that we could now hope to supply
ourselves with this article instead of purchasing it from the foreigner. If we
planted a colony in some distant region, the trouble and expense was gladly under-
taken in the hope that the products of the new land would render us independent
of some supplies from foreign sources, and thus subserve the economic self-sufficiency
of the English nation; the encouragement given to tobacco-growing in Virginia,
so as to enable us to dispense with supplies which reached us from Spain, is a case in
point. Just as there had been a keen rivalry in the thirteenth century between
neighbouring towns, so in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was the
keenest rivalry between different nations; a rivalry which was fundamentally
political, but which affected every side of economic life, since it was recognised
that wealth supplied the sinews of power. The whole economic skill of the day
was devoted to the task of building up the wealth of the nation as an independent
economic organism, that it might be able to hold its own in political disputes with
other countries.
1) f
The national scheme of economic policy is not so unfamiliar to us as the
municipal scheme which it superseded ; it is still pursued in many countries, and
it seems to me to dominate the present economic policy of the United States.
That great nation aims at being self-suflicing, and at dispensing so far as possible
with the products and manufactures of other lands. This nationalist policy has
found an advocate in List, who has stated the case with wide practical knowledge
and careful discrimination of the circumstances of different peoples. But for
England and Englishmen that policy is dead. The Anti-Corn Law agitation killed
it so far as we are concerned. We no longer contemplate isolation from the rest
of the globe; we only grumble because other people interpose barriers which check
free commercial intercourse between all parts of the known world. The free-
traders have demonstrated that the world as a whole will be better provided with
1 For example compare 8. Thomas Aquinas, De Regimine Principum.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. CM:
material goods if each nation specialises in those kinds of production for which
it is particularly adapted, and caters for the rest of the world in these depart-
ments. We have given up all idea that the nation should be self-suflicing; we
depend, even for the most necessary articles of subsistence, on communication with
other countries ; we produce with direct reference to the requirements of foreign
_ markets, and do not merely export a surplus which we cannot advantageously use
ourselves. So far as our economic scheme is concerned, we regard England as
part of a greater whole—not as an independent national organism, but as one
portion of a cosmopolitan economic organism; we desire to have the freest com-
munication with all parts of the world, for on this our very life, our national pro-
sperity in all its branches, depends. ;
It seems to me, then, that just as there was a struggle in England between the
municipal scheme of economic life and the national one in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, so there is in the present day a contest all the world over
between the nationalist economic policy on the one hand, and the international
and cosmopolitan scheme which we Englishmen haye adopted for economic pur-
poses on the other. I have argued elsewhere! that our commercial success has
been greatly due to the early date at which a national economic life was
developed in this country ; and I cannot regard it as a matter for regret that
we have been the first among the nations to throw ourselves heartily into the
cosmopolitan economic scheme,
It is a commonplace to say that we live in a period of transition; of course
every period is in a sense a time of transition, for the world never does stand
absolutely still, but the change that is going on in the economic life of the world
to-day is something more than common ; the framework on which English policy
was fashioned for three hundred years has been laid aside, and all our schemes for
industry and commerce are being devised on a new model and worked out on a
larger scale, This new model and larger growth are affecting all parts of the
globe, and even those countries which would fain pursue the old nationalist
economic scheme cannot escape the new influence; international and cosmopolitan
economic forces are gradually breaking down national exclusiveness in all parts of
the known world.
(a) A very few words will illustrate what I mean. There is in this country a
very large formation of capital every year. Mr. Wilson ? traced it for the earlier years
of this century, and Mr. Giffen has calculated it for more recent periods. The
capital thus formed seeks investment, and it is ready to flow into any channel
where there seems a reasonable chance of profit. It is not confined by national
barriers, but is transferred to any country, however distant or however uncivilised,
so long as arrangements are made that give a prospect of regular or of handsome
profits. The resources of distant colonies, of South American Republics, and of
Egypt, have been developed by capital borrowed in England. There are, therefore,
moneyed men in this country who have a stake, and are directly interested, in the
prosperity of many lands they have never seen. Space is ignored, patriotism is
- ee of sight, and capital is invested wherever there is an apparent promise of
rofit,
P (d) Capital tends too to minimise the differences between nations, since wher-
ever it goes it tends to modify the forms of industrial life. Capital introduces
new methods of production, for it brings machinery and thus induces the labourer
to spend his whole time in working for wages. There are still many lands where
the old system which was general in this country at the close of last century
holds good ; and where the artisan supports himself partly by labour on his land
and partly by his trade. But industrial capital, and expensive machinery, and
factory towns are not compatible with such conditions of life. As they are in-
troduced the old domestic system and the family life maintained by bye-occupations
are gradually broken up; the artisan becomes wholly dependent on the wages he
earns and has no other source of income ; thus social life tends to shape itself in a
new form. As capital becomes a dominant force in industry, the artisan is induced
1 Gronth of English Industry and Commerce, 244, 413.
* Capital, Currency, and Banking. Preface.
728 REPORT—1891.
wuolly to relinquish agricultural pursuits, and society is separated into the two
great classes of capitalists who employ and labourers who earn wages. There
thus comes to be a class sympathy between wage-earners in many lands, such as
has never existed before in the history of the world ; their difficulties are similar,
their voting power is great, and their aspirations are alike; with many of them
the interest of their own class in other lands calls forth more real sympathy than
the love of a country which is theirs in common with the classes who employ them.
The similarity of the conditions of employment in Western Europe was recognised
by the Emperor of Germany when he invited the representatives of various powers
to join in conference on the Labour problems. In the world of Labour, as in the
investment of capital, national differences and peculiarities are ceasing to be of
much importance.
(c) The most striking illustration of the decadence of nationalist economic
sentiment is to be found in contrasting the attitude which is now taken by the
mother country towards the colonies with that which was constantly assumed
during the eighteenth century. The right of the Crown to tax the colonies was
frequently questioned or resisted, but the right to regulate the development of the
colony in the interest of the mother country may be said to have passed unchal-
lenged till the very eve of the War of Independence. Inthe present day, however,
we are inclined to blame a government which does not administer its colonial
affairs solely in the interest of the colony itself and its inhabitants, without at-
tempting to render it economically subservient to the mother country any farther
than purely colonial considerations seem to demand. Our colonies give us prestige
and importance in all parts of the globe, they form a ring of settlements that are
English in language and habits and customs, but they are not directly subservient
to our national economic interests, for they may encourage the commerce of foreign
countries and they may come to be our rivals in neutral markets.
(d) Nor is this all; the international movements of labour are far more frequent
and rapid than they used to be. Till 1825, English artisans were positively for-
bidden to emigrate, either to our own colonies or to foreign parts ; it was doubtful
if engineers were at liberty to go abroad temporarily to set up machinery they had
‘made. But the legal prohibition has been withdrawn, and the new facilities for
travel have entirely altered the habits of the labouring classes. There is, of course,
some little hesitation from differences of law and of language in foreign parts ; but
the Lancashire man who gets a good offer to go out as a foreman and organise a
spinning mill in Bombay is not likely to overestimate the importance of these
things. He has got a good opening and he will take his chance about his power
of making his orders understood,
(e) One consideration which helps to reconcile an Englishman to such a life
abroad is the frequency of intercommunication, together with the excellence of the
postal service all over the world. The very fact that there is such international
organisation is in itself a noticeable sign of the tendency of which I am speaking.
Postal communication between different parts of the world is far cheaper and
easier than it was between different parts of this country sixty yearsago. National
barriers offer no practical resistance to the passage of news or the driving of
bargains; mail steamers and telegraphs have combined to produce many changes
in the habits of business men in the present day.
(f) One more illustration will suffice. For many articles there is now a world-
wide market, and it is possible to speculate with the view of engrossing the whole
available stock in, the world, at any rate so as to be able to rule the market.
Corners in cotton may be looked for from time to time. Great trusts like the
Standard Oil Company monopolise an article of common consumption, and a
Copper Syndicate has run its course. The questions whether such speculations
are likely to be profitable or not, and whether they are public dangers, do not
concern us now; I merely wish to point out that in actual commerce in the
present day we find what may be termed cosmopolitan speculation, which disregards
all national differences and takes account of the world as a whole.
These symptoms that economic life in the present day is breaking down national
barriers and forming international connections of every kind are very interesting.
i
ek.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 729
I know that they are not the only features of our time; there is a revival of
national sentiment in many quarters, and national aspirations, if they are more
than the idlest sentimentality, involve a desire to create economic life that is
national too; in many lands there are increasing attempts to protect native in-
dustry. The Nationalists of 1784 were enthusiasts for stimulating native industry
in Ireland, and for prohibiting the importation of British goods: and the prospects
of protection do not seem to daunt the advocates of Home Rule to-day. Nationalism
cannot but be a living power in an age which has seen the union of Italy and the
formation of the German Empire. I do not ignore these facts though I lay stress
on another side, and say that, so far as industrial life is concerned, it is, on the
whole, becoming more and more cosmopolitan and international, and less and
less fettered by national barriers all over the world. We in England have for
good or for evil committed ourselves to the cosmopolitan scheme, and have definitely
and deliberately discarded the nationalist system.
III.
1. This striking change in economic life and commercial practice must, one
would suppose, be reflected sooner or later in economic doctrine. Of course it
cannot be felt all at once ; economists, like other men of science, can only observe
what has actually occurred and reflect upon it. The science grows as new forms
of industrial and commercial life appear, and demand that they shall be taken into
account. But we can at least see the manner in which modification must come
into the science as conceived by Mill; in accordance with these new phenomena we
shall have to entertain additional hypotheses about human nature and human
institutions. The whole science is, as everyone now seems to agree, hypothetical.?
The method which Ricardo pursued and Mill formulated has been generally adopted
by English economists, and they are ready to admit that all their results rest on
certain assumptions in regard to the physical world and human nature. But while
the facts of physical nature may on the whole be regarded as constant for the period
of human life on the globe, the historian knows that it is not so with the facts of
human nature; human institutions, and the characters which are formed by them
are modified from age to age; tf we wish to study the economic condition of any
actual people at any time, we must work with conceptions that are appropriate to
their habits of life. To Mill it seemed sufficient to assume a single type of
human nature—one in which self-interest predominated ; and one kind of society—
where free competition was usual ; all other economic phenomena he dismissed as
unsusceptible of scientific treatment. But we do not alter the logical form or
change the scientific character of our study if, instead of framing a single hypothesis
in regard to human nature and society, and restricting our attention to such
phenomena as can be conveniently studied in connection with it, we are pre-
pared to investigate all economic phenomena by making such assumptions in
regard to men as are appropriate to the various ages with which we may have to
deal. Professor Edgeworth has rightly pointed out that economists often blunder
in treating something as constant that is really variable,” and I should like to add
that the most common illustration of this error may be found in arguments which
seem to assume that human nature is a constant,’ and that the variations, even in
long periods, may be neglected. Such is the discussion of the applicability of
Ricardo’s law, with all it involves,* to rents, several centuries ago; but perhaps
this is meant as a sort of scientific witticism ; it is not always easy to tell when
a Professor of the dismal science is making a joke, :
Pardon me if I dwell on this point with some iteration; in all economic study
hypothesis is necessary ; itis only by stating some hypothesis that we can artificially
isolate a group of facts, and thus give a clear explanation of a portion of the com-
? Keynes, Scope, 209, 293. 2 Mathematical Psychics, p. 127, note.
§ Marshall, Present Position, 15.
rr * See my article, ‘What did our Forefathers mean by Rent ?’ Lippincott's Magazine,
eb. 1890.
730 REPORT—1891.
plicated phenomena which go to make up human society; only by carefully stating
our hypotheses can we avoid the dogmatism with which economists are so often
charged ; since by putting forward the condition we assume, we are also stating
the limits within which our conclusions hold good. In reasoning from assumed
premisses we may obtain conclusions that have demonstrative certainty and state
laws which have universal validity’ in any sphere we can think about, even if
there is no place or time where the conditions on which they depend are realised,
so that these laws have nothing corresponding to them in any actual existence.
Our results may have no material truth, even though they have universal validity.
The pursuit of such speculations may be most valuable as a mental discipline, if for
no other reason because they may assist us to see how many matters must be taken
into consideration if we wish to make our investigations of actual phenomena
exhaustive. But if we are careful that our hypotheses about human nature shall
not be arbitrary, but shall have as much appropriateness as possible to actual men
and women in some actual place at some actual time, we get conclusions that are
not only universally valid in form, but that also serve to be a convenient instru-
ment for investigating facts. We may assume that people are grouped in rations,
and that each individual acts out of pure self-interest; or we may assume that
people are grouped in families, and always act from a sense of duty in adhering to
nown customs ; in either case we can state laws that have universal validity
on the assumed conditions; but for purposes of empirical investigation, one
hypothesis is more convenient for studying the actual facts in Western Europe,
and the other is more convenient for studying the actual facts on the Russian
Steppes ; they are not equally appropriate to both groups of economic phenomena.
As Dr. Whewell pointed out in excellent terms,? the progress of empirical
science demands the employment of appropriate conceptions; but an illustration
may enforce this necessity in regard to economic investigation. Some little time
ago I was anxious to get a few statistics about the growth of British shipping
during last century, and I turned to the beautiful ‘ Statistical Atlas’ which was
published by William Playfair, who first applied the graphic method to statistics.
But I found that his careful diagrams were useless for my purpose, and I think I
may add for any possible purpose. He has arranged all his facts with the view of
showing in the clearest manner how the balance of trade stood between Great
Britain and each of the other countries with which we had commercial dealings,
and he thus demonstrated whether any branch was a losing or a gaining trade.
At the time when he wrote the unwisdom of this way of looking at things had
been clearly exposed, but he had failed to move with the times, and the work on
which he spent so much labour was simply thrown away. He only serves as
a warning to other economists, lest by adhering rigidly to habits of thought which
have ceased to be appropriate to the changing conditions of industry and commerce
their investigations and reflections should be out of touch with actual life, and
should all too soon find their place in the limbo of misapplied erudition.
(a) To my mind the cosmopolitan and international character of industry and
commerce has not yet been sufficiently taken into account by economists. They
inherit the conception of mankind as grouped for economic purposes in nations, and
they adhere to it very closely. Adam Smith did much to break the old spell and
to show that it was not worth while to try and build up an independent national
economic life, but he was still under the thraldom of the old phrases. He still
spoke of the Wealth of Nations, and treated the nation as the economic unit.
List * does indeed speak of Adam Smith as concerned with a world-wide economy,
but this is hardly correct ; he describes, not a cosmopolitan system, but economic
principles that would serve for any nation—they are nationalist still. Cobden and
the Free Traders took the same standpoint; they thought of the nation as an
economic whole; they hoped that unimpeded intercourse would bring about more
friendly feeling between nations; they anticipated a great brotherhood in which
each nation should be a'member; but Cobden was intensely nationalist and in-
1 Marshall, Present Position, 15.
2 Philosophy of Inductive Sciences, I1., 184
* National System of Political Beonomy, 120.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 731
tensely patriotic.' The intercourse has come about, but it has not drawn nations
more closely together as nations: it has drawn the elements which composed
separate nations into new relationships so as to form cosmopolitan ties and inter-
ests, and to break down national barriers and weaken national sentiments, Neither
the political economy of Adam Smith nor the political economy of Richard Cob-
den took much account of the cosmopolitan character of economic life; it has
sprung up since their time, but I think that we ought to take account of it, and to
make sure that the fundamental conceptions of our science are appropriate to the
industrial and commercial phenomena of the present day. We need to think
more of the world as a whole; for the practical economic interests of the present
are no longer so exclusively national as they used to be. The nation will doubtless
continue to have great importance for many economic purposes, just as under the
nationalist régime municipalities have been useful organisations, which have at
present an increasing importance. But the reality of the change is most obvious
when we remember the diminished importance of national prosperity with reference
to the sources of taxation. In days when national prosperity was the recognised
basis of national power, Parliament desired toincrease the ‘funds’ from which it could
draw for the expenses of the realm. For this purpose the limits of the nation have
ceased to be of exclusive importance. Capital flows into all lands, and the income
returns to London, and the Income Tax Commissioners collect their quota with
remorseless impartiality. English capital invested in the United States pays in-
come tax in just the same way as capital invested here; the maintenance of the
national revenue is, to some extent, dissociated from the development of our own
national resources or the material prosperity of our own realm; this is a curious
phenomenon of modern life which was first clearly brought out, as I believe, by
Sir Charles Wood in his Budget speech? of 1847. The decreasing importance of
national prosperity for political purposes presents an analogy with the decline of
municipal economy. In old days the townsmen had been bound together by their
obligations to contribute to the royal exchequer; it was this that united the
municipalities into a single body for economic purposes; their decline coincided
with the development of a national system of taxation, which in turn called forth
a system of fostering the national sources of wealth. There was a great advance
in economic doctrine in the fourteenth century when it was losing its old form
and men began to deal with national and not merely with civic interests, and it
seems to me that we might do well to let national wealth take a subordinate place
in our economic discussions, and to frame our inquiries with direct reference to the
bearing of economic changes on the world as a whole.
(6) At all events the assumption in regard to individual human nature, which
is explicitly or implicitly made in current economic treatises, requires to be recon-
sidered. The isolated individual, who acts out of self-interest, still holds a promi-
nent place in economics, implicitly at least; for we still hear about the measurement
of motives which act on the individual will as if they were the sole object of
scientific economic study, not merely a single though an important factor. Motives
which affect the collective will of an association act in a different plane and can-
not be easily co-ordinated with the others; the individual self-interest of the work-
man and the collective interest of the trade-union to which he belongs often
conflict, and most economists have found it convenient to leave these associated
and corporate movements in the background and to justify themselves for concen-
trating attention on individualist motives by the assertion that ‘ now, as ever, the
main body of movement depends on the deep, silent,strong stream of the tendencies
of normal distribution and exchange.’ It is, of course, the simplest assumption
to make, and for short periods in recent times it may be sufficiently satisfactory ;
but there is a danger of falling into grave error if we rely on this assumption.
for simplicity’s sake and take individual earnings to gauge the labourer’s standard
of comfort in different centuries of English history.’ It is not difficult to general-
ise from the past so as to make it appear that this mode of treatment, by isolating
the individual, is less inappropriate now than it has been in some earlier ages ;.
! Political Writings, p. 144. 2 Hansard, xc., 318, 320,
5 Rogers, Agriculture and Prices, V., 618.
732 REPORT—1891.
that may be granted at once; individualism, like nationalism, will doubtless be an
important economic category for many purposes, but who shall say that it is even
as widely appropriate in England now as it was sixty years ago, when the tide of
legislation was dominated by lazssez favre and the Combination Laws were repealed ?
Is it so dominant in these days of capitalist trusts and labour leagues as to be
the most appropriate conception with which to study all economic phenomena in
our own country in the present day ?
One disadvantage about this mode of treatment is that we really know so little
about the isolated individual and his manner of dealing with other isolated in-
dividuals; the mere statement brings out the difficulty. Our assumptions regarding
such human nature could only be a satisfactory basis for argument if they tallied
with observations made in a large number of instances, so as to form the basis for
a valid induction like the great argument of Malthus in his Essay. As Mr.
Keynes has admirably pointed out, the value of the deductive method as a means
of studying actual economic phenomena depends on the inductive determination of
premisses.! But in regard to the unfettered action of individuals there can be no
such induction, for there are no cases to observe. If we wish to state abstract
principles of individual human action, we are forced to fall back on another method ;
to take a type of human nature and analyse it; and it is on this line that econo-
mists proceed in framing their fundamental assumption about individual human
nature. Bentham many years ago attempted to analyse the motives which may
be brought to bear upon a man and reduced them all to quantities of pleasure and
pain. Thirty years have elapsed since Mill demonstrated the insufficiency of this
analysis and showed that we must take qualitative as well as quantitative
differences into account ;* and in economics it is specially necessary to attend to
qualitative distinctions. It is far less important to measure the force of self-interest
than to distinguish the cases where self-interest coincides with family welfare and
national prosperity, and those where it does not. Here, if anywhere, it is essential
that we should keep abreast of the times, and recognise the importance of qualita-
tive as well as quantitative distinctions in discussing the motives which influence
men in their material concerns. But some recent economists seem satisfied that a
defective analysis is good enough for them; the crude method which Bentham
suggested has been adopted by Jevons;* the quantitative analysis of individual
motives is spoken of as if it were the principal work of an economist ; writers still
discuss quanta of pleasure and pain, of utility and disutility ; and the individual, as
Bentham analysed him, is still a fundamental conception in current economic
treatises. ‘Puta penny in the slot and the model will work.’ Society is too
frequently regarded as an aggregate of similar individuals, whose actions can all be
represented with sufficient accuracy by the Benthamite analysis of motives. Such
a conception of society is surely out of date to-day.
Very fruitful results have certainly been obtained by those economists who
have not busied themselves about measuring supposititious motives, and who do
not assume that man is an isolated self-interested individual. Frederic Le Play
regards the family as the most convenient unit for economic observations, both in
the advanced and the primitive societies; he has distinguished the different types
-of family, and their social importance, with rare acuteness; and he has set forth
with admirable judgment their respective characters as elements in society.
Though too little known in England, his work does not stand alone; for Mr.
Charles Booth’s monumental investigation into the condition of the dwellers in
East London is based on a number of investigations in regard to the circumstances
of families. In the family there is a natural social and economic unit which was
of much actual importance before English municipalities arose, and before English
national life asserted itself in economic affairs. The family is a natural unit
which is destined to survive even if our national industry and commerce are more
and more merged in cosmopolitan and international progress.
2. When I thus criticise the fundamental conceptions and assumptions of
current economic science, as very imperfectly appropriate to the actual conditions
1 Scope, 214. 2 Utilitarianism, 1°. 8 Theory, 30.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 733
of industry and commerce to-day, I fear I may be charged with misrepresenting
the work of recent economists. To this charge I am ready to plead guilty at once ;
I think it very likely I have misrepresented them, and I am extremely sorry for it,
for I have not done it carelessly or deliberately—I have sedulously endeavoured to
avoid it. The fault lies not with me, but with writers who, when they leave their
studies and translate their formule into the language of common life, forget that
they have to do with stupid people ; they claim a liberty to alter their definitions
from time to time as the exigencies of their argument shall require, and they do
not take sufficient pains to state clearly and fully what their assumptions are.
Despite my best endeavours I may not always succeed in following them and
reconciling their apparent inconsistencies. Ricardo, as Professor Marshall excel-
lently says, made ‘the great error of taking for granted that his readers would supply
those conditions that were present to his own mind.’ ‘He changes from one
hypothesis to another without giving notice.’ And this brings me to the second
‘point on which an historian may be inclined to insist: that since human nature and
institutions change so much, tit is most important that our hypotheses regarding
; them should be stated fully and clearly. Unless we do so we are not able to keep
' quite clearly before us the limits within which our arguments are applicable to
_ actual life ; but when our hypotheses are clearly stated, we can see directly how
_ far our reasoning is irrelevant to some past condition of society, or how far it would
become inapplicable if human nature were to change for the better. Just because
economic reasoning is hypothetical and the results are universal in form, hasty
readers are apt to forget the comparatively narrow area and short time of actual
life to which any single hypothesis is really appropriate, and the limits within
which economic generalisations are approximately true; there is a constant
tendency to the undue extension of principles that have universal validity, as if
they had therefore a wide range of applicability. By clearly stating our hypotheses,
we may secure all the advantages which accrue from modern economic science and
push the refinements of theory much farther, while we shall keep well before us the
hypothetical character and limited applicability of our conclusions, so that we
need fear no apparent conflict either with the facts furnished by history or with
_ the ideals which moralists may be endeavouring to realise.
Ricardo, Senior, and some of those who have followed them, have not been
careful to state exactly what they assumed. This neglect was often very excusable
in Ricardo, especially when he assumed things that were prominent and well-
known features in the economic conditions of his day. He did not feel called upon
to state some assumption, because it was so clear to common sense that it did not
seem worth while to put it on paper. But if there is any lesson that history
teaches us, it is that nothing is so well known that we can assume it
will always be well known and does not need to be explained. William
the Conqueror framed an elaborate scheme for the taxation of England, and
recorded the results in ‘Domesday Book.’ He said that every place was to
pay according to hides. This place was rated at so many Aides and that other at
so many more or less. But what wasa hide? He did not think it necessary to:
state that, because it was obviously a thing that everybody knew ; in the course
of time it came to be a thing that everybody had forgotten, and the precise mean-
ing of which is being gradually recovered. But William the Conqueror could
hardly be expected to foresee all that, or to know that, in the interests of historical
research, he ought to have given a plain definition of the everyday language
hich he used.
_ Inmuch the same way Ricardo could not be expected to foresee that within
alfa century after he wrote there would be an extraordinary agricultural revo-
ution ; he lived before the days of thorough draining, when high farming was
still in an experimental stage; in his time English agriculture was still mainly
tensive. If prices promised well the farmer would plough more ground and
ring a larger area under crop ; if prices ruled low the worst land would go out of
ultivation. There were many fields which were actually on the margin of
ei ee
;
: 1 Principles, 213, 530,
734 REPORT—1891.
cultivation, and were left waste after the fall of prices in 1816. Ricardo and
Ricardo’s readers would have the clearest picture before them of the agricultural
conditions he assumed when his ‘ Principles’ were published in 1817. It is said
that his theory of rent does not apply, without modification, to new countries
which have been developed since he wrote, or to old conditions of society of which
he was unaware, or to the highly intensive farming that has been developed since
he died. Very likely it does not; it would be very odd if it did; surely a man
may get the credit of giving an admirable explanation of the facts before him even
if the terms he used do not directly apply to facts which were about to come into
being subsequently. As his reasoning is hypothetical it has universal validity in
form, but Ricardo was far too good a logician to suppose that it therefore had
general applicability to all places and times. If he had only stated the
conditions he assumed—conditions which were obvious to him and might be easily
discerned by us if we chose—the value of his explanation, and the limits within
which it is true, would have been clear.
Somewhat similar and similarly excusable carelessness was shown by those
economists among whom the doctrine of a wages fund grew up.?| They did not
define it as fixed, but they thought and argued about it as though it was fixed
owing to the actual circumstances of their times which they implicitly assumed.
So far as real wages are concerned and the available ‘fund’ of the necessaries of
life, this was restricted by the operation of the Corn Laws: it could not be easily
increased as a matter of fact. So far as money payments for labour were con-
cerned, the additional outlay which the capitalist was prepared to make for
wages was also closely restricted in the great trades of the country. In the
textile trades machinery was being introduced but slowly; the contest between
hand-combing and machine-combing had still to be fought, and the power loom
was beginning to be a practical success, not only in cotton weaving, but in the
ancient and staple trades of the country. ‘The expense of machine weaving could
be definitely calculated, and if the expense of production by paying hand labour
came up to it then the power loom would be introduced, and the weavers thrown
out of employment, in so far as they were not needed to mind the machines. The
expense of the machine production of a given quantity of cloth was a ‘ wages fund.’
This wages fund was practically fixed, and was divided between the large numbers
who applied for employment, and among whom the work was ‘spread out.’ We
may be thankful that these conditions have passed away, but we need not denounce
those who formulated a theory of wages, which was on the whole applicable to
the times in which they lived, because these times have changed, and it is no
longer so applicable to ours. The great English economists of the early part of
this century gave excellent explanations of the industrial phenomena with which
they were familiar ; their error—and a very excusable error—lay in not stating the
conditions they assumed, and thus indicating the limits within which their
doctrine could be considered to hold good.
I fear I have occupied a long time in saying very little; yet it is not un-
necessary to insist that we shall have the best chance of advancing economic
science if we try to make sure, at least for ourselves, that we know what we are
talking about. It is well to be clear how far we are dealing with reasonings that
have a merely formal validity and universality, and how far with the phenomena
of the world we live in. If we are to preserve and develop economics on all its
sides, both as a formal science which deals with the relations between economic
units of all kinds, and as an instrument for investigating actual facts and under-
standing them better, then we must be careful to see that our hypotheses are
appropriate to the actual conditions of life and most anxious in our endeavour to
state fully the conditions we assume.
1 Bonar, Malthus, 270.
~)
oo
Or
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,
The following Papers were read :—
“1. Labour and Capital.—Their Differences and how to Reconcile them.
By C. H. Perxins.
The appointment of a Royal Commission for the purpose of inquiry into the
causes of the constantly occurring disputes between Labour and Capital, is an
additional proof of the extreme gravity of the question.
The results of that inquiry it would be unwise to predict. That much valuable
‘information will be obtained there is no doubt, but it will afterwards rest with
practical men to use that information to advantage and in furtherance of the
objects in view. Thus, even while the Commission is sitting, there is ample
scope and a most useful field for thought and inquiry.
The causes that have produced the present state of things are readily to be
_ understood. Employers, as a rule, and very naturally, have sought to secure labour
_ at the lowest possible cost ; and so long as they held absolutely the upper hand,
‘disputes could not long continue, and there would be no impediment to the progress
of the country in wealth, industry, and commerce, however much the philanthropist,
_ and indeed the political economist, might have reason to deplore the subservience
of the working classes and their deprivation of much of the true enjoyments and
happiness of life.
But now an enormous alteration has taken place, through the spread of educa-
tion, a cheap press, ready and cheap means for emigration, and the power of com-
bination by means of trade and other unions.
Thus the forces of labour and capital are equalised, and strikes and disputes
have become protracted and dangerous, and the necessity of some mode of identify-
ing the respective interests of labour and capital, and of promptly settling disputes
when they do arise, is rendered absolutely necessary.
While much has been said and written as to the identity of the interests of
labour and capital, it is apparent that capital has in some respects a preferential
claim. Such claim includes interest for its use and its eventual return to the
investor.
The power to labour is, on the other hand, the workman’s capital, and for its
use he is entitled to wages at current rates, and, as that power is an exhaustive one,
its possessor should be recouped, so far as possible, for its expenditure.
But as regards capital, the money invested can only, as a rule, be refunded if
Success attends the undertaking in which it is embarked, while the workman,
after receiving wages at current rates, can, if he likes, remove to other scenes of
Jabour, and thus incurs no risk of loss beyond the expenditure of a certain amount
‘of his physical strength.
Before, therefore, profits can be regarded as having been attained, interest ata
tate depending upon the nature of the undertaking must be paid, and also a certain
annual sum, or a percentage on the profits, for redemption of capital.
These preferential claims being provided for, it is proposed that all further
profits or income be divided between capital and labour in the proportion that the
amount invested and employed as working capital bears to the collective amount
paid annually in wages.
Thus, presuming a colliery, for example, has cost and employs capital to the
axtent of 20,000/. and that the interest is 5 per cent., and the charge for redemp-
tion 23 per cent., 1,500/. per annum out of the profits would thus be paid to the
nvestors. Presuming that the annual profits were 5,200/., there would be a
esidue of 3,700/. for division between capital and labour. If the latter, as repre-
ented by the wages paid, amounted to 20,000/., half of this residue of 3,700., that
, 1,850/., would accrue to labour and half to capital. Thus, presuming a man’s
mnual earnings amounted to 66/. he would receive a bonus of 5/. 18s. 8d. per
Capital would really lose nothing by this apparent surrender, for it would first
eceive interest at fair rates and redemption, and secondly the immunity from
strikes and stoppages; and the additional care and economy that would be shawn
736 REPORT—1891. |
by the workmen would probably more than make up for the amount paid to
them.
In all these co-operative undertakings the workmen would be invited to select
three or more of their body to act as ‘ Workmen’s Directors,’ and consult with the
employers upon all matters connected with the work and wages of the undertaking.
In this way careful supervision would be exerted, and bad and careless workmen
speedily got rid of.
To establish this system it is necessary that it receive official recognition. The
men will not believe in it if it merely appears as a gift on the part of the
employers.
Thus it is necessary that registration offices should be established by Government
in convenient localities, where these co-operative undertakings would be registered,
the main particulars as to capital, interest, &c., being stated, and each half-year
the amount paid in wages and the profits made. Attached to each registration
office there would be commissioners, men of known standing in their respective
districts, and these would form a Board of Appeal to which any labour disputes.
that might arise could be referred.
The importance and advantage of such a Board cannot be overestimated.
Disputes that now ripen into long and protracted strikes would be settled at once
and great loss prevented.
It is appropriate that this scheme should be considered in the great theatre of
labour where the British Association this year meets for the prosecution of the
great and beneficent objects that it so powerfully advances.
2. On the Coal Question. By T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.£.
After referring to various writers on the subject, the writer proceeded to discuss
the probable duration of our total coal resources.
This depends upon whether the ratio of increase in production will continue to
ascend or diminish.
It will probably be a decreasing ratio for the following reasons :—
1. The population of the country is increasing in a diminishing ratio.
2. The earlier developed coalfields already show a retarded rate of output.
3. The working of thinner seams will further reduce the output capacity.
This would make it appear that the ¢ota/ exhaustion of coal, if the Report of the
Royal Commission of 1871 is to be relied upon, is in no way imminent; but, as the
coal is worked in thinner seams and greater depth, the cost of producing it, after a
certain period, will begin probably to steadily increase.
The writer exemplified the retarded rate of output of the earlier coalfields.
The maximum output may probably be reached in twenty-five years, and —
continue for another twenty-five years. After this period a new element in the-
commercial position of the nation, viz., the greatly enhanced cost of fuel, will
commence to be felt.
This increased cost will be partially obviated for a time by reduction in the rate:
of wages, and of prices for materials, as well as in royalties and other charges, but
it will be impossible to maintain the cost of production at the present limits. As
the expansion of our industries is absolutely dependent on a low range in the cost
of fuel, the effect of an increased cost will begin to manifest itself, and will operate
first of all on our carrying trade.
We are now able to export large quantities of coal, which acts as ballast,
receiving in return all, or nearly all, the raw material required for our manufac-
tures, as well as a large proportion of our food supplies, at low freights. With
coal at an increased price, we shall have to paya higher price for our raw material,
and this, with the increased cost for steam, must raise the cost of producing our
manufactured goods, and limit our power of competing with other countries, lead-
ing to a contmuance of bad trade, with shorter intervals of prosperity, to the
transfer of much of our capital and investments abroad, the loss of that which —
remains, and to the lowering of wages and the emigration of the best of the
working classes. ;
|
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 737
Present tmportance of our industries illustrated by statistics.
The mere loss of capital, though serious, will not be of prime importance to
_ future generations, but outlay, for the redemption of which no provision has been
_made during the period of continuous prosperity, and on which interest must be
paid, will be a crushing burden.
This will especially apply to—
1. The National Debt.
2. Our railways and docks.
3. Our municipal debts.
4, Our water and lighting works.
_ The interest upon this capital, with continued bad trade, must inevitably ulti-
mately Jead to national bankruptcy, and probably fundamental social changes,
‘unless the capital is paid off. é
It is obviously the duty of this, and the next, generation to devise means, if
possible, of repaying the great expenditure incurred in the development of our
resources ; before these exceptional resources are exhausted the expenditure would
never have been necessary in a purely agricultural country or in a country in which
the coal resources were inferior in quality or costly to work.
Remedy.
The writer suggests that the remedy is the acquirement by the State of the
railways, docks, municipal and other loans, and of all lighting ‘and water works,
and the liquidation of the National Debt.
By this means the cost of carriage of coal, of passengers, and goods, could ulti-
mately be reduced to the mere cost of maintenance and working, the total amount
of the purchase by the State being gradually extinguished by the operation of a
sinking-fund.
The total charge for the National Debt is at the present moment 25,000,0002.; the
profits on railways, docks, and canals are about 39,817,000/. per annum, and should
it be possible to purchase for the nation all the above, and to extinguish the capital
by the operation of a sinking fund, the total gain to the nation would ultimately
be 60,000,000/. per annum. This sum would cover a very large increased cost in
the price of coal, and go a great way towards enabling the nation to maintain its
commercial position, so long as our coal resources endure.
The paper further discussed the probable mode in which the nation could
acquire the railways without involving a large annual outlay, and winds up with
some general observations upon the whole question, and points out that the time
as arrived when the subject requires serious legislative investigation.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21,
The following Papers were read :—
-§ Miners’ Thrift and Employers’ Liability: a Remarkable Experience.’
By Georce L. Campsety, Secretary of the Central Association for
Dealing with Distress caused by Mining Accidents.
The thrift dealt with in Mr. Campbell's paper was that embodied in the
stem of miners’ permanent societies, which was commenced about thirty years
0 in the north of England, and has steadily grown until it now represents the
ief voluntary endeavour to meet the distress arising from the dangerous vocation
mining. The liability of employers was chiefly that set up by the Employers’
lability Act of 1880; and the principal question submitted to the section was as
the desirableness on grounds of public policy of legislation suggested for the
urpose of hindering miners and their employers entering into arrangements
1891. 3B
738 REPORT—1891.
whereby, in view of the existing law, they jointly provide against all the casualties
incidental to their trade. The words, ‘contracting out of the Act,’ were advisedly
set aside as not representing fairly the arrangements now prevailing, and it was
contended that the existing contracts are in view of the Act, and are the result of
legislation rather than an attempt to evade its provisions. The history of colliery
clubs having been lightly touched upon, the paper set out the progress of the
movement for establishing permanent funds, one of whose chief objects is to
remove the anomaly as to fatal accidents, whereby when men were killed in large
numbers subscriptions provided for their dependents, but when men died singly
there was no attempt to elicit public help. When representatives of the societies
met in conference for the first time in 1878, the total membership was 90,000, and
a central association was formed, at whose conference this year (1891) were repre-
sented societies with an aggregate membership of 268,971; with a revenue of
242,658/.; with accumulated funds amounting to 367,2937.; with 2,895 widows
and 3,842 children in receipt of allowances, and having in the year 1890 dealt
with 39,411 cases of disability through accident. The increase of membership
from 1889 to 1890 was over 30,000. My. Campbell proceeded to show what had
been done in view of the Employers’ Liability Act in the coalfields having perma-
nent societies, and it appeared that at December, 1890, there were 110,973 of the
members of the permanent societies under arrangement with their employers, the
general principle being that the masters contributed 25 per cent. on the con-
tributions of the men. The ‘remarkable experience’ referred to in the
title of the paper had special reference to Monmouthshire and South Wales,
where the society was formed after the Act of 1880 was passed. It was now
second in point of numbers of the permanent societies, and had 52,760 members.
Add to these 12,978 members of the North Wales society, the 44,824 of Lancashire
and Cheshire, and a small contingent of North Staffordshire, and then let the
question be squarely put—was it possible that, in view of the powerful agitation
maintained in and out of Parliament since 1880, these 110,973 men could have
been forced into an arrangement or by force could be kept under an arrangement
with their employers? No more than they could coerce a nation could they
coerce 110,000 men who stood almost shoulder to shoulder from Cumberland to
Cornwall, and who had shrewdly made the Act of 1880 the means of making
provision for all accidents—not only those for which the employer is legally
responsible and those caused by the workman’s inadvertence, but for that great
proportion of disasters for which neither masters nor men could be held account-
able. Elaborate statistics were appended to the paper, from which Mr. Campbell
said it would not be difficult to ascertain how much had been lost to the sufferers
from accident in the mining community by reason of there not being general
combination between masters and men for their mutual insurance and benefit.
The tables of figures answered the question whether monetary considerations
hindered safe management ; and especially was this the case as to North Wales,
where, with a most compact organisation of employers and employed in view of
the Act, there had since its passing been a steady reduction in the number of
accidents. It was contended that the miners’ permanent societies ought not to be
disturbed, and that, while the Legislature should be encouraged to make the Act
of 1880 permanent and to prohibit contracts based alone on consideration of
employment, contracts should be permitted and encouraged which made provision
for all accidents as sufficient as the Act gave in cases where the employers were
liable. The risk was an insurable one, and the Legislature were not likely to
hinder a man insuring against an insurable risk ; nor was it reasonable to say that
while it might be covered by a proprietary company it ought not to be available
business for a concern in which the parties interested were proprietors with the
profits returned to them. Since the select committee of 1886 received evidence
the number of contracts in view of the Act had increased by no less than 38,000
in mining alone. Every year strengthened the position of those who contend that
in this matter freedom of contract should be maintained, coupled with reasonable
security against the workmen being placed at a disadvantage ; and the object of
the paper would be served if it assisted in maturing public opinion in the direction
| TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 739
of hindering the Legislature striking a severe blow at a system of thrift which had
admirably served its purpose, and which, by reason of its excellent work among a
elass who suffer greatly for the public good, had strong claim for consideration at
the hands of the nation at large.
J ——
2. State Provision against Sickness and Old Age, and the German Inva-
lidity and Superannuation Law. By Louis Tytor.
The writer proposed to present the German law in an English dress and draw
a slight sketch of what would be the experience of English workpeople were we
to adopt the principle of State insurance in our own way of doing things by com-
bining officialism with voluntaryism in much the same way as we have already
dealt with education and military service. Among the proposed modifications of
the German system are the adoption in England of a uniform standard of relief, in
place of the fourfold classification according to wages which prevails in Germany,
and the substitution of sixty-five years for seventy years as the limit of super-
annuation. Other readjustments are enumerated under several heads. The
total cost of the scheme is estimated at 1s. 3d. per week, which the writer
apportions between employers and employed. Further information has increased
the estimate to 1s. 5d. per week.
3. On Some Economic Aspects of Life Assurance. By Joun M. McCanpuisu,
F.R.S.E., formerly President of the Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland.
: After referring to the growing interest of the public in this subject and to the
fact that to Life Assurance are due the existence and the security of tens of thou-
sands of families, the author defined Life Assurance as being, like Fire or Marine
or Accident Insurance, a means of mitigating the pecuniary loss arising from an
accident by distributing it among the many who are liable to the like accident,
_ the accident in this case being that of premature death. The paper proceeded to
show among other things that legitimate life insurance was the antithesis of
gambling, and that the real gambler is he who refuses or delays to insure his life
when he has no other means of providing for his family ; while Insurance Institu-
: tions or Governments or Municipal Bodies gamble if they conduct insurance or
annuity schemes on unsound principles. It was needful also to recognise that the
_ advantages of life assurance must be paid for, and that while every man gets what
he has paid for, namely, protection against loss to his family in case of his prema-
ture death, in another sense the advantage to the families of those who die soon
must be paid for by those who live long. And in the case of annuities the advan-
tages to those who live long must be paid for by those who die soon. .
The paper dealt with the question to which Canon Blackley, and more lately
_ M. Chamberlain, have invited attention—of how ‘the masses’ can be induced or
- compelled or assisted to provide for their own old age, so as to escape the degra-
dation of pauperism and relieve the country of the cost of it. It was shown that
by an extension and a popularising of the existing arrangements by which Govern-
ment sells deferred annuities it might be made easy for almost every member of
the so-called ‘ working-classes’ to secure by means of payments well within his
power, and extending over a limited number of years, a sufficient income for him-
self in old age. It was recommended that the necessary facilities should be given
and a staff of men employed to promote the scheme, leaving it for future consider-
ation whether any form of compulsion, as has been proposed, or any further
inducements should be used to ensure its universal adoption. It was pointed out
t the same time that any large contribution out of public funds towards this
bject, unless it could be shown to be for the benefit of taxpayers universally,
would be simply an arbitrary transfer of money from the pockets of those who
would derive no advantage from the scheme to the pockets of other people.
* =
;
‘
3B 2
740 rREPoRT—1891.
A, The Survival of Domestic Industries. By Professor GonNER.
The complaints at the time of the depression of home industries and their
suspension by the factory system lay stress on four main points. 1. Machinery
and steam power. 2. Currency changes and taxation. 3. Foreign competition.
4, Irregularities. These grievances exemplified from the Reports of Royal Com-
missions and Select Committees of the House of Commons. On analysis the chief
causes of the change in mode of employment may be deduced from these. They
are :—
(a) The effect of machinery.
(6) The economy of labour in the factory.
(c) The need of some centralised system of manufacture to counteract irregu-
larity and uncertainty of demand. This owing to what may be termed the de-
localisation of demand.
Importance of these two latter as showing that the tendency to change existed
before, though it was much accelerated by the introduction of great mechanical
appliances and the use of steam-power. Continuing the investigation it is necessary
to observe separately the effect of the two systems (home industries and factories)
on (a) the work produced, (4) the condition of the workers.
I. Industries in which the work is largely affected or which allow of factory
organisation. Some other industries, viz., those requiring regular work and not
demanding any unusual degree of skill, may be included with these. Where
machinery can be used, the work produced by its aid is cheaper and often better.
The condition of the workers in these trades does not seem to have deteriorated on
their employment in factories. Reasons for this. The instance of the hosiery
trade and the nail- and chain-workers in the midland counties.
II. Industries in which the three main causes of change are less operative.
These may be divided into three classes—
(a) Industries requiring individual artistic skill or in which the commodities
produced require adaptation, e.g. carving, hand-lace making, brass-working, &c.,
of first kind; and of second, bespoke clothes trade, &c.
(6) Supplementary trades where a large portion of the labour is given by those
who, by reason of domestic duties, &c., cannot or are most unwilling to work in
factories, e.g. straw-plaiting, lace-making, &c.
(c) Local industries, where the demand is local and the industry local, e.g.
crab-pot making, &c.
In some instances of the two former of these classes a tendency to factory
organisation exists owing to the action of the third cause (see above ¢) and of a
fourth cause (d), viz. the desire to restrict competition by combination.
Conclusion.—Therneed of further investigation. Its importance.
5. Free Travel. By 8. M. Burroveus.
That it would be desirable to have railways throughout the country as free for
use by the public as lifts or elevators in hotels are free for the use of the guests,
there is no doubt. The only difficulty which arises in making them so is the con-
struction and management of railways, which is a very costly enterprise.
The arguments in favour of free travel are numerous, and apparently un-
answerable. It would relieve congestion in towns, it would greatly assist the
commerce and industry of the country, would create a greater demand for labour,
and so advance wages and the social well-being of the people, and at the same time
tend to a great improvement in general healthfulness and morality.
If the cost of travel is not collected from passengers, it must be obtained by
taxation. In the vicinity of Melbourne the children are carried to and from the
free schools without charge, which, of course, makes it necessary that the amounts
otherwise collected from them are collected by taxation in other ways. One aim
in taxation should be to avoid taxing any class of individuals for the benefit of
another class; in other words, making some rich and others poor by law.
_—_
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 741
: There is a free ferry at Woolwich which carries any who wishes to travel
between that place and North Woolwich without any charge whatever. It has
been observed that until the ferry was started the land at North Woolwich was
comparatively valueless; that the ferry created a rental value on the north side of
_ the river which did not previously exist; and that when the ferry was made as
_ free as a free bridge, the land values at North Woolwich increased still further in
_ rental value, even more than enough to pay for the cost of maintaining the free
_ ferry. It therefore appears that the occupiers of land in North Woolwich pay a
higher ground-rent on account of the ferry being free, or in other words, that they
pay in rent what they save in fares; and while they are saved some trouble in
buying tickets, &c., the financial benefit of the free ferry goes into the pockets of
the ground-landlords in North Woolwich. ‘This instance points the way to secure
free travel without burdensome taxation by simply taking the increased land values
imparted by making travel free to pay the cost of the same. This would not be un-
just or oppressive to anyone. It would not tax anyone’s industry, but simply
_ appropriate for public uses one of the effects of the public enterprise.
Until the several upper floors of a new building are connected with the ground
floors by stairways, the upper floors are comparatively valueless; but when the
stairways are put in the upper floors begin to have a value. If these floors are
made still more accessible by free lifts or elevators, the value is still further in-
creased. No company fitting up a large building for rental would think of letting
another company put in lifts and charge a toll on their tenants. ‘l'hey would know
that such a course would depreciate the rents of the upper floors. On the other
hand, they make the use of the lifts free to the tenants, and more than recoup
_ themselves for the cost by the increased rental value imparted to the upper floors.
The situation with reference to free travel on railways and tramways is the same,
only that passengers would not be carried up and down, but to and fro laterally
instead of vertically.
Some years since, in Sydney, it became necessary for the municipality of Sydney
to purchase certain lands for public purposes. When the holder was approached for
_ a price, he charged a great deal more than the then present value, ‘because,’ said he,
‘in a few years the value of the land will be considerably increased by the con-
struction of railways and wharves in the vicinity of the land.’ The Government
decided that this prospective value could not justly belong to the landowner, and
that it would be the result, not of his industry, hut of the public progress. They
therefore took the land, paying the then present value for it. If this principle
_ could be applied to the free travel question, there would be no difficulty in securing
it without direct loss to anyone. If certain landowners should fail to receive a
prospective value, being the result of public and other improvements in their
vicinity or the result of making their lands more accessible by means of free travel,
they cannot claim that they have suffered loss, but can only say the* cne public
have decided not to make them a present of such unearned increment, but rather
to foe it to pay the expenses of making the land more accessible. It would
not be difficult to imagine the great benefits that would result from applying this
fair principle of taxation, because it would result in the payment of all costs of
roads, sewers, lights, police, parks, by a tax upon the lands enhanced in value by
these public expenditures. The question would simply be whether the unearned
increment should be given to landholders, or whether it should be taken by the
public, who create it, to pay the expense of creating it.
If this method of free travel should be adopted, the enormous expense of con-
structing and maintaining railways would be greatly lessened, (1) for the reason
that the Government, in constructing railways, would only have to pay for the
value of the improvements upon land which they appropriate for the purpose, the
‘unearned increment being previously taken in taxation. (2) There would be
another economy in the amount of taxes which are levied upon the plant and
rolling-stock of railways, which would be exempt from taxation. (8) A good
economy would be effected in the management of railways, as all the expenses of
‘printing, selling, and collecting tickets would be avoided. If the carriage of goods
were also made free, the expense would easily be met by a taxation of the increased
742 REPORT—1891.
land values imparted by these means. The saving of time on the part of the
public which is now spent in purchasing tickets and in booking merchandise would:
also be very great.
The author does not claim originality for this idea, as free travel has already
been adopted in the few isolated instances which he has quoted. Mr. Cooper, of
Norwich, has given some very interesting figures showing the great economy which
would ensue to the public from the adoption of free travel.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The Alleged Differences in the Wages paid to Men and to Women for
Similar Work. By Stoney Wess, LL.B.
The inferiority of women’s earnings as compared with men’s is notorious, but it
is not so clear that this inferiority is unconnected with a real inferiority of work,
either in quantity, quality, or nett advantageousness to the employer.
(a) Manual labour.— Statistics indicate that the average earnings of women in
manufacturing industries are from one-third to two-thirds those of men. But it is
difficult to find many cases in which men and women are engaged upon precisely
similar work in the same place and at the same epoch. ‘Thus, in the tailoring
trade it is practically impossible to discover any such instance. A similar difficulty
has been experienced in discovering crucial instances in the boot and shoe trade,
paper making, cigar making, and all the Birmingham industries.
The clearest case is that of the Lancashire cotton weavers, where men and
women perform the same work, in the same shed, under practically the same legal
restrictions. Here the women, who are as strongly organised in Trade Unions as
the men, have for at least two generations received the same piecework rates as
the men, and skilled hands earn as much per week. Statistics are given showing
that this equality prevails in the weaving of other fabrics, both in France and in
England, but not in other branches of the textile industries.
On the other hand, women compositors (who are not trade unionists) habitually
receive in Edinburgh and Paris, as well as in London, not only lower time wages
than men, but also distinctly lower piecework rates for work of exactly equal
quality. Facts given as to other occupations of women, where no organisation of
workers exist, show a general inferiority of women’s wages.
Where custom prevails, as in agricultural hirings by time, women, like boys,
get less than men. But in competitive agricultural hirings by the piece, as in
pei ape or harvesting, women and boys receive equal piecework rates with
the men.
(6) Routine mental work,—Here the statistics quoted with regard to type-
writers, clerks in the Post Office and a large insurance company, telegraphists, and
teachers, both in elementary and in secondary schools, show that women habitually
receive less than men for work of equivalent grade. Statistics of sickness in the
Post Office show that women are away from their work more days than men.
The salaries of women teachers in the United States are less than those of men,
but the difference is greatest where women have least independence, and it dis-
appears altogether in Wyoming, where women have the suffrage, and the School
Law enacts that no distinction of wages according to sex shall be made.
(c) and (d) Artistic and intellectual work.—Few facts of economic significance
can be gleaned in these fields, but the cases of women singers and novelists, and
those of the Paris correspondent of the ‘Daily News’ and the postmistress of
Gibraltar, show that women of special skill obtain their full ‘ rent of ability.’
The only general conclusion that can be drawn appears to be that the in-
feriority of earnings is nearly always connected with inferiority of work. As a
rule the competition between men and women is a competition for kinds of work;
EEE
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 743
and women earn less not only because they produce less, but also because what they
roduce is usually valued in the market at a lower rate. This seems due mainly
to (a) custom, (0) public opinion, (c) women’s lower standard of life, and (d) failure
to combine for their own protection. The remedies seem to lie in the direction of
education, both of public opinion and of women.
2. The Taxation of Inventors. By Lewis Epmunps, D.Sc.
There are few classes of the community, in a manufacturing and industrial
country like Great Britain, to whom the nation at large is more indebted for its
prosperity than the inventors. It would therefore appear to be to the interest of
the Government to offer every facility and encouragement to inventors, and with
this object to afford them full opportunity for the acquisition and retention of
property in their discoveries. But the contrary is the fact. There is no species of
_ property which is so heavily pressed upon or so burdened with taxes as the very
limited one which the law allows an inventor to acquire.
Although distinctions may be drawn, the monopoly granted by a patent is in
many respects of the same character as the copyright acquired by an author, and
the word copyright might be almost equally well applied to the rights acquired by
an author and by aninventor. But while the properties of an author and an
inventor are very similar in their nature, the position of an author is immensely
superior. He or his representatives hold the copyright for life and seven years after,
or for forty-two years from the date of publication, whichever may be the longer
term ; and no fees of any kind are payable to the Government, except when for the
purpose of securing rights in foreign countries, or of taking legal proceedings for
an infringement, it is necessary to register the copyright at Stationers’ Hall, in
which case a small fee is demanded. There is no special taxation of authors of any
kind, unless, indeed, we count as such the five copies which have to be presented
to the British Museum and the University libraries, and this is a small matter. But
an inventor is not so fortunate. By the nature of the case, he can only secure
himself after complying with numerous formalities and making a full disclosure of
what his invention is. This, of course, cannot be complained of. But even then
the inventor obtains the monopoly of his invention for fourteen years only, and
this is now subject, after the first four years of the term, to the payment of heavy
annual fees, ranging from 10/. to 20/. and amounting to 150/.in all. It is contended
that these renewal fees are an unjustifiable tax upon inventors, and also that the
preliminary fees payable at the Patent Office in connection with the application
for the grant of the patent and the lodging of the specifications being 4J/., and quite
sufficient to cover the whole of the Office expenses, no further demand ought to be
made by the Treasury.
If it were proposed to put a tax of 10/. or more a year on every literary work,
or else to abolish the copyright of the author, the suggestion would be scouted ; yet
inventors, with every claim to equality of treatment, are mulcted of these heavy”
fees or else lose their patent right.
Under the recent Patents Act of 1883, the total expense of a patent running
for the full term of fourteen years was reduced from 175/. to 154/., but the whole
abatement took place in the initial expenses, which were reduced from 25/. to 4l.
What are now called ‘renewal fees’ to the amount of 1507. are payable as before,
either in amounts of 50/. and 100/. before the end of the fourth and eighth years,
or in annual payments in the fourth and succeeding years varying from 10/. to 20/.
As a matter of fact, the patentees, with few exceptions, elect to make the annual
payments in preference to the lump sums of 50/. and 100/.
Tn the United States of America inventors are not discouraged as they are here,
here, a patent may be obtained, which lasts for seventeen years, for a payment of
about 7/. 10s. in the first instance, and no further fees of any kind are payable. A
ritish patent which runs for fourteen years, therefore, costs more than twenty
times as much as a United States patent which endures for seventeen years. Con-
Sequently, although there is a search as to novelty which weeds out a large
proportion, there are twice as many patents issued in the States as there are in
oy
744 REPORT—1891.
England, with corresponding advantages to the industries of that country. The
patenting of not only home but also foreign inventions is thereby encouraged, and
an inventor having obtained a patent is induced to push his invention, and to make
further improvements in it. The success of an invention means the improvement
or creation of some new industry, and hence the country shares with the patentee:
in the profits of the invention.
Looking to the report of the Comptroller-General of Patents in this country
for the year 1889, it appears that the total income from fees on patents was
151,794/. 4s. 4d., of which sum 93,205/. was paid by way of renewal fees. The
surplus profit of the Office was a little more than this sum, namely, 93,534/. 8s. 9d.,
and this went to the Treasury, and was used for the general purposes of govern-
ment. It follows that if the annual taxes were abolished the Patent Office could
still pay its way. Thissurplus profit is, therefore, a direct tax upon the inventors.
The taxation of inventors through the medium of ‘renewal fees’ is a remnant
of the old demands and perquisites incident to the passing of letters patent under
the Great Seal. It is entirely inequitable in principle, it works great injustice and
hardship in practice, and, by damaging the value of property in inventions, acts as
a drag upon the inventive genius of the nation, and thereby injuriously affects all
the industries of the country.
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On Recent Progress in Indian Agriculture. By C. Ll. Tupper, Chief
Secretary to the Punjaub Governivent.—See Reports, p. 532.
2. Railway Communications of India. By W. C. Furnivaty, M.Inst.0.B.
The paper gave at the outset a short history of railways in India since their
commencement about forty years ago, and stated the reasons for the introduction of
the metre gauge in 1871. Up to the beginning of this year (1891) 16,277 miles
were open to public traffic, at a cost of 2,128 millions of rupees ; two-thirds of the
length have been built on the standard gauge of 5ft. 6in., and the remainder on
the narrower gauge of one metre. The cost of these lines, according to the
records, has been—standard gauge about 170,000 rupees, and narrow gauge
75,000 rupees per mile. But in this calculation no allowance has been made in the
capital account for the fluctuating value of the rupee. The gold loan from
England has been debited to India at the Exchange rates of the dates of transac-
tions, and as the sterling value of the rupee has ranged between 2s. 2d. and some-
thing under ls. 6d. during the last forty years, the obligations of the Government of
India for gold interest, calculated in rupees, are heavy. On the capital outlay,
estimated in rupees, the railways paid over 4% per cent. last year. It is advanced
as worthy of remark that the narrow gauge gave almost a similar return to that.
of the broad gauge on an expenditure per mile of less than one-half, but the broad
. gauge has been adopted for all frontier railways which are at present unremunera-
tive. The author contended that—l. Indian railways have beén well laid out,
and are well built, but the introduction of a break of gauge must be viewed as a
misfortune. 2. Passenger fares and goods rates are sufficiently low to attract
trafic and promote tirade with England, especially that of a supply of wheat.
3. The demands of Indian railways on England for iron and steel equalled about
one-tenth of the whole English exports of last year.
A comparison is made between the rate of development of railways in the
United States and India per unit of population. The census for this year gave
286 millions in India, and the expenditure was, therefore, rupees 7°44 per head, or
11 shillings. In like manner the length of the line finished was computed at 34
ae
+
OL
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 745
inches per head. In the United States in 1888 the length of railways open to
public traffic was 156,082 miles, and the outlay on construction was calculated at
9,369 millions of dollars. Estimating the population at 60 millions, these figures
give 15$ feet at a cost of 327. 4s. per head, which equal 47 times the length, and
58} times the expenditure per head in India. At this point it is observed the
comparison may be permitted to cease, because it would be absurd to imagine
conditions in India which could cause the profitable development of railways at
the rate maintained during recent years in the United States.
The question arises, however, Have the English done enouch in India? The
latest records show that the population has increased by 29 millions within
the last decade, and it might reasonably be anticipated that increase in the future
will be progressive. Accounts show that a reasonable return for railway invest-
ments has been obtained, and that the older lines are securing handsome dividends.
Experience indicates that the development of Indian railways opens an important
field of demand in the iron and steel industries of England, and furnishes a supply
of wheat, the price of which competes with America and Russia, so that the cost of
bread to the English consumer may be regulated. Experience also shows that
railways in India have done much to awaken the people to new lights, and to a
sense of new responsibilities which tend to the obliteration of old superstitions and
the generation of loyalty towards the central governing power, and of interest in
the maintenance of the Empire.
It is true that the Indian currency has depreciated in its comparative value to
sterling money of late years, but it is pointed out that similar risks occurred else-
where, as, for instance, in the Argentine Republic, where the paper dollar depends
for its value in relation to gold on the honesty of a nation whose interests seem to be
separated widely from the interests of England. Up to the present time practi-
cally all railways constructed in India have been obtained by English capital guaran-
teed to pay a certain percentage by the Secretary of State, and consequently pro-
gress has been slow. India is poor, and the trading classes do not accept railway
investments ; but now that the circumstances of India are known in England, and
now that the records show that reasonable returns can be obtained if the railway
routes are selected with intelligence, even on the depreciated value of the rupee,
because its relative value has only changed in regard to gold, not as regards grain
and labour in India, the author suggests the question whether the private enter-
prise of England cannot lift this burden from off the shoulders of the Government,
and be induced to supply capital without the trammels of a Government
contract.
3. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 383.
4. On the Upbringing of Destitute and Pauper Children.
By the Rev. J. O. Brvay, M.A.
The author touched upon the importance of the subject, having reference to
the number concerned and the disadvantages under which they laboured from
birth.
He deprecated the massing together in workhouses and district schools.
(a.) For physical reasons,
(6.) For moral reasons.
(¢.) For economic reasons.
He then laid stress on—
(a.) The evils of the system, especially as affecting girls.
(6.) Recommendation that larger powers be granted to Boards of Guardians
as against profligate and drunken parents.
746 REPORT—1891.
(c.) The provisions of the following Acts :—
The Poor Law Act, 1889.
The Prevention of Cruelty to, and Protection of, Children Act, 1889.
The Industrial Schools Acts Amendment Act, 1881.
The writer next touched upon District Schools, and especially Cottage Homes.
I, Advantages. IJ. Disadvantages.
The following remedies were suggested :—
I. Classification according to character, previous history, and associations.
II. Small homes for incorrigibles and those removed from insmoral sur-
roundings.
III. Boarding-out in every practicable case.
(a.) Finds homes, &c., ready to its hand.
(4.) Brings the child back into family life ; interests foster-parents and
influential friends in present and future welfare ; enables the child
to make suitable friendships.
(e.) It is inexpensive.
(d.) It tends to merge the child into the general mass of the population.
(e.) It provides for a supply of domestic servants and workers in
every branch of industry.
(f.) It enables Boards of Guardians to avail themselves of help from
Voluntary Committees composed of persons in a good social
position.
(g.) It has been adequately tested for many years in the three kingdoms
with satisfactory results.
IV. Emigration.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Data Available for Determining the best Limit (physically)
for Hours of Labour. By J.T. Aruipcr, M.D.
The author began by remarking that the great variability in capacity of the
human machine forbade the collection of facts, capable of measurement and of
statement in a statistical shape, for exact data. Consequently, those sought must
be derived from physiological facts and from consideration of the demands upon
human vigour made by the several occupations followed.
He treated his subject, therefore, under two heads, according as data are derived
from the consideration (A) of the individual worker, and (B) of the work to be per-
formed. The title of the paper confined his remarks to bodily or physical labour,
leaving undiscussed the equally distinct labour of the intellect, which happens to
be largely ignored in the popular idea of work and working-people.
Individual qualification for work varies in direct relation to (a) innate physical
endowments; (8), to the extent of freedom from disease, hereditary or acquired,
and from bodily deformity ; (y) to original and acquired aptitude for labour; and
(5), in some measure, to mental gifts. Idiosyncrasy and racial characteristics are
other minor factors determining ability for certain kinds of employment. These
diversities in individual capacity for work show the futility of general rules to
govern all men’s labour.
In the second division of the subject the leading conditions of labour as affecting
the construction of data were examined. First of these is the amount of actual
bodily effort called for. Though this in great excess is detrimental to health and
———— <<< CU
.
.
'
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 747
life, its effects are less pronounced than sedentary work, statistics clearly proving
that the comparative mortality figure of the latter, as illustrated by numerous
trades, is considerably greater than that of active and strong muscular exertion.
Moreover, apart from physical toil, there are a multitude of collateral and
accidental conditions of employment of great influence upon capability for labour,
and which call for examination when data for limiting the extent and duration are
searched for. Among such are the situation of work, whether in the open country
or in a town; whether above or beneath the surface of the ground ; and, in connec-
tion with these circumstances, the existence of darkness, of foul air, or noxious
fumes, of the presence of dust, whether poisonous or not, of elevated temperature,
or of highly increased atmospheric pressure. With reference to mining, in which
many unfavourable conditions enter, it seemed desirable that the hours of labour
be shortened. Nevertheless, were the evidence of the production of a high death-
rate to be accepted as the criterion for curtailing working hours, mining would
not challenge the first place, but be surpassed by several other occupations, and
especially by the manufacture of cutlery and of pottery. In demonstrating the in-
fluence of incidental conditions of work upon the sources of data, illustrations were,
for the most part, drawn from the character of mining operations.
To guard against misunderstanding, the writer called attention to the fact that
the remarks made applied to adults; and that, in the case of children, distinct data
for limiting labour existed in imperfect development and advancing growth in
body and mind—data, indeed, rightly used in framing the restrictions of the Fac-
tory Acts.
Lastly, whilst admitting the existence of trades presenting conditions of labour
seriously prejudicial to health and life, and calling, in consequence, for some limi-
tation of the hours and extent of labour, he deprecated general interference by
legislative enactments with the freedom of men in the pursuit of their selected
trades, as being prejudicial to enterprise and to the manufacturing interests of the
country, and also as destructive of individual responsibility, and of the feeling of
independence, by replacing the natural law of self-preservation by State nursing.
2. The Cure of Consumption in its Economic Aspect.
By G. W. HaMBLeron.
3. The Increase of Food and Population. By W. EH. A. Axon.
4, Le Play’s method of Systematic Observation. By F. AvBuRTIN.
5. Recent Changes in the Distribution of Population in England and Wales.
By Epwin Cannan.
The rough-and-ready method of describing the great change which has taken
place in the distribution of the population of England and Wales during the present
century is to say that the North has enormously increased in comparison with the
South. It is more accurate to say that the tendency.of the increasing population
has been to mass itself more and more in six comparatively small areas, viz., London,
Lancashire, the West Riding of Yorkshire, Staffordshire with Birmingham, the
county of Durham with Newcastle, Tynemouth, and Middlesbrough, and, lastly,
Glamorgan.
Of these six localities Glamorgan only is shown by the Preliminary Report of
the Census of 1891 to be gaining on the rest of the country as fast as ever. The
rate of gain on the part of the Durham district, Lancashire, the West Riding,
and the Staffordshire district shows so great a decline that it seems likely to dis-
appear entirely before long. The gain of London has also somewhat diminished,
but is still very great if all the suburban country be included.
748 REPORT—1891.
The diminution of loss which counterbalances this diminution of gain is spread
oyer the rest of England. It is greatest in the south-western counties.
Trustworthy statistics as to the comparative growth of urban and rural popula-
tion, or of large and small towns, seem scarcely obtainable; but there seems no
reason to suppose there is any great change in the prevailing tendencies with regard
to either of these matters.
The diminishing gain of the manufacturing districts may result from some
check being received by the tendency of this country to become weaver and black-
smith for the whole world, or from the proportionate decline which, in the progress
of civilisation, inevitably overtakes the industries which supply the necessaries of
life as compared with those which supply its conveniences and amusements.
749
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE Section—T. Forster Brown, Esq., M.Inst.C.E.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The Presrpent delivered the following Address :—
I FEEL extremely diffident in assuming the Presidential Chair of Section G at the
present meeting of the British Association.
The addresses of my eminent predecessors have, year by year, in the best
language, and in the most condensed form, gauged the progress of, and indicated
the direction in which, further improvements in mechanical science may be looked
for. In so large a field as that of mechanical engineering my somewhat limited
knowledge will not admit of my following very closely in their footsteps; but
possibly, by tracing the modern practice of this branch as applied to mining opera-
tions in Great Britain, I may be able to submit some points of interest to mechanical
engineers.
Great progress has been made in mechanical science since the British Associa-
tion met in the Principality of Wales eleven years azo; and some of the results
of that progress ave exemplified in our locomotives, marine engineering, and in such
works as the Severn Tunnel, the Forth and Tay Bridges, and the Manchester Ship
Canal, which is now in progress of construction.
In mining, the progress has been slow, and it is a remarkable fact that, with
the exception of pumping, the machinery in use in connection with mining opera-
tions in Great Britain has not, in regard to economy, advanced so rapidly as has
been the case in our manufactures and marine.
This is probably due, in metalliferous mining, to the uncertain nature of the
mineral deposits not affording any adequate security to adventurers that the
increased cost of adopting improved appliances will be reimbursed ; whilst in coal
mining, the cheapness of fuel, the large proportion which manual labour bears to
the total cost of producing coal, and the necessity for producing large outputs with
the simplest appliances, explain, in some measure, the reluctance with which high-
pressure-steam compound engines, and other modes embracing the most modern
and approved types of economising power, have been adopted.
Metalliferous mining, with the exception of the working of iron ore, is not in
a prosperous condition owing to causes to which it is unnecessary to refer; but in
special localities, where the deposits of minerals are rich and profitable, progress has
been made within a recent period by the adoption of more economical and efficient
machinery.
For example, at the Tiacroft Tin Mine, in Cornwall, a compound winding plant
has been erected by Messrs. Harvey, of Hayle, of which the following are par-
ticulars: The high-pressure cylinder is 17 inches in diameter and steam-jacketed,
and the low-pressure cylinder is 30 inches in diameter, each having a stroke of
6 feet. A condenser is worked by levers off the crosshead of the low-pressure
cylinder. The drum is 8 feet 6 inches in diameter, and of the plain cylindrical type.
The engine is fitted with steam reversing gear, and an auxiliary steam valve for
750 REPORT—1891.
admitting high-pressure steam to either end of low-pressure cylinder when
required. The working pressure of steam is 90 lbs. per square inch. This engine
has proved so satisfactory that the management of the mine have been induced to
erect a new horizontal condensing compound air-compressing engine in place of
their existing plant. This engine will have high- and low-pressure cylinders of
153 and 27 inches diameter respectively, by 48-inch stroke, and the air cylinder is
22 inches in diameter, with an equal stroke, and is fitted with Trestrail’s patent inlet
and outlet valves, and is arranged for a working pressure of 100 lbs. per square inch.
At the Greenside Lead Mines, near Ullswater, a waterfall of upwards of
100 horse-power is now being utilised by means of a turbine to drive dynamos,
the energy from which is transmitted for the purposes of winding, pumping, and
lighting ; and, again, at the Morgan Gold Mines, near Dolgelly, there is a modern
example of the successful utilisation of water-power for compressed air, and for
driving forty head of stamps. The water-power for driving the mill is obtained
from the river Mawddach, and is brought on to a 22-inch turbine, with a 68-feet
head ; this fall, with 650 cubic feet of water, easily drives the mill, stone breakers,
&c., and with 800 cubic feet of water applied, if required, the water-power can be
raised to 100 horse-power.
And, as an example of the very large amount of mechanical power applied in
exceptional circumstances to metalliferous mining operations, the Whicham
Heematite Iron Mines, in South Cumberland, may be named, where the quantity of
water raised from a depth of 552 feet occasionally exceeds 4,800 gallons per minute,
the machinery employed consisting of—
Firstly, a Cornish beam-condensing pumping engine, having a 90-inch diameter
cylinder by 11-feet stroke, with a 10-feet stroke in the pumps. The beam weighs
50 tons. There are attached to this engine three pump-rams, each 28 inches in dia-
meter, fixed at certain points in the shaft, the bottom ram being fixed 552 feet
below the surface, from which level the whole of the water is pumped. The quan-
tity of water delivered per minute is 2,210 gallons. There is also another Cornish
beam-condensing pumping engine, with a cylinder of 110 inches in diameter by
11-feet stroke, with a 9-feet stroke in the pumps. This beam weighs 55} tons.
Attached to this engine are three 30-inch diameter pump-rams forcing from the
same level as that before mentioned a quantity of 2,295 gallons of water per
minute. In November and December during heavy floods as much as 4,680 gallons
have been pumped from this mine per minute by these two engines.
The average consumption of coal by these engines is equal to about 4 lbs. per
indicated horse-power.
There is another engine erected at this mine which is kept in reserve in the
event of anything happening to either of the two other engines which I have
described, viz., a tandem horizontal compound condensing pumping engine, having
a 40-inch high pressure, and a 70-inch low pressure cylinder by 9-feet stroke. This
engine is fitted with Davey’s differential valve gearing. There is attached to this
engine two 24-inch diameter pump-rams fixed at a point 372 feet below the surface.
These pumps are capable of dealing with 280 gallons of water with each stroke of
the engine, and the maximum speed is seven strokes per minute, which represents,
therefore, 1,960 gallons of water per minute. Provision is made with this engine
to extend the pumps to a lower level when necessary.
The weight of the pumps and pipes connected with these engines is about
250 tons.
In the raising of coal from our mines and placing it on board ship in our
docks, there is a vast amount of machinery employed, much of which is now of an
obsolete type. Where, however, new winnings have been made, or where in old
mines it has been found necessary to replace the old machinery by new, the ques-
tion of efficiency and, at the same time, economy in machinery has of late years
received serious attention.
The consideration of the question of economy in the employment of steam in
coal-mining operations has resulted in boilers of the most modern construction
being erected, working to pressures varying from 80 to 150 lbs. per square inch, as
compared with pressures varying from 40 to 50 lbs, per square inch in the old
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 751
boilers, whilst the various engines are now being constructed on the most modern
and improved principle.
Compressed air has for many years been used extensively in our coal mines as
a motive power. Electricity also has made rapid strides in the same direction ;
and I have no doubt that, in conjunction with a better type of machinery for the
compression and use of air, will eventually become the principal agent in under-
ground mechanical operations.
Many large electrical installations have already been in use for a considerable
period. Notably amongst the number I may mention that at Messrs. Locke
& Co.’s St. John’s Colliery, Normanton, where both hauling on the endless-rope
system and pumping are very largely adopted, and it has been proved that a useful
effect equal to 65 per cent. can be obtained. This high rate of efficiency is un-
doubtedly very satisfactory. Iam, however, of opinion that there is still great
room for improvement in electrical plant before it will be adopted in preference to
other machinery now in general use, especially in gaseous mines, and these im-
provements must embrace a certain means of rendering sparking absolutely harmless
under all conditions, for it involves not only the question of the increased effi-
ciency of one class of machinery’ over another, but also the protection of human life.
There must also be devised a ready means of reversing the power, so that the
system of haulage known as the main-and-tail-rope system can be applied with
equal safety and readiness in any part, as compared with absolute safety in the use
of compressed air.
An electrical hauling plant to be worked on this system (which I am sure will
be watched with very great interest) is now erected at one of the Plymouth
collieries in this district, by an eminent firm of electricians, as a trial and demon-
stration of what can be done in this direction. This will comprise, when fully com-
plete, a generating plant at the top of the pit, and two electrically-driven hauling-
engines underground, connected by a suitable cable carried down the shaft and along
the roadway for some 1,200 yards.
The generating plant and one hauling-engine are now erected, and the other
hauling-engine will shortly be ready.
The generating plant consists of a 40 horse-power compound engine working at
110 revolutions per minute; this engine drives by belt a specially constructed
dynamo, which is of a horizontal pattern, built on a wrought-iron girder bed plate.
It is compound wound, and capable of giving off 160 ampéres with 500 volts
pressure, running at 500 revolutions per minute.
The cable, which is 3,200 yards in length, is made of 37 strands of No. 14
high conductivity copper-wire, highly insulated with vulcanised bitumen, double-
taped, and surrounded with two layers of jute yarn compounded between each,
and is protected by a double sheath of No. 8 steel-wire. It is of sufficient size to
carry the necessary current, and in case of falls of roof it has been constructed so
that it will stand a shearing strain of 10 tons per square inch.
The hauling-engine consists of two drums, each fitted with a clutch and foot-
brake. The drum-shaft is driven from a counter-shaft by spur gearing, and this
counter-shaft is driven from the motor by six ropes 1 inch in diameter.
' The motor is a shunt-wound machine, built to run at 600 revolutions per
minute, and works with 80 ampéres at 450 volts, and is able to take 160 ampéres
without harm at starting. The whole engine is mounted on a wrought-iron bed-
frame. The motor will be reversed by a specially-designed switch, the efficiency
of which has yet to be proved. The useful effect of this plant, when working at
full power, is expected to be from 60 to 65 per cent,
' Possibly the leather-belting and ropes used for transmitting the power from the
motor to the hauling-drums or pumps, might with advantage be replaced by some-
thing less liable to be damaged by the rough usage and other contingencies usually
met with underground.
As I have previously mentioned, compressed air is another motive power very
largely used in coal-mining, it being not only absolutely safe in explosive atmospheres,
but tends to reduce any danger which might exist from sudden outbursts of gas
by assisting the ventilation. This may be considered as rather an expensive
ioe rerort—1891.
means of assisting ventilation ; but it is very seldom that the air is used direct from
the mains for this purpose. A very interesting paper was read at the Newcastle-
upon-Tyne Meeting of this Association, in 1889, by Professor Alex. B. W.
Kennedy, on the experiments he had made in Paris upon the transmission of power
by compressed air, in which he states that an indicated efficiency of 31 per cent.
can be got from cold air, and 45 per cent. from air which has been heated after
compression. It is very doubtful, however, if in any compressed-air installation
used in coal-mining there is more than 30 per cent. of useful effect obtained; in
many instances it is much less, as it is impossible in almost every case to heat the
air after it has passed into the mine; and another source of loss is due to leakage,
caused in a great measure by the occasional upheaval of the ground disturbing the
pipes. It is thus obvious that compressed air is more costly than electricity ; but
up to the present time it is the only absolutely safe power which is capable of
being conveyed long distances underground in mines giving off fire-damp.
A very large compressing plant has quite recently been erected in this district,
and another will very shortly be installed ; this latter will consist of two pairs of
tandem compound steam-engines, each pair having two high-pressure cylinders 22
inches in diameter, and two low-pressure cylinders each 40 inches in diameter, by
5-feet stroke. The air cylinders are 34 inches in diameter, one being placed behind
each low-pressure cylinder, Each high-pressure cylinder is provided with variable
expansion valves, which can be adjusted whilst the engines are working, The
independent condensing apparatus consists of a pair of engines haying 10-inch
diameter cylinders, and 20-inch diameter air-pumps, by 2-feet 6-inch stroke, and
are so arranged that they can be worked together as a pair, or as single engines
and condensers.
The pressure of steam at the boilers will be 150 Ibs. per square inch, so that a
high degree of expansion may be obtained, and as the inlet and outlet valves of the
air-cylinders are of large area, and are perfectly free to act in sympathy with the
pistons in the air-cylinders, it is only reasonable to expect the highest degree of
efficiency which can be obtained from steam-power applied to compressing air.
Each pair of air-compressing engines will be capable of developing at least 800
horse-power, or a total of 1,600 indicated horse-power in the installation.
No provision has been made in this plant for compounding the air-cylinders
or the motors; but it has been pointed out by Professor Elliott, of the Cardiff
University, in a very interesting and able paper read before the South Wales
Institute of Engineers, that great economy will result in compounding the air and
motors. Professor Elliott estimates the extra efficiency, under certain conditions
of high pressure, as upwards of 11 per cent. Further investigation in regard to
defining the relative economy of using high- and low-pressed air for underground
mining operations, and the relative cost of the plant adapted for the production
and application of each, is required before it can be definitely decided that air of
a pressure above four atmospheres, but with air-cylinders and motors compounded,
will result in real economy. It appears on the first blush as if we might look in
the direction indicated to secure a material increase in the effective power obtain-
able from compressed air.
In some of our coal fields very hard seams or veins of coal are met with, and
various kinds of machinery have been devised to assist the coal hewer in severing
the coal from the solid strata, and electrical appliances have in this class of
machinery been more or less successful. It appears to me, however, that there is
a want of simplicity about the majority of the machines which have come under
my notice, which will operate against their general adoption.
in the conveyance of coal underground, from the face of the workings where it
is loaded into the trams by the workmen, to the bottom of the shaft, several systems
of haulage are adopted, either worked direct by steam-power, compressed air, or
electrical motors, the principal of which are known as the endless-rope,-main-and-
tail-rope, and main-rope systems. The two former systems are used where the
ground is either level or undulating, and where power has to be applied to haul
the trams or tubs in both directions, and the latter system is generally used where
there is a gradient in one direction, sufficient to allow the trams or tubs to run by
—
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 753
gravitation, and haul the rope after them. The cost of the conveyance of coal
underground is a very considerable item in South Wales, probably amounting to
600,000/. to 700,000. per annum, and consequently has caused great attention to
be given to the subject. It has been found that the endless-rope system, where it
can be conveniently applied, is the cheapest. This system, however, necessitates
the laying and maintaining of either a double line of rails, or frequent passing
oints or loops, and as the nature of the strata does not always admit of the roads
ene made and maintained wide enough for this to be done, the main-and-tail
system, which requires a single line of rails only, has in that event to be adopted.
The distance to which some of these haulage systems extend is very great (in some
cases exceeding three miles); and, having regard to the large quantities which have
to be conveyed by mechanical haulage in single collieries, in many instances 1,000
to 1,500 tons of coal in ten hours, very good and powerful machinery is required,
and it is not unusual to have engines of 600 indicated horse-power placed under-
ground for this purpose. In other cases where the coal is brought from several
_ districts to the bottom of the shafts, smaller engines are used. For endless-rope
haulage, the speed at which the trams or tubs travel is from two to six miles per
hour, as against from ten to twenty miles per hour by the main-and-tail system ;
thus there is much greater wear and tear in the latter than in the former. The
_ type of engine usually adopted for this work varies considerably according to cir-
cumstances, and the ideas of the engineer by whom the work is planned. . They
are, however, invariably horizontal, and fitted with a second motion shaft, on which
. the hauling drums are arranged. There is still a large number of horses employed
_ underground, at very great cost, principally to collect the trams from the colliers
_ and convey them to the station, from which point the engine hauls them, and it is
_ to this class of haulage that I would particularly direct the attention of mechanical
engineers. What is required is an absolutely safe and simple means of light haul-
age, made as portable as possible, so that it can be readily moved from one position
_ to another, as circumstances may require, and arranged so as to replace the horses,
Thus the coal is brought to the bottom of the shaft, and thence up the shaft by
means of the winding engine. This class of engine has of late years been very
materially improved ; instead of the low-pressure vertical-beam condensing engine,
_ which was so commonly in use many years ago, and some of which are still in
existence, we have now the high-pressure compound condensing engine, working
with a boiler pressure varying from 80 to 150 lbs. per square inch. Some of our
Winding engines are very powerful and run at very high velocities. This will be
the more readily understood from the fact that, at some pits, the carriages on which
the coal is raised in the shaft attain a speed equal to from forty to forty-five miles
per hour, and the dead load lifted is as great as twenty tons each lift, A few of the
leading sizes of a large pair of winding engines now in use at one of the collieries
in this district may be mentioned. The engines are vertical, with inverted
ylinders of 54 inches in diameter, and admit of a 7-feet stroke; the cylinders are
steam-jacketed, and the valves double-beat, placed in pairs in nozzle-boxes, fixed
to the port-branches at the top and bottom of each cylinder. The valves are
worked by the ordinary rocking lifters, to which is added, for the steam valves,
the simple triple expansion gear first introduced by Mr. Barclay, of Kilmarnock.
The cylinders are supported by double A frames of cast iron, fixed to heavy cast-
iron bedplates, to which also is attached the main shaft plummer-blocks. The
Winding-drum is of the conical type, graduating from 16 feet to 82 feet, and is
nade of steel plates and ribs and cast-iron centres. The total weight of the
fum, drum-shaft, and the engine-cranks, and one rope, exceeds100 tons. The
mgine is fitted with a powerful steam brake, and also a self-acting reversing gear,
rhich reversing gear also applies the steam brake, in case of any neglect on the
bart of the engine-man. There is also being built, for a colliery in this coalfield,
a pair of large compound condensing winding engines, by Messrs. Fowler, of Leeds.’
Which will embrace all the latest improvements. They will consist of a pair «f
rizontal compound winding engines fitted with condensers; the high-pressure
cylinder, being 32 inches in diameter by 5-feet stroke, will actuate one crank,
whilst the low-pressure cylinder, 48 inches in diameter by 5-feet stroke, will actuate
1891. 3¢
754: REPORT—1891.
the other crank; both cylinders are fitted with Cornish valves, and on the high-
pressure cylinder there is fitted automatic variable expansion, worked by a governor,
and the initial pressure of steam will be 150 lbs. per square inch. This engine will
be fitted with a plain cylindrical drum, 18 feet in diameter, and a balance rope will
be attached to the underside of the carriages, so that everything will be in perfect
balance.
Between the high- and low-pressure cylinders is a receiver on which is fixed a
valve arrangement, by which the steam can be expanded out of the receiver, or
live steam can be admitted into it. This arrangement greatly facilitates the ease
of starting the engines.
As it is intended to raise the load from the bottom to the top of the shaft in
forty seconds, and as, during part of each lift, the speed will probably get up to
3,500 feet per minute, the engines at that time will probably indicate 1,500
horse-power.
Mechanical ventilation, by exhausting the air, has almost entirely superseded
the furnace ventilation in general use many years ago, and which created a current
by heat. There are many types of fans; the best known are the ‘Schiele,’
‘Guibal,’ and ‘ Waddell.’ Some very large fans are now in use, and at the present
time the large quantity of 500,000 cubic feet of air per minute is capable of being
passed through one of the mines in this district by a ‘Schiele’ fan, with a water-
gauge of 4 inches. A very exhaustive series of trialsis being made by a committee
appointed by the North of England Institute of Engineers, which I have no doubt
will bring to light many interesting features in the various types of fans in general
use, and indicate accurately the relative economic values of each.
Some of our coal mines are very heavily watered, and this involves large and
costly pumping machinery, which takes various forms, the most generally used of
which is perhaps the old-fashioned but economical Cornish vertical condensing
steam engine, which, with its heavy rods and pumps, occupies a considerable
portion of the room in the shaft. In recent years, however, there has been a ten-
dency to apply the direct-acting forcing engine, fixed at the bottom of the shaft, of
which there are various forms; and still more recently, pumps, worked by electrical
power, are being brought into use, and in underground workings far away from the
shafts this power seems eminently suitable, as the work in pumping required can be
so regulated as to be constant, thereby reducing the risk of danger from sparking.
Many excellent forms of direct-acting pumping engines have been designed, the
most economical being the compound condensing direct-acting ram-pump, which
takes up little space. Perhaps the worst feature in adopting direct-acting pumps
is the fact that steam must be conveyed down the shaft, which means a certain
loss by condensation; a loss which can, however, be very materially reduced by
having the steam pipes properly protected from exposure by suitable coverings.
The steam and water pipes for this type of pump take up much less pit room than
those of the Cornish pump, and this is of very great moment where the area of the
shafts is limited.
A type of pump which has been adopted in some of our northern mines, and
which I should like to notice, is the hydraulic pump patented by Mr. Joseph
Moore, C.E., of Glasgow.
The object of this invention is attained by means of hydraulic pressure, and one
of the prominent advantages gained, is that it enables the steam engine, which
generates the power, to be placed on the surface, and near to the boilers, thus ob-
viating the loss due to the condensation of steam when conveyed great distances.
To the steam engine on the surface is attached a double-acting power ram, of the
ordinary type, and there are also similar power rams attached to the pump under-
ground ; these rams are connected to each other by small pipes, filled with water,
which, when under pressure, convey the reciprocating motion of the engine on
the surface to the pump underground.
Another type of pumping engine now largely used in mining is that manu-
factured by Messrs. Hathorn, Davey, & Co., of Leeds; a notable instance of this
type of engine is at Bradley, in Staffordshire, where one engine raises 4,000,000
gallons a day, a height of 490 feet. The chief improvements introduced in these”
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 755
_ engines of late years have been the trip gear, by means of which the steam
_ communication between the high- and low-pressure cylinders is automatically
__ stopped in case of accident, and the consequent cushioning of the steam in the high
_ pressure cylinder brings the engine gradually to rest without shock; and also the
pausing gear, by means of which a definite interval between the strokes is obtained.
In heavy lifts, this is of great advantage, by giving time for the valves to settle
: down to their seats at the end of each stroke, which minimises wear and tear, and
_ it also enables the engine, when running at one or two strokes a minute, to make
_ a brisk stroke and then pause, thus obviating the disadvantage of water slipping
: back through the valves, which is always the case when an engine makes a very
slow stroke.
: Another type of engine, which is increasing in favour, is the hydraulic engine
at the bottom of the shaft, actuated by a steam engine at the top, on a similar
principle to that introduced many years ago by Lord Armstrong for working the
machinery in docks. This system possesses the advantage of occupying the
_ minimum of space either at the pit top or in the shaft, and the power can be ap-
plied at any point in the pit without the inconvenience which attends the actua-
. tion of pumps by spear rods at any other point than at the bottom of the shaft. A
plant of this kind has been working at Marseilles for some years, raising 1,700
gallons per minute 311 feet high, with an accumulator pressure of forty-two atmo-
spheres.
: On leaving the carriage the trams of coal are weighed, and the coal is then
tipped on to the screen, where it is cleaned and divided into the necessary number
of saleable sizes (which is usually regulated by the quality of the coal), and then
placed in the trucks for transportation. Considerable improvements have recently
been made in our screening apparatus, which is probably due, partly to the
increased proportion of dirt or dross found in some of the seams now worked,
and partly to the necessity of having a more improved and effective apparatus,
haying regard to the increased cost of working the coal, and consequently to its
increased value. The improvements in this direction have taken the form chiefly
of travelling belts, moving at a slow speed in lieu of the ordinary falling screen.
At the docks also, the machinery for placing the coal on board ship has been
greatly improved, so as to prevent breakage, one of the most recent improvements
being the movable tip, which can be adjusted to suit the varying sizes of ships.
Some of these tips are made on the principle of the jib crane, the coal being tipped
from the truck into large iron boxes, which are lowered into the ship’s hold, and
the coal dropped out of the bottom of the box. Others are fitted with what might
be termed an auxiliary crane, by which the coal is lowered in boxes into the ship's
hold, the truck being, first of all, placed on a cradle, which is raised by hydraulic
rams to the necessary height, when it is tipped to such an angle as to cause the
coal to run out of the truck through a shoot, extending over the ship’s hatchway,into
what is termed the anti-breakage box. The box being filled is then lowered into
the ship’s hold, but its use is discontinued as soon as a sufficient quantity of coal
has been loaded to form a cone sufficiently large to prevent further breakage. The
anti-breakage box is then swung out of the way, and the coal allowed to slide from
the shoot on to the cone, and into the hold where it is trimmed into position.
_ _Summarising the position of mechanical science, as applied to our coal-mining
industry in this country, it may be observed, that there is a general awakening
to the necessity of adopting, in the newer and deeper mines, more economical
appliances.
It is true that it would be impracticable, and probably unwise, to alter much of
the existing machinery, but, by the adoption of the best-known types of electrical
plant, and air compression in our new and deep mines, the consumption of coal per
1orse-power would be reduced, and the extra expense, due to natural causes, of.
producing minerals from greater depths would be substantially lessened. -The
consumption of coal at the collieries in Great Britain alone probably “exceeds
10,000,000 tons per annum, and the consumption per horse-power is probably not
less than 6 Ibs. of coal, and it is not unreasonable to assume that, by the adoption
of more efficient machinery than is at present in general use, at least one-half of the
3e¢2
756 REPORT—1891.
coal consumed could be saved. There is, therefore, in the mines of Great Britain
alone a wide and lucrative field for the inventive ingenuity of mechanical engineers
in economising fuel, and especially in the successful application of new methods for
dealing with underground haulage, in the inner workings of our collieries, more
especially in South Wales, where the number of horses still employed is very large.
Leaving the subject of mining, I may observe that considerable progress has
within recent years been made in the mechanical appliances intended to replace
horses on our public tram lines. The steam engine now in use in some of our towns
has its drawbacks as well as its good qualities, as also has the endless-rope haulage,
and in the case of the latter system, anxiety must be felt when the ropes show signs
of wear. The electrically-driven trams appear to work well. I have not, however,
seen any published data bearing on the relative cost per mile of these several
systems, and this information, when obtained, will be of interest.
At the present time, I understand, exhaustive trials are being made with an
ammonia gas engine, which, it is anticipated, will prove both more economical and
efficient than horses for tram roads. The gas is said to be produced from the pure
ammonia, obtained by distillation from commercial ammonia, and is given off
at a pressure varying from 100 to 150 lbs. per square inch. This ammonia is used
in specially-constructed engines, and is then exhausted into a tank containing water,
which brings it back into its original form of commercial ammonia, ready for re-
distillation, and, it is stated, with a comparatively small loss.
Much attention in modern times has been given to the relative values of the
numerous new explosives, which have been introduced for blasting in mines and
for other purposes, Sir Frederick Abel is the greatest authority upon this subject.
As applied to mining, various experiments have from time to time been made for
the purpose of testing how far it would be safe to employ these explosives in the
atmosphere of a coal mine without the risk of causing an explosion of fire-damp.
A number of these are mainly composed of compounds of nitro-glycerine with
aluminous earth. But, whilst the experiments have indicated that, with rare
exceptions, they are practically flameless, it is undoubted that one which would be
absolutely so, and which could be used with safety in fiery mines, has yet to be
produced.
The adoption in our gaseous mines of a flameless explosive, a self-contained
electric lamp of moderate weight which will burn without attention for twelve
hours, and the general application of water to moisten the dust, are all more or
less questions in which the mechanical engineer is interested, and, when adopted,
will probably have the effect of putting an end to the disastrous explosions
accompanied by loss of life which occur at intervals in our fiery collieries, and I
trust that the deliberations of this Section may result in the practical adoption of
steps to secure this desirable object.
In conclusion, as an inhabitant of Cardiff, I may be permitted to congratulate
this port on this, the first visit of the British Association. Its rising import-
ance is becoming generally recognised, and, since the last visit of the British
Association to the Principality, material progress has been made. Lord Bute has
constructed a large dock of 33 acres at Cardiff, and a still larger dock of nearly 70
acres has been constructed at Barry within the port of Cardiff. The tonnage of
shipping cleared at the port has increased during the past eleven years 91 per
cent. Various new industries have been established here, notably, the manufacture
of hematite iron for steel making, on a large scale; by the Dowlais Iron Company ;
and the exportation of coal has increased from 5,862,349 tons in 1880 to 12,250,652
tons in 1890, or 109 per cent. At Swansea the manufacture of tin’plates, which
is one of the leading industries of the western part of this country, has increased:
from. 25,343 tons to 229,791 tons in 1890; and the trade at the neighbouring port
of Newport has also materially developed, all showing a rapid progressive develop-
ment of the large resources of South Wales.
I trust that only a short interval will elapse before we are honoured with
another visit of the British. Association, and that it will be the good fortune of
the President, who may have the honour of occupying this chair on that occasion,
to chronicle similar progress,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. ToT
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Estuaries Committee. See Reports, p. 386.
2. The Ystradyfodwg and Pontypridd Main Sewerage.
By G. CHATTERTON,
3. The River Usk, and the Harbour of Newport. By L. F. Vernon-Harcoort,
i M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer to the Newport Harbour Commission.
. The river Usk rises on the western border of Brecknockshire, and, traversing
this county and Monmouthshire, it flows into the Bristol Channel, about 4
_ miles below Newport, after a course of 65 miles. Its basin is 634 square miles;
and the Afon Llwyd joins it at Caerleon, and the Ebbw near its mouth. The com-
mercial importance of the Usk commences below Newport Bridge, about 6 miles
from its mouth ; and wharves extend along the right bank for 2! miles below the
bridge, and the vessels lying at the wharves rest, at low tide, on the soft mud
covering specially levelled berths. The Newport and Alexandra Docks also afford
floating accommodation for large vessels on the western side of the river, on which
side the town of Newport is mainly situated. These docks have water areas of 114
and 283 acres respectively, and the depth of water over the sills of their entrances,
at spring tides, is 30 and 35 feet. A large extension of the Alexandra Dock, and
a new entrance lower down the river, are approaching completion. The quays are
supplied with coal tips, sidings, and hydraulic appliances; and the docks and
wharves are connected by railway with the mines and works in the neighbouring
district. The eastern side of the river is almost wholly undeveloped; but roads
are being made, arid the East Usk Railway has been authorised, which will give
facilities for trade, and should lead to the extension of the port along the left bank.
The portion of the river constituting the harbour of Newport is very winding; and
though it increases considerably in width between the bridge and its mouth, thus
_ favouring the tidal influx, the enlargement is not uniform, which causes changes
in the velocity of the current, and promotes deposit in the channel where the cross
section is excessive. Moreover, the bends of the river make the flow and ebb,
coming in opposite directions, form channels on opposite sides of the river between
the bends, leading to the growth of a central sandbank between these side channels.
Besides these central shoals of sand and silt, readily formed in a river densely
_ charged with material in suspension, there are some hard natural shoals of clay and
stones, and also shoals at the confluence of tributaries, formed of detritus and
refuse from works, brought down by the current in flood-time, and deposited in
the Usk. The great tidal rise of the Usk, amounting to 34 feet at the bridge and
40 feet at the mouth at the top of springs, and 14 and 16} feet respectively at
-neaps, has hitherto enabled Newport to maintain a large and increasing sea-going
trade, in spite of the deficiencies mentioned above. Comparative cross sections of
the river, taken in 1884 and 1890, have shown, however, that accretion is taking
place in the river, and gradually reducing its depth, whilst the draft of vessels
tends to increase. Accordingly the Commissioners have decided, on the advice of
the author, to dredge a channel across these shoals, so as to form an adequately
wide navigable channel, not less than from 24 to 26 feet deep at high water of
he lowest neap tide, down to the Alexandra Dock entrance, and 26 feet deep (or
2 feet lower than the lowest dock sill) from this point to the mouth of the river.
hese works, involving the removal of over 300,000 cubic yards of material from the
ed of the river, will meet the present requirements of the port; and further
mprovements can be gradually carried out in conjunction with the work of
aintenance, as circumstances may render expedient. The formation of this
improved channel will lower the low-water line, and regulate its fall, which at
present is not uniform, and thus increase the tidal capacity of the river, and’ im-
prove the scour of the current. In order to render the flow of the river more
758 nEPORT—1891.
uniform, to stop the erosion of the banks, to reduce the rate of accretion, and to
aid the development of the left side of the river, regulation works have been pro-
posed at certain places where the width of the river is excessive. By these
works, the Harbour Commissioners will give to Newport and the surrounding
mineral districts similar advantages to those which have been conferred, by more
extensive works, upon other river ports less favoured by nature, will aid in pro-
moting that growth of trade which Newport has enjoyed during the last thirty
years, and will prevent the diversion of traffic which an irregular channel of
occasionally inadequate depth would sooner or later produce.
4. On Mechanical Ventilation and Heating of Buildings. By W. Kzy.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Channel Tubular Railway.
By Sir Epwarp Reegp, K.C.B., M.P., F.B.S.
After referring to former proposals for establishing railway communication
between England and France, and stating that the Channel Tunnel scheme of
Sir Edward Watkin provided for taking the traffic far below the bed of the
Channel at its deepest part, thus lengthening the underground route, and adding
to the working charges as compared with a tubular railway, the author said
that it was desirable in the first place to make plain the nature of the Channel
bed which it was designed to traverse. He stated that for several miles out from
the English Coast the Channel, on the line selected by him, was only about 90 feet
deep, and, although it gradually sloped down to double that depth further on,
nowhere exceeded a depth of 186 feet, from which depth it gradually sloped up to
the French shore. In no place is the gradient even one-half that of the Severn
tunnel ; in fact the change of level is small and so gradual as to be almost imper-
ceptible upon any true-scale diagram of moderate dimensions. ‘ Here, then, we
have,’ the author said, ‘ an almost level stretch of ground of over twenty miles in
length to be traversed by a railway, and, if it were dry, no mortal man would
ever dream of tunnelling underneath it in order to construct a railway, nor would
anyone be so insane as to propose to build a viaduct or series of bridges 500 feet
high across it.’ The railway would in that case, of course, be laid along the
ground, as it is laid over any other stretch of level country. The presence of the
sea simply renders it necessary to make the railway a closed instead of an open
one, to secure it against being moved by the tidal waters, and to provide its proper
ventilation. To provide a closed railway, metallic tubes are employed—one for
each line of rails—and to make the structure durable, all the essential parts are
carefully imbedded in good Portland cement. The two tubesare set at a distance
apart, and connected by partial webs, so as to combine the two into a huge hori-
zontal girder of unprecedented strength. This device is adopted in order to make
each length of the tube structure (which is on the whole to be slightly buoyant)
strong enough to withstand the force of the tide when one end of it is carried to
the bottom, the other end being left emerging from the surface by virtue of the
surplus buoyancy. To this emerged end is brought and connected afloat another
floating structure which is to serve as a pier (when it is subsequently sunk to the
bottom), and beyond this floating pier the next length of the tube is brought and
connected by large cast-steel hinge-like joints. The pier is then sunk by suitable
appliances, carrying down with it the second end of the first of the tubes just men-
tioned, and also the first end of the second length of tube. In this manner the
tube is paid out length by length like the links of a huge cable, the junction of
.
eee Oe pe 4k
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 759
the successive tubes and piers being effected from within the tubes already laid,
which are in direct railway communication with the shore. The author pointed
out that the necessity which drives us to the use of water-tight tubes for our pur-
pose is incidentally attended by enormous advantages, enabling us to build our
structures in the ordinary shipbuilding and engineering establishments of the
country, and tow them to their places, thus avoiding the cost, difficulty, delay, and
danger of doing our construction work at the bottom of the sea. The piers will
stand upon and be pressed into the bottom where the consistency of the bottom
admits of this, but the tubes themselves will not lie upon the sea-bed, but will
stretch from pier to pier, striding over the minor inequalities of the bottom, and
allowing the tidal water to pass both below and above it. The estimated cost of
the work (which depends somewhat upon details to be determined by close survey)
is from twelve to fifteen millions sterling for the whole distance between England
and France, which the author regarded as small by comparison of the cost of such
_bridges as the Forth Bridge, which cost over three millions sterling for bridging
5,700 feet of water, the tubular railway being 120,000 feet long. The ventilation
will be an easy matter, seeing that all the trains passing through either tube will
move in one direction, and act somewhat as pistons for forcing out air, the effect
being increased by throwing out wings from the train so as to make it fit the
interior of the tube more approximately. The author intimated that electric
engines will probably be used, but, if not, and if further ventilation be needed, any
one or more of the piers can be fitted with ventilating machinery for forcing the
deteriorated air out through suitable chambers and non-return valves into the sea.
As regards the question of national security, the author pointed out that the oppo-
sition to the Channel Tunnel had arisen from the fact that it provided a subter-
ranean road, inaccessible to, and therefore indestructible by, the Navy ; whereas
the tubular railway could be pierced, and have the sea admitted to it, either by
gun-fire at the shore ends, or by dynamite or torpedoes at every point of its length.
He concluded by stating that a great many members of Parliament, who always
strongly oppose the Channel Tunnel, are quite in favour of his system, and among
these are several of such great influence that he has little fear of his Bill being
successfully opposed in either House of Parliament.
2. Petrolewm Oil-engines. By Professor Wituiam Rosinson, M.E.,
Assoc. M.Inst.C.E.
The use of ordinary petroleum oil at once as fuel and working agent in the
internal combustion engine has extended rapidly since the successful introduction
of the oil engine by Messrs. Priestman Brothers in 1888,
Hitherto, for large engines above 40 horse-power, the heavy intermediate oils
have been converted into gas by means of a gas-producer, and this oil-gas takes
the place of coal-gas in the ordinary gas-engine cylinder. Now, instead of the gas-
producer we find in one class of otl-engine a retort, spiral coil of tubing or other
vaporiser, in which the oil is heated and converted into vapowr by a lamp or oil-
burner. A mixture of this vapour and air is drawn into the cylinder, and the
charge is compressed before ignition—the cycle of operations in the engine cylinder
being usually that of Beau de Rochas, as in the well-known Otto gas-engine. For
instance, Messrs. Crossley Brothers are making an oil-engine in which a lamp
performs the twofold function ; first, to heat and evaporate the oil in a retort, and
second, to heat the tube-igniter, which is timed by a valve similar to that in their
gas-engines. This lamp has a separate supply of oil given to it by a pump and a
current of air from an air-pump. The details of this and several other attempts
at workable engines of this class are still in the transition stage.
Again, in the petroleum spirit-engine there are many air-carburetting devices to
evaporate the highly volatile hydro-carbons which make up the lighter products of
petroleum, such as benzoline and gasoline. The terrible danger and risk in the
storage of these light oils prohibit their common use for this purpose.
“In the Priestman Spray-maker and Vaporiser we have a néat and practical com-
760 REPORT—1891.
bination of these two methods, by means of which a sprayed jet of oil is first broken
up by compressed air playing on it in the inverted spray-nozzle, then it is further
mixed with air, heated and completely vaporised by the hot products of combustion
from exhaust led round this vaporiser or mixing chamber, before being allowed to
escape. This might be called aregenerator. The oil vapour thus thoroughly mixed with
air in the proper proportions is drawn through an automatic suction valve into the
engine cylinder by the piston in its forward stroke. The action of this spray-maker
(shown) will be seen by the following experiment:—First, turn off the air supply and
a flame does not light the unbroken oil-jet; next, allow the air under pressure to
break up and thoroughly spray the oil, the vapour formed is so intimately mixed
with air that it can easily be ignited, and burns with a bright flame. (The draw-
ings of this spray-maker showed the governing arrangement adopted in the
Priestman engine.) The amount of hydro-carbon is diminished or increased, together
with the amount of air, so as to form a high explosive charge or a low one, accorde
ing to the amount of work to be done by the engine. The air through the wing-
valve is rightly proportioned to mix with the oil which is allowed through the
V-shaped slot cut in the conical plug regulated by the governor. By this means
there is a regular explosion and impulse, every cycle giving admirable regularity of
running. (Indicator-cards illustrating this mode of governing with full load and
running light were shown.) The compressed charge is fired by an intermittent
electric spark, made to play between ends of two platinum wires insulated by
porcelain in the igniting plug (shown), and connected to an induction coil excited
by a storage-cell of about two volts, which has been known to work for more than
1,100 hours.
The author explained the action in horizontal engines by means of diagrams,
and gave a short description of a double cylinder vertical launch engines specially
designed for running at a high speed with the centre of gravity kept low. Each
cylinder of launch engine is 7 inches diameter by 7 inches stroke, arranged to give
an explosion or working stroke every revolution of fly-wheel. The actual horse-
power at 250 revolutions per minute is 5°7, and 91 indicated horse-power. These
engines are working in a small launch 28 feet from stem to stern by 6 feet 2
inches beam, and are giving good results. Speed 7 miles, and engines work
with regularity. These engines are now in use on barges in canals, and also for
deep-sea trawling. The horizontal type is remarkably self-contained, and well
adapted for isolated electric lighting installations and lighthouse work. It is
used for pumping and hauling in collieries, and for rock-drilling in mines; in
fact, its sphere of usefulness is rapidly extending, because it is found reliable and
steady at work, with decided economy of fuel.
The main object desired in oil-engines is to prevent clogging in the cylinder,
so that the engine may run without attention or frequent cleaning. This is secured
by thoroughly mixing the air and vapour, so as always to form an explosive
mixture which gives complete combustion and clean exhaust. It must be pointed
out, however, that during the compression of the charge before ignition a con-
siderable proportion of the vapour comes into contact with the walls of the
cylinder, condenses on them, and never gets burned, however useful it may be for
lubrication. This the author has proved by comparing the pressure along the
compression curyes of the indicator diagrams, with the pressure obtained by
experiment from each charge consisting of the explosive mixture ‘015 cubic inch of
oil and 191 cubic inches of air at the same temperature. Taking the tempera-
ture of the charge 170° F. on entering the cylinder, the indicator diagram shows
the highest pressure before ignition only 38 lbs. per square inch. This pressure
is kept low for fear of much condensation, as well as to give smooth running.
In the gas-engine we know that compression of the charge before ignition is essen-
tial to high efficiency, and similar considerations lead one to expect the same to
hold true for oil-engines. Indeed, by adding fresh air to the charge after leaving
the vaporiser, and compressing more than usual, greater power or higher efficiency
is obtained, but the temperature of the cylinder becomes too high for lubrication.
In some published trials an engine may be run with a special cylinder liner to
withstand the high temperatures due to high compression used, but these are not
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 761
the conditions for ordinary work. In fact for any particular oil experience must
decide the degree of compression that gives best results as regards power and
efficiency consistent with economy and durability of engine.
The author briefly noticed his investigation of the relation between the pressure
and temperature of the vapours from different burning oils, intermediate oils, and
some heavier lubricating oils, in order to throw some light on the action in the
cylinder of the common oil-engine. At the same time he has tried to find out which
oils are best adapted for this use. His experiments prove that, notwithstanding the
complex and varied character of the different oils examined, the law according to
which the pressure of petroleum vapour varies with its temperature is represented by
a perfectly regular curve for each oil. He compared these results with the figures
obtained from the different oils when used in the same engine during special tests
for the purpose.
By far the simplest type of oil-engine is that in which the od! is injected
directly into compressed and heated air in a cartridge which at once acts as vaporiser
and combustion-chamber. Such an oil-engine is the invention of Mr. H. Akroyd
_ Stuart, of Bletchley, and is now being made by Messrs. Hornsby & Sons,
_ Grantham. A novel feature of this engine is that the ordinary gear for firing the
charge by heated tube, flame, or electric spark is dispensed with altogether, and
heavy intermediate oil is ignited and completely burned when injected into the
compressed and heated air in the red-hot vaporiser or cartridge. This chamber is
heated up at start with a special oil-lamp supplied with air-blast by a small fan, as
shown in drawings. It was seen by the wall-diagrams that this engine is of the
simplest design, The working parts are few and simple, and some details are
being improved by Messrs. Hornsby & Sons. The oil-cistern is fitted in the base
_ of the casting, exposed to ordinary atmospheric pressure, and the oil supply can
easily be replenished at any time during a run by sliding open the top cover and
pouring in the oil.
Every charge of oil is forced, by means ofa positive action oil-pump, through a
thin pipe and simple nozzle into the vaporiser at the proper moment for ignition,
just after the hot air has been compressed and the piston is on the return stroke.
The oil supply is regulated by a governor, whilst by using a large fly-wheel and
high speed, about 210 revolutions per minute, this engine runs very steadily. The
: author tried a 6 horse-power engine during a run of about three hours, using oil
of specific gravity 854, and flashing point 220°F., and the consumption was less
than a pint per brake horse-power per hour. Even heavier oils might be tried,
the hot water from the water-jacket going to warm up the heavy oil and keep it
in a fluid state fit for use in winter.
The action in the engine-cylinder is here very different from that in the Priest-
man, inasmuch as there is an excess of air in the cylinder, and this is compressed
before the oil isinjected. Consequenily, the combustion is rapid and will be com-
_ plete even when heavy oils of great heating power are used. However, since the
air is dry, and there is no condensation of oil, the cylinder requires independent
lubrication, as in the case of the gas-engine.
A feeling of safety to the public naturally tends to the use of heavy oil, from
which the lighter constituents have been distilled. The author has found the loss
in weight of some heavy oils by prolonged heating at low temperatures, keeping
_ the oils exposed to the air and allowing free evaporation. Known weights of
oil were taken in shallow dishes, about three inches across top, and gently heated
on a sand-bath by a very small steady flame for three hours, the temperature of
the oil being kept constant. The proportions of volatile constituents present in the
samples are indicated.
The terribly explosive character of the hydro-carbons driven off at the ordinary
temperature renders the safe storage of petroleum imperative. Instead of the
present tank system, Mr. B. H. Thwaite has devised the safety oil-tank. It is
very much like a gas-tank, the cover-plate being kept in contact with the oil and
counterbalanced by weights to give only a slight pressure of one or two inches of
_ water on the surface of the oil. The frame moves into an annuler water seal
_ Stand-pipe, to draw off any gas that collects. There is no necessity for the
762 REPORT—1891.
introduction of air to allow the tank to be emptied, and as the oil is kept cool, and
always under pressure, it is impossible for a dangerous explosive mixture to
accumulate inside the tank. :
Evaporation.
Specific f Time of | Total Per-
Name of Sample Gravity Ten ree Evapora-|: Percent- | centage
i if at 60°F, (Galtieradey tion age Loss | Loss in 3
(15°°5C.) = (Hours) Hours.
Broxburn Lighthouse Oilused | ‘811 40 to 45 15 1-63 | 6:90
in Priestman Engine. 60 to 65 15 5:27
‘ : a 40 to 45 15 | Spar !
Intermediate Shale Oil falls 1846. 65 to 75 15 | 2-45 } 3°57
|
Lubricating Oil used in “854 40 to 45 1955/1500 \ 2:96
Hornsby Akroyd Engine, 60 to 65 15 1:96_ ng
Steam Bath 3 12:42 12°42
(95)
3. On the Revolving Purifier for the Treatment of Water by Metallic Iron.
By W. Anverson, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.H.
After pointing out the advantage of being able to purify in a satisfactory
manner the water of rivers available for the supply of towns, the paper proceeds
to relate some of the recent experiences of the system first introduced at Antwerp
some 7 yearsago. Practical working in several places has shown that satisfactory
purification can be obtained after treatment with iron at a much greater rate of
filtration and through a thinner layer of sand than in ordinary filtering arrange-
ments—a speed of as much as 100 gallons per square foot per twenty-four hours
being the usual rate of running at Dordrecht, for example. The complete installa-
tion is briefly described, and the marked effect in reducing organic contamination,
in the arrest of free ammonia, and in the destruction of microbes is attributed to
the formation of ferric oxide, which acts as a coagulant, depositing a very fine
filtering medium on the surface of the sand in the filter beds. The comparative
cost of the ordinary systems of sand filtration and the author’s method are
contrasted, and a considerable economy, both in capital, outlay, and in working
expenses, is shown to exist.
The installation at Agra, on the river Jumna, is next described, and the highly
satisfactory results obtained noted. The experimental apparatus on the Seine,
near Paris, is mentioned, and figures are quoted to show the large degree of purity
attained. The effect of the iron treatment on waters containing very finely-
divided argillaceous matter, like the Nile, the Mississippi, and other rivers, is
described, and abundant evidence is given that these waters, which will not
subside clear in any reasonable time and cannot be filtered bright, yield imme-
diately to the iron treatment. Several instances of successful application in the
United States are given, and especially at Chicago, where a reduction of albumi-
noid ammonia from 3:08 to ‘122 parts in a million has been obtained.
The paper goes on to describe some improvements connected with the intro-
duction of air and small doses of carbonic acid, which are found to be beneficial in
obstinate waters, such as those highly coloured by peaty matters; and it is also
shown that the introduction of air is often beneficial, even with waters which
purify readily, by expediting the action and so increasing the efficiency of the
plant ; and it is suggested that the energetic action which often takes place with
very badly contaminated waters may be due to the carbonic acid generated by
putrefaction.
The whole of the results dealt with have been obtained either from existing
installations or from experimental plant working on a large scale. i ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 763
4. A Steady Platform for Guns, &c., at Sea. By BeaucHAmp Tower.
I propose to describe two important improvements which I have introduced
into my apparatus for securing a Steady Platform for Guns, &c., at Sea, on which
I read a paper at the meeting of the British Association at Newcastle two years
ago. It will be remembered that the apparatus consists of a water-driven
gyroscope revolving in a horizontal plane on a spherical bearing, and directing the
action of four cylinders by means of an axial jet, so as to keep the gymbal-hung
platform coaxial with the gyroscope. The gyroscope itself was caused to revolve
in a horizontal plane by having its centre of gravity about ‘7 inch below its centre
of suspension; this caused it to act as a long-period conical pendulum. If it
started with its axis out of the vertical, it would go through a gradually-
diminishing conical movement, which would be extinguished by the friction of
the bearing. This acted very well in short waves; but November before last
I took my yacht into a long sea in the Channel after a westerly gale, and found
that the time during which the horizontal force of each long wave was acting was
sufficient to disturb the gyroscope about a degree. This led me to make the
following improvement. I lowered the centre of suspension of the gyroscope to
the centre of gravity. I made four little pendulums, each 3 inches long, the
weight of each bob being only ‘6 1b. These four pendulums are suspended from
the bodies of the four cylinders, and press slightly little wheels on the ends of
bell-crank arms on the rim of the gyroscope. They are arranged so that, should
the gyroscope be out of the horizontal plane, these pendulums press on it in such
a way as to cause it to become horizontal. In the old arrangement the end of the
_ axial jet approached the zenith by a spiral path; in this improved arrangement
it approaches it in a straight line, and, having reached it, has no oscillatory
tendency to go beyond it; so that the time taken by the gyroscope in assuming
the horizontal is much shorter than before. The disturbing effect of the
horizontal forces of wave-motion acting on the little pendulums is only about a
twelfth of what it was when the whole gyroscope was a pendulum; so that the
longest waves produce no sensible disturbance. The machine steadies up much
quicker than before, and the slow wandering of the zero through a degree or two
has entirely disappeared.
The other improvement is the addition of what I call the Correcting Cylinder.
It is clear that in the arrangement I described two years ago a certain small,
lagging-behind error must exist, owing to the necessary departure of the centre of
the ports from the centre of the axial jet, in order that the necessary filling and
emptying of the cylinders should be performed. I endeavoured at first to diminish
this error as much as possible by enlarging the area of the jet and ports relatively
to the area of the cylinders, but found a tendency to a hunting oscillation if this
was carried too far. I then constructed the correcting cylinder, which has entirely
removed this error.
In the thickness of the partition between each pair of ports I made two other
ports, which were merely narrow slits connected by small pipes, one to one end,
and the other to the other end of a double-acting cylinder, having a piston held in
mid-stroke between two stiff, spiral springs, the piston-rod having the elevating
screw of the gun on the top of it. Supposing the centre of the ports to have
departed one degree from the centre of the axial jet, one of these narrow-slit ports
will in consequence be more covered by the jet, while the other is less covered,
and the consequent difference of pressure, acting on the piston and springs in the
correcting cylinder, will cause the level of the gun to be altered one degree, so
that its axis is still at right angles to the axis of the gyroscope.
Thus a correction is applied to the gun to compensate for any error in hori-
zontality of the platform, whether caused by the lagging behind of the platform
over the jet due to motion, or to a disturbing statical movement applied to the
platform.
5. Description of Lewis and Hunter’s System of Coaling Ships.
By C. Hunrer.
764 REPORT—1891.
6. On some of the Peculiarities to be observed in Portland Cements, and on
the most advanced methods for determining their Constructive Value. By
Henry Fass, M.Inst.0.2.
After dealing with the manufacture of Portland Cement, and the materials
from which it is manufactured, the author proceeds to describe in detail the pro-
portions of lime, silica, and alumina which would constitute an ordinary Portland
cement, and further explains that their degree of chemical affinity materially affects
the quality of the cement produced. The peculiarities appertaining to quick- and
slow-setting cements is exhaustively considered, and, after defining the ordinary
behaviour of cements when gauged with water, he says that any cement deviating
materially from these recognised laws, though it may be a perfectly good cement,
should be used with caution until its quality is absolutely determined by further
tests and experiments.
The necessity of making tests for tensile strength at two dates, in order that
the growth or increase in strength of a cement may be ascertained, is explained,
and the author makes use of Professor Unwin’s formula for determining the
ultimate strength of a cement in order to compare the respective value of quick-
and slow-settine cements.
With respect to the setting properties of a cement, the author explains that
there are two periods which may with advantage be noted when carrying out a
test; the one being the ‘initial set,’ or, in other words, the time which elapses
between the addition of water to the cement and its commencing to set, and the
time when it is ‘set hard’; the time of ‘initial set’ being considered the most
important, as it represents the commencement of an actual chemical process, and
that any disturbance of the cement after the setting or crystallisation has com-
menced would detract from its ultimate strength, whereas the time of ‘set hard’
is only a somewhat undefinable period, and really indicates no change in the
chemical process, being only one step towards the ultimate hardness and strength
which the cement will attain.
The test, however, which the author considers the most important is that by
which its ‘soundness, or freedom from expansion or contraction, is determined,
and he explains that no matter in what time the cement sets, to what fineness it is
ground, or what tensile strength it developes within the limited period of an ordi-
nary test, can possibly be of any value if the cement proves an unsound one, and
that in the course of time it will ‘blow’ and destroy the work of which it is a
component. The causes which make a cement an unsound one are also considered,
and it is explained that a cement may ‘blow’ within a day or two of its being
gauged, or it may not blow until several months afterwards.
The method of determining the soundness of a cement, which the author
devised some ten years ago, is then explained ; it consists in submitting a freshly-
made pat to a moist atmosphere of about 100° F., and when set hard immersing it
for some hours in water at a temperature of 115° F. This treatment greatly
expedites the set and hardening of a cement, and in like manner developes any
blowing tendency which may exist in it, and consequently in the short time of
twenty-four hours the ‘soundness’ or ‘unsoundness’ of a cement may be abso-
lutely determined.
The nature of aggregates used with cements in concretes and mortars is also
touched upon, and it is explained that they may in themselves, through being
unsuitable, cause a failure of the mass even when a perfectly good cement is used,
and that, therefore, the user should be as careful in his choice of ageregates as in
his choice of cements.
Several peculiarities appertaining to old and new cements are also described,
and the author concludes with a reference to the Pontypridd Sewage Works,
which the members attending the meeting afterwards had an opportunity of
visiting under the guidance of Mr. Chatterton, the engineer of the works.
—
a
0 a lt
es
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 765
7. On the Compound Principle in the Transmission of Power by Compressed
Air. By Professor A. C. Exuiorr, D.Sc.(EHdin.).
The heat dissipated in the compressors, passages, and supply-pipes of a com-
pressed-air power, transmission system is a waste product. Under the condition
that the compressed air must ultimately attain a temperature but little above that
of the atmosphere, it is easy to show that the heat waste is a minimum when the
compression is performed isothermally (even were a sink temperature lower than
that of the atmosphere available).
But the practical problem of effecting isothermal compression has never been
satisfactorily solved ; and, in fact, attempts in this direction have hitherto been
mainly based on mere adaptations of the old cylinder water-jacket and jet
appliances. But even in cases where both jets and water jackets have been applied,
the compression curve has been found to fall only to a very small extent below
the adiabatic. Amount of heat conducted is directly proportional, other things
being equal, to time and to difference of temperature. Now, the difference of
temperature between the air and the cooling water is zero at the beginning of the
stroke, and increases to a maximum at the point when the eduction valve opens.
Weare, therefore, able to conclude in harmony with practical experience, first,
that to effect anything like complete isothermal compression the piston speed must
be excessively small; and, secondly, that the rate of flow of heat from the air to
the cooling water attains a maximum value just at completion of the compression.
At ordinary speeds, then, it appears that even with the jet a large proportion of
the total heat must be abstracted after the eduction valves have opened—that is
to say, after compression has been effected.
The author stumbled some time ago on the principle of intermediate cooling.
On this plan the compression is effected in two or more successive stages by a
compressor with a corresponding number of properly proportioned cylinders con-
nected by receivers, forming a mechanism analogous, as the case may be, with a
compound, a triple, or a quadruple expansion steam-engine worked, as it were, in
the reverse direction. The outstanding point of difference is that each receiver is
provided with a jet or (preferably) surface cooling arrangement by which the
temperature of the air as it leaves the receiver is brought nearly to equality with
that of the atmosphere; and there is practically no difficulty in effecting this
cooling, because the size and surfaces of the receivers are at our disposal.
As compared with the ordinary simple system, the result to be expected is
either (a) with the same pressure a substantial gain in efficiency ; or (6) with a
higher pressure and the same efficiency a reduction in the size of the supply-pipes
and the plant generally. Another point of very great importance is that if surface-
cooling be adopted in the receivers, trouble from the formation of ice in the exhaust
passages of the motors will almost certainly vanish.
The author, however, soon learned that, at all events, the idea of the compound
(or two-stage) compressor had been suggested some considerable time previously by
Professor Riedler in connection with the designs for the new plant to be put down
as an extension of the present Popp installation in Paris. But there is no doubt
whatever that he in turn has been anticipated by Mr. Morrison, the manager of
the Marquess of Lothian’s colliery at Newbattle, near Edinburgh. The author
lias just returned from a visit of inspection, and can vouch for the fact that Mr.
Morrison’s claims are well grounded.
It next occurred to the author that, just as the compression-line on the com-
bined diagram could be made up of discontinuous parts of adiabatics hugging the
ideal isothermal curve by the devices of a multiple-cylinder compressor and
intermediate cooling, so the expansion-line of a motor could be made to hug the
ideal isothermal curve by very similar means. In fact, the compound motor is
simply the compound compressor, as it were, worked in the reverse direction ; but,
instead of intermediate cooling, as in the compressor, we have intermediate heat-
ing. We are thus enabled to recover from the atmosphere in the motor-cylinders
part of the energy dissipated at the compressors.
The maximum economy is obtained in a‘ compound, triple, or quadruple com-
766 REPORT—1891.
pressor when the total horse-power is equally distributed among the cylinders. A
similar statement applies to multiple-expansion motors.
For the purposes of an example designed to show the value of the compound
principle, the author has assumed the Paris pressure—namely, six atmospheres
absolute—and made allowances for all losses on the scale that Professor Kennedy
found them to exist in the present machinery at Paris over a distance of four
miles.1 The efficiency of the system is taken to be the ratio of the indicated
horse-power in the motor-cylinders to the indicated horse-power in the steam-
cylinders of the compressor. The following are typical results :—
Efficiency
per Cent.
Simple compressor and simple motor : : - . 891
Compound compressor and simple motor : : : . . 44:9
Compound compressor and compound motor : ; : - 507
Triple compressor and triple motor : 4 ; 2 ° . 553
8. Sinking Wells and Shafts. By Henry Davey, M.Inst.C.H.
In 1881 the President of this Section, Mr. Forster Brown, read a paper before
the Institution of Civil Engineers on ‘ Deep Mining of Coal in South Wales.’
In that paper the author pointed out the great difficulty and expense attend-
ing the sinking of shafts through water-bearing strata, and suggested that a
boring might be put down in advance of the sinking into which a pump might be
placed to facilitate the operation of sinking. The water being pumped down in
the boring below the bottom ofthe shaft the sinking would be done in dry ground,
and would go on without intermission.
The suggestion appeared to be a valuable one.
In sinking shafts and wells through water-bearing strata, on time-honoured
methods, there is not only the great cost, but, what is often more serious, the great
length of time taken in doing the work. A single well for town water supply often
takes two or three years or more to execute.
The subject is of considerable local importance, because of its bearing on the
sinking of mining shafts, and it is on that account that the author ventured to
bring it briefly before the Section.
The problem is simply that of keeping down the water in water-bearing strata
in advance of the sinking operations, so that the excavation of the shatt or well
shall be done in dry ground,
The ordinary method of shaft or well sinking is to sling a pump or pumps in
the shaft and to lower the pumps from time to time as the sinking continues ;
obviously the excavation has to be performed in water, and ifthe quantity of water
to be dealt with is very great, a large portion of the work has to be done. by the
men working in a depth of two or three feet of water.
To facilitate the work, and to reduce the water in which the men have to work,
a sump is made under the suction pipe of the pump, and it is the keeping this
sump excavated in advance of the other work which is most difficult and tedious.
Then there is the delay occasioned by the lowering of the pumps, and providing
the appliances necessary to the operation.
In the plan now proposed, the pump would be placed in a borehole made be-
fore the commencement of the sinking of the shaft. The only novelty in the pump
is that of adapting it to the purpose.
It is necessary that débris shall not go down the borehole in quantity sufficient
to choke it up. That is provided against by means of a heavy taper shield of cast
steel surrounding the pump and resting on the edge of the borehole. This shield
is perforated with holes inclined upwards towards the pump to allow water to get
into the borehole, but to exclude débris. The shield ismade very heavy, and by
its own weight follows the excavation around the pump, and also protects it from
injury through the blasting of the rock. The pump is made without a foot-valve,
the rod of the bucket working through the seating of a valve which rests on the
See British Association Reports, Newcastle, 1889.
.
.
|
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 767
top of the working barrel; by this arrangement the drawing of the bucket also
draws the valve, and should the bottom of the borehole be filled up with sand, it
can be removed by lowering a sand pump such as is used in making boreholes.
The boreholes should be made toa greater depth than that required for the
pump to provide a space for sand and débris.
The application of this pump to the sinking of shafts would be varied to suit
the local circumstances, and the geological formation of the strata to be passed
through. Details of various applications which might present themselves are
omitted.
It is quite evident that in some situations the shaft might be drained by means
of boreholes outside, and this is a plan now being carried out in one or two cases
in procuring water for Town Water Supply.
It is the usual and necessary practice to provide duplicate pumping engines,
and where two engines are made to pump from the same well, the well must be
very large that it may accommodate two sets of pumps.
Such wells. are usually 12 to 14 feet in diameter. To sink such a well in
the ordinary way is a very long and costly undertaking, especially if quicksand is
met with. On-the completion of the well it may be necessary to drive adits to
increase the water supply.
A simple borehole is made very cheaply and very expeditiously—four 30-inch
boreholes can be put down in a very small fraction of the time required to sink a
12-feet well in the ordinary way.
Instead of making a large well the author puts down four boreholes to accom-
modate the pumps for duplicate pumping engines—a pair of pumps to each engine.
The boreholes being completed, the pumps are lowered into them, and coupled up
to the permanent engines. Immediately that is done the water found in the bore-
holes can be pumped, and supplied to the town.
Should it be insufficient, then a small well would be sunk in the dry to the
bottom of the borehole pumps. The boreholes at the level of the pumps would be
connected to the centre well, and adits driven to collect more water. Should the
boreholes yield sufficient water there would be no necessity to sink the well.
It would be absurd to advocate any particular system of well sinking as being
universally applicable and expedient. This system of making wells and shafts
certainly promises advantages under ordinary conditions; but the advisability of its
adoption in any particular case must be a matter of judgment with the engineer
planning the work.
It may be of interest to know that the practice of ‘dowsing’ for finding water
is not altogether extinct in the West of England.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
[ The Section did not meet.]
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The London-Paris Telephone. By W. H. Preece, F.B.S:
- 1. I have already on two occasions, at Newcastle and at Leeds, brought this
subject before Section G, and have given the details of the length and construction
of the proposed circuit. I have now to report not only that the line has been
constructed and opened to the public, but that its success, telephonic and com-
mercial, has ecoldenied the most sanguine anticipations. Speech has been maintained
768 REPORT—1891.
with perfect clearness and accuracy. The line has proved to be much better than
it ought to have been, and the purpose of this paper is to show the reason why.
The lengths of the different sections of the circuit are as follows :—
Miles
London to St. Margaret’s Bay ; : i < - 845
St. Margaret’s Bay to Sangatte (cable) : . : sted Os
Sangatte to Paris : : : : : : : - 1990 °
Paris underground : F : , 5 ‘ J - 4:8
Total : ; : 4 . 3113
The resistances are as follows :—
Ohms
Paris underground . : ; ‘ ; : : = hO
French line. : ; : os d k » = . 294
Cable : ; : A : : : , : ; . 143
English line. : ; ; 5 : ‘ : c . 183
Total (R) : : s - 693
The capacities are as follows :—
Microfarads
Paris underground . : : 5 : : : : - 0°43
French line. ; : 2 : ; : é : . 3:33
Cable . : : ; : é < : : ; - 5:52
English line . / : : : : ‘ ; ‘ . 1:32
Total (K) ‘ . ; : . 10°62
693 x 10°62 =7,359=K R.
2. Trials of Apparatus.—The preliminary trials were made during the month
of March between the chief telegraph offices of the two capitals, and the following
microphone transmitters were compared :—
Ader 7 : - ; . . Pencil form.
Berliner . : : . : . Granular ,, (Hunnings).
D’Arsonval . . fe ; . Pencil Ge
De Jongh A ; s é d Ps “5
Gower- Bell ; : 2 + -
Post Office switch instrument . Granules and lamp filaments.
Roulez . : : : ‘ . Lamp filaments.
Turnbull : ; : : . Pencil form.
Western Electric . 5 : . Granular
The receivers consisted of the latest form of double-pole Bell telephones with
some Ader and D’Arsonval receivers for comparison. After repeated trials it was
finally decided that the Ader, D’Arsonval, Gower-Bell (with double-pole receivers
instead of tubes), Roulez and Western Electric were the best, and were approxi-
mately equal.
These instruments were therefore selected for the further experiments, which
consisted of using local extensions in Paris and London. The wires were in the
first instance extended at the Paris end to the Observatory through an exchange
at the Avenue des Gobelines, The length of this local line is 7 kms. The wires
are eae ee: covered, placed underground, and not suitable for giving the best.
results.
The results were, however, fairly satisfactory. The wires were extended to
the Treasury in London by means of the ordinary underground system. The
distance is about two miles, and although the volume of sound and clearness of
articulation were perceptibly reduced by these additions to the circuit, conversation
was quite practicable.
Further trials were also made from the Avenue des Gobelines on underground
wires of five kilometres long, and also with some renters in Paris with fairly satis-
factory results, The selected telephones were equally efficient in all cases, which
; ¢ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 769
proves that to maintain easy conversation when the trunk wires are extended to
local points it is only necessary that the local lines shall be of a standard not lower
than that of the trunk line. The experiments also confirm the conclusion that
long distance speaking is solely a question of the circuit and its environments, and
not one of apparatus. The instruments finally selected for actual work were
Gower-Bell for London and Roulez for Paris.
3. The results are certainly most satisfactory. There is no circuit in or out of
London on which speech is more perfect than it is between London and Paris,
In fact, it is better than I anticipated, and better than calculation led me to ex-
pect. Speech has been possible not only to Paris but through Paris to Bruxelles,
and even, with difficulty, through Paris to Marseilles, a distance of over 900 miles,
The wires between Paris and Marseilles are massive copper wires specially erected
for telephone business between those important places.
4. Business Done.—The charge for a conversation between London and Paris
is 8s. for three minutes’ complete use of the wire. The demand for the wire is
very considerable. The average number of talks per day, exclusive of Sunday, is
eighty-six. The maximum has been 108. We have had as many calls as nineteen
per hour—the average is fifteen during the busy hours of the day. As an instance
of what can be done, 150 words per minute have been dictated in Paris and trans-
eribed in London by shorthand writing. Thus in three minutes 450 words were
recorded, which at 8s. cost five words for a penny.
5. The difficulties met with in long distance speaking are several, and they
may be divided into (a) those due to external disturbances and (4) those due to
internal opposition.
6. The paper enters fully into the technical details by which these difficulties
_ have been surmounted.
7. Lightning.—A metallic telephone circuit may have a static charge induce}
upon it by a thunder cloud. Such a charge is an electric strain which is released
when the charged cloud flashes into the earth or into a neighbouring cloud. If
there be electro-magnetic inertia present the charge will surge backward and
forward through the circuit until it dies out. If there be no E.M.F. present it
will cease suddenly, and neutrality will be attained at once. Telephone circuits
indicate this operation by peculiar and characteristic sounds. An iron wire circuit
_ produces a long swish or loud sigh, but a copper wire circuit like the Paris-London
telephone emits a short, sharp report, like the crack of a pistol, which is sometimes
_ startling, and has created fear, but there is no danger or liability to shock. Indeed,
| the start has more than cnce thrown the listener off his stool, and has led to the
ON OO OS Ee a |b
belief that he was knocked down by lightning.
8. The future of telephone working, especially in large cities, is one of under-
_ ground wires, and the way to get over the difficulties of this kind of work is per-
fectly clear, We must have metallic circuits, twisted wires, low resistance, and
_ low capacity. In Paris, a remarkable cable, made by Fortin-Herman, gives an
exceedingly low capacity, viz. only ‘069 ¢ per mile. In the United States they
are using a wire insulated with paper which gives ‘08 per mile. We are using
in London Fowler-Waring cable giving a capacity of 18 @ per mile, the capacity
of gutta-covered wire being 3 ¢ per mile.
2. On the Telephoning of Great Cities. By A. R. Bennerr, M.LE.E.
The paper discusses how the extensive demand for Telephonic Exchange com-
munication, which in the course of a few more years is certain to arise in all large
cities—a demand of which no conception can be formed from the present condition
of Telephone Exchanges in this country—can be met and satisfied. Given low rates
nd a fairly efficient service, the time will come, and that at no distant day, when
very shopkeeper, and almost every householder, will look upon a Telephone
_ Exchange connection as as much of a necessity as gas or water. Indications are
po wanting even now of what may be expected when the inhabitants of large
towns come tu realise what an important business and social auxiliary a
properly conducted Telephone Exchange is, for in Galashiels and some other
' 1891. 3D
770 REPORT—1 891.
towns there is already a telephone for every 200 inhabitants, the principal sup-
porters, after the manufacturers and merchants, being professional men, shop-
keepers, and householders. If telephoned to the same extent as the town named,
London, with its 5,600,000 inhabitants, would possess 28,000 subscribers, but
owing to its greater wealth and extent it is not only possible, but almost certain,
that eventually London will require a telephone for every 50 inhabitants, which
with its present population would mean 112,000 subscribers. That number would
only represent four times the proportion already existing in the small towns
named. A successful telephonic scheme for London or any large town would
require to comprise several essential conditions: firstly, privacy and_ efficient
speaking must be secured; secondly, the connecting together of subscribers and
their subsequent disconnection, and, if required, reconnection with others, must be
rendered rapid and certain; thirdly, the rates must be within the reach of small
shopkeepers and householders, and should not exceed 8/. per annum; fourthly,
the system must be laid out so as to be capable of indefinite expansion with-
out the necessity of periodical reconstruction ; ard lastly, the undertakers of the
system must have equal rights with gas and water companies to lay in their
conductors underground. A|lI these requirements, excepting the fourth, have from
time to time severally been met and conquered, but no existing Exchange system,
so far, comprises them all, although technically and commercially it is perfectly
racticable to combine them so as to attain as nearly to perfection as possible.
he sanction of the Legislature to the laying of underground conductors constitutes
the only doubtful quantity. The Post Office has demonstrated the feasibility of
perfect privacy and effective speech in conjunction with a system of underground
wires; and the Mutual Telephone Company, in their recently-constructed Exchange
at Manchester, has shown that: privacy, distinct speech, and rapid and certain
switching are quite compatible with as low a rate of subscription as 5/. per annum.
The only essential requirement that has not yet been demonstrated is the laying
out of a system so as to permit of vast and easy expansion in every direction, and
this, the paper shows, is a problem admitting of easy solution provided that the
laying of wires is made independent of private caprice. The leading feature of a
cheap, efficient, and easily extensible Exchange in a large town is the division, as
far as feasible, of the area to be telephoned into sections not exceeding a square
mile in extent, with some smaller ones in situations where, as in the City of
London, very gréat commercial activity prevails. In the centre of each section
will be situated a switch-room, to which the wires of the subscribers resident
within that square mile will be led. As some subscribers will be resident quite
near the switch-room and others at the maximum distance from it, it is assumed
that with mile squares the average length of a subscriber’s line will be about a
quarter of a mile, and therefore cheap to construct. Each of these secondary
switch-rooms will be connected, according to the geographical configuration of the
town, to either one or two central switch-rooms by a sufficient number of junction
wires. Such a multiplication of switch-rooms would be impracticable with the
ordinary methods of switching, but a system exists which has been thoroughly
proved in practice during the last nine years, and which is specially applicable
where a very large number of subscribers has to be dealt with. By the aid of this
system, which is known as the ‘Mann,’ or a modification of it devised by the
author, with the switch-rooms distributed as described, the maximum time for
establishing a connection between two subscribers situated at the extreme opposite
limits of a telephone area as large as London would not exceed ten seconds.
The Mann switching system only requires apparatus at the switch-rooms of extreme
simplicity and compactness, and calls for only a minimum expenditure of labour
on the part of the operators, while it interposes no obstacles in the shape of
signalling electro-magnets at the intermediate switch-rooms to the freest possible
passace of telephonic speech. The system is consequently better adapted than any
other for communicating over long distances. Privacy and long-distance speaking
would be secured by the universal adoption of metallic circuits. Such a system
would afford the maximum possible telephonic efficiency, and would enable,
supposing it were likewise fitted in other towns, London subscribers to talk from
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 771
their own offices direct to the offices of subscribers, not only in the most distant
cities of Great Britain and Ireland, but in Paris and other Continental cities. It
is asserted that such a system would lead to such a rapid increase in the number
of subscribers that an annual subscription of 8/. would, even in the largest towns,
be sufficient to yield a large profit on its cost, even if all the wires were placed
underground.
3. Fecent Progress in the Use of Electric Motors.
By Professor G. Forsss, F.R.S.
In the application of electric motors I have noticed three directions in which
this country needs the testimony of independent and impurtial people to assert
the value of applications which in some other countries are generally adopted.
These are:—(1) Electric railways. (2) Replacing shafting in shops by electric
conductors and motors, (3) Transmitting power to a distance from waterfalls and
rivers by electricity.
Electric Railways.—These are thoroughly established in America on the
cheapest system, 7.c. electricity supplied from a central station by overhead wires;
The extensive adoption of electric tram lines in America, and the small number in
England, is certainly due to the fact that they allow these overhead conductors,
and we do not generally do so. The most trustworthy estimates seem to vary
between 4:18 and 6:00 cents per car mile, including coal, attendance, land and
buildings, machinery, line, oil, water, and waste. The question of repairs is serious
and must be reduced. Most of the lines adopt spur gearing to reduce the speed
from the electric motors to the car axles. They generally use two pinions and
two spur wheels. This introduces great friction. It is very generally accepted
that 8 horse-power is lost in gear friction, though this seems somewhat incredible,
being about 30 per cent. These cars are large, and the motors are of 30 horse-
power. This enormous power is absolutely demanded to enable them to start on
a gradient with facility, and they do this. There is no crawling about these cars.
You feel that there is plenty of power for the work. The noise in the cars used
to be very considerable, and the injury to watches through magnetisation was at
one time an objection. The noise from the gearing, especially when worn, has
been deadened by enclosing the motor and gearing in cast-iron boxes. The mag-
_ hetisation of watches is prevented by adopting a suitable type of motor. Another
source of trouble in motors used to be the brushes, for sparking is liable to be very
violent with the variable load of a tram motor, and the commutators wore away
rapidly. Since carbon brushes have been introduced this difficulty has entirely
disappeared.
‘he Joss in double reducing gear and the wear and tear led to all the important
companies turning to single reducing gear with rather heavier motors. It would
at first appear impossible to go farther, and adopt armatures on the wheel axles
without sacrificing the great advantage of gearing, which allows the motors to he
independently supported without being subjected to the same shocks as the wheel
axles. In spite of this, the Westinghouse Company have introduced a gearless
motor, which has strength enough to stand the shocks. But other inventors had
the idea of fixing the armature alone on the axle, and supporting the field magnet
wholly on springs ; to support it partially on springs is of little value. In this
direction the most important and promising plan seems to be that adopted by
Kickmeyer and Field. They support the whole motor in guides on springs, and
nnect the motor axle and the wheel axle by cranks and a coupling bar, the
nks on the right and left sides being at right angles to each other. This seems
0 reduce gearing friction to the minimum, while completely obviating shocks.
In America spur gearing is almost universal, but in Switzerland the Oerlikon
Jompany are introducing worm gearing, which has been so much approved by
- Reckenzaun. Storage batteries have not generally been successful in America,
ut in some trials have worked very well.
_ Replacing Shafting by Electricity —The benefit of replacing shafting by electric
conductors and motors has been thoroughly appreciated in America. Everyone
2 3D2
eo
772 REPORT—-1891.
knows of the hundreds of motors for small work which are supplied with electricity
by central statiuns in Boston and New York, besides other places, and of the large
number of electric lifts supplied by the Otis Company with electric motors de-
signed by Eickmeyer. I will only place before English manufacturers two of the
establishments where a statement of what has been done is enough to bring con-
viction to the mind of every shrewd and sensible employer of power. In the great
works of William Sellers & Co. shafting has been abolished as far as possible.
The second establishment is Baldwin’s locomotive factory, whence from sixteen to
twenty locomotives are sent off every week, and where space is so far valuable
that there is no room for shunt lines, and where a 100-ton travelling crane picks
up one out of the twenty, and puts it down where wanted. This fine travelling
crane, and every other crane in this huge part of the works, are driven by electric
motors,
Transmission of Power to a Distance from Waterfalls—With regard to trans-
mission of power to a distance from waterfalls, I have seen little to chronicle in
America, and what there is seems rather antiquated ; but in Switzerland important
work has been done both by continuous and alternating currents. ‘The high ten-
sion electrical work in connection with continuous currents that most impressed
me was what has been done by Cuénod, Sautter, et Cie. Their six-pole machines
with Gramme commutators up to 2,000 volts, designed by M. Thury, seem to
work admirably and sparklessly, and I must here state my conviction, which I did
not previously hold, that the insulation of such a machine can be made perfect,
as there done, by supporting the dynamo or motor on a number of alternate slabs
of vulcanised rubber and porcelain, and by connecting the shafts by Raffard
couplings.
I will not take up time with describing different works of this kind, but I will
now say something about the use of multiphase alternate, or rotary currents, ahout.
the prospective use of which so much has been published. I have seen the machines
and transformers in course of construction at Oerlikon, and the insulators which
have been used; the mechanical design is excellent. I can quite appreciate the
difficulties of regulation of three currents referred to by M. Dobrowolski, but I
think that there are further points upon which information is much wanted. I
want to know, for hitherto I have utterly failed to see, the advantage of this
three-phase synchronising alternator over the simple alternators which do such
excellent work. Ihave been told that calculation shows that Mr. Brown’s machine
has 96 per cent. efficiency asa dynamo, Well, Ireply that an ordinary alternator
without iron, not having the hysteresis of Mr. Brown’s machine, ought to have
a higher efficiency. In the next place I am told by Mr. Brown that while you
cannot switch one of these three-phase synchronising motors, with its load, on to
an electric circuit, and expect it to get up to the synchronising speed, yet it will
do so along with the electric generator of electricity, if the latter be also started
from rest. In this it certainly has the advantage over the synchronising alternator
with iron, but none whatever over those without iron, which will act in precisely
the same way unless the motor happens to be stopped on dead centres, z.e. with
the centres of coils (in a Mordey alternator, for example) half way between the
poles of the field magnets. If this is the only gain over single-phase alternators
with self-induction, and if there be no advantage gained over alternators without
large self-induction, I fail to see the merit of the complication of three phases. I
would not have drawn attention to the absence of advantage, but would have
preferred to await the experiments before expressing an opinion, were it not for
the great attention directed to the scheme by the Press, altogether out of propor-
tion to the results which Mr. Brown and the Oerlikon managers hope to obtain.
The great experiment about to be tried at Frankfort, which interests electricians
all over the world, is not to prove that transformation is efficient, but to prove
that 30,000 volts can be carried along 112 miles of overhead conductor.
M. Dobrowolski says that whatever load may be put on his motors, there is no
serious difference in phase between the potential difference applied to the motor
and the current, and there is no appreciable lag. If this be so, it would be a de-
cided improvement ; but I shall require strong proof before I accept the multiphase
a ee ae
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 773
motor as a great advance over the Tesla machine. The only advantage which it
ossesses over synchronising alternators without iron in the armatures and with
arge momentum, lies in its power to start with the load on. But I do not see
that in large applications this advantage is to be compared with what it loses by
its want of synchronism. M. Dobrowolski claims that these machines haye the
further advantage over the synchronisers that they will not stop when overloaded,
After having tested Mr. Mordey’s synchronising alternators, 1 have a strong con-
viction, almost amounting to a feeling of certainty, that it is impossible to put
them out of step in ordinary conditions by merely increasing the load. The more
you increase the load the more current goes through them to keep them in step.
They would rather get red hot than get out of step. They behave just as a con-
tinuous current motor or Tesla motor, or a Dobrowolski motor, behaves under the
same conditions ; it gets hot, but it does not stop.
People seem to be greatly at a loss to explain why it is that some alternators
work well as motors, while others do not. The explanation is simply that the
former have a large momentum, and the latter have not. I announced this ex-
planation of the difficulty at a meeting of electricians in Paris, last February, and
found that M. Hospitalier had arrived at exactly the same conclusion, and quite
independently. I feel confident in predicting that the Ferranti dynamo, if supplied
with a heavy enough fly-wheel, will be found to work as well as the Mordey
machine as a motor.
4. On Electric Firedamp Indicators. By N. Watts.
5. The Lighting of Railway Trains Electrically. By 1. A. Tormis.
The main conditions that are necessary are :—
(1) Every carriage must carry its own store of electricity (¢.e. a battery).
This battery must be light, say less than 1 ewt.
No carriage must be detained at any time to change its battery.
(2) High voltage lamps must be used to give a brilliant light and economise
the current used.
The system described in the paper can be, and is, used with—
Gi.) A dynamo driven from an axle, or
(ii.) A dynamo and special engine on the locomotive;
(iii.) Central charging stations,
In the first and last cases it is necessary to have a large battery in the guard’s
van.
Whatever the main source of electricity may be, it supplies the current at a
high voltage (say 50) to light a main system of lamps through the train.
But as any carriage may be detached at a station to be recoupled on to another
train or break loose or be slipped from a train, it is absolutely necessary to have a
storage or battery of accumulators in each carriage.
The cost and weight of batteries in each vehicle, with E.M.F. enough to light
the main lamps (say 50 volts), makes them impossible. Further than this, it would
be impracticable to charge them.
We therefore put another system of small lamps, 6 or 8 volts and 3 or 4 small
cells, in each vehicle to light them.
These small batteries we charge from the main source of electricity on the train,
and thus they are no trouble—small weight and small cost.
The working of these two systems, main and auxiliary, is under the control
of the guard while the train is complete; but should any vehicle become detached
from the main circuit the auxiliary lamps automatically light up.
If, also, anything happens to the main source of electricity, the auxiliary system
ean be put either under the control of the guard or be fitted to come into action
automatically.
The placing of the main leads through each vehicle, and the couplers used, are
_ fully described in the paper. We sometimes use four through leads and sometimes
774 REPORT—i5891.
only two. The circumstances of the case determine how many through leads
are necessary, and also what the main source of electricity must be.
In every case, however (except in omnibus trains), we use the double system of
main and auxiliary lamps with main and auxiliary supply of electricity.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers were read :—
1. An Electrical Parcel Exchange System. By A. R. Bennerr, V.7.U.E,
The congested state of the streets in many of the Iarge towns, notably in the
City of London, invites reflection as to whether it is not possible to devise means
by which vehicular traffic may to a certain extent be diminished. To avoid
absolute blocking of the thoroughfares, it is now necessary to forbid the collection
or delivery of goods in certain localities during business hours, and trade certainly
suffers under such restrictions, while warehouses have to be of larger capacity
than would be needed were the free receipt and despatch of goods permissible.
The author develops a scheme by which parcels and small packages may be freely
interchanged between the various buildings of a town by means of miniature
electric railways laid preferably, but not necessarily, underground, in pipes or
culverts. Such pipes may be laid along the principal thoroughfares, communicat-
ing to the right and left by means of spurs or sidings with the premises of the
subscribers to the system. In imitation of a telephone exchange, the pipes con-
verge at one or more central stations, where operators having sole control of the
traffic are on duty, and where are situated the dynamos and other apparatus.
The scheme may, be worked out in various ways, but the author proposes, by
preference, a rectangular tube carrying two tracks or lines of rails, one above the
other, the lower being used for the down, and the upper for the up, traffic. On
the rails run trucks fitted with electro-motors, deriving propelling current from
a parallel conductor laid between the two tracks, so that on the down journey
trucks gather current by a collector pressing on the under, and on the up journey
by one pressing against the upper, surface of the conductor. By dividing one of
the rails of each track into insulated sections, the operators, by watching miniature
semaphore signals placed in the central station, and worked by electro-magnets,
are enabled to tell on which section a truck is, and to follow its progress out and
home with the greatest exactitude. The sidings into the premises served are
connected to the main line by switches resembling those of an ordinary railway,
which ave normally, by means of springs, kept in their position for through traffic,
but which by the agency of electricity the operator at the Central Station can put
over so as to connect with the sidings. The tracks enter the premises one above
the other, but if there is room available, they then diverge and effect a junction, so
that trucks car be shifted from the down to the up line without lifting them off
the rails. On entering a siding a truck automatically signals the operator that it
is clear of the main line, and on running into the premises it is brought up by
means of catches and springs, which are depressed in one direction only, and which
also serve to announce its arrival by ringing electric bells, and prevent its being
returned by error or design into the tube on the wrong track. The connections of
the motor are so arranged that a truck, even if placed on the wrong line, would
not move backwards so as to cause a collision. The up track is blocked at the
sending end, so that, although a truck may be placed on the up siding ready for
despatch, it cannot obtain propelling current until the operator has a clear road
for it. He then electrically removes the block, and gives the truck current by
which it is brought into the Central. The operators have thus complete control
over the movements of trucks. When a truck, or train of trucks, is intended by
one subscriber for another, it is despatched in the first instance to the Central,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 775
where, on reading the address, the operator forwards it to the siding of the con-
signee. Subscribers may telephone or otherwise communicate with the Central
about despatch and receipt of trucks, but it is not necessary to do so, since trucks
can be delivered into subscribers’ sidings, and even unloaded automatically, and
then withdrawn again without any attention on the subscriber’s part, while trucks
placed for despatch by subscribers can be brought into the Central at stated
intervals if the operators make it a rule to tap all sidings occasionally for un-
announced traffic. Goods could therefore be delivered during the night, and
empty trucks sent into the various sidings for next day’s traffic. If desired,
collisions could be prevented between trucks in motion in the same direction by
automatic blocks. Inthe event of a truck through any accident stopping in the
tube, the semaphore connected with the section it is on will remain con-
tinuously at danger, and the operator will know that such a stoppage has taken
place, together with its position, and take steps to remove it. For instance, he
could send an empty truck forward, the speed of which can be reduced to a mini-
mum as it approaches the disabled truck by modifying the propelling current until
it strikes against the disabled vehicle, when, full current being turned on, both
trucks can be forwarded to the consignee or shunted at the next convenient siding.
Should trucks by mistake be delivered to the wrong siding, the subscriber would
transfer them to the up track, and return them to the Central. The paper claims
that such a system would prove of immense service if existing between the chief
and branch post-offices of a city, between railway goods stations, parcel-receiving
offices, and large business establishments, &c. The delivery of letters, telegrams,
and parcels could be effected by the Post Office to subscribers without the aid of
postmen, while matter for despatch by post and telegrams, together with the
money to defray the charges thereon, could be forwarded by subscribers to the
Post Office. For Post Office work the system would simply be a great development
of the existing pneumatic tubes. Hotels and restaurants could telephone for and
obtain in a few minutes viands they may be short of, and enable their customers to
choose wine not only from the cellar of the establishment, but from those of every
wine merchant on the system. It is not contended that such a system would pay
if constructed specially for parcel work, although the surprising developments of
the last decade scarcely permit of limits being assigned to the possible developments
of the next; but the author assumes that the construction of subways beneath all
the chief thoroughfares of large towns for the purpose of containing electric light
and power leads, telephone wires, pipes for gas, fresh water, sea water, hydraulic
power, compressed air, and other adjuncts of our complex civilisation, will shortly,
become an absolute necessity. A beginning in that direction has been made under
the auspices of limited companies in some American cities, and we must sooner or
later follow suit. Then when that time arrives an electrical parcel exchange could
be carried out effectively and economically as part of the scheme. Our footpaths
and carriage-ways will eventually be laid upon the lids of huge boxes, through
which well-lighted pathways, affording crossings and short cuts for passengers at
congested spots, may even he carried.
2. The Bénier Hot-Air Engine. By M. BENIER.
The question of hot-air or caloric engines has much interested the scientific and
engineering world for many years. It has generally been admitted that the dis-
covery of a really good hot-air engine would be of the greatest importance from
economical and other considerations—amongst other advantages, boilers, with
attending expense and danger, being entirely dispensed with.
_ Appended to this notice are illustrated drawings of the hot-air motor invented
by Messrs. Bénier Fréres. A considerable number of these engines are already in
use in France and elsewhere on the Continent for industrial, electric-lighting, and
other purposes. Several have been supplied to the French Government for use in
lighthouses and fog-horn lightships. In the engine illustrated the air passes
through the fire itself directly into the combustion-chamber. With this type of
_ ehigine a much greater initial pressure can be obtained than in engines using a”
776 REPORT—1891.
separate combustion-chamber, or where the air is heated through an intervening
metallic diaphragm. The drawing up of the grit and ashes is completely prevented
in the present motor, this latter feature forming an important part of the invention.
As will be seen by the drawings, the engine is constructed on the beam prin-
ciple, and the combustion-chamber is really a prolongation of the working cylinder.
The piston (or plunger) is of considerable length, the upper part only being
made to fit the cylinder. The lower part of the piston is of slightly less diameter,
consequently an annular space is formed between it and the cylinder. This space
is connected with the main air-supply, which is controlled by a valve operated by
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a connecting-rod and cam-lever worked from a cam on the crank-shaft of the
engine. The air-pump is | placed i in the centre of the machine, immediately beneath
the beam-standard, and is operated by a rod attached to the rocking-beam, and
this is connected by a rod to the crank-shaft. Owing to the position of tho beam,
pump, and connecting-rods, the piston of the air-pump is at the outer end of its
stroke when the working piston, on its return stroke, has reached a middle position. ~
During the last half of the return stroke of the working piston the air-piston is
pushed inwards, and compresses the charge of air previously drawn in until it has
reached the middie of the stroke, at which moment the working piston is at the
—————————e
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Vue
end of its stroke. The air-valve, operated by the cam as already mentioned, has
communicating passages with the air-pump, the furnace or combustion-chamber,
and the annular air or packing space in the main cylinder. Consequently, the
compressed air is forced partly through the fire and combustion-chamber, and
partly into the annular air-space, the flow of air continuing during the time the
air-piston performs the second half of the stroke. Meantime, the main piston
receives its charge from the combustion-chamber, and cold compressed air passes
into the annular space, and practically acts as a packing, effectually preventing
grit and dust rising from the fire to the working faces of the cylinder. When the
air-pump has finished its stroke, the air-valve is closed, and the air in the working
cylinder is allowed to expand for the remainder of the stroke.
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The cylinder is kept cool by means of a circulating-water jacket.
The bottom of the combustion-chamber is hinged, and the fuel is coke. As the
combustion takes place under pressure, an air-valve, working automatically, is
employed for feeding the fire.
The consumption of coke is about 3 Ibs. (one kilogramme and a half) per brake
horse power and per hour.
3. On the Internal and External Work of Evaporation.
By W. Worsy Beaumont, M.Inst.C..
Several of the most interesting problems in connection with the steam-engine
turn upon the view that is taken of the mode of employment of the heat equivalent
of the external work of evaporation.
When steam is generated under constant pressure external work is performed
_ =PYV,P being the pressure and V the volume generated. It may therefore, in
accordance with the thermodynamic conceptions, be assumed that more heat is
778 REPORT—1891.
used in the generation of steam under constant pressure than under constant
PV
7? J being Joule’s equivalent, and
volume, the extra quantity of heat being U=
U the heat units.
The author suggests the following explanation of the way in which the heat
equivalent of the external work of evaporation is used. If heat flows out of steam
when mechanical work is done by it during its formation, it must be supposed that
steam is cooled by the outflow. If heat flows out and if cooling follows, the cor-
responding condensation or liquefaction takes place, and a further supply of heat is
demanded to re-evaporate steam so liquefied; or, what is the same thing, the
further supply of heat is used in continuously preventing the liquefaction from
reaching more than the incipient stage. The action here sketched is readily con-
ceived if for the purpose of explanation the evaporation and the external work be
supposed to take place per saltwm. Suppose a piston, immediately over the water
in a simple evaporating vessel, to have been moved by the steam through a small
distance A. Then heat corresponding to the work done in moving the piston
through A will have flowed out of the steam, and this quantity of heat Q being
Q
gone, condensation —~ must have taken place in order that the temperature T and
pressure P of the remaining steam may be unaffected (L being latent heat of
evaporation). Now before the piston can be again moved through a further
similar distance A', that quantity Q must be restored by a further demand on the
source of heat, and if Q' be the quantity of heat required to produce the volume of
steam V, then the total quantity of heat Q? required to move the piston through
distance A' will be Q?=Q!+Q, in order that volume V! may be produced and the
condensed steam Q be re-evaporated.
Now if A be taken as less than any assignable distance or the process assumed
continuous, then evaporation and incipient liquefaction may be supposed to be con-
temporaneous, and Q and Q' will be supplied contemporaneously.
In this way it appears to the author that an explanation can be found of the
mode of conversion of heat into the external work of evaporation under constant
pressure, or of conversion of heat into the work performed by a steam-engine during
the admission part of the stroke, or, more correctly speaking, the work done by
the steam on the piston during admission. If this be a true statement of the
actual mode of employment of the heat converted into the mechanical work of a
steam-engine during the admission part of the stroke, then it follows that liquefac-
tion takes place during admission, which must be sufficient to represent the
mechanical work done. This being so, the question arises, To what extent will
this liquefaction result in water or suspended moisture in the cylinder of a steam-
engine? The outflow of heat and corresponding liquefaction may be supposed to
take place at the moving wall or piston, and in the hypothetic case supposed the
liquefied steam may be assumed to be re-evaporated by the steam or water imme-
diately below, which in its turn demands and receives more heat for its resuscita-
tion from the source. In the case of the steam-engine cylinder, however, it is open
to question whether the killed molecules in the cylinder or next the piston are,
resuscitated by the incoming steam, which follows up the movement of the piston.
If they are not, then liquefaction will take place in the steam-engine cylinder during
admission as a result of the performance of work, although the work isthe external
work of the evaporation which is performed in the boiler. The heat required for
evaporation is that of Regnault’s tables, but under the assumption here explained
(when the liquefaction takes place in the cylinder and the resulting water does not
return without loss of heat to the boiler), the heat required to raise the tempera-
ture of the quantity Y of feed water to the temperature of evaporation must be
added, because in order that one pound of steam may be supplied to the cylinder,
as steam at cut off, the extra quantity 2 of feed water must be supplied to the
boiler. The quantity of water actually evaporated in the production of one pound”
Ee ll!
ZEEE LL
re
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 779
of steam in the steam-engine cylinder will thus be 1 lb. + I when the evaporation
takes place under constant pressure, although it is only 1 when evaporation takes
place under constant volume. The heat required for evaporation under the author’s
assumption for the one pound of steam in the steam-engine will be L + ie — (T-to),
T being temperature of evaporation and ¢o the temperature of the feed water. (In
the elementary case T=¢o.) This, it must be noted, is the heat that will be required
for each pound of steam accounted for by the indicator.
4. On a new System of Screw Propulsion with non-reversible Engines.
By W. Worsy Beaumont, M.Inst.C.H.
At the present time all screw propellers are driven by engines, which must be
so designed that they may be fitted with all the paraphernalia necessary for
reversing.
A considerable part of this reversing gear must be at work during the whole
of the time the engines are running. ‘hus, although it may not be necessary to
reverse the propeller or the direction of motion of a ship during a long run, the
quickly moving parts of this gear must nevertheless be kept at work all the time.
In order to avoid the practical objections to this, and the stresses which are
brought to bear on the propeller and screw shaft by reversing the direction of their
rotation, it is now proposed to effect the reversal of the direction of motion of the
ship by means of the propeller, and the object of this paper is to bring before the
Mechanical Science Section of the Association a description of the apparatus
designed for this purpose by Mr. Robert McGlasson.
For several years the feathering screw propeller has been in use on a consider-
able number of vessels. By means of this, known as Bevis’ propeller, the angle
of the blades may be shifted by gear in the screw shaft tunnel, so that they may
be placed fore and aft, and thus offer no impediment to the motion of the ship
when it is desired to employ sails instead of engines.
By means of the same propeller the angle of the blades may be set so as to alter
the pitch to that which may be found best for the ship, or to suit it for very low
power when only slow steaming is wanted. As employed for these purposes
this form of propeller has been long enough in use to show its practical sufficiency.
By an extension of the application of the principle of this propeller, it is now
seen to be possible to achieve several ends which are considered to be of great
importance. Some of these may be enumerated as follows :—
1. The propulsion of ships by means of screws, which rotate always in the same
direction, and may be actuated by non-reversible engines and screw-shafts.
2. The simplification of marine engines, by dispensing with all the parts at
present used for making the engines reversible.
3. The complete and quick reversal of the direction of propulsion of the ship,
without any of that heavy stress which often amounts to strain and rupture of the
screw-shaft, or couplings, or crank-shatt.
4. The facile adjustment of the pitch of the screw blades while the engines are
running, so that the pitch may at all times be set to suit the form, trim, and con-
dition of the ship, the requirements of navigation, or any sudden emergency
requiring prompt action.
The extension of the application of the principle of the feathering screw consists
in the employment of apparatus by means of which the pitch or angle of the blades
is always under control, and may be changed from moment to moment with the
same facility as is the rudder by means of steam or hydraulic steering gear.
Either form of the apparatus thus employed operates by moving in one or other
direction a sliding collar on the tail shaft. This collar is connected to the rod of
levers which gives angular motion to the screw blades.
1 The discussion on this paper was given in Engineering, September 4, 1891,
p. 269; and the paper with illustrations was published in Jndustries in September
1891; and in the Marine Engineer, October 1891. Hikes
780 REPORT—1891.
Generally a hydraulic cylinder and piston will be employed for moving this
collar, and the valve for admitting the water to either side of the piston will
generally be operated in the engine-room, but may be operated from the bridge.
5. Action of Screw Propellers. By Major R. pp Vittamit, R.E.
Resultant action of a screw propeller is similar to a piston with an infinite stroke
and velocity ‘v.’ The speed of screw is revolutions multiplied by effective pitch.
Effective pitch = diameter ./pitch ratio. Minimum circumferential velocity, which
=)
givesa thrust = ,/2yd. Most advantageous circumferential velocity = milage
a/m
2
“2s : : wes m
where m is pitch ratio. Centre portion of a screw is inert. Inert area = (3) :
=:
Centre of screw acts as a drag or resistance—hence the ‘ Thrust deduction factor.’
No screw will convert more than 70 per cent. of the power into longitudinal
thrust. Thrust of screw depends on revolutions x effective pitch. Methods of
improving propellers :—
1, Adopting a form which feeds itself from the centre.
2. Forcing water to the centre by ‘feeding blades’ on leading side of pro-
eller.
; Desgoffe propeller satisfies the first requirement, and shows economy of 25 to
30 per cent. in fuel. Feeding blades will reduce or quite eliminate the ‘ Thrust
deduction factor.’
The differences between theory now proposed and generally accepted theory
were considered.
6. On the Comparative Values of Various Substances used as Non-conducting
Coverings for Steam Boilers and Pipes. By W.Herworta CoL.ins,
F.OS., F.G.S8., F.R.MLS. '
The author has recently accurately determined the respective non-conducting
values of several of the well-known substances and mixtures used as non-conducting
material for covering steam boilers and pipes. These results are of much import-
ance, more particularly as there does not appear to be any accessible record of an
investigation in this country’of a recent or reliable character.
Taste I,
Pounds of | Solid matter
Substance 1 inch thick (in mass) ; heat water heated | in1sq. ft. | Air included,
applied, 510° F. 10°F. per hour| 1 inch thick, | parts 1,000
through 1sq.ft.| parts 1,000
1. Hair felt ; A ; 4 : 11-4 189 957
2. Cotton felt . 2 : . : 10°6 75 930
8. Jute felt 13°2 162 921
4, Linen felt ialerg 64 753
5. Loose cotton felt . 9°3 17 990
6. Carded cotton 8-1 16 987
7. Rabbit-hair ‘ wool’ 71 43 912
8. Poultry feathers 6:2 44 976
9. Cork powder . 3 13°6 66 931
10. Sawdust powder . 14:2 141 793
11. Asbestos powder . 47°9 67 961
12. Fossil meal : 52-1 78 910
13. Plaster of Paris 36:2 371 598
14. Calcined magnesia : 14:7 24 979
15. Compressed calcined magnesia 53°4 291 711
16. Fine sand . 66:3 533 473
.
:
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 781
Professor Ordway’s (Massachusetts Inst. Technology) method—with modifica-
tions by the author of this paper—was applied to obtain the foregoing results. A
mass of each non-conducting material, one inch thick, was used for each experi-
ment. This mass was carefully prepared and placed on a perfectly true, flat, iron
plate or tray, which was then carefully maintained at a constant temp. of 810° F.
The heat transmitted through each non-conducting mass was calculated in pounds
of water heated 10°F. per hour. Table II. gives the results of practically treating
the several non-conducting mixtures on a 5-inch steam pipe, which was subject to
much vibration.
Taste II,
Pounds of water heated 10° F.
Prepared mixtures for covering steam pipes, &c. per hour, by 1 sq. ft.
1. Clay, dung, and vegetable fibre paste . : - 39°6
2. Fossil meal and hair paste . - c : - 10°4
3. Fossil meal and asbestos powder . - : 5 26°3
4. Paper pulp, clay and vegetable fibre. c > 40:6
5. Paper pulp, alone . : : 3 : 5 2 14:7
6. Slag-wool, hair, and clay past 2 = x é 10:0
7. Asbestos fibre, wrapped tightly . 5 3 . 17:9
8. Coal ashes and clay paste wrapped with straw. 29:9
7. A joint Discussion with Section A. upon Units and their Nomenclature
took place. See p. 577.
782 -- REPORT—1891.
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor F. Max Mtr, M.A., Foreign Member
of the French Institute.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address :—
Ir was forty-four years ago that for the first and for the last time I was able to
take an active part in the meetings of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science. It was at Oxford. in 1847, when I read a paper on the ‘ Relation of
Bengali to the Aryan and Aboriginal Languages of India,’ which received the
honour of being published in full in the ‘ Transactions’ of the Association for that
year. I have often regretted that absence from England and pressure of work
have prevented me year after year from participating in the meetings of the Asso-
ciation, But, being a citizen of two countries—of Germany by birth, of England
by adoption—my long vacations have generally drawn me away to the Continent,
so that to my great regret I found myself precluded from sharing either in your
labours or in your delightful social gatherings,
I wonder whether any of those who were present at that brilliant meeting at
Oxford in 1847 are present here to-day. I almost doubt it. Our President then
was Sir Robert Inglis, who will always he known in the annals of English history
as having been preferred to Sir Robert Peel as Member of Parliament for the
University of Oxford. Among other celebrities of the day I remember Sir
Roderick Murchison, Sir David Brewster, Dean Buckland, Sir Charles Lyell, Pro-
fessor Sedgwick, Professor Owen, and many more—a galaxy of stars, all set or
setting. Young Mr. Ruskin acted as Secretary to the Geological Section. Our
Section was then not even recognised as yet as a Section. We ranked as a sub-
Section only of Section D, Zoology and Botany. We remained in that subordinate
position till 1851, when we became Section E, under the name of Geography and
Ethnology. From 1869, however, Ethnology seems almost to have disappeared
again, being absorbed in Geography, and it was not till the year 1884 that we
emergéd once more as what we are to-day, Section H, or Anthropology.
In the year 1847 our sub-Section was presided over by Professor Wilson, the
famous Sanskrit scholar. The most active debaters, so far as I remember, were
Dr. Prichard, Dr. Latham, and Mr. Crawfurd, well known then under the name of
the Objector-General. I was invited to join the meeting by Bunsen, then Prussian
Minister in London, who also brought with him his friend, Dr. Karl Meyer, the
Celtic scholar. Prince Albert was present at our debates, so was Prince Louis
Lucien Bonaparte. Our Ethnological sub-Section was then most popular, and
attracted very large audiences.
When looking once more through the debates carried on in our Section in 1847
I was very much surprised when I saw how very like the questions which occupy
us to-day are to those which we discussed in 1847. I do not mean to say that there
has been no advance in our science. Far from it. The advance of linguistic, ethno-
logical, anthropological, and biological studies, all of which claim a hearing in our
:
:
‘
;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 783
Section, has been most rapid. Still that advance has been steady and sustained ;
there has been no cataclysm, no deluge, no break in the advancement of our science,
and nothing seems to me to prove its healthy growth more clearly than this un-
interrupted continuity which unites the past with the present, and will, I hope,
unite the present with the future.
No paper is in that respect more interesting to read than the address which
Bunsen prepared for the meeting in 1847, and which you will find in the ‘ Trans-
actions’ of that year. Its title is‘On the Results of the recent Egyptian Researches
in reference to Asiatic and African Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages.’
But you will find in it a great deal more than what this title would lead you to
expect.
eiore are passages in it which are truly prophetic, and which show that, if
prophecy is possible anywhere, it is possible, nay, it ought to be possible, in the
temple of science, and under the inspiring influence of knowledge and love of truth.
Allow me to dwell for a little while on this remarkable paper. It is true, we
have travelled so fast that Bunsen seems almost to belong to ancient history. This
very year is the hundredth anniversary of his birth, and this very day the cente-
nary of his birth is being celebrated in several towns of Germany. In England
also his memory should not be forgotten. No one, not being an Englishman by
birth, could, I believe, have loved this country more warmly, and could have
worked more heartily, than Bunsen did to bring about that friendship between
England and Germany which must for ever remain the corner-stone of the peace of
Europe, and, as the Emperor of Germany declared the other day in his speech at the
Mansion House, the sine gua non of that advancement of science to which our Asso-
ciation is devoted. Bunsen’s house in Carlton Terrace was a true international
academy, open to all who had something to say, something worth listening to, a kind of
sanctuary against vulgarity in high places, a neutral ground where the best repre-
sentatives of all countries were welcome and felt at home. But this also belongs
to ancient history. And yet, when we read Bunsen’s paper, delivered in 1847,
it does not read like ancient history. It deals with the problems which are still
in the foreground, and if it could be delivered again to-day by that genial repre-
sentative of German learning, it would rouse the same interest, provoke the same
applause, and possibly the same opposition also, which it roused nearly half a
century ago. Let me give you a few instances of what I mean.
We must remember that Darwin’s ‘ Origin of Species’ was published in 1859,
his ‘ Descent of Man’ in 1871. But here in the year 1847 one of the burning
questions which Bunsen discusses is the question of the possible descent of man from
some unknown animal. He traces the history of that question back to Frederick
the Great, and quotes his memorable answer to D’Alembert. Frederick the Great,
you know, was not disturbed by any qualms of orthodoxy. ‘In my kingdom,’ he
used to say, ‘everybody may save his soul according to his own fashion.’ But
when D’Alembert wished him to make what he called the salto mortale from
monkey to man, Frederick the Great protested. He saw what many have seen
since, that there is no possible transition from reasonlessness to reason, and that with
all the likeness of their bodily organs there is a barrier which no animal can clear,
or which, at all events, no animal has as yet cleared. And what does Bunsen
himself consider the real barrier between man and beast? ‘It is language,’ he
says, ‘which is unattainable, or at least unattained, by any animal except man.’
In answer to the argument that, given only a sufficient number of years, a transi-
tion by imperceptible degrees from animal cries to articulate language is at least
conceivable, he says: ‘Those who hold that opinion have never been able to show
the possibility of the first step. They attempt to veil their inability by the easy
but fruitless assumption of an infinite space of time, destined to explain the gradual
_ development of animals into men; as if millions of years could supply the want of
the agent necessary for the first movement, for the first step, in the line of pro-
gress! No numbers can effect a logical impossibility. How, indeed, could reason
spring out of a state which is destitute of reason? How can speech, the expres-
sion of thought, develop itself, in a year, or in millions of years, out of inarticulate
sounds, which express feelings of pleasure, pain, and appetite ?’
784 REPORT—1891.
He then appeals to Wilhelm yon Humboldt, whom he truly calls the greatest and
most acute anatomist of almost all human speech. Humboldt goes so far as to
say, ‘Rather than assign to all language a uniform and mechanical march that
would lead them step by step from the grossest beginnings to their highest
perfection, I should embrace the opinion of those who ascribe the origin of language
to an immediate revelation of the Deity. They recognise at least that divine
spark which shines through all idioms, even the most imperfect and the least
cultivated.’
Bunsen then sums up by saying: ‘To reproduce Monboddo’s theory in our
days, after Kant and his followers, is a sorry anachronism, and I therefore regret
that so low a view should have been taken of the subject lately in an English
work of much correct and comprehensive reflection and research respecting natural
science.’ This remark refers, of course, to the ‘ Vestiges of Creation,’ which
was then producing the same commotion that Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species’
produced in 1859.
Bunsen was by no means unaware that in the vocal expression of feelings,
whether of joy or pain, and in the imitation of external sounds, animals are on a
level with man. ‘I believe with Kant,’ he says, ‘that the formation of ideas or
notions, embodied in words, presupposes the action of the senses and impressions
made by outward objects on the mind.’ ‘But,’ he adds, ‘ what enables us to see
the genus in the individual, the whole in the many, and to form a word by con-
necting a subject with a predicate, is the power of the mind, and of this the brute
creation exhibits no trace.’
You know how for a time, and chiefly owing to Darwin’s predominating influence,
every conceivable effort was made to reduce the distance which language places
between man and beast, and to treat language as a vanishing line in the mental
evolution of animal and man. It required some courage at times to stand up against
the authority of Darwin, but at present all serious thinkers agree, I believe, with
Bunsen, that no animal has developed what we mean by rational language, as
distinct from mere utterances of pleasure or pain, from imitation of sounds and
from communication by means of various signs, a subject that has lately been
treated with great fulness by my learned friend Professor Romanes in his ‘ Mental
Evolution of Man,’ Still, if all true science is based on facts, the fact remains
that no animal has ever formed what we mean by a language. There must be a
reason for that, and that reason is reason in its true sense, as the power of forming
general concepts, of naming and judging. We are fully justified, therefore, in
holding with Bunsen and Humboldt, as against Darwin and Professor Romanes,
that there zs a specific difference between the human animal and all other animals,
and that that difference consists in language as the outward manifestation of what
the Greeks meant by Logos.
Another question which occupies the attention of our leading anthropologists
is the proper use to be made of the languages, customs, laws, and religious ideas of
so-called savages. Some, as you know, look upon these modern savages as repre-
senting human nature in its most primitive state, while others treat them as repre-
senting the lowest degeneracy into which human nature may sink. Here, too, we
have learnt to distinguish. We know that certain races have had a very slow
development, and may, therefore, have preserved some traces of those simple insti-
tutions which are supposed to be characteristic of primitive life. But we also
know that other races have degenerated and are degenerating even now. If we
hold that the human race forms but one species, we cannot, of course, admit that
the ancestors even of the most savage tribes, say of the Australians, came into the
world one day later than the ancestors of the Greeks, or that they passed through
fewer evolutions than their more favoured brethren. The whole of humanity would
be of exactly the same age. But we know its history from a time only when it
had probably passed already through many ups and downs. Tosuppose, therefore,
that the modern savage is the nearest approach to primitive man would be against
all the rules of reasoning. Because in some countries, and under stress of unfayour-
able influences, some human tribes have learnt to feed on human flesh, it does not
1 See an article in the Ldinburgh Review, July 1845,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 785
follow that our first ancestors were cannibals. And here, too, Bunsen’s words have
become so strikingly true that I may be allowed to quote them: ‘The savage is
justly disclaimed as the prototype of natural, original man; for linguistic inquiry
shows that the languages of savages are degraded and decaying fragments of nobler
formations.’
I know well that in unreservedly adopting Bunsen’s opinion on this point also
I run counter to the teaching of such well-known writers as Sir John Lubbock,
Reclus, and others. It might be supposed that Mr. Herbert Spencer also looked
upon savages as representing the primitive state of mankind. But if he ever did so,
he certainly does so no longer, and there is nothing I admire so much in Mr.
Herbert Spencer as this simple love of truth, which makes him confess openly
whenever he has seen occasion to change his views. ‘ What terms and what con-
ceptions are truly primitive,’ he writes, ‘would be easy if we had an account of
truly primitive men. But there are sundry reasons for suspecting that existing
men of the lowest type forming social groups of the simplest kind do not exemplify
men as they originally were. Probably most of them, if not all, had ancestors in
a higher state.’ !
Most important also is a hint which Bunsen gives that the students of language
should follow the same method that has been followed with so much success in
Geology; that they should begin by studying the modern strata of speech, and
then apply the principles, discovered there, to the lower or less accessible strata.
It is true that the same suggestion had been made by Leibniz, but many sugges-
tions are made and are forgotten again, and the merit of rediscovering an old truth
is often as great as the discovery of anew truth. This is what Bunsen said: ‘ In
order to arrive at the law which we are endeavouring to find (the law of the develop-
ment of language) let us first assume, as Geology does, that the same principles
which we see working in the (recent) development were also at work at the very
beginning, modified in degree and in form, but essentially the same in kind.’ We
know how fruitful this suggestion has proved, and how much light an accurate
study of modern languages and of spoken dialects has thrown on some of the
darkest problems of the science of language. But fifty years ago it was Sanskrit
only, or Hebrew, or Chinese, that seemed to deserve the attention of the students
of Comparative Philology. Still more important is Bunsen’s next remark, that
language begins with the sentence, and that in the beginning each word was a
sentence in itself. This view also has found strong supporters at a later time, for
instance, my friend Professor Sayce, though at the time we are speaking of it was
hardly thought of. I must here once more quote Bunsen’s own words: ‘The
supreme law of progress in all language shows itself to be the progress from the
substantial isolated word, as an undeveloped expression of a whole sentence, towards
such a construction of language as makes every single word subservient to the
general idea of a sentence, and shapes, modifies, and dissolves it accordingly.’
And again: ‘ Every sound in language must originally have been significative
of something. The unity of sound (the syllable, pure or consonantised) must
therefore originally have corresponded to a unity of conscious plastic thought, and
every thought must have had a real or substantial object of perception. ... Every
single word implies necessarily a complete proposition, consisting of subject,
predicate, and copula.’
This is a most pregnant remark. It shows as clearly as daylight the enormous
difference there is between the mere utterance of the sound Pah and Mah, as a cry
of pleasure or distress, and the pronunciation of the same syllable as a sentence,
when Pah and Mahare meant for ‘ This is Pah,’ ‘This is Mah’; or, after a still more
characteristic advance of the human intellect, ‘This is @ Pah, ‘This is a Mah,
which is not very far from saying, ‘ This man belongs to the class or genus of fathers.’
Equally important is Bunsen’s categorical statement that everything in lan-
guage must have been originally significant, that everything formal must originally
have been substantial. You know what a bone of contention this has been of late
between what is called the old school and the new school of Comparative Philology.
SS EL
1 Open Court, No. 208, p. 2896.
18°1. 3E
786 REPORT—1891.
The old school maintained that every word consisted of a root and of certain
derivative suffixes, prefixes, and infixes. The modern school maintained that there
existed neither roots by themselves nor suffixes, prefixes, and infixes by themselves,
and that the theory of agglutination—of gluing suffixes to roots—was absurd.
The old school looked upon these suffixes as originally independent and significative
words; the modern school declined to accept this view except in a few irrefragable
instances. I think the more accurate reasoners are coming back to the opinion
held by the old school, that all formal elements of language were originally sub-
stantial, and therefore significative ; that they are the remnants of predicative or
demonstrative words. It is true we cannot always prove this as clearly as in the
case of such words as hard-ship, wis-dom, man-hood, where hood can be traced back
to hdd, which in Anglo-Saxon exists as an independent word, meaning state or
quality. Nor do we often find that a suffix like mente, in cluramente, clairement,
continues to exist by itself, as when we say in Spanish clara, concisa y elegante-
mente. Itis perfectly true that the French, when they say that a hammer falls
lourdement, or heavily, do not deliberately take the suffix ment—originally the
Latin mente, ‘with a mind’—and glue it to their adjectivelowrd. Here the new school
has done good service in showing the working of that instinct of analogy which is
a most important element in the historical development of human speech. One
compound was formed in which mente retained its own meaning; for instance,
fort mente, ‘with a brave mind.’ But when this had come to mean bravely, and
no more, the working of analogy began; and if fortement, from fort, could mean
‘bravely,’ then why not dowrdement, from dourd, ‘heavily’? But in the end there
is no escape from Bunsen’s fundamental principle that everything in language was
originally language—that is, was significative, was substantial, was material—before
it became purely formal.
But it is not only with regard to these general problems that Bunsen has
anticipated the verdict of our own time. Some of his answers to more special
questions also show that he was right when many of his contemporaries, and even
successors, were wrong. It has long been a question, for instance, whether the
Armenian language belonged to the Ivanic branch of the Aryan family, or whether
it formed an independent branch, like Sanskrit, Persian, or Greek. Bunsen, in
1847, treated Armenian as a separate branch of Aryan speech; and that it is so
was proved by Professor Hiibschmann in 1883.
Again, there has been a long controversy whether the language of the Afghans
belonged to the Indic or the Iranic branch. Dr. Trumpp tried to show that it be-
longed, by certain peculiarities, to the Indic or Sanskritic branch. Professor
Darmesteter has proved but lately that it shares its most essential characteristics
in common with Persian. Here, too, Bunsen guessed rightly—for I do not mean
to say that it was more than a guess—when he stated that ‘ Pushtu, the language
of the Afghans, belongs to the Persian branch.’
I hope you will forgive me for having detained you so long with a mere retro-
spect. I could not deny myself the satisfaction of paying this tribute of gratitude
and respect to my departed friend, Baron Bunsen. To have known him belongs
to the most cherished recollections of my life. But though I am myself an old man
—much older than Bunsen was at our meeting in 1847—do not suppose that I came
here as a mere laudator temporis acti. Certainly not. If one tries to recall what
Anthropology was in 1847, and then considers what it is now, its progress seems
most marvellous. I do not think so much of the new materials which have been
collected from all parts of the world. These last fifty years have been an age of
discovery in Africa, in Central Asia, in America, in Polynesia, and in Australia,
such as can hardly be matched in any previous century.
_ But what seems to me even more important than the mere increase of material
is the new spirit in which Anthropology has been studied during the last genera-
tion. Ido not mean to depreciate the labours of so-called dilettanti. After all,
dilettanti are lovers of knowledge, and in a study such as the study of Anthropology
the labours of these volunteers, or francs-tireuws, have often proved most valuable.
But the study of man in every part of the world has ceased to be a subject for
curiosity only. It has been raised to the dignity, but also to the responsibility, of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 787
areal science, and it is now guided by principles as strict and as rigorous as any
other science—such as Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy, and allthe rest. Many theories
which were very popular filty years ago are now completely exploded; nay, some
of the very principles by which our science was then guided have been discarded.
‘Let me give you one instance—perhaps the most important one—as determining the
right direction of anthropological studies.
At our meeting in 1847 it was taken for granted that the study of Comparative
Philology would be in future tie only safe foundation for the study of Anthropology.
Linguistic Ethnology was a very favourite term used by Bunsen, Prichard, Latham,
and others. It was, in fact, the chief purpose of Bunsen’s paper to show that the
whole of mankind could be classified according to language. I protested against
this view at the time, and in 1853 I published my formal protest in a letter to
Bunsen, ‘On the Turanian Languages.’ In a chapter called ¢ Ethnology versus
Phonology ’ I called, if not for a complete divorce, at least for a judicial separation
between the study of Philology and the study of Ethnology. ‘ Ethnological race, I
said, ‘and phonological race are not commensurate, except in antehistorical times,
or, perhaps, at the very dawn of history. With the migration of tribes, their
wars, their colonies, their conquests and alliances, which, if we may judge from
their effects, must have been much more violent in the ethnic than ever in the
political periods of history, it is impossible to imagine that race and language should
continue to run parallel. The physiologist should pursue his own science, uncon-
cerned about language. Let him see how far the skulls, or the hair, or the colour,
or the skin of different tribes admit of classification; but to the sound of their
words his ear should be as deaf as that of the ornithologist’s to the notes of caged
birds. If his Caucasian class includes nations or individuals speaking Aryan
(Greek), Turanian (Turkish), and Semitic (Hebrew) languages, it is not his fault.
His system must not be altered to suit another system. ‘here is a better solution
both for his difficulties and for those of the phonologist than mutual compromise.
The phonologist should collect his evidence, arrange his classes, divide and combine
as if no Blumenbach had ever looked at skulls, as if no Camper had ever measured
facial angles, as if no Owen had ever examined the basis of acranium. His evidence
is the evidence of language, and nothing else; this he must follow, even though in
the teeth of history, physical or political. . . . There ought to be no compromise
between ethnological and phonological science. It is only by stating the glaring
contradictions between the two that truth can be elicited.’
At first my protest met with no response; nay, curiously enough, I have often
been supposed to be the strongest advocate of the theory which I so fiercely attacked.
Perhaps I was not entirely without blame, for, having once delivered my soul, I
allowed myself occasionally the freedom to speak of the Aryan or the Semitic race,
meaning thereby no more than the people, whoever and whatever they were, who
spoke Aryan or Semitic languages. JI wish we could distinguish in English as in
Hebrew between nations and languages. Thus in the Book of Daniel, iii. 4, ‘ the
herald cried aloud, . . . O people, nations and languages.’ Why then should we
not distinguish between nations and languages? But to put an end to every
possible misunderstanding, I declared at last that to speak of ‘an Aryan skull
would be as great a monstrosity as to speak of a dolichocephalic language.’
I do not mean to say that this old heresy, which went by the name of linguistic
ethnology, is at present entirely extinct. But among all serious students, whether
physiologists or philologists, it is by this time recognised that the divorce between
Ethnology and Philology, granted if only for incompatibility of temper, has been
productive of nothing but good.
Instead of attempting to classify mankind as a whole, students are now engaged
in classing skulls, in classing hair, and teeth, and skin. Many solid results have
been secured by these special] researches; but, as yet, no two classifications, based
on these characteristics, have been made to run parallel.
The most natural classification is, no doubt, that according to the colour of the
skin. ‘This gives us a black, a brown, a yellow, a red, and a white race, with
several subdivisions. This classification has often been despised as unscientific ;
but it may still turn out far more valuable than is at present supposed.
352
788 REPORT—1891.
The next classification is that by the colour of the eyes, as black, brown, hazel,
grey, and blue. This subject also has attracted much attention of late, and, within
certain limits, the results have proved very valuable.
The most favourite classification, however, has always been that according to
the skulls. The skull, as the shell of the brain, has by many students been sup-
posed to betray something of the spiritual essence of man; and who can doubt
that the general features of the skull, if taken in large averages, do correspond to
the general features of human character? We have only to look round to see men
with heads like a cannon-ball and others with heads likea hawk. This distinction
has formed the foundation for a more scientific classification into brachycephalic,
dolichocephalic, and mesocephalic skulls. The proportion of 80: 100 between the
transverse and longitudinal diameters gives us the ordinary or mesocephalic type,
the proportion of 75:100 the dolichocephalic, the proportion of 85:100 the
brachycephalic type. The extremes are 70: 100 and 90: 100.
If we examine any large collection of skulls, we have not much difficulty in
arranging them under these three classes ; but if, after we have done this, we look at
the nationality of each skull, we find the most hopeless confusion. Pruner Bey, as
Peschel tells us in his ‘ Vélkerkunde,’ has observed brachycephalic and dolichocephalic
skulls in children born of the same mother; and if we consider how many women
have been carried away into captivity by Mongolians: in their inroads into China,
India, and Germany, we cannot feel surprised if we find some longheads among
the roundheads of those Central Asiatic hordes.
Only we must not adopt the easy expedient of certain anthropologists who,
when they find dolichocephalic and brachycephalic skulls in the same tomb, at once
jump to the conclusion that they must have belonged to two different races.
When, for instance, two dolichocephalic and three brachycephalic skulls were dis-
covered in the same tomb at Alexanderpol, we were told at once that this proved
nothing as to the simultaneous occurrence of different skulls in the same family ;
nay, that it proved the very contrary of what it might seem to prove. It was
clear, we were assured, that the two dolichocephalic skulls belonged to Aryan chiefs
and the three brachycephalic skulls to their non-Aryan slaves, who were killed
and buried with their masters, according to a custom well known to Herodotus.
This sounds very learned, but is it really quite straightforward ?
Besides the general division of skulls into dolichocephalic, brachycephalic, and
mesocephulic, other divisions have been undertaken, according to the height of the
skull, and, again, according to the maxillary and the facial angles. This latter
division gives us orthognathic, prognathic, and mesognathic skulls.
Lastly, according to the peculiar character of the hair, we may distinguish two
great divisions, the people with woolly hair (Ulotriches) and people with smooth
hair (Lissotriches), The former are subdivided into Lophocomi, people with tufts
of hair, and Lriocom, or people with fleecy hair. The latter are divided into
Luthycomi, straight-haired, and Euplocami,! wavy-haired. It has been shown
that these peculiarities of the hair depend on the peculiarform of the hair-tubes,
which, in cross-sections, are found to be either round or elongated in different
ways.
Now all these classifications, to which several more might be added, those
according to the orbits of the eyes, the outlines of the nose, the width of the pelvis,
are by themselves extremely useful. But few of them only, if any, run strictly
parallel, It has been said that all dolichocephalic races are prognathic, and have
woolly hair. I doubt whether this is true without exception ; but, even if it were,
it would not allow us to draw any genealogical conclusions from it, because there
are certainly many dolichocephalic people who are not woolly-haired, as, for
instance, the Eskimos.
Now let us consider whether there can be any organic connection between the
shape of the skull, the facial angle, the conformation of the hair, or the colour of
the skin on one side, and what we call the great families of language on the other.
* Not Huplo-comic, wavy-haired, es Prirton gives it.
* Brinton, Races «f People, p. 249.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 789
That we speak at all may rightly be called a work of nature, opera naturale, as
Dante said long ago; but that we speak thus or thus, cos? 0 cost, that, as the same
Dante said, depends on our pleasure—that is, our work. To imagine, therefore,
that as a matter of necessity, or as a matter of fact, dolichocephalic skulls have
anything to do with Aryan, mesocephalic with Semitic, or brachycephalic with
Turanian speech, is nothing but the wildest random thought; it can convey no
rational meaning whatever. We might as well say that all painters are dolicho-
cephalic, and all musicians brachycephalic, or that all lophocomic tribes work in
gold, and all lissocomic tribes in silver.
If anything must be ascribed to prehistoric times, surely the differentiation of
the human skull, the human hair, and the human skin, would have to be ascribed
to that distant period. No one, I believe, has ever maintained that a mesocephalie
skull was split or differentiated into a dolichocephalic and a brachycephalic variety
in the bright sunshine of history. 5
But let us, for the sake of argument, assume that in prehistoric times all doli-
chocephalic people spoke Aryan, all mesocephalic, Semitic, all brachycephalic,
Turanian languages; how would that help us?
So long as we know anything of the ancient Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian
languages, we find foreign words in each of them. This proves a very close and
historical contact between them. For instance, in Babylonian texts of 3000 B.c.
there is the word séndhw for cloth made of vegetable fibres, linen. That can only
be the Sk. sendhu, the Indus, or saindhava, what comes from the Indus. It would
be the same word as the Homeric o.vdey, fine cloth. In Egyptian we find so
many Semitic words that it is difficult to say whether they were borrowed or
derived from a common source. I confess I am not convinced, but Egyptologists
of high authority assure us that the names of several Aryan peoples, such as the
Sicilians and Sardinians, occur in the fourteenth century B.c., in the inscriptions of
the time of Menephthah I. Again, as soon as we know anything of the Turanian
languages—Finnish, for instance—we find them full of Aryan words. A\l this, it
may be said, applies to a very recent period in the ancient history of humanity,
Still, we have no access to earlier documents, and we may fairly say that this close
contact which existed then existed, probably, at an earlier time also.
If, then, we have no reason to doubt that the ancestors of the people speaking
Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian languages lived in close proximity, would there not
have been marriages between them, so long as they lived in peace, and would they
not have killed the men and carried off the women in time of war? What, then,
would have been the effect of a marriage between a dolichocephalic mother and a
brachycephalic father? The materials for studying this question of métissage, as
the French call it, are too scanty as yet to enable us to speak with confidence.
But whether the paternal or the maternal type prevailed, or whether their union
gave rise to a new permanent variety, still it stands to reason that the children of
a dolichocephalic captive woman might be found, after fifty or sixty years, speak-
ing the language of the brachycephalic conquerors.
It has been the custom to speak of the early Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian
races as large swarms—as millions pouring from one country into another. It has
been calculated that these early nomads would have required immense tracts of
meadow land to keep their flocks, and that it was the search of new pastures that
drove them, by an irresistible force, over the whole inhabitable earth.
This may have been so, but it may also have not been so. Anyhow, we have
a right to suppose that, before there were millions of human beings, there were at
first a few only. We have been told of late that there never was a first man ; but
we may be allowed to suppose, at all events, that there were at one time a few
first men and a few first women. If, then, the mixture of blood by marriage and
the mixture of language in peace or war took place at that early time, when the
world was peopled by some individuals, or by some hundreds, or by some thousands
only, think only what the necessary result would have been. It has been calcu-
lated that it would require only 600 years to populate the whole earth with the
1 Physical Religion, p. 87.
790 REPORT—1891.
descendants of one couple, the first father being dolichocephalic and the first
mother brachycephalic. They might, after a time, all choose to speak an Aryan
language, but they could not choose their skulls, but would have to accept them
from nature, whether dolichocephalic or brachycephalic.
Who, then, would dare at present to lift up a skull and say this skull must
have spoken an Aryan language, or lift up a language and say this language must
have been spoken by a dolichocephalic skull? Yet, though no serious student would
any longer listen to such arguments, it takes a long time before theories that were
maintained for a time by serious students, and were then surrendered by them, can
be completely eradicated. I shall not touch to-day on the hackneyed question of
the ‘Home of the Aryas’ except as a warming. There are two quite distinct
questions concerning the home of the Aryas. x
When students of Philology speak of Aryas, they mean by Aryas nothing
but people speaking an Aryan laneuage. They affirm nothing about skulls, skins,
hair, and all the rest. Arya with them means speakers of an Aryan language.
When, on the contrary, students of Physiology speak of dolichocephalic, ortho-
gnathic, euthycomic people, they speak of their physiological characteristics only, and
affirm nothing whatever about language. .
It is clear, therefore, that the home of the Aryas, in the proper sense of that
word, can be determined by linguistic evidence only, while the home of a blue-
eyed, blond-haired, long-skulled, fair-skinned people can be determined by physio-
logical evidence only. Any kind of concession or compromise on either side is
simply fatal, and has led to nothing but a promiscuous slaughter of innocents.
Separate the two armies, and the whole physiological evidence collected by
D’Omalius d’Halloy, Latham, and their followers will not fill more than an octavo
page ; while the linguistic evidence collected by Benfey and his followers will
not amount to more than a few words. Everything else is mere rhetoric.
The physiologist is grateful, no doubt, for any additional skull whose historical
antecedents can be firmly established ; the philologist is grateful for any additional
word that can help to indicate the historical or geceraphical whereabouts of the
unknown speakers of Aryan speech, On these points it is possible to argue.
They alone have a really scientific value in the eyes of a scholar, because, if there
is any difference of opinion on them, it is possible to come to an agreement. As
soon, however, as we go beyond these mere matters of fact, which have been
collected by real students, everything becomes at once mere vanity and vexation
of spirit. I know the appeals that have been made for concessions and some kind
of compromise between Physiology and Philology ; but honest students know that
on scientific subjects no compromise is admissible. With regard to the home of
the Aryas, no honest philologist will allow himself to be driven one step beyond
the statement that the unknown people who spoke Aryan languages were, at one
time, and before their final separation, settled somewhere in Asia. ‘That may seem
very small comfort, but for the present it is all that we have a right to say. Even
this must be taken with the limitations which, as all true scholars know, apply to
speculations concerning what may have happened, say, five thousand or ten
thousand years ago. As to the colour of the skin, the hair, the eyes of those
unknown speakers of Aryan speech, the scholar says nothing ; and when he speaks
of their blood he knows that such a word can be taken in a metaphorical sense
only. If we once step from the narrow domain of science into the vast wilderness
of mere assertion, then it does not matter what we say. We may say, with Penka,
that all Aryas are dolichocephalic, blue-eyed, and blond, or we may say, with
Piétrement, that all Aryas are brachycephalic, with brown eyes and black hair.!
There is no difference between the two assertions. They are both perfectly un-
meaning. They are vow et preterea nihil. May I be allowed to add that Latham’s
theory of the European origin of Sanskrit, which has lately been represented as
marking the newest epoch in the study of Anthropology, was discussed by me in
the ‘ Edinburgh Review’ of 1851 ?
My experiences during the last forty years have only served to confirm the
1 V. d. Gheyn, 1889, p. 26.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 791
opinion which I expressed forty years ago, that there ought to be a complete sepa~-
ration between Philology and Physiology. And yet, if I were asked whether such
a divorce should now be made absolute, I should say, No. There have been so
many unexpected discoveries of new facts, and so many surprising combinations of
old facts, that we must always be prepared to hear some new evidence, if only that
evidence is brought forward according to the rules which govern the court of true
science. It may be that in time the classification of skulls, hair, eyes, and skin
may be brought into harmony with the classification of language. We may even
go so far as to admit, as a postulate, that the two must have run parallel, at least
in the beginning of all things. But with the evidence before us at present mere
wrangling, mere iteration of exploded assertions, mere contradictions, will produce
no effect on that true jury which in every country hardly ever consists of more
than twelve trusty men, but with whom the final verdict rests. The very things
that most catch the popular ear will by them be ruled out of court. But every
single new word, common tv all the Aryan languages, and telling of some climatic,
geographical, historical, or physiological circumstance in the earliest life of the
speakers of Aryan speech, will be'truly welcome to philologists quite as much as
a skull from an early geological stratum ig to the physiologist, and both to the
anthropologist, in the widest sense of that name.
But, if all this is so, if the alliance between Philology and Physiology has
hitherto done nothing but mischief, what right, it may be asked, had I to accept the
honour of presiding over this Section of Anthropology? If you will allow me to
occupy your valuable time a little longer, I shall explain, as shortly as possible,
why I thought that I, as a philologist, might do some small amount of good as
President of the Anthropological Section.
In spite of all that I have said against the unholy alliance between Physiology
and Philology, Ihave felt for years-—and I believe I am now supported in my opinion
by all competent anthropologists—that a knowledge of languages must be con-
sidered in future as a sine qua non for every anthropologist.
Anthropology, as you know, has increased so rapidly that it seems to say now,
Nihil humani a me alienum puto. So long as Anthropology treated only of the
anatomy of the human body, any surgeon might have become an excellent anthro-
pologist. But now, when Anthropology includes the study of the earliest thoughts
of man, his customs, his laws, his traditions, his legends, his religions, ay, even
his early philosophies, a student of Anthropology without an accurate knowledge of
languages, without the conscience of a scholar, is like a sailor without a compass.
No one disputes this with regard to nations who possess a literature. No one
would listen to a man describing the peculiarities of the Greek, the Roman, the
Jew, the Arab, the Chinese, without knowing their languages and being capable
of reading the master-works of their literature. We know how often men who
have devoted the whole of their life to the study, for instance, of Hebrew differ
_ not only as to the meaning of certain words and passages, but as to the very
_ character of the Jews. One authority states that the Jews, and not only the Jews,
but all Semitic nations, were possessed of a monotheistic instinct. Another
authority shows that all Semitic nations, not excluding the Jews, were polytheistic
in their religion, and that the Jehovah of the Jews was not conceived at first as
the Supreme Deity, but as a national god only, as the God of the Jews, who,
according to the latest view, was originally a fetish or a totem, like all other gods.
You know how widely classical scholars differ on the character of Greeks and
Romans, on the meaning of their customs, the purpose of their religious cere-
monies—nay, the very essence of their gods, And yet there was a time, not very
long ago, when anthropologists would rely on the descriptions of casual travellers,
who, after spending a few weeks, or even afew years, among tribes whose language
was utterlyunknown to them, gave the most marvellous accounts of their customs,
their laws, and even of their religion. It may be said that anybody can describe
what he sees, even though unable to converse with the people. I say, Decidedly
no; and [ am supported in this opinion by the most competent judges. Dr.
Codrington, who has just published his excellent book on the ‘ Melanesians: Their
Anthropology and Folk-lore,’ spent twenty-four years among the Melanesians,
792 REPORT—1891.
learning their dialects, collecting their legends, and making a systematic study of
their laws, customs, and superstitions. But what does he say in his preface? ‘I
have felt the truth, he says, ‘of what Mr. Fison, late missionary in Fiji, has
written: “ When a European has been living for two or three years among
savages, he is sure to be fully convinced that he knows all about them; when he
has been ten years or so amongst them, if he be an observant man, he knows that
he knows very little about them, and so begins to learn.”’
How few of the books in which we trust with regard to the characteristic
peculiarities of savage races have been written by men who have lived among
them for ten or twenty years, and who have learnt their languages till they could
speak them as well as the natives themselves !
It is no excuse to say that any traveller who has eyes to see and ears to hear
can form a correct estimate of the doings and sayings of savage tribes. It is not
so, and anthropologists know from sad experience that it is not so. Suppose a
traveller came to a camp where he saw thousands of men and women dancing
round the image of a young bull. Suppose that the dancers were all stark naked,
that after a time they began to fight, and that at the end of their orgies there
were three thousand corpses lying about weltering in their blood. Would not a
casual traveller have described such savages as worse than the negroes of Dahomey ?
Yet these savages were really the Jews, the chosen people of God. The image
was the golden calf, the priest was Aaron, and the chief who ordered the massacre
was Moses, We may read the 32nd chapter of Exodus in a very different sense.
A traveller who could have conversed with Aaron and Moses might have under-
stood the causes of the revolt and the necessity of the massacre. But without
this power of interrogation and mutual explanation, no travellers, however graphic
and amusing their stories may be, can be trusted; no statements of theirs can be
used by the anthropologist for truly scientific purposes.
From the day when this fact was recognised by the highest authorities in
Anthropology, and was sanctioned by some at least of our anthropological, ethno-
logical, and folk-lore societies, a new epoch began, and Philology received its right
place as the handmaid of Anthropology. The most important paragraph in our
new charter was this, that in future no one is to be quoted or relied on as an
authority on the customs, traditions, and more particularly on the religious ideas
of uncivilised races who has not acquired an acquaintance with their language,
* sufficient to enable him to converse with them freely on these difficult subjects.
No one would object to this rule when we have to deal with civilised and
literary nations. But the languages of Africa, America, Polynesia, and even
Australia are now being studied as formerly Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Sanskrit
only were studied. You have only to compare the promiscuous descriptions of the
Hottentots in the works of the best ethnologists with the researches of a real
Hottentot scholar like Dr. Hahn to see the advance that has been made. When
we read the books of Bishop Callaway on the Zulu, of William Gill and Edward
Tregear on the Polynesians, of Horatio Hale on some of the North American races,
we feel at once that we are in safe hands, in the hands of real scholars. Even then
we must, of course, remember that their knowledge of the languages cannot com-
pare with that of Bentley, or Hermann, or Burnout, or Ewald. Yet we feel that
we cannot go altogether wrong in trusting to their guidance.
I venture to go even a step further, and I believe the time will come when no
anthropologist will venture to write on anything concerning the inner life of man
without having himself acquired a knowledge of the language in which that inner
life finds its truest expression.
This may seem to be exacting too much, but you have only to look, for instance,
at the descriptions given of the customs, the laws, the legends, and the religious
convictions of the people of India about a hundred years ago, and before Sanskrit
began to be studied, and you will be amazed at the utter caricature that is often
given there of the intellectual state of the Brahmans compared with what we
know of it now from their own literature.
And if that is the case with a people like the Indians, who are a civilised race,
possessed of an ancient literature, and well within the focus of history for the last
a"
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 793
two thousand years, what can be expected in the case of really savage races? One
can hardly trust one’s eyes when one sees the evidence placed before us by men
whose good faith cannot be questioned, and who nevertheless contradict each other
flatly on the most ordinary subjects. We owe to one of our secretaries, Mr. Ling
Roth, a most careful collection of all that has been said on the Tasmanians by eye-
witnesses. Not the least valuable part of this collection is that it opens our eyes to
the utter untrustworthiness of the evidence on which the anthropologist has so
often had to rely. In an article on Mr. Roth’s book in ‘ Nature,’ I tried to show
that there is not one essential feature in the religion of the Tasmanians on which
different authorities have not made assertions diametrically opposed to each other.
Some say that the Tasmanians have no idea of a Supreme Being, no rites or
ceremonies; others call their religion Dualism, a worship of good and evil spirits.
Some maintain that they had deified the powers of nature, others that they were
Devil-worshippers. Some declare their religion to be pure monotheism, combined
_ with belief in the immortality of the soul, the efficacy of prayers and charms. Nay,
even the most recent article of faith, the descent of man from some kind of animal,
has received a religious sanction among the Tasmanians. For Mr. Horton, who is
not given to joking, tells us that they believed ‘they were originally formed with
tails, and without knee-joints, by a benevolent being, and that another descended
from heaven and, compassionating the sufferers, cut off their tails, and with grease
softened their knees.’
I would undertake to show that what applies to the descriptions given us of
the now extinct race of the Tasmanians applies with equal force to the descrip-
tions of almost all the savage races with whom anthropologists have to deal. In
the case of large tribes, such as the inhabitants of Australia, the contradictory
evidence may, no doubt, be accounted for by the fact that the observations were
made in different localities. But the chief reason is always the same—ignorance of
the language, and therefore want of sympathy and impossibility of mutual expla-
nation and correction.
Let me in conclusion give you one of the most flagrant instances of how a whole
race can be totally misrepresented by men ignorant of their language, and how
these misrepresentations are at once removed if travellers acquire a knowledge
of the language, and thus have not only eyes to see, but ears to hear, tongues to
speak, and hearts to feel.
No race has been so cruelly maligned for centuries as the inhabitants of the
Andaman Islands. An Arab writer of the ninth century states that their com-
plexion was frightful, their hair frizzled, their countenance and eyes terrible, their
feet very large and almost a cubit in length, and that they go quite naked. Marco
Polo (about 1285) declared that the inhabitants are no better than wild beasts, and
he goes on to say: ‘I assure you, all the men of this island of Angamanain have
heads like dogs, and teeth and eyes likewise ; in fact, in the face they are just like
big mastiff dogs.’
So long as no one could be found to study their language there was no ap-
peal from these libels. But when, after the Sepoy mutiny in 1857, it was neces-
sary to find a habitation for a large number of convicts, the Andaman Islands,
which had already served as a penal settlement on a smaller scale, became a large
penal colony under English officers. The havoc that was wrought by this sudden
contact between the Andaman Islanders and these civilised Indian convicts was
terrible, and the end will probably be the same as in Tasmania—the native popula-
tion will die out. Fortunately one of the English officers (Mr. Edward Horace
Man) did not shrink from the trouble of learning the language spoken by these
islanders, and, being a careful observer and perfectly trustworthy, he has given
us some accounts of the Andaman aborigines which are real masterpieces of an-
thropological research. If these islanders must be swept away from the face of the
earth, they will now at all events leave a’good name behind them. Even their
outward appearance seems to become different in the eyes of a sympathising ob-
server from what it was to casual travellers. They are, no doubt, a very small
race, their average height being 4ft. 103in. But this is almost the only
charge brought against them which Mr. Man has not been able to rebut. Their
794 REPORT—1891.
hair, he says, is fine, very closely curled, and frizzly. Their colour is dark, but
not absolutely black. Their features possess little of the most marked and coarser
peculiarities of the negro type. The projecting jaws, the prominent thick lips, the
broad and flattened nose of the genuine negro are so softened down as scarcely to
be recognised.
But let us hear now what Mr. Man has to tell us about the social, moral, and
intellectual qualities of these so-called savages, who had been represented to us as
cannibals ; as ignorant of the existence of a deity; as knowing no marriage, except
what by a bold euphemism has been called communal marriage; as unacquainted
with fire ; as no better than wild beasts, having heads, teeth, and eyes like dogs—
being, in fact, like big mastiffs.
‘ Before the introduction into the islands of what is called European civilisa-
tion, the inhabitants, Mr. Man writes, ‘lived in small villages, their dwellings
built of branches and leaves of trees. They were ignorant of agriculture, and
kept no poultry or domestic animals. Their pottery was hand-made, their clothing
very scanty. They were expert swimmers and divers, and able to manu-
facture well-made dug-out canoes and outriggers. They were ignorant of metals,
ignorant, we are told, of producing fire, though they kept a constant supply of
burning and smouldering wood, They made use of shells for their tools, had
stone hammers and anvils, bows and arrows, harpoons for killing turtle and fish.
Such is the fertility of the island that they have abundance and variety of food all
the year round. Their food was invariably cooked, they drank nothing but water,
and they did not smoke. People may call this a savage life. I know many a
starving labourer who would gladly exchange the benefits of European civilisation
for the blessings of such savagery.’
These small islanders who have always been represented by a certain class of
anthropologists as the lowest stratum of humanity need not fear comparison, so far
as their social life is concerned, with races who are called civilised. So far from
being addicted to what is called by the self-contradictory name of communal
marriage, Mr. Man tells us that bigamy, polygamy, polyandry, and divorce are
unknown to them, and that the marriage contract, so far from being regarded as a
merely temporary contract, to be set aside on account of incompatibility of temper
or other such causes, is never dissolved. Conjugal fidelity till death is not the
exception but the rule, and matrimonial differences, which occur but rarely, are
easily settled with or without the intervention of friends. QOne of the most
striking features of their social relations is the marked equality and affection which
exist between husband and wife, and the consideration and respect with which
women are treated might, with advantage, be emulated by certain classes in our
own land. As to cannibalism or infanticide, they are never practised by them.
It is easy to say that Mr. Man may be prejudiced in favour of these little savages
whose language he has been at so much pains to learn. Fortunately, however, all
his statements have lately been confirmed by another authority, Colonel Cadell
—the Chief Commissioner of these islands. He is a Victoria Cross man, and not
likely to be given to overmuch sentimentality. Well, this is what he says of these
fierce mastiffs, with feet a cubit in length:—
They are merry little people, he says. One could not imagine how taking
they were. Everyone who had to do with them fell in love with them (these fierce
mastiffs), Contact with civilisation had not improved the morality of the natives,
but in their natural state they were truthful and honest, generous and self-denying.
He had watched them sitting over their fires cooking their evening meal, and it
was quite pleasant to notice the absence of greed and the politeness with which
they picked off the tit-bits and thrust them into each other’s mouths, The forest
and sea abundantly supplied their wants, and it was therefore not surprising that
the attempts to induce them to take to cultivation had been quite unsuccessful,
highly though they appreciated the rice and Indian corn which were occasionally
supplied to them. All was grist that came to their mill in the shape of food. The
forest supplied them with edible roots and fruits. Bats, rats, flying foxes, iguanas,
sea-snakes, molluscs, wild pig, fish, turtle, and last, though not least, the larvee of
beetles, formed welcome additions to their larder. He remembered one morning’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 795
landing by chance at an encampment of theirs, under the shade of a gigantic forest
tree. On one fire was the shell of a turtle, acting as its own pot, in which was
simmering the green fat delicious to more educated palates; on another its flesh
was being broiled, together with some splendid fish; on a third a wild pig was
being roasted, its drippings falling on wild yams, and a jar of honey stood close by,
all delicacies fit for an alderman’s table.
These are things which we might suppose anybody who has eyes to see, and
_ who is not wilfully blind, might have observed. But when we come to traditions,
laws, and particularly to religion, no one ought to be listened to as an authority
who cannot converse with the natives. For a long time the Mincopies have been
represented as without any religion, without even an idea of the Godhead. This
opinion received the support of Sir John Lubbock, and has been often repeated
without ever having been re-examined. As soon, however, as these Mincopies
began to be studied more carefully—more particularly as soon as some persons
resident among them had acquired a knowledge of their language, and thereby a
means of real communication—their religion came cut as clear as daylight. Accord-
ing to Mr. E. H. Man, they have a name for God—Péiluga. And how can a race be
said to be without a knowledge of God if they have a name for God? Piiluga has
a very mythological character. He has a stone house in the sky; he has a wife,
whom he created himself, and from whom he has a large family, all, except the
eldest, being girls. The mother is supposed to be green (the earth ?), the daughters
black ; they are the spirits, called Mérowin; his son is called Pijchor. He alone
is permitted to live with his father and to convey his orders to the Mérowin. But
Piiluga was amoral character also. His appearance is like fire, though nowadays
he has become invisible. He was never born, and isimmortal. The whole world
was created by him, except only the powers of evil. He is omniscient, knowing
even the thoughts of the heart. He is angered by the commission of certain
sins—some very trivial, at least to our mind—but he is pitiful to all who are in
distress. He is the judge from whom each soul receives its sentence after death.
According to other authorities, some Andamanese look on the sun as the foun-
tain of all that is good, the moon as a minor power; and they believe in a number
of interior spirits, the spirits of the forest, the water, and the mountain, as agents
of the two hicher powers. They believe in an evil spirit also, who seems to have
been originally the spirit of the storm. Him they try to pacify by songs, or to
frighten away with their arrows.
I suppose I need say no more to show how indispensable a study of language
is to every student of Anthropology. If Anthropology is to maintain its high
position as a real science, its alliance with linguistic studies cannot be too close.
Its weakest points have always been those where it trusted to the statements of
authorities ignorant of language and of the science of language. Its greatest
triumphs have been achieved by men such as Dr. Hahn, Bishops Callaway and
Colenso, Dr: W. Gill, and last, not least, Mr. Man, who have combined the minute
accuracy of the scholar with the comprehensive grasp of the anthropologist, and
_ were thus enabled to use the key of language to unlock the perplexities of savage
customs, savage laws and legends, and, particularly, of savage religions and
mythologies. If this alliance between Anthropology and Philology becomes real,
then, and then only, may we hope to see Bunsen’s prophecy fulfilled, that Anthro-
pology will become the highest branch of that science for which this British
Association is instituted.
Allow me in conclusion once more to quote some prophetic words from the
Address which Bunsen delivered before our Section in 1847 :—
_ ‘If man is the apex of the creation, it seems right, on the one side, that a his-
torical inquiry into his origin and development should never be allowed to sever
itself from the general body of natural science, and in particular from Physiology.
“But, on the other side, if man is the apex of the creation, if he is the end to
which all organic formations tend from the very beginning, if man is at once the
“mystery and the key of natural science, if that is the only view of natural science
ee
796 REPORT—1891.
worthy of our age, then Ethnological Philology (I should prefer to say Anthro-
pology), once established on principles as clear as the physiological are, is the
highest branch of that science for the advancement of which this Association is
instituted. It is not an appendix to Physiology or to anything else ; but its object
is, on the contrary, capable of becoming the end and goal of the labours and
transactions of a scientific association.’
Much has been achieved by Anthropology to justify these hopes and fulfil the
prophecies of my old friend Bunsen. Few men live to see the fulfilment of their
own prophecies, but they leave disciples whose duty it is to keep their memory
alive, and thus to preserve that vital continuity of human knowledge which alone
enables us to see in the advancement of all science the historical evolution of
eternal truth.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Social and Religious Ideas of the Chinese, as illustrated in the Ideo-
graphic Characters of the Language. By Professor R. K. Dovetas.
The paper begins with a short introduction, showing that the Chinese ideo-
graphic characters are picture-writings, and that as such they supply an interpre-
tation of the meaning of words as these were understood by the inventors of the
characters representing them,
Following on this is an account of the earliest or hieroglyphic form of the
writing, with examples, and the development of this resulting in the ideographic
characters. These are taken as being illustrative of the ideas of the people on
political, social, scientific, and religious ideas. For example, the importance which
was attached to the qualities of a sovereign is exemplified in the choice of the
symbol employed to express a supreme ruler, the component parts of which together
signify ‘ruler of himself.’ By means of the same graphic system a kingdom is
shown as ‘men and arms within a frontier.’ Passing to the social habits of the
people, their domestic life is illustrated by a number of ideograms descriptive of
their household arrangements and relationships. In succession are traced in the
written characters the ideas associated with men and women, their virtues and
their failings; the notions associated with marriage ; and the evidences of pastoral
as well as of agricultural habits among the people. Turning to the popular
religious faiths it is shown how prominent is the belief in the god of the soil, whose
presence brings blessings, and whose averted countenance is followed by mis-
fortune. The ideas associated with objects of nature are next treated of, and the
paper concludes with references to the coinage of the country as described in the
ideograms employed to represent its various forms.
2. On recent Progress in the Analysis of Vowel-sounds.
By R. J. Luoyrp, D.Int., M.A.
The object of this paper is to direct attention to three sets of researches which
have recently been carried on by three different observers in various parts of
Europe—viz., Professor Ludiman Hermann, of Kénigsberg, Dr. Hugo Pipping, of
Helsingfors, and the writer of the memoir. Pipping’s researches were carried
out by means of Hensen’s ‘ Sprachzeichner’ or ‘Phonautograph"! with certain
modifications. Hermann’s apparatus is identical in principle, but totally different
in detail.* The vibrations of a phonographic plate are communicated to a mirror,
and a ray of light is so directed upon the mirror as to record the vibrations of the
latter upon the sensitive surface of a cylinder revolving at some distance. The
writer's researches are based upon an examination and partial imitation of the
shapes of the cavities which are created in the mouth and throat for the produc-
tion of vowels, followed by calculation and observation of the resonances properly
belonging to them.
1 See Zeitschrift fiir Biologie, vol. xxiii. p. 291.
® Pfliiger’s Archiv fiir die gesammte Physivlogie, vols. xlv. and xlvii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 797
Pipping and Hermann have both given their attention exclusively to the sung
yowels. The writer of the memoir at first gave his attention exclusively to the
whispered vowels, but has endeavoured, in his published articles on speech-sounds,
since the appearance of the other writers’ results, to bring his results into touch
with theirs.’
The questions about which all three writers are more or less concerned are
briefly these: Has each vowel one characteristic tone, or more? What is this
concomitant tone (or concomitant tones) for each vowel? Is this tone (or are
these tones) of variable or constant pitchP Is it (or are they) harmonic,
in a sung vowel, to the note which is sung? Does the resonance (or do the
resonances) of a given vowel remain constant in the same individual through the
whole compass of his voice? If the resonances are plural, have they any fixed
relation to each other? These questions are answered differently by all the three
writers, who nevertheless present some remarkable points of agreement in this
hitherto chaotic branch of knowledge. The writer of the memoir is chiefly con-
cerned with the answer to the last of the above-named questions, believing that
all the leading vowels are distinguished by the possession of two resonances, not
fixed in themselves, but bearing a fixed relation to each other.
3. Family Life of the Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands).
By the Rev. Cuaries Harrison.
The Haidas seem to be related from the lowest in rank to the supreme chief of
the nation ; but they are divided into certain families or crests, and members of the
same crest are not allowed to intermarry.
The houses of the old Haidas are square and built with cedar hewn to
the proper proportions with stone adzes or axes, having been erected before iron
implements were known to the Haidas. Some of the houses are built over pits,
which serve as a protection from dampness, from smoke, and from sudden attacks
of enemies. In the centre of the pit isthe camp fire, which is kept burning day and
night during the winter months; and around it the Indians sleep and the children
play. The Haidas feed twice in the day—early in the morning and after the
day’s work is over. They have a great variety of food, and grow turnips, potatoes,
and other vegetables, sufficient to last them for the year.
Queen Charlotte Islands were formerly ruled by a single king, but now each
village has its chief, whose rank and authority are transmitted, at his death, to a
nephew or some other relative; but it is impossible according to Haida laws for a
son to succeed his father or even to take his name.
Infants are left much to themselves, but are seldom either bound to a board, or
tied up in such a way as to interfere with their movements.
As soon as a girl reaches puberty her lower lip is pierced, and the orifice is en-
larged from time to time, according to her marriage and the number of children she
bears, so that it is really a mark of caste.
Marriage is by purchase, but the choice is limited to members of a certain sept
or crest ; thus, the bear must marry an eagle, and the frog must marry a whale.
The children always take the crest of their mother.
There is no difficulty about divorce when man and wife tire of one another.
The women are very fond of ornaments; the younger ones wear earrings
similar to those worn by English ladies, while the ears of the older women are
pierced in two or three places, and pieces of bone and wood were formerly inserted
and worn continually. Nose-rings are still worn among the Haidas, but only the
old Indians have their noses pierced, and the ring is seldom used except when in
full dress for the dance or the feast.
The Haidas are tall and well-proportioned, and are exceedingly strong. Their
intellectual power exceeds that of the ordinary coast Indians. The older men have
no hair on their faces, but the younger men endeayour to cultivate whiskers
and moustachios in imitation of the whites.
1 See Phonetische Studien, vols. iii. iv., and y.
798 REPORT—1891.
Funerals are conducted with much ceremony, the preparations being made by
members of that crest from which the deceased was bound to choose his wife.
After the funeral is over ail the people are feasted by the deceased man’s nephew,
who then assumes his uncle’s title and property.
4, Report of the North-Western Tribes of Canada Committee.
See Reports, p. 407.
5. On the Work of Major J. W. Powell, Director of the U.S. Ethnological
Bureau. By Professor Max Mitgr, M.A.
Prof. Max Miiller stated that he had just received proof sheets of a most
important publication on the classification of the Indian languages spoken in
America. It is a splendid piece of workmanship from Major Powell, the inde-
fatigable director of the American Bureau of Ethnology. The publications of
that bureau count among the most valuable contributions to anthropological
science, and they reflect the highest credit, not only on Major Powell and his
fellow-workers, but also on the American Government, which has sanctioned a very
large outlay for the prosecution of these studies, There is no stint in the way in
which these volumes are brought out, and most of the papers contained in them
inspire the student with that confidence which can only be produced by honest,
conscientious, and truly scholar-like work. Our American friends have perceived
that it is a national duty to preserve as much as can still be preserved of the
languages and thoughts of the indigenous races who were the earliest dwellers on
American soil, They know that the study of what he himself had ventured to
call intellectual geology is quite as important as that of terrestrial geology, and
that the study of the lower strata contains the key to a right understanding
of the higher strata in the growth of the human mind. Coming generations will
call us to account for having allowed the old world to vanish without trying to
preserve its records, People who ask what can be the use of preserving the
language of the Mohawks forget what we should give if some scholar at the
time of Cato or Cesar had written down what many could then easily have done—
a grammar of the Etruscan language.
Some years ago Prof. Max Miiller succeeded in persuading a Secretary of State
for the Colonies that it was the duty of the English Government te publish a
series of colonial records containing trustworthy information on the languages,
customs, laws, religions, and monuments of the races inhabiting the HMnglish
colonies. Lord Granville saw that such an undertaking was a national duty, and
that the necessary funds should be contributed by the various colonies. What a
magnificent work this would have been! But while the American Government
has pushed forward its work, Lord Granville’s scheme expired in the pigeon-holes
of the Colonial Office. America may well be proud of Major Powell, who would
not allow the treasures collected by various scholars and Government officials to
moulder and perish. He is a true enthusiast—not a man of mere impulse and good
intentions, but a man of sustained effort in his work. He deserves the hearty
thanks of our Association, which Professor Max Miiller felt proud to be allowed to
tender to him in the name of the Anthropological Section.
A PPE Meee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 799
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Ancient Language of the Natives of Tenerife.
By the Marqczss or Bourn, K.T., Mayor of Cardiff.
The author read a portion of a long paper, written by him, On the Ancient
Language of the Natives of Tenerife,’ a language which must have become extinct
not earlier than 1650. . The paper was based upon the materials collected in the
second volume of the ‘ Estudios Histéricos, Climatoldgicos y Patologicos de las
Islas Canarias,’ by Dr. Gregory Chil y Naranjo, of Las Palmas, in Grand Canary,
published in 1889, with the addition of farther matter communicated by the
Rev. Claudio Marrero and Don Manuel de Ossuna, from their own researches, or
collected in the Canary Islands and elsewhere by Mr. De Gray Birch, of the British
Museum.
The author mentioned the disputed point as to whether the Tenerifan language
-was or was not cognate to those of the other islands of the Archipelago, and also
whether the inhabitants were of one or of several races. He confined himself
exclusively to the Tenerifan language, and explained the difficulties besetting the
study owing to the imperfect manner in which the existing remains have been
transmitted to us in a variety of forms of phonetic spelling by different more or
less illiterate Spanish writers. j
Three separate opinions have been maintained as to the nature of the Tenerifan
language, some holding it to be of an American family, some a Berber or African
dialect, and some Teutonic.
The author discussed at length a set of about seventy words which have known
meanings, comparing them with words of similar meaning in other languages, but
mentioned that a, vast number of other words are known which are either proper
names of places or the names of plants or other things generally peculiar to the
islands. He then analysed and discussed the nine complete sentences which are
known to exist and proceeded to give a summary of the results at which he had
arrived as to grammar. He considered it certain that there was a definite article
in ¢, to which, however, there was often given a modified sound like that of ¢ in the
English termination -tion, and that among the nouns a regular feminine was
formed by the termination -a. He considered it as in the highest degree probable
that a plural or dual of nouns was formed in -en, and that there existed a pre-form-
ative of greatness or holiness in hu-, and a post-formative of greatness in-to. Of
case endings nothing appeared clear, but the author considered it possible that a
possessive was formed for nouns, and personal terminations for verbs, by the addi-
tion of pronominal suffixes, that of the first person being -ec, of the second -¢, and
of the third -th, and perhaps of the second person plural -cra. He also thought
that the past tense may have been formed by prefixing ¢a- or ¢an-, and that there
may have been a conjunction wa.
Entering upon the question of a Berber or African origin, the author made a
comparison from ~-Basset’s ‘Manuel de Langue Kabyle,’ and, with regard to the
American theory, from Breton’s ‘Grammaire Caraibe’ and from Massi’s ‘ Manual
del Idioma General del Pert.’
The author concluded by expressing the hope that more matter may be yet
obtained, and greater results follow, from a deeper study of that which is known to
exist. He disclaimed the intention of propounding any dogmatic theory of his
own, but the general tendency of the paper was in favour of ascribing the
Tenerifan language to the Aryan family,
1 This paper has since been published in extenso by Messrs, J. Masters & Co.,
78 New Bond Street, London.
800 REPORT—1891.
2. On the Limits of Savage Religion.
By Epwarp B. Tytor, D.C.L., F.R.S,
In defining the religious systems of the lower races, so as to place them cor-
rectly in the history of culture, careful examination is necessary to separate the
genuine developments of native theology from the effects of intercourse with civi-
lised foreigners. specially through missionary influence since 1500, ideas of
dualistic and monotheistic deities, and of moral government of the world, have
been implanted on native polytheism in various parts of the globe. For instance,
as has lately become clear by the inquiries of anthropologists, the world-famous
Great Spirit of the North American Indians arose from the teachings of the Jesuit
missionaries in Canada early in the seventeenth century. This and analogous
names for a Supreme Deity unknown previously to native belief, have since spread
over North America, amalgamating with native doctrines and ceremonial rites into
highly interesting but perplexing combinations. The mistaken attribution to
barbaric races of theological beliefs really belonging to the cultured world, as well
as the development among these races of new religious formations under cultured
influence, are due to several causes, which it is the object of this paper to examine.
(1) Direct adoption from foreign teachers ; (2) the exaggeration of genuine native
deities of a lower order into a God or Devil; (3) the conversion of native words,
denoting a whole class of minor spiritual beings, such as ghosts or demons, into
individual names, alleged to be those of a Supreme Good Deity ora rival Evil
Deity. Detailed criticism of the names and descriptions of such beings in accounts
of the religions of native tribes of America and Australasia was adduced, giving
in many cases direct proof of the beliefs in question being borrowed or developed
under foreign influence, and thus strengthening the writer’s view that they, and
ideas related to them, form no original part of the religion of the lowerraces. The
problems involved are, however, of great difficulty, the only hope of their full
solution in many cases lying in the researches of anthropologists and philologists
minutely acquainted with the culture and languages of the districts; while such
researches will require to be carried out without delay, before important evidence,
still available, has disappeared.
&. * Couvade.’ By H. Lina Rota.
Couvade is the name of the curious custom which orders that when a child is
born the father takes to his sleeping corner and behaves as though he had brought
forth. The origin of the word is French, from cowver to hatch. To Europeans the
custom appears barbarous in its treatment of the wife, who has to get up and go
about her usual duties and perhaps now attend to the husband. Savage women
do not suffer in labour to the same extent as the more civilised women do; the
reasons for this are explained on physiological grounds. In this inquiry the suffer-
ings of the women may therefore be neglected. The geographical distribution of
the custom : it is met with in Europe, Asia, and mostly in America. Its existence
in Africa is doubtful. In the West Indies and South America at the present day
travellers frequently come across it asaliving custom. In Australia it is unknown.
It is mostly found to exist amongst people who live in isolated districts and who
appear to have been driven from more fruitful lands. It is not found amongst the
lowest class of savages nor amongst the highly civilised. Comparisons between
the state of the large continents do not explain the causes of its distribution, but
an ethnological examination will probably explain it. The reasons for practising
the custom given by the people themselves and the explanations given by anthro-
pologists and travellers are all equally at variance. Bachofen’s original theory
that the custom indicates the turning point in society from the maternal to the
paternal finds new support at the present day. ‘The apparent correctness of this
theory is most convincing, But if this theory be correct why is the custom not
found in Australia, where the great society change is going on at the present
day? Mr. im Thurn suggests that we should compare the custom with those
apparently allied to it, and so get at its origin. The custom as practised by
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 801
}
'
_ savages briefly summarised in a table shows that the savage believes that there is
some hidden link which binds the new-born child to its father. Many curious
beliefs are met with among the uncivilised showing similar belief in occult links or
bonds or lines of force. These forms of belief are usually described under the
_ general heading of witchcraft. Similarly in the custom of cowvade the action of
the father is to avoid bewitching his child, so that the custom, if not wholly an
explanation of the change of mother right to father right, may be in effect an
example of an aberrant form of reasoning.
4. On the ‘ Morong’ and other Customs of the Natives of Assam.
By 8. HE. Prat.
The author shows that the institution of the ‘ Morong,’ or club-house for the
unmarried of both sexes, is very widely distributed over the whole of the Indo-
Pacific region ; and he argues that it is in fact a relic of pre-marriage communism.
But this custom being so often found associated with others of a distinctly non-
Aryan character, such as juming, tattooing, blackening the teeth, building on piles,
head-hunting, &c., has led the author to suspect former racial affinity, even among
such widely distinct: types as Papuan and Mongol, Dravidian and Sawaiori.
1. The artificial blackening of the teeth is a fashion common amongst the Indo-
Mongoloids and Bengalese ; and there can be little doubt that the custom in some
_ way preserves the teeth from decay.
2. The dislike of milk among the races bordering Assam is very general, possibly
almost universal. é
. 3. The extension of the ear-lobes, by large plugs of various sorts, is a well-
_ kmown custom of all these races. The Miribelles have the largest ear-plugs of any
_ tribes in or about Assam; they are made of silver, and not unlike napkin rings, 2 or
_ 23 inches in diameter by 1 inch in depth, the outside being closed by a large
chased disc. The extended lobe passes round the ring in a wide shallow groove,
like a band of vulcanised rubber.
4, Numeral affixes are found in Assam, as among the Malays.
5. Head hunting seems to be slowly dying out amongst the most eastern Nogas,
and to the west of Dikhu River; but in most Noga tribes the young men cannot
be tattooed until they have got or actively assisted in getting a head, hands, or
feet of some Noga, not of their own or of a friendly tribe.
6. Tattooing in some tribes is on the face, in others on the body, and it is in
some way a record of the numbers killed.
7. Platform burial is general amongst the Nogas of East Assam for men and
adult women; it also prevails in Formosa, New Guinea, Borneo, Solomon Islands,
New Britain, and amongst Lushais.
8. Communal houses of great length, 100 and 200 feet, are common in and
ie Assam ; similar houses are found among the Dyaks of Borneo over 500 feet
in length.
9. Barracks for the unmarried young men, and occasionally also for girls, are
common in and around Assam, among non-Aryan races. The institution is here
seen in various stages of decline or transition. In the case of ‘head hunters’ the
young men’s barracks are invariably guardhouses at the entrances to the village,
and those on guard day and night keep tally of the men who leave or return.
They are also cuest and council houses; they contain skull trophies and the large
war drums, In all cases there seem to be old and peculiar laws attaching to them,
d in many instances they issue orders to the village. All these houses are
strictly tabu to married women.
10. Pile dwellings area leading feature among most of the hill races about
ssam, and the custom extends all down the peninsula, and throughout the
chipelago, to the Solomon Islands in the south and Formosa in the north. The
attern of these pile dwellings no doubt varies greatly, but there is a unity in the
neral plan which cannot be accidental.
11. The peculiar doukle-cylinder bellows, common in Burmah, Sumatra, Java,
adagascar, and the Philippines, is also used in and around Eastern Assam.
1891. 3F
802 REPORT—1891.
12. Bamboos pegged to a tall tree stem as a ladder are used in Assam and by
the Dyaks of Borneo.
13, The ‘jew’s-harp’ of New Britain, seen also in the Philippines, is very
common in the hills of Assam.
14. The perineal bandage of New Guinea is also common amongst the Eastern
Nogas.
“15. Nose-plugs, as in New Guinea, are seen among the Noga women.
16. Flat wooden discs on the posts of houses, to keep out rats and mice, abso-
lutely identical with those seenin NewBritain, are also frequently met with in Assam.
17. The hide cuirasses seen in the island of Nias, west of Sumatra, and cut
from a single skin, are an almost exact counterpart of those occasionally seen
among Nogas, and are both spear and arrow proof.
18. Panjis or bamboo spikes, planted for defence in pathways, are as common
in Assam as among the inhabitants of New Guinea, and form another link in the long
chain of evidence which tends to prove that the Papuan and Mongoloid are
descended from a common stock.
19. Hot stone cooking again is common in Assam as among the Papuans and
other races.
20. The custom of obtaining fire by means of a long piece of cane passed under
a dry log and pulled alternately by the right and left hand, so as to ignite some
tinder placed in a hollow underneath, is absolutely identical amongst Nogas,
Papuans, and the Dyalks of Borneo.
21. The huge canoe war drums appear to be the same as the ‘Lali’ or canoe
drums of the Fiji Islands, and both are placed in semi-sacred houses, the Noga
drums being in the ‘ Morongs.’ The notable feature in these last being that they
are veritable canoes, 20 to 30 feet long by 24 or 3 feet beam, hollowed out of a
tree stem, and in use by races who never enter, and in most cases have not seen a
canoe for ages.
22. Cane bridges identical with those seen in New Guinea are found everywhere
round Assam.
23. The system of Jum cultivation is pursued in and round Assam by most of
the non-Aryan racesin much the same way as amongst the wilder races of the
Indo-Pacific region.
24, The way in which Nogas and other hillmen notch footholds to ascend a
tall tree is absolutely identical with the custom of certain tribes in Australia, who
use stone axes.
5. Burial Customs of New Britain. By the Rev. B, Danks.
The grave is usually dug in the house the deceased inhabited while alive, or a
light structure is erected over the grave to protect it from the rain. It is gene-
rally not more than eighteen inches or two feet deep, and it is the custom for the
women of the family, and sometimes the men, to sleep upon it for a considerable
time after the burial. A fire is also very often lighted upon or by the side of it,
which is kept burning day and night for some time. S§metimes the grave is dug
out in the open and fenced round with bamboos, the enclosure being kept in good
order by the friends, who plant beautiful shrubs about it. They have also a
method of calling to mind the circumstances and mode of death suffered by the
departed by means of rude images cut out of the banana stem. Some havea piece
of wood suspended from the neck; others have pieces of bamboo thrust into
various parts of the body ; another may have a rudely fashioned tomahawk driven
deeply into it. The first shows that the individual represented has been clubbed,
the second speared, the third tomahawked. The old men then instruct the young
people in these matters, and this does much to promote blood-feuds.
Death is always the result of witchcraft, and details are given in the paper of
the manner in which the person who has caused the death is discovered.
Sometimes a body is buried in a canoe set on poles, and the author gives a full
description of a burial of this kind which took place on Duke of York Island, and
was witnessed by the narrator.
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 803
Large quantities of food and property of various kinds are destroyed by the
mourners, excessive grief being proved by excessive destruction; and all who
come to a funeral are rewarded by a present of shell-money and food. Female
mourners are always present, and are well paid for weeping.
Tn some parts of New Ireland the dead are buried in the sea.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
This Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Barbaric Elements in Ancient Greece and Italy.
By Prof. G. Harrwexu-Jonss, M.A.
___ The civilisation of Greece and Italy, which saved Europe from stagnation on both
sides, is valuable for the study of the growth of institutions; it was evolved slowly
from an original barbarism. But, as the classics are now read, their scientific value
is obscured.
Their history occupies a peculiar position: (a) geographically, they were
influenced by two streams of culture converging, the Aryan and Eastern; (0)
their growth was parallel; (c) both were similarly, but independently, affected by
immediate neighbours. ;
(i.) Whatever may be the truth about the seat of the Aryans, first they came
south by land ; secondly they brought with them a high capacity for development,
but were certainly not as advanced as Gobineau assumed.
(ii.) They were both affected by Asia Minor, Assyria, and Egypt, the North
Semitic races being their intermediaries.
The materials for reconstructing prehistoric society must be sought in archzeo-
logy, and nomology, as much as the science of language, this was seen by Hehn.
The purpose of this paper is to show by means of a few specimens the anthro-
ological value of the classics, aided by the excavations of Schliemann, Helbig,
Chierici, &c., and Sanskrit literature, in the (i.) material and social, (ii.) mytho-
logical and religious aspects of Greek and Italian life.
(I.) They passed through three stages:—(a) hunting, (4) pastoral, (c) agricul-
tural ; but the transition was gradual. The animals hunted were the stag, bison, and
robably the horse ; they used the fire-drill ; fishing wasa recent invention ; religion
was marked by ferocity. The change to agriculture humanised them ; they fed on
milk, meat, salt, spice, mead, and roamed in search of fresh fields. The ox left a
deep impression upon language, custom, and myth; it was the unit of wealth and
the medium of exchange; the horse was first used for the war chariot; the super-
yention of horse-breeding later is reflected in language. The word for harvest was
not known in the holoethnic period. Some tribes remained at the agricultural
stage throughout; others, e.g. the Dorians, retained their old passion. The pile-
dwellings of the terra mare reveal cattle-rearing giving way to husbandry and vine-
tulture; no doubt Epeiros would exhibit the same progress. The Pelasgoi were
essentially agricultural ; the transition in Italy is reflected in legend. The first
plough was the branch of a tree. ‘Tillage was practised before horticulture.
_ Agriculture left a deep impression upon language and life.
| The family was highly important in Gréek and Italian life. Marriage clearly
_ passed through the (a) capture, (4) purchase stage, and once polygamy prevailed ;
80, too, levirate, the vendetta, the suttee, but not polyandria, as Bachofen main-
' 3 F2
804 REPORT—1891.
tained. Their primitive savagery is proved by the destruction of the aged and
infanticide.
(II.) The erudest form of their religion is
A. Animism, really a-primitive philosophy. It may be divided into (a)
spiritism, (6) fetishism. In both the spirit is cajoled or overcome by magic. No-
where is the power of abstraction stronger than in Italy, to some extent owing to
the influence of Etruria ; the fear of these nebulous impersonal spirits and ill-omened
plants was common ; the fetish was widely distributed, e.g. the oracle of Pelasgian
Dodona, a kind of instinctive meteorology. Further, animism was (a) vague, and
(6) hypocritical.
B, Naturalism characterises Greek mythology especially. At this stage those
objects were chosen which bore some resemblance to man and promoted his welfare.
Magic gradually disappears, but the spirit is not omnipotent—he even betrays weak-
ness. Environment exerts an important influence here, e.g. in Etruria and Greece.
A kind of totemism frequently occurs, e.g. the Hera-idols of the megalithic tombs of
Mycenze. Ovid’s ‘ Metamorphoses’ was an attempt to account for the impersona-
tion.
C. Anthropomorphism is a nobler and more intellectual form of worship,
with which idolatry is closely connected; in Greece, which was influenced by
Phcenician art, it reached its perfection ; in Italy it remained an exotic in spite of
Etruscan artists.
Thus their religion was (a) developmental, (4) acquisitive.
It would be seen upon examination that
(1) Their primitive culture was on the level of that of many savage races of the
present time.
(2) The civilisation of Aryan Europe, as a whole, begins with contact with
the Hast.
(8) The criteria must be sought in other prehistoric sciences, not philolog
alone.
(4) Their civilisation is of paramount interest to anthropologists,
2. The Morocco Berbers. By J. E. Bupautr Muaxw.!
The people from whom Barbary takes its name occupy the mountain fastnesses
of the whole of the northern coast of Africa. Notwithstanding the numerous
invaders who have from time to time swept through the land, these hardy people
still retain their racial characteristics, language, and customs in a comparative state
of purity. They have, however, embraced Mohammedanism, in consequence of which
their lanzuage has become largely adulterated with Arabic, and many new cus-
toms have been introduced. In Morocco the Berbers have to a great extent main-
tained their independence, and military expeditions are undertaken annually to
control one section or another. Their weakness is their inter-tribal rivalry. The —
methods of self-rule employed in the independent districts vary considerably, in-
cluding representative assemblies, hereditary autocrats, and a species of combina-
tion of these two. Among themselves there is always warfare, and every traveller
must be protected by some member of the tribe he is visiting.
It is stilla moot point whether the Berber language should be classed as
Hamitic or Semitic. Though the construction, both of words and sentences,
resembles the Semitic, its vocabulary is entirely distinct from that group. In most
parts Arabic words have been introduced in great numbers. It has, however, no
literature. Only one or two works are known to have been written in it, and
those in Arabic characters. Its own characters are only to be found in inscrip-
tions, which are very scarce, and hardly known in Morocco. The word Berber
itself is of disputed origin, and, though used by some sections of the people, does
not to them represent the whole.
The Berbers are essentially warlike, and are proud of their bravery and independ-
ence. Cowardice is to them a heinous crime. In most other points each tribe
For some years acting editor of The Times of Morocco.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 805
differs from its neighbour. No description entirely applies to more than one dis-
trict, though much will be common to many. Some are religious, others indiffe-
rent ; some are steeped in ignorance, while in others even the women learn to read.
Dress and food differ everywhere remarkably, as also do minor social customs. A
all of gross superstition, nevertheless, casts its gloom overallalike. The physical
Pakaves of the Berbers are, on the whole, good. They are strong and wiry, with
much more energy than the Arab, or the mingled race of the plains. As a rule,
they are well-knit, and many have fine, noble figures. Their countenances are
often striking, and their looks keen and full of intelligence, though in cases de-
bauchery wrecks the system at an early age, but not so often as in the towns.
Their longevity is also greater, and their powers of endurance are wonderful.
Their hospitality, if not so profuse as that of the Arab, is sufficiently extensive,
and regular systems for the entertainment of travellers are in force. Monogamy is
more common than polygamy. Drunkenness prevails in some districts, but the
use of strong drink at all is looked upon as a vice. Marriage customs are peculiar.
In some places the women are practically sold by auction on the market once a
year, and may he divorced by being brought back there on the anniversary. In-
termarriage among the tribes is permissible, but not general. The Mohammedan
laws as to the bar of relationship hold good throughout. Punishments are not,
asa rule, severe, though great suffering is often inflicted upon the victims of
powerful members of the community by imprisonment in dungeons, and by the
bastirado. Criminals are subject to the lex talionis, which, as the source of the
vendetta, leads to much bloodshed and loss of life.
The chief festivals are those of Islim, though several have survived from a pre-
vious creed, of which little is now really known. Some of these would point to a
Christian origin, and many perceive traces of this faith among their superstitions.
The festival of Midsummer (St. John’s Day) is regularly observed, and it is a note-
worthy fact that the European calendar, ola style, is still employed among them.
The dress varies as much in the different localities as do the customs. In the
interior it is almost entirely of wool, usually unsewn, made of one piece and knotted.
A toga-like white blanket serves as overmantle. The most curious garment isa
black goat-hair waterproof hooded cloak, with an assegai-shaped yellow patch
behind. The manufactures, if rude in some parts, in others show a considerable
degree of taste, as also does the ornamentation of many of their buildings. Their
food is of the simplest, mostly consisting of cereals, meat being a comparative luxury.
‘Smoking is common in many parts, and the elderly men are often much given to
snuffing. Hemp is much used in the northern districts as a narcotic, with very
bad results.
The houses of the people are as varied as their dress. It is believed that they
were originally nomads, and to-day they occupy tent, hut, and house in one part or
another. Substantial store towers dot the Atlas and serve as citadels in time of
war. Almost every ruin is ascribed to European builders, but of history little is
to he found. There have been several Berber historians of note, who have written
in Arabic, some being translated, and several French scholars have paid consider-
able attention to this interesting people, of whom we even now know so compara-
tively little.
3. On the Worship of Meteorites. By Professor H. A. Newton.
The paper consists of a series of accounts of the worship of meteorites and of
yths and traditions pointing to such worship in early times. More particularly
re the indications of such worship that are found in Greek and Roman history
d literature put together. No attempt to discuss the relations of this worship to
he other worship of natural and artificial forms has been made.
806 REPORT—1891.
4. On Human Remains from the Duggleby ‘ Howe,’ Yorkshire.
By J. G. Garson, M.D.
The description of the exploration of this barrow was communicated at the
meeting of the British Association Jast year by the Rev. E. Maule Cole, M.A., and
is published in the reports of the meeting, page 979.
The barrow is a round one, and consists of a thick outer layer of rough chalk,
in which were found several secondary interments, consisting of burnt bones, the |
bones of horse and deer, some Roman and British pottery, and iron, bone, and
flint implements. Below this was a layer of Kimmeridge clay a foot thick, cover-
ing over the whole of an inner mound in which the skeletons to be described were
found. This inner mound was composed of two layers, an upper one of small
chalk grit 43 feet thick, and an inner one of clay soil in which the skeletons were
deposited. The implements found with them were flint flakes and worked flints,
the remains of Sus, beaver, Bos longifrons, and fox. No metal of any kind occurred
below the layer of Kimmeridge clay. In the centre of the mound was a large pit
or grave 9 feet deep and a smaller and shallower one by its side. The large grave
contained three skeletons and the skull of a fourth; over its mouth in the clay were
other three skeletons. In the smaller grave was a skeleton, and between the two
graves was another skeleton. Above the smaller grave were other two skeletons.
The majority of the skeletons were found lying on the side; in all cases the limbs
were drawn up and flexed. The directions in which the bodies had been placed
varied. A food vase was found at the bottom of the large grave.
Several of the skeletons were considerably decayed, others were those of
children, so that seven only were available for examination and the skull of an
eighth person. Many of the long bones were not preserved, but most of them
were measured at the time of excavation. These measurements were submitted by
Mr. J. R. Mortimer (under whose direction the exploration of the barrow was
conducted) to the author along with such of the long bones of three of the
skeletons as had been preserved. From the measurements of the lower limb-
bones of these three skeletons and those of the others measured by Mr. Mortimer,
the author finds that the average stature of the skeletons is 1:667 m. estimated
from the femur and tibia, and 1:665 m,. from the femur alone. The shortest had
an indicated stature of 1:555m. estimated from the femur and tibia, and of
1:546 m. from the femur. The tallest was 1:939 m. estimated from the femur and —
tibia, and 1:890m. from the femur alone. Excluding this very tall skeleton the
average of the others is 1'619m. from the femur and tibia, and 1:°642m. from ~
the femur. The femur of the tall skeleton has been fortunately preserved, and —
was measured by the author. ;
The form of the skull viewed from above is that of an elongated oval. In
most cases the walls appear very straight. The frontal region is narrow, and
there is no bulging of the occipital region, the outline being, as a rule, very regular.
The muscular ridges are feebly developed, the glabella and superciliary ridges are
also feebly developed. The face is generally long and narrow, the orbital axes are
depressed externally, the orbits themselves being in form either round, nearly
square, or broadened rectangular. The interorbital width is narrow. The lower
margins of the nasal openings are sharp. The maxille are orthognathous and the
incisor teeth are vertical. The chin is generally pointed and sharp. The cephalic
index of the eight adult skulls varies from 66°5 to 79°6. Five of the specimens are
hyperdolichocephalic, one is dolichocephalic, and two are mesaticephalic. The
cephalic index of the tall skeleton is 68°8. The other skulls found were those
of children, and are consequently not included. These eight specimens include all
the adult males found in and about the graves in the centre of the barrow.
In stature and the characters of the skull these specimens appear in all respects
to be identical with the specimens found in long barrows of the dolichocephalie
people admitted to be the earliest known inhabitants of Britain, whose skeletons
are still available for examination. They are found in the interior of this round +
barrow, it will be noted, associated with flint implements only, and with no trace
of the metal objects usually found in round barrows with brachycephalic skulls,
eee |
a a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 807
while these metal articles were found in the outer layer, which, from its contents,
is evidently of later date and superadded to the original inner barrow.
5. On Comparison of Ancient Welsh Customs, Devices, and Commerce, with
those of Contemporary Nations. By Dr. Punnt, S.A.
It was pointed out that the present age, which is one enriched from commerce,
science, and the arts, has, to a great extent, ceased to be influenced by heraldry,
which is naturally connected with military advancement. But that, as a matter
of history, the great influence it once had on the progress of civilisation in securing
victory or averting defeat made it a subject well worthy review.
Though no written code of heraldic law is known to have existed in ancient
times, yet the customs of different people in connection with their banners and
ensigns indicate the important part they bore among conquering nations.
It is shown from the writings of Sidonius Apollinaris and others, that the
Romans worshipped the image of the Emperor, which was attached to the staff of
the standard eagle and other devices; and Constantine, taking advantage of this
fact, and abhorring such profanity, placed the emblem of the new faith which he
upheld in the place previously so occupied. It is impossible to imagine a more
imperative call to conquest. The contempt with which the Romans at first treated
the subject, by elevating a tuft of straw on a pike as an ensign, was no doubt
changed on finding that the nations they combated elevated the objects they
worshipped, and became obstinately brave around them. ‘These being conquered
and amalgamated with the Roman soldiers would be allowed either to carry their
own banner or would see it at the head of their legion, thus preventing desertion
and ensuring allegiance. The eagle was the standard of the legions, but each
cohort carried a banner with a serpent woven on it called dracén (the dragon),!
which was carried by the draconarius. The Gauls and all the Gallic tribes are
shown to have borne the dragon, distinguishing their tribes by the colour of their
banner. Drayton gives the colour of the dragon of Wales to be red, and the
dragon of England white. The Bayeux tapestry shows the banner of William the
Norman to be the old Norse dragon, and he is also surrounded with dragon ensigns
of the Keltic people, whose alliance he hoped for, or had already secured. When
England and Scotland were at war, the great Scotch seals always exhibit the
dragon as supporters in the various reigns; there are always more than one indi-
eating the alliance with Wales, Ireland, and sometimes with Scandinavia.
The subject is of Oriental origin. Agamemnon had three dragons emblazoned
in brilliant colours on his breast-plate. The Trojans also used the serpent for a
device, it being sacred with them. When the two serpents from Tenedos had
killed the Trojan priest, Laocoon, who had offended Apollo, they calmly retired to
the shrine of Minerva, whose emblem was a serpent. She being the goddess of
wisdom, it is not improbable that the term ‘wise as serpents’ arose from this,
The Gallic dragon and the Roman eagle occupy equally the grand summit of the
old papal mint at Avignon.
Dragon ceremonies still exist in several parts of Europe, and till recently were
in use on the great main roads leading to Wales. On these roads are also vast
draconic simulations. There is a cave of worship at Sarphle, near Llangollen in
Denbighshire, beneath the head of a vast natural outcrop of white quartz, which
assumes the undulations of a huge serpent. The name of the spot is ‘ The Place
of the Serpent ;’ the traditions attached to it are extraordinary. The late Welsh
poet ‘ Ceiriog’ adopted his name—his family name being Hughes—from what he
called the inspiration given him at this place—the stream Ceiriog running at the
foot of the hill on which the serpent reclines.
This information was privately given to Dr. Phené, who now—the poet being
dead—considers it the property of the Welsh bards, it being, as it were, an
Inspiration from the Pythian Apollo of Parnassus.
1 Also called teatilis anguis.
808 REPORT—1891.
In Stow’s Annals an elaborate description is given of a procession of Queen
Elizabeth on a throne chariot having a Lion on one side and a Dragon on the
other, as supporters of the Arms of England.
Other customs of the early (Welsh) Britons were found to agree, like that of
the Draconarius, with Roman, or rather with Italian customs, for they still exist
in rural Italy. For example, the wooden constructions described by Cesar as the
residences of the Britons are still used in Latium, The one recorded to have
been the house of Romulus (Casa Romuli) was preserved by the Romans on the
Capitoline Hill till the time of Caractacus. Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions it
in his history of Rome only a few years before. The standard of Caractacus being
the same as that of the cohorts, and his appeal being probably suggested by the
‘humble cottage’ of their own founder, which was like his own, described by him
as being in Britain, would have had so startling an effect that there is no wonder
his chains were struck off. This singular fact shows that the customs of Italy
were not unlike those of the Welsh; though Caractacus and his relations were
pardoned, they preferred to locate themselves in Italy and did not return home.
There was reason to think, from recent discoveries, that the great trade in
metals and metallic works of art extended to the British Islands in times before
the Phoenician traffic. The bronzes of Etruria, as pointed out by Mr. Dennis,
have been found ‘from Switzerland to Denmark, and from Ireland to Hungary.’
This being so, and there being a chain of ports from Basta in Apulia, by those of
the Bastetani, the tin workers in Spain, the name of Bassenthwaite in Cumberland
and Bassaleg near Cardiff indicate a commercial connection between those places
and Italy. It is not improbable that Basselg was in remote times the name of the
port, as the word is equivalent to bright metal, and an old Italian word. If so, the
roads reputed to have been made by Mael Mutius to and from Caerleon, and the
local Venta are well accounted for.
6. The First Sea-Wanderings of the English Race. By W.M. Avams.
7. Points of Contact between Old-world Myths and Customs and the Navajo
Myth entitled ‘The Mountain Chant.’ By A. W. Bucxuanp.
In presenting a slight sketch of a very curious myth of the Navajo Indians of
New Mexico, which, under the name of ‘ The Mountain Chant,’ is given at length
in the ‘Smithsonian Report of the Bureau of Ethnology,’ vol. v., Miss Buckland
draws attention to the numerous points in which the myth reproduces customs and
beliefs of the Old World. Among these may be cited the singular prohibition
against eating food in the under-world or abode of spirits, such as appears in the
classical story of Persephone, but which is found slightly modified in the fairy
folk-lore of Europe, in Aino and Japanese tales, and in New Zealand. In the
American myth the prohibition is four times repeated in the abodes of gods in the
form of animals. Then there is the ceremonial cutting of the hair of children in
their fourth year, which is both an American and Japanese custom. The use of
the swastika is also traced, both among the Navajos and the Japanese, and in both
countries special reverence is paid to the cardinal points, which in America are
symbolised by particular colours. The ceremonial use of flint implements in the
Navajo rites is also noteworthy, and several other points in the myth denote a very
early origin.
The great peculiarity in the healing rites, which are held in connection with
the Navajo myth, are the use of sacrificial sticks, variously painted and adorned
with beads and feathers, and buried in accordance with traditional usage, and the
making and erasing, on the same day, of large sand pictures, regarded as of great
sanctity and special healing power, the pigments from the forms of the gods
depicted being applied to the similar afflicted parts of the patient’s body.
Miss Buckland points out the great contrast between these bloodless Navajo
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 809
rites and the sanguinary ceremonies of the ancient Mexicans, and the dissimilarity
in the forms of the Navajo and Mexican gods as denoting an entirely different
origin for the two religions, incompatible with the belief, commonly entertained, of
the wholly indigenous character of American culture, and believes that the Navajo
riles point unmistakably to an Eastern origin.
8. Hast Central African Customs. By Rev. James Macponap.
The author introduced the subject by a reference to the great dispersion in the
plain of Shinar, and the tenacity with which man had clung to the slender stock
of ideas in the land of his strangership.
The customs dealt with ranged over the whole domestic and social life of the
people. He began by an account of trial by ordeal which is universal in the Lake
region. The trial begins in open Court when evidence is led, but as it never occurs
to anyone to tell the truth, the cause is usually decided by the accused drinking the
poison bowl. If he vomits the poison he is innocent, even should he have been
caught red-handed. There are times when the poison bowl is administered to
large numbers by the magicians. This is to weed out thieves, wizards, and other
undetected criminals.
At puberty boys are circumcised, and girls go through a process of initiation
into womanhood. The former are now men, and discard all labour for the duties
of war and hunting.
A man who wishes to form a new village community selects a site and
strengthens his position by inducing others to join their fortunes to his; by the
purchase of slaves; marrying slave wives, and raiding with the view of capturing
slaves. When he has established his position, the village is recognised by the
chief and comes under the general tribal laws and customs.
Under these laws a man holds as many slaves as he can capture or purchase.
They are his absolute property, and the law permits a man to kill a slave, but should
he do so unjustly, ‘ the flesh will melt off his bones and he will die.’ Slaves have
a quasi right to property, and often get rich under their masters. Should they be
sold or die, the property reverts to the master.
Slaves and all property, as well as tribal and governing rights, descend not to
a man’s sons, but to his brother, the son of his own mother, or, failing that, to his
sister’s son. This is to make sure that the family blood is in his veins. Wives,
like slaves, may be had by purchase, by presentation, or by raiding. An unborn
infant may be—conditionally—hetrothed ; children of a few days old frequently are.
In all public undertakings the oracle must be consulted by means of divination.
This may be by pouring out flour, which if it forms a perfect cone is favourable,
or by shaking the contents of a gourd, teeth, pebbles, &c., and throwing them
down as dice. Even after the omen is favourable, a rabbit or snake crossing the
path on the first day stops the expedition.
Magicians have absolute power, and are in requisition in connection with every
detail of life. They practise medicine, detect witches, protect crops, and generally
are responsible for the conduct of all work during peace and war. The most for-
midable among them is the tribal prophetess. She sees the gods face to face, and
dreams dreams which pertain to revelation. Her oracles are received without
question, and when she orders a human sacrifice no one dare refuse her demands.
She travels about the country detecting wizards who cause sickness. This she
does by assembling the whole community, and, after shouting and ranting among
the crowd, touching each one’s hand. The wizard’s hand when touched is known
to her, and he is summarily disposed of, but not before she has proved his guilt.
This she does by finding the ‘horns.’ These are generally the horns of a small
antelope, which are par excellence witches’ horns, She finds the horns by ascending
beside the stream, passing the patient’s house, and at a certain spot, after much
ceremony, digging them from the ground, She, meantime, has spent the previous
night in the open air listening to spirit voices, while the villagers, on pain of being
accused of witchcraft, must remain indoors. When she orders a human sacrifice
’
810 REPORT—1891.
the victim is tied hand and foot to a forest tree and left forthe night. If devoured
by wild animals, the gods have accepted the offering ; if not, he is thrown into lake
or river or allowed to die of starvation. The slave was not worth the god's accept-
ance.
Like their Celtic sisters of the north of Scotland, African witches can by their
arts ‘steal the fret’ of cows and goats. To this also the prophetess must see.
Murder, adultery, arson, and other serious crimes are capital. The murderer is
handed over to the murdered man’s relatives to be put to death in the manner
most agreeable to their feelings. and fancy. Arson is a crime in which the
lex talonis is practised. House for house; field for field; the man’s wives and
family when he has nothing. Adultery and the law of marriage, in a land where
chastity is hardly known, is a curious jumble. Divorce is granted for all sorts of
small causes. Speaking disrespectfully of one’s parents-in-law, neglecting to hoe the
fields on the part of the wife, or the women’s garment-mending on the part of the
husband, is sufficient cause. At the same time adultery is punished in the most
barbarous manner. A suspected wife is made to fish up a stone from a jar of
boiling oilwith her bare arm. As the injury is slight or severe she is innocent or
guilty. If guilty, her head is placed in a huge kind of nut-cracker and squeezed to
make her confess her lover’s name. If she refuse, the torture may be continued
till the walls of the skull collapse. A man may have determined to get rid of his
wife because she neglected an afternoon’s hoeing, but should he find her in an
intrigue in the interval she is simply hacked to pieces. Some head men put all
male offenders to death as they might interfere with their harems.
War in South Africa resolves itself into a cattle hunt ; in Central Africa into a
slave hunt, at times, it is to be feared, into a mutton hunt, for prisoners are now and
then eaten by their captors.
Death is usually the work of wizards, and the magicians detect these, who are
put to death. The dead are mourned for by beating of drums, wailing and weeping.
Relatives shave their heads; in the case of a head man, the whole tribe do so. A
votive pot is placed near the deceased’s house where offerings are left. A slave
may be killed to be buried with his master, so that the former ‘ may not go alone.’
Mock funerals are common, at which the mourners attend to deceive demons, so
that they may not get hold of the spirit of the departed. In this case the real
funeral is conducted very quietly. Ancestor-worship is universal. The ancestors”
in the spirit-land are at peace. No Milton has set them by the ears. Lightning
as an impersonal god is worshipped by some. Spirits may re-appear in material
form, but never for good, always for evil.
Man and all animals came out of a hole in the earth which was ‘closed by the
great ancestor.’ Monkeys were then human, but having quarrelled with their
friends, went to live in the bush. To spite their relatives they began to pick up
seeds sown. This tendency became hereditary, and so it is that monkeys cannot
grow corn, as they pick up their own seed. Africans declare that monkeys play
with firebrands when men leave fires in the forest, which may explain the
wonderful sights witnessed by Emin Pasha.
The principal industrial arts are, working in metals and the pursuit of agricul-
ture. In the former the Africans are making steady and sustained progress. Tradi-
tion points to an age of wooden spades and hoes; now iron is universal. This
they smelt from its ore. In woodwork there does not appear to be the same pro-
gress made.
The minor customs and superstitions referred to incidentally by Mr. Macdonald
were very numerous, aud had reference to charms, sacred animals, how crows are
always looking for seeds lost by an ancestor of theirs, and many others which are
interesting not only to the ethnologist, but to all who wish to have an acquaint-
ance with the habits of life among savage men. The chief must show unbounded
hospitality, and the taxes must be light. How both these virtues are to be
practised jurists do not define, but it has a curious resemblance to what was com-
mon among the Celtic clans two or three centuries ago.
CO a
- +>
§
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 811
9. The Report of the Prehistoric Inhabitants Committee.
See Reports, p. 549.
.10. The Report of the Elbolton Cave Committee.—See Reports, p. 351.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. The Formation of a Record of the Prehistoric and Ancient Remains of
Glamorganshire. By Epwin Snwarp.
Glamorganshire possesses a considerable number of those traces of the existence
of man and his handywork which remain from the earliest historic and prehistoric
periods. In caverns and fissures of the mountain limestone cliffs of Gower, in
‘camps which crown their summits and those of the main ranges throughout the
county, in tumuli and barrows elsewhere, and in Roman villas and dwellings dis-
covered on the lower plains, are evidences of man through successive ages and
varying stages of civilisation. One feature of much interest is the number and
importance of ancient inscribed stones, many of which are still remarkable for
beauty and intricacy of design in spite of the careless or mischievous treatment to
which they have usually been exposed, even till very recently. In a district pos-
sessing heritages of such a kind, it is especially desirable that a systematic and
comprehensive means of registering each of these objects of value should be set on
foot and maintained, and that opportunities should be afforded for the further
investigating, recording, and classifying all Inown examples, whilst also offering
‘inducements and opportunities towards the discovery or efficient recognition of
fresh ones.
Apart from a descriptive record, it is sought to indicate the nature and locality
of these remains on maps, so as to produce a defined but progressive view of them
as affecting, or as affected by, topographical conditions. Mr. Seward outlined the
preliminary steps taken for organising the work of recording, and described a pro-
posed method of utilising the smaller sheets of the Ordnance Survey for map
purposes, showing also what has been done in the locality towards compiling a
photographic survey of objects of interest, prehistorical and archzological.
2. Instinctive Criminality : its true Character and National Treatment.
By 8. A. K. Srranan, M.D.
The instinctive criminal belongs to a decaying race, and is only met with in
families whose other members show signs of degradation. In fact, instinctive
criminality is but one of the many known signs of family decay. This is conclu-
sively proven by the fact that the criminal’s parents and relatives invariably show
signs of decay, and that he himself has, in common with the idiot—which latter is
the lowest form of human development consistent with a continuance of life—such
grossly degenerate characters as a small, overlarge, and ill-shapen head, paralysis,
squint, asymmetrical features, deformities; a shrunken, ill-developed body;
abnormal conditions of the genital organs; liability to tubercular disease ; prema-
ture decay of the tissues; large, heavy, misshapen jaws, outstanding ears, and a
restless, animal-like, or brutal expression. The instinctive criminal lacks the
moral sense as the idiot lacks the intellectual, and in both we find more or less °
deep degeneration affecting the whole economy, physical, moral, and intellectual.
Hereditary Character of Crime.—This has been known from very early times.
It was advocated and demonstrated by Aristotle, yet it is only recently that this
812 REPORT—1891.
view is approaching general acceptance. But what the writer wishes to impress
is not that criminality is hereditary, that now being generally admitted, but the
indisputable fact that it is interchangeable with other degenerate conditions, such
as idiocy, epilepsy, suicide, insanity, prostitution, scrofula, drunkenness, &c., and
that it is a mere chance whether the insanity or drunkenness, say, of the parent
will appear as such in the child, or be transmuted in transmission to one or other
of the above mentioned degenerate conditions.
Mode of Transmission Criminality here follows the same lines as other states
of decay. In some cases it is transmitted through several generations unchanged,
but this is rare. Occasionally a generation of criminals will appear in a decaying
family as a generation of deaf-mutes or epileptics at times appears in the family of
the scrofulous or insane diathesis. But in the majority of cases crime only appears
in one, two, or three members of the family, the others showing the taint in various
ways—e.g. one will be scrofulous or a deaf-mute, another insane, idiotic, or a
prostitute, as the case may be.
Chief Sources of Instinctive Criminality.—All deteriorating influences are
liable to result in crime as in other form of degeneration in the offspring. Alco-
holism, however, is its most fruitful source. Rossi puts the percentage of drunken-
ness in parents of criminals at 43-6, Marro at 41, Wey at 38:7, and Tarnowsky, in
the parents of prostitutes, at no less than 82°66. Here the environment must have
an effect ; but as education and example cannot account for the idiocy, epilepsy,
deformity, &c.,in the children of the drunkard, neither can it be held largely
responsible for the crime and prostitution. Insanity, epilepsy, and suicide are
often transmuted to crime in passing to the children. Of all persons convicted of
murder in England and Wales in the decade 1879-88, 32 per cent. were found
insane, and 32 per cent. more had their sentences commuted, many on the ground
of mental disorder, A neurotic family history was found in criminals in Elmira
Reform in 15:7 per cent. (parents alone); at Auburn, in 23:03; Rossi, 35.
Tubercular Disease is another cause. Great numbers of criminals are them-
selves tubercular—almost as many as of idiots—and it is common in their families.
Tarnowsky found a phthisical parentage in 44 per cent. of prostitutes.
Senility and Immaturity of Parents are also fruitful sources of crime in the
enfeebled descendants, as is proved by the statistics of Marro, Korosi, and others.
True Position of the Criminal.—He is not a free agent. He is as helpless
against his instinct to crime as is the epileptic against his convulsion, or the
suicide against the instinct which impels him to self-destruction. The great
stumbling-blocks to the recognition of the criminal’s true position are the doctrine
of ‘ free-will,’ and the belief that all come into the world with a certain regular
quantum of moral sense. These are fundamental errors. When we accept the
fact that moral feeling and volitional power are not unvarying gifts, but depend
as much upon the proper development and healthy action of the higher nervous
centres as does the exercising of any other intellectual function whatever, we shall
see that the suicide without reasonable cause, his sister who becomes a prostitute,
his brother who does murder at the command of a voice from heaven, and the
other member of the family who is an incurable thief, are all equally the victims
of a vicious organisation. This has been practically admitted by the recognition
of the dipso- and klepto-maniac ; but if justice is to be done, the system must be
largely extended. ;
Present Treatment.—The present system has proved a disastrous failure.
Short periods of punitive imprisonment can have no eflect upon the instinctive
criminal, either curative or deterrent. The records read in our courts daily prove
this, and the present system must go after the whip and chain of the maniac.
Proposed Treatment.—EKverything points in the direction of prolonged or inde-
finite confinement of the instinctive criminal and habitual drunkard in industrial
penitentiaries. Upon detection as such, they would be permanently confined, as
our imbeciles and incurable lunatics are at present, but with this difference. In
these homes the inmates would be taught trades, &c., and would receive, with
liberty to spend in any reasonable way, all they might earn over and above the
cost of their maintenance. This would not only protect society against its anti-
|
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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 813
social members, but it would protect these against themselves, while, by keeping
the sexes apart, it would have an immediate and marked effect upon the produc-
tion by propagation of the criminal classes. This system—at once Christian,
humane, and economical—has been tried with success in America. Lifelong
detention has not been found by any means necessary in all cases. Offenders
captured young and taught morally and intellectually so far as may be possible,
and also some trade, and made to feel that they really can earn an honest liveli-
hood, will benefit most. Many such may be given a chance outside under sur-
veillance, or may be turned free with safety to society; their anti-social instincts
being sufficiently blunted as to be overcome even under the feeble will-power of
their unfortunate owners.
3. The Anthropometric Method of Identifying Criminals.
By J. G. Garson, M.D.
In daily life cases of difficulty not unfrequently occur in the identification
of persons living or dead, or after accident, such as a railway collision, and in
police-courts it is especially common, for evil-doers make a point, as far as pos-
sible, of concealing their identity. In 1879 M. Bertillon submitted to the
Prefecture of Police of Paris a plan for the identification of criminals, founded
upon the measurement of certain bony parts of the body not liable to alteration
with age or accident. The plan had been adopted, and has been in use with signal
success in Paris since 1882. Before the introduction of Bertillon’s system, photo-
graphs and vague descriptions, much the same as those still used by the English
police, were the only means for identifying persons previously convicted of crime.
As time went on, the number of photographs of criminals increased so rapidly
that in a few years they exceeded 100,000, and it was found that the system was
almost if not altogether unworkable. By Bertillon’s system these photographs
and descriptions of criminals are divided primarily into three groups, according to
whether their stature is tall, medium, or short. By the length of the head, these
groups are still further subdivided into persons with long, medium, and short
heads, A third measurement, the breadth of the head, divides the number in each
group still more, according as the head is broad, medium, or narrow; and by other
measurements groups are reduced to a number of smaller ones. The various
descriptions and photographs are arranged in a series of drawers with subdivisions
corresponding to the different measurements and their subdivisions. When a
person is brought to the police-station, the first thing done is to ascertain if he
is an old offender, and has been measured before, by taking his principal measure-
ments and afterwards referring to the cabinet containing the descriptions and
measurements of criminals. The measurements one by one guide the officer to the
exact division of the cabinet where the description of the prisoner will be found.
Should the prisoner’s height when previously measured have been, say, just within
the tall division, and now is at the upper end of the medium division, the officer, on
not finding him in the medium division, would search for him in the tall group,
just as he would look for a word in the dictionary about the spelling of which he
was in doubt. The measurements relied upon in Bertillon’s system are:—(1) Height
of body; (2) length of head; (3) breadth of head; (4) length of middle finger
(left) ; (5) length of little finger (left) ; (6) length of forearm; (7) length of foot
(left) ; (8) length of span; (9) length of ear (right); (10) breadth of ear (right) ;
(11) length and exact position of scars, moles, &c.; (12) colour of eyes and hair.
The instruments used by M. Bertillon were exhibited, and the method of using
them was shown. The whole operation of measuring a prisoner and taking his
description occupies one officer and an assistant only seven minutes. The success
with which the system has been attended may be judged of from the following
facts: criminals who have tested the certainty with which they can now be re-
cognised seldom give aliases; the number of identifications of previous offenders
has greatly increased, and many known criminals have found it convenient to
change the scene of their actions to places where the system is not in force. In
the many thousands of cases tested there had not been one of mistaken identity.
814 REPORT—1891.
The addition to the measurements of the prints of the impressions of the fingers,
recently recommended by Mr. Francis Galton, would, in the author’s opinion, be
very valuable for personal identification. In conclusion the hope is expressed
that Bertillon’s system will soon be introduced into general use in this country.
4. Recent Hittite Discoveries. By Dr. Paené, F.S.A.
A careful description of the monuments now known to be Hittite, but which
term had not been used when Dr. Van Lennep wrote, was given, and Dr. Phené
was able to draw inferences from the examination of the monuments before they
were known to be Hittite, and the new light which Professor Sayce, Sir Charles
Wilson, and Professor Ramsay have thrown upon them. This was very interesting,
as the older drawings by Texier and other travellers were found very much more
to support the description by Herodotus than some of the new ones. And, while
they all alike tended to confirm the fact that they belonged to a special people,
who had a style of writing of their own, and which people and writings are now
known under the term ‘ Hittite,’ there was every reason to suppose the figures at
Nymphi were those of the Egyptian king, Ramses II., known also as Ramses the
Great, and also as Ramses—Sesostris, although ‘Sesostris’ was not found on his
monuments, and was perhaps a family name. Dr. Phené gave his own reading of
the symbols at Nymphi as follows:—The symbols are a crouching bird on a level
with the face of the victorious Sesostris, and close to it a sceptre; above it a sign
frequently found in Hittite inscriptions, of a staff with smaller ones on each side,
which symbol he considered was equivalent to the people—z.e. of high and low
degree; and following this a broken sceptre. The bird usually found in Hittite
inscriptions, as at Jerabis, is the eagle, and the position is one of majesty, which
he considered implied kingly power, and hence the crouching and humbled bird
was a king bereft of his power. The metaphor is purely Oriental, and in continual
use in the Hebrew writings, ‘a bird of the air shall tell the matter ’—‘ mine
enemies chased me like a bird’—‘they shall tremble as a bird out of Egypt,’
meaning clearly, escaped from the crushing power of Egypt. The broken reed or
sceptre is also continually used as a sign of weakened power, so that reading from
right to left the symbols read—The bird announces to the conqueror— The sceptre,
great conqueror, is yours’; ‘Great and small (¢.c. the nobles and people) follow; the
sceptre of the vanquished is broken.’ Several other of Dr. Phené’s readings, as of the
inscription on Mount Sipylus, were given, as very strongly to support the views of
Mr. Dennis as to this sculpture being the goddess Cybele, and not Niobe, and Dr.
Phené produced an ancient mace procured by him in Sivas, the head of which was
the same symbol, as appears in the inscription near the figure. Dr. Phené referred
to the valuable comparison of Hittite and Cypriote letters made by Professor
Sayce at the suggestion of Canon Taylor, and pointed out that the least powerful
one—that of o =u—was not only capable of amendment, but of being put beyond
question, as besides the evidence used by Professor Sayce, the actual V of the
Cypriotes appears in the Hittite inscription on Mount Sipylus. The author
further expressed his opinion that the figures at Iasili, Kaia, &c., were older than
the Assyrian sculptures, and that in them were the ideas carried out in Assyrian
art. The figures standing upon the animal forms in the Hittite carvings being
finally combined with the animals in the Assyrian work. Dr. Phené’s attention
was, however, more engaged with a remarkable Cyclopean temple on the Star
mountain near Tokat than with the rock sculptures, which, when he visited them
(and nearly all of which are illustrated in Dr. Van Lennep’s book), were generally
considered as a low class of Assyrian or Persian art.
One of the most important points of this journey had been the investigation of
Cyclopean buildings, and this grandly elevated temple, which is semicircular in
form, corresponds exactly with others he has found, one of which is in the centre
of the Island of Minorca, The one in Anatolia, which he considers was the great
temple of the district, is in the locality of the most remarkable Hittite sculptures.
It is on the most westerly and the largest of a number of mounds running from
east to west in a serpentine course. In conclusion, Dr. Phené described two
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 815
sculptured groups, which appear to give a complete representation of the story of
the Flood, and the district being so near Mount Ararat, it is less surprising that it
should be so, as Armenia abounds with the tradition.
5. Account of the Similkameen Indians of British Columbia.
By Mrs. 8. 8. Auutson.
The tribe at present inhabiting the upper valley of the Similkameen are imme-
diately descended from a small band of the warlike Chilcotins, who established
themselves in the upper valley of the river about a hundred and fifty years ago,
and intermarried with the Spokans. They have much deteriorated, both physically
and mentally, within the last twenty years, and are rapidly becoming extinct.
The average stature of the men is about five feet six inches; their frames are
lithe and muscular, and their movements quick and graceful. Their complexion
is very light, and they have small hands and feet. The colour of their hair varies
from jet-black to red-brown, and in some cases it is almost curly. They are born
horsemen and capital shots. The sharp horns of the mountain goat were formerly
fixed on shafts of hard wood and used as spears both in hunting and warfare ;
stone knives and hatchets were also used. i
The summer dwellings of the Similkameen Indians were made of mats of
cedar bark, manufactured by the Hope Indians, which-were thrown over a circular
frame of poles. The winter houses were simply pits dug in the ground and
roofed with poles and earth. All sickness was supposed to be the work of an evil
spirit, who fastened on a victim and hung on, drawing away his life, until charmed
away by the doctor, who worked himself into a state of frenzy, singing and danc-
ing while he was trying to lure the evil spirit from his patient. Many of the
medicine-men exercise strong mesmeric power over their patients, and they use
several herbs as medicines; their panacea for all ills, however, is the vapour-
bath.
When an Indian died he was laid out in state on a couch of skins; everything
put on the body was new ; his bow and arrows were laid at his side, along with
his knife. His friends then assembled round him to feast, and when the feast was
over his friends advanced, and taking his hand bade him farewell. Immediately
after a funeral takes place the encampment is moved, lest the spirit of the deceased
should revisit it.
A widow or widower is forbidden to eat meat and certain vegetables for a
month, and must wear quantities of spruce bush inside their shirts, next their
skin.
Cannibalism was never known among the Similkameens.
In the mountain is a certain stone which is much venerated by the Indians, and
it is said that striking it will produce rain.
Polygamy was allowed, and if the husband and wife tired of each other, the
price of the woman, or its equivalent, was returned by her father or guardian, and
the parties were then free to contract another matrimonial alliance ; but adultery,
though it was generally compromised, was sometimes punished by cutting off the
woman’s nose or slitting her ears.
Occasionally sick persons were buried before they were quite dead, and a good
deal of infanticide was practised.
The author has not found these Indians to be thieves, and gives them a general
good character in other respects.
6. Nicobar Pottery. By E. H. Man.
In a brief but fairly exhaustive paper on the pottery made and used by the
Nicobar Islanders, Mr. Man stated that the little island of Chowra has held for
generations a monopoly of the manufacture, and the entire work of preparing the
clay, as well as moulding and firing the finished utensil, devolves on the females of
the community.
816 REPORT—1891.
No traditions are apparently extant regarding the origin of the art, but a
superstitious belief is entertained that an earthquake or suddex death would result
from any rash endeavour to introduce the industry into any other island of the
Archipelago, and a case is cited which to the Nicobarese mind is sufficiently
confirmatory of the danger of attempting to act’ in contravention of the customs of
their ancestors.
The inhabitants of the island appear to guard somewhat jealously this their art,
and natives from the other islands, who accompanied Mr. Man when he was so
fortunate as to find the manufacturers at their trade, had never before been
permitted to witness the process now described in its various stages.
The value of ‘ trade-marks’ is recognised, and before a vessel is fired the device
of its maker is affixed; to their credit, be it noted, care is taken that the ‘rights’
of other makers are not infringed by the adoption of any symbol which might
lead to confusion.
The amount of pottery manufactured during the year cannot of course be
ascertained with any degree of accuracy, but it would seem to be considerable.
Experience having taught them that pots are more serviceable if allowed to harden
gradually, it is their practice to store all newly-made utensils on a lattice-platform
(lenpa) in the roof of their huts, where in the course of a year the combined action
of heat and smoke renders them hard and durable.
Indian pots and jars are readily purchased from the traders who visit the
islands from time to time, and these, though preferred to the home-made article
on account of their greater durability, are deemed unsuitable for certain of their
culinary operations. There is also a latent fear lest the local manufacturers—to
say nothing of the Higher Powers—should actively resent any exclusive use of
imported utensils.
No vessels are made specially by the Nicobarese for funeral purposes, but in
accordance with the almost universal custom of uncivilised races cooking pots are
among the personal and household requisites which are laid on a grave after an
interment.
Mr. Man illustrated his paper with two photographs, showing a group of
Nicobarese potters engaged upon their craft; he further expressly denied that they
had the knowledge of any implement answering the purpose of a ‘ potter’s-wheel.’
7. Report of the Anthropometric Laboratory Committee.
See Reports, p. 405.
8. Report of the ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ Committee.
See Reports, p. 404.
9. Report of the Indian Committee.
[The Committee were unable to present a Report this year. |
Pe BX
[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given.]
BJECTS and rules of the Association,
xxiv.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers, from commencement, xxxiv,
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, xliii.
List of evening lectures, 1x.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, 1xiii.
Officers of Sections present at Cardiff,
Ixiv.
Treasurer’s account, Ixvi.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, ]xviii.
Officers and Council for 1891-92, Ixx.
Report of the Council to the ’ General
Committee at Cardiff, 1xxi.
Committees appointed by the General
Committee at es 1. receiving
grants of money, Ixxvi; 2. not receiving
grants of money, Ixxx; other resolu-
tions adopted, lxxxiv; resolutions re-
ferred to the Council for consideration,
and action if desirable, ib.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, Ixxxv.
Places of meeting in 1892 and 1893,
Ixxxvi.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
‘scientific purposes, 1xxxvii.
General meetings, c.
;
Address by the President, Dr. William
Huggins,F.R.S.,F.R.A.8.,Hon.F.B.S.E.,
ke., 3.
bel (Sir F.) on the best method of esta-
_ blishing an international standard for
’, the analy sis of iron and steel, 273.
ee romhy (Hon. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 140; on
arranging an investigation of the sea-
' 1891
sonal variations of temperature in lakes,
rivers, and estuaries, 454.
Abney (Capt.) on electrolysis in its phy-
sical and chemical bearings, 122; on
the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 160;
on the preparation of a new series of
wave-length tables of the spectra of
the elements and compounds, 161; on
the action of light upon dyed colours,
263; on the absorption spectra of pure
compounds, 275.
Aborigines of Western Australia, Miss
KE. M. Clerke on the, 716.
Absolute units of measurement, by W.
Moon, 580.
Absorption of heat in the solar atmo-
sphere, W. E. Wilson on the, 557.
Absorption spectra of pure compounds,
provisional report on the, 275.
Acclimatisation, Dr. R. W. Felkin on,
715.
Action of light upon dyed colours, interim
report on, 263.
Action of screw propellers, by Major R.
de Villamil, 780.
Adams (Prof. W. G.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 149; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 152.
*Adams (W. M.), the first sea-wanderings
of the English race, 808.
Adeney (W. E.) on the formation of peaty
colouring matters in sewage by the
action of micro-organisms, 612.
Africa, the application of Indian geo-
graphical survey methodsto, by Lt.-Col.
T. H. Holdich, 717.
—-, south-west, the geography of, by
Dr. H. Schlichter, 719.
African, east central, customs, by Rev. J.
Macdonald, 809.
African lands, the comparative value of,
A. 8. White on, 715.
3a
818
Agriculture in India, the recent progress
of, by C. L. Tupper, 532.
Alcohol and ether, the surface tension of,
at different temperatures, by Prof. W.
Ramsay, 565.
*Alkaline hypochlorites, the action of
heat on, by Prof. H. M‘Leod, 609.
*Allen (A. H.), the reaction of glycerides
with alcoholic potash, 613.
Allison (Mrs. S. 8.), account of the
Similkameen Indians of British Co-
lumbia, 815.
Alloys, the electrolysis of, note on, by
H. C. Jenkins, 613.
Alloys of gold and tin, the existence of a
compound in, A. P. Laurie on, 607.
Aluminium, a latent characteristic of, by
Dr. A. Springer, 583.
Ammonites jurensis in the ironstone of
the Northampton sands, in the neigh-
bourhood of Northampton, E. T. New-
ton on the occurrence of, 655.
Ammonite-zones of Dorset and Somerset,
S. 8. Buckman on certain, 655.
Anatomical nomenclature, Prof. W.
Krause on, 682.
Anderson (Dr. T.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 321.
Anderson (Dr. W.) on the investigation
of the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386; on the
revolving purifier for the treatment of
water by metallic iron, 762.
Antarctic exploration, by E. D. Morgan,
71S),
* Anthropological Notes and Queries,’ re-
port of the Committee for editing a
new edition of, 404.
Anthropological Section, Address
Prof. F. Max Miiller to the, 782.
Anthropometric laboratory, report of the
Committee for carrying on the work of
the, 405.
Anthropometric method of identifying
criminals, the, by Dr. J. G. Garson,
813.
Antiquity of man, the relation of the
glacial period in North America to the,
recent discoveries concerning, by Prof.
by
G. F. Wright, 647.
— , the relation of the lava beds of
California and Idaho to the, by Prof.
G. F. Wright, 651.
Apparatus, a simple, for the cultivation
of small organisms in hanging drops,
and in various gases, under the micro-
scope, Prof. M. Ward on, 678.
Appendicularian ‘ haus,’ new form of, by
G. Swainson, 701.
Archean gneiss of the North-west High- |
lands, some recent work of the Geo- |
INDEX.
logical Survey in the, Sir A. Geikie on,
634.
Arlidge (Dr. J. T.) on the data available
for determining the best limit (physic-
ally) for hours of labour, 746.
Armstrong (Prof. H. E.) on electrolysis
in its physical and chemical bearings,
122; on isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 265; on the direct formation of
haloid compounds from pure materials,
274; on the absorption spectra of pure
compounds, 275; on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 383.
Art of observing, the, by J. Coles, 714.
Assam, the natives of, the ‘morong’ and
other customs of, 8S. E. Peal on, 801.
*Auburtin (F.), Le Play’s method of sys-
tematic observation, 747.
*Axon (W. EH. A.), the increase of food
and population, 747.
Ayrton (Prof. W. E.) on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 152.
and Prof. Riicker on the magnetic
field in the neighbourhood of the South
London electrical railway, 581.
Bacteria, nuclear structure in the, H.
Wager on, 681.
Badger (E. W.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
359.
*Bakhtiari country, the, and the Karun
river, by Mrs. Bishop, 722.
Balfour (Prof. B.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358.
Ball (Sir R.) ona geometrical illustration
of a dynamical theorem, 566 ; the cause
of an ice age, 645.
Ball (Dr. V.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 321.
Bamford (H.) on the investigation of the
action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386.
Barbaric elements in ancient Greece and
Italy, by Prof. G. H. Jones, 803
Barlow (W.) on the connection between
the crystal form and the chemical
composition of bodies: the symmetry
of crystals accounted for by the appli-
cation of Boscovich’s theory of atoms
to the atoms of the chemist, 581.
Barrett (Prof.) on the various phenomena
connected with the recalescent points
in iron and other metals, 147.
Barrington (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 363.
Bar-subtense survey, by Col. H. Tanner,
718.
INDEX.
Basalt, the specific heat of, Profs. W. C.
Roberts-Austen and A. W. Riicker on,
’ 610.
Bauerman (H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 312. ,
Beaumont (W. W.) on the internal and
external work of evaporation, 777; on
a new system of screw propulsion with
non-reversible engines, 779.
Beddoe (Dr.) on editing a new edition
of ‘Anthropological Notes and Queries,’
404.
Bedford (J. E.) on the collection, preser-
vation, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 321.
*Bell (Dr.), Colorado, 720.
Ben Nevis, meteorological observations
on, report of the Committee for co-
operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making, 140.
Bénier (M.), the Bénier hot-air engine, 775.
Bennett (A. R.) on the telephoning of
great cities, 769; an electrical parcel
exchange system, 774.
Bennett (A. W.), non-sexual formation
of spores in the Desmidiacezx, 678.
Berbers, the Morocco, by J. E. B.
Meakin, 804.
Bevan (Rev. J. 0.) on the upbringing of
__ destitute and pauper children, 745.
Bibliography of solution, fifth report on
__ the, 273.
Bibliography of spectroscopy, third report
on the, 264.
Bidwell (8.) on electrolysis in its physical
___and chemical bearings, 122.
Biological Section, Address (on growth-
_ curvatures in plants) by F. Darwin to
the, 660.
*Bishop (Mrs.), the Bakhtiari country
and the Karun river, 722.
Blandford (Dr.) on the present state of
_ our knowledge of the zoology of the
_ Sandwich Islands, and on the steps
taken to investigate ascertained defi-
ciencies in the fauna, 357.
Bles (E. J.) on the occupation of the
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 372.
loxam (G. W.) on the work of the
anthropometric laboratory, 405; on
the North-Western tribes of the
Dominion of Canada, 407.
oas (Dr. F.) on the Indians of British
Columbia, 408.
olton (H.), note on boulders at Darley,
__ near Matlock, Derbyshire, 650.
onney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
41; on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 276; on the col-
lection, preservation, and systematic
—
819
registration of photographs of geolo-
gical interest in the United Kingdom,
321.
Botanical laboratory at Peradeniya,
Ceylon, fifth report on the steps taken
for establishing a, 358.
Botany and zoology of the West India
Islands, fourth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 354.
Bothamley (C. H.) on the direct forma-
tion of haloid compounds from pure
materials, 274 ; *the interpretation of
certain chemical reactions, 612.
Bottomley (J. T.)°on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 152.
Boulders at Darley, near Matlock, Derby-
shire, noteson, by H. Bolton, 650.
Bourne (8.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 383.
Bower (Prof.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358.
Bramwell (Sir F. J.) on the advisability
and possibility of establishing obser-
vations upon the prevalence of earth
tremors, 333.
Bright streaks on the moon, the probable
nature of the, Dr. R. Copeland on, 576.
British fossils, the registration of all
the type specimens of, second report
on, 299.
Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
122; on meteorological observations
on Ben Nevis, 140.
Brown (J.) on electrolysis in its physical
and chemical bearings, 122; on Clau-
sius’ theory of electrolytic conduction,
and on some secret evidence for the
dissociation theory of electrolysis, 564.
Brown (M. W.) on the advisability and
possibility of establishing observations
upon the prevalence of earth tremors,
333.
Brown (T. F.) on the coal question, 736;
address to the Mechanical Section by,
749.
Browne (M.), notes upon Colobodus, a
genus of mesozoic fossil fishes, 644.
Bryan (G. H.) on the present state of
our knowledge of thermodynamics,
specially with regard to the second
law, 85; researches relating to the
connection of the second law with
dynamical principles, id.; on a simple
mechanical representation of Carnot’s
reversible cycle, 558.
Buchan (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 140; on arrang-
ing an investigation of the seasonal
variations of temperature in lakes,
rivers, and estuaries, 454.
3G 2
820
Buchanan (J. Y.) on arranging an inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and estu-
aries, 454.
Buckland (Miss A. W.), points of contact
between old-world myths and customs
and the Navajo myth entitled ‘the
Mountain Chant,’ 808.
*Buckle (H. D.), journeys to the Lake
Ngami region, 719.
Buckman (S. 8.) on certain Ammonite-
zones of Dorset and Somerset, 655.
Bund (J. W.) on arranging an investiga-
tion of the seasonal variations of tem-
perature in lakes, rivers, and estuaries,
454.
Burial customs of New Britain, by Rev.
B. Danks, 802.
Burroughs (8. M.), free travel, 740.
Bute (the Marquess of) on the ancient
language of the natives of Tenerife,
799.
Calderwood (W. L.) on recent investiga-
tions of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion (fishery and physical), 685.
Cameron (A. C. G.) on the continuity of
the Kellaways beds over extended areas
near Bedford, and on the extension of
the Fuller’s earth works at Woburn,
636.
Campbell (G. L.), miners’ thrift, and em-
ployers’ liability : a remarkable expe-
rience, 737.
Cannan (E.), recent changes in the dis-
tribution of populaticn in England and
Wales, 747.
Capital and labour—their differences and
how to reconcile them, by C. H. Fer-
kins, 735.
Capture of comets by planets, the, espe-
cially their capture by Jupiter, Prof.
H. A. Newton on, 511.
Carnot’s reversible cycle, a simple me-
chanical representation of, G. H. Bryan
on, 558.
Carpmael (C. H.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 149.
Carruthers (Mr.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 354; on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358.
Cayley (Prof.) on calculating tables of
certain mathematical functions, 129;
on carrying on the tables connected
with the Pellian equation from the
point where the work was left by
Degen in 1817, 160.
INDEX.
Changes in coast lines, by Dr. J. S.
Phené, 716.
Channel tubular railway, Sir E. Reed on
the, 758.
*Chatterton (G.), the Ystradyfodwg and
Pontypridd main sewera-e, 757.
Chattock (A. P.) on the discharge of
electricity from points, 139; on the
electrification of needle points in air,
565.
*Chemical reactions, the interpretation
of certain, by C. H, Bothamley, 612.
Chemical Section, Address by Prof. W. C-.
Roberts-Austen to the, 584.
Chinese, the social and religious ideas of
the, as illustrated in the ideographic
characters of the language, by Prof-
RK. Douglas, 796
Christie (W. H. M.) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 149.
*Christy (M.), trees and prairies, 715.
Chrystal (Prof. G.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 149; on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 152; on
arrangiug an investigation of the sea-
sonal variations of temperature in
lakes, rivers, and estuaries, 454.
Clark standard cells, the causes of varia-
tion of, by J. Swinburne, 576.
Clarke (W. E.) on making a digest of
the observations on the migration of
birds, 363.
Clausius’ theory of electrolytic conduc-
tion, J. Brown on, and on some secret
evidence for the dissociation theory of
electrolysis, 564.
Clayden (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 130.
Clerke (Miss E. M.) on the aborigines of
Western Australia, 716.
Clowes (Prof. F.), *an apparatus for
testing safety lamps, 611.
Clubb (J. A.) and Prof. W. A. Herdman
on the innervation of the epipodial
processes of some nudibranchiate mol-
lusca, 692.
Coal, the spontaneous ignition of, by
Prof. V. B. Lewes, 602.
Coal question, T. F. Brown on the, 736,
*Coaling ships, description of Lewis and
Hunter's system of, by C. Hunter, 763.
Coast lines, changes in, by Dr. J. 8.
Phené, 716.
Coles (J.), the art of observing, 714.
Collins (W. H.) on the comparative values
of various substances used as non-con-
ducting coverings for steam boilers and
pipes, 780.
Colobodus, a genus of mesozoic fossil
fishes, notes upon, by M. Browne, 644.
*Colorado, by Dr. Bell, 720.
|
;
INDEX.
Comets, the capture of by planets, espe-
cially their capture by Jupiter, Prof.
ff. A. Newton on, 511.
Comparative va) ues of various substances
used as non-conducting coverings for
steam boilers and pipes, W. H. Collins
on the, 780.
Comparison, a, between the rocks of
South Pembrokeshire and those of
North Devon, by Dr. H. Hicks, 641.
Comparison of eye and hand registration
of lines in the violet and ultra-violet
of the solar spectrum, against photo-
graphic records of the same, with the
same instrument, after a lapse of several
years, by Dr. C. P. Smyth, 573.
Compound principle in the transmission
of power by compressed air, Prof. A. C.
Elliott on the, 765.
Conception of direction, the importance
of the, in natural philosophy, E. T.
Dixon on, 572.
Confocal conics, the geometry of, by
Prof. T. C. Lewis, 570.
*Consumption, the cure of, in its econo-
mic aspect, by G. W. Hambleton, 747.
Copeland (Dr. R.) on the probable nature
of the bright streaks on the moon, 576.
Cordeaux (J.) on making a digest of the
observations on the migration of birds,
363.
Corresponding Societies Committee, re-
port of the, 41.
Cosmopolitanism and nationalism in eco-
nomics, by Prof. W. Cunningham, 723.
“ Couvade,’ by H. L. Roth, 800.
Cowper (EH. A.) on the advisability and
possibility of establishing observations
upon the prevalence of earth tremors,
333.
Creak (Commander) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 149.
Crick (W. D.) on the very fossiliferous
transition bed between the middle and
upper lias in Northamptonshire, 334.
Criminals, the anthropometric method of
identifying, by Dr. J. G. Garson, 813.
Crook (H. T.), suggestions for the revision
and improvement of the large scale
maps of the Ordnance Survey, 718.
_ Crookes (W.) on electrolysis in its phy-
: sical and chemical bearings, 122; *on
_ the electrical evaporation of metals
Crosskey (Dr. H. W.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
: and alloys, 607.
276; on the circulation of underground
waters, 300; on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 383; notes on
the glacial geology of Norway, 647.
_ Crystal form, the, and the chemical com-
position of bodies, the connection be-
tween, W. Barlow on, 581.
ella
821
Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Gill, distribu-
tion of, by J. T. Cunningham, 687.
Crystals, the symmetry of, accounted for
by the application of Boscovich’s
theory of atoms to the atoms of the
chemist, by W. Barlow, 581.
Cunningham (D.) on arranging an inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and es-
tuaries, 454.
Cunningham (J. T.) on the growth of
food-fishes and their distribution at
different ages, 685; the reproduction
of the pilchard, 686; observations of
the larvee of Palinurus vulgaris, 687 ;
distribution of Crystallogobius Nils-
sonii, Gill, ib.
Cunningham (Prof. W.), Address (na-
tionalism and cosmopolitanism in
economics) to the Economic Science
and Statistical Section by, 723.
Danks (Rev. B.), burial customs of New
Britain, 802.
Darwin (F.), Address (on growth-curva-
tures in plants) to the Biological Sec-
tion by, 660.
and D. F, M. Pertz on the artificial
production of rhythm in plants, 695.
Darwin (Prof. G. H.) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 149; on the advisability
and possibility of establishing observa-
tions upon the prevalence of earth
tremors, 333.
Davey (H.), sinking wells and shafts, 766.
Davis (J. W.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 321; on the cave
at Elbolton, 351; on the prehistoric
inhabitants of the British Islands, 449.
Davison (C.) on the advisability and pos-
sibility of establishing observations
upon the prevalence of earth tremors,
333.
Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
41; on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 276; on the col-
lection, preservation, and systematic
registration of photographs of geologi-
cal interest in the United Kingdom,
321; on the prehistoric inhabitants of
the British Islands, 449; on the dis-
covery of the south-eastern coal-field,
637.
Dawson (Dr.G. M.) on the North-western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 407.
Deacon (G. F.) on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386.
’
822
Deep-sea tow-net, for opening and
closing under water, report of the
Committee for improving and experi-
menting with a, 382.
De Rance (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 276; on
the circulation of underground waters,
300; note on the discovery of Estheria
Minuta (var. Brodieana) in the new
red sandstone, 644.
Desmidiacez, non-sexual formation of
spores in the, by A. W. Bennett, 678.
Destitute and pauper children, the up-
bringing of, by Rev. J. O. Bevan, 745.
Detrital tourmaline, the occurrence of,
in a quartz-schist west of Start Point,
South Devon, by A. R. Hunt, 643.
Dewar (Prof.) on researches on the ultra-
violet rays of the solar spectrum, 147;
on the preparation of a new series of
wave-length tables of the spectraof the
elements and compounds, 161.
Diastase in pollen, Prof. J. R. Green on
the occurrence of, 696.
Diastatic ferment in green leaves, the
presence of, by Prof. 8. H. Vines, 697.
Diatoms with pseudopodia, some species
of, J. G. Grenfell on, 680.
Dicotyledons, internal phloém in the,
notes on, by Prof. D. H. Scott, 696.
Didymium from different sources, Prof.
C. M. Thompson on, 611.
Differences, the alleged, in the wages
paid to men and women for similar
work, by 8. Webb, 742.
Differential equations, the duality of, the
transformations used in connection
with, E. B. Elliott on, 568.
Differential resolvent, the transformation
of a, Rev. R. Harley on, 566.
Disappearance of native plants from
their local habitats, fourth report on
the, 359.
Discharge of electricity from points,
report on the, 139.
Dixon (E. T.) on the importance of the
conception of direction in natural
philosophy, 572.
Dixon (Prof. H. B.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122.
*Dobson (G.), the Volta river, 722.
Domestic industries, the survival of, by
Prof. Gonner, 740.
Double lines in spectra, the cause of, Dr.
G. J. Stoney on, 574.
Double salt, the relation between the
composition of a, and the composition
and temperature of the solution in
which it is formed, A. Vernon Harcourt
and F. W. Humphery on, 608.
Douglas (Prof. R. K.), the social and
religious ideas of the Chinese, as illus-
trated in the ideographic characters
of the language, 796.
INDEX.
Douglass (Sir J. N.) on the investiga-
tion of the action of waves and currents
on the beds and foreshores of estuaries
by means of working models, 386.
Drift, notes of a section of, at Levens-
hulme, Manchester, by P. F. Kendall,
650.
Druce (G. C.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
359.
Dry gases, a simple apparatus for storing,
by W. Symons, 609.
Duggleby ‘Howe,’ Yorkshire, human re-
mains from, Dr. J. G. Garson on, 806.
Dunstan (Prof. W. R.) on the direct
formation of haloid compounds from
pure materials, 274.
Dyed colours, the action of light upon,
interim report on, 263.
Dynamical theorem, a geometrical illus-
tration of a, Sir R. Ball on, 566.
Earth tremors, the prevalence of, report.
on the advisability and possibility of
establishing in other parts of the coun-
try observations upon, similar to those
now being made in Durham in connec-
tion with coal-mine explosions, 333.
Earthquake and volcanic phenomena of
Japan, eleventh report on the, 123.
Earthquakes, phenomena which might
be observable if the hypothesis that they
are connected with electrical pheno-
mena be entertained, Prof. J. Milne on,
583.
East central African customs, by Rev.
J. Macdonald, 809.
Echidna aculeata, some young specimens
of, exhibition of, and remarks upon,
by Prof. W. N. Parker, 693.
Economic aspects of life assurance, J. M.
McCandlish on some, 739.
Economic Science and Statistics, Address
(nationalism and cosmopolitanism in
economics) by Prof. W. Cunningham
to the Section of, 723.
Edmunds (Dr. L.), the taxation of in-
ventors, 743.
Elbolton, near Skipton, the cave at,
report of the Committee to complete
the investigation of, in order to ascer-
tain whether remains of paleolithic
man occur in the lower cave earth, 351.
*Electric firedamp indicators, N. Watts
on, 773.
Electric motors, recent progress in the
use of, by Prof. G. Forbes, 771.
*Electrical evaporation of metals and
alloys, W. Crookes on the, 607.
Electrical measurements, report of the
Committee for constructing and issuing
practical standards for use in, 152;
—
EN I
INDEX,
report of the Committee appointed by
the Board of Trade, 154.
Electrical parcel exchange system, an, by
A. R. Bennett, 774.
Electrical radiators, with a mechanical
analogy, the action of, by J. Larmor,
560.
Electricity, the discharge of, from points,
report on, 139.
——-, the influence of the silent dis-
charge of, on oxygen and other gases,
provisional report on, 264.
Electrification of needle points in air,
A. P. Chattock on the, 565.
Electrolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, sixth report on, 122.
—., some secret evidence for the dis-
sociation theory of, J. Brown on, 564.
Electrolysis of alloys, note on the, by H.
C. Jenkins, 613.
Electrolytes, dissolved, some experiments
on the molecular refraction of, by Dr.
J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert, 609.
Electrolytic conduction, Clausius’ theory
of, J. Brown on, and on some secret
evidence for the dissociation theory of
electrolysis, 564.
Electrolytic problems, by R. L. Mond,
564.
Electromagnetic theory of the rotation
of the plane of polarised light, Prof. A.
Gray on the, 558.
Electromagnetic waves in wires, the pro-
pagation of, W. Thorp’on, 562.
Electro-optics, second (interim) report
on researches on, 147.
Electrostatic and electromagnetic mea-
sures, the conversion of, into one
another, Dr. G. J. Stoney on a table to
facilitate, 577.
Elliott (Prof. A. C.) on the compound
principle in the transmission of power
_ by compressed air, 765.
Elliott (EK. B.) on the transformations
used in connection with the duality of
differential equations, 568; note on a
method of research for invariants, ib.
Ellis (W.) on the best means of com-
paring and reducing magnetic obser-
vations, 149.
Employers’ liability, miners’ thrift and :
a remarkable experience, by G, L.
Campbell, 737.
Epipodial processes of some nudibranchi-
ate mollusca, the innervation of the,
Prof. W. A. Herdman and J. A. Clubb
on, 692.
Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Ireland, nineteenth report on the, 276.
Estheria Minuta (var. Brodieana) in the
new red sandstone, note on the dis-
covery of, by C. E. De Rance, 644.
hn Estuaries, model, Professor O. Reynolds
on, 387.
823
Ether and alcohol, the surface-tension
of, at different temperatures, by Prof.
W. Ramsay, 565.
Etheridge (R.) on the earthquake and
volcanic phenomena of Japan, 123;
on the registration of all the type
specimens of British fossils, 299.
Evans (Dr. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 41;
on the advisability and possibility of
establishing observations upon the
prevalence of earth tremors, 333; on
the cave at Elbolton, 351; on excava-
tions at Oldbury Hill, near Ightham,
353; on the prehistoric inhabitants of
the British Islands, 449,
Evaporation, the internal and external
work of, W. W. Beaumont on, 777.
Everett (Prof.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 152.
Ewart (Prof. C.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 365.
Ewing (Prof.) on the advisability and
possibility of establishing observations
upon the prevalence of earth tremors,
333.
Faija (H.) on some of the peculiarities
to be observed in Portland cements,
and on the most advanced methods
for determining their constructive
value, 764.
Feilden (Col.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate
ascertained deficiencies in the fauna
and flora, 354.
Felkin (Dr. R. W.) on acclimatisation,
715.
Ferns, prothalli and the propagation of,
facts regarding, by E. J. Lowe, 687.
and their multiple parents, E. J.
Lowe on, 688.
*Fertilisation and conjugation processes
as allied modes of protoplasmic re-
juvenescence, Prof. M. Hartog on, 683.
Festing (Gen.) on the absorption spectra
of pure compounds, 275.
Field of geography, the, by E.G. Raven-
stein, 703.
*Firedamp indicators, electric, N. Watts
on, 773.
Fishes, the living, the arrangement of,
as based upon the study of their re-
productive system, Prof. G. B. Howes
on, 694.
Fitzgerald (Prof. G. F.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on the various phenomena connected
with the recalescent points in iron and
other metals, 147; on standards for
824
use in electrical measurements, 152;
on arranging an investigation of the
seasonal variations in the temperature
of lakes, rivers, and estuaries, 454.
Fleming (Dr. J. A.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122 ;
on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 152.
*Floating leaves, Prof. Miall on, 695.
Florida, the physical and industrial
geography of, by A. Montefiore, 720.
Flower (Prof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate
ascertained deficiencies in the fauna
and flora, 354 ; on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, and on the steps
taken to investigate ascertained defi-
ciencies in the fauna, 357; on the
occupation of a table at the labora-
tory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion at Plymouth, 364; on editing a
new edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes
and Queries,’ 404; on the work of the
anthropometric laboratory, 405.
*Food and population, the increase of,
by W. E. A. Axon, 747.
Food-fishes, the growth of, and their
distribution at different ages, J. T.
Cunningham on, 685.
Forbes (Prof. G.), recent progress in the
use of electric motors, 771.
Forsyth (A. R.) on carrying on the tables
connected with the Pellian equation
from the point where the work was
left by Degen in 1817, 160.
Fossiliferous transition bed, the very,
between the middle and upper lias
in Northamptonshire, report of the
Committee appointed to work, in order
to obtain a more clear idea of its
fauna, and to fix the position of cer-
tain species of fossil fish, and more
fully investigate the horizon on which
they occur, 334.
Foster (Prof. G. C.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearinys, 122;
on the discharge of electricity from
points, 139; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 152.
Foster (Prof. M.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358; on the occu-
pation of a table at the laboratory of
the Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth, 364; on the occupation of
a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 365.
Fox-Strangeways (C.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 300.
Frankland (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122.
INDEX,
*Fream (W.) on the recent visitation of
Plutella Crucifera, 695.
Free travel, by 8S. M. Burroughs, 740.
Friendly Islands, the natural history of
the, the progress of the investigation
of, J. J. Lister on, 679.
Fuller’s earth works at Woburn, the
extension of the, A. C. G. Cameron on,
636.
Furnivall (W. C.), railway communica-
tions of India, 744.
Galton (Sir D.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
41; on the circulation of underground
waters, 300.
Galton (F.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 41; on
editing a new edition of ‘ Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries,’ 404.
Gardiner (W.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358.
Garnett (Prof. W.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 152.
Garson (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
41; on the cave at Elbolton, 351;
on editing a new edition of ‘ Anthro-
pological Notes and Queries,’ 404; on
the work of the anthropometric
laboratory, 405; on human remains
from the Duggleby ‘Howe,’ Yorkshire,
806; the anthropometric method of
identifying criminals, 813.
Geikie (Sir A.), discovery of the Olenellus-
zone in the North-west Highlands, 633 ;
on some recent work of the Geological
Survey in the archzan gneiss of the
North-west Highlands, 634.
Geikie (Prof. J.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 321.
Genese (Prof. R. W.), some tangential
transformations, including Laguerre’s
semi-droites réciproques, 571.
Geographical progress, recent, in Great
Britain, by J. 8. Keltie, 714.
Geographical Section, Address (the field
of geography) by E. G. Ravenstein to
the, 703. ;
*___, —__, explanation of a series of
maps illustrating, 718.
Geological Section, Address by Prof.
T. R. Jones to the, 614.
Geology of petroleum and natural gas,
the, by W. Topley, 637. ;
Geometrical illustration of a dynamical
theorem, Sir R. Ball on a, 566.
Geometry of confocal conics, the, by
Prof. T. C. Lewis, 570.
George (T. G.) on the very fossiliferous
niet A OL POP 0 SE
eee. 6S
ae
INDEX.
transition bed between the middle and
upper lias in Northamptonshire, 334.
German invalidity and superannuation
law, the, L. Tylor on, and on State
provision against sickness and old age,
739.
Gibbs (Prof. Wolcott) on the preparation
of a new series of wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 161.
Gills of fishes, the customary methods of
describing the, Prof. G. B. Howes on,
702.
Gilson (Prof.), the ciliated organs of the
leeches, 690.
Glacial action in Pembrokeshire, on the
evidences of, and the direction of the
ice-flow, by Dr. H. Hicks, 649.
Glacial geoiogy of Norway, notes on the,
by Dr. H. W. Crosskey, 647.
Glacial period in North America, the rela-
tion of, to the antiquity of man, recent
discoveries concerning, by Prof. G. F.
Wright, 647.
Gladstone (G.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 383.
Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
122; on the teaching of science in
elementary schools, 383.
—— and W. Hibbert, some experiments
on the molecular refraction of dissolved
electrolytes, 609.
Glaisher(J.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 300; on the advisability
and possibility of establishing observa-
tions upon the prevalence of earth
tremors, 333.
Glaisher (Dr. J. W. L.), on calculating
tables of certain mathematical func-
_ tions, 129.
Glazebrook (R. T.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on researches on electro-optics, 147 ;
on standards for use in electrical mea-
surements, 152.
*Glycerides, the reaction of, with alco-
holic potash, by A. H. Allen, 613.
Godman (F. Du C.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 354.
Gonner (Prof.), the survival of domestic
industries, 740-
Gray (Prof. A.) on the electromagnetic
theory of the rotation of the plane of
polarised light, 558.
Gray (Prof. T.) on the earthquake and
volcanic phenomena of Japan, 123 ; on
standards for use in electrical measure-
ments, 152; on the advisability and
possibility of establishing observations '
825
upon the prevalence of earth tremors,
333.
| Gray (W.) on the collection, preservation,
and systematic registration of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 321.
Green (Prof. J. R.) on the occurrence of
diastase in pollen, 696.
Greenhill (Prof. A. G.) on calculating
tables of certain mathematical func-
tions, 129.
Grenfell (J. G.) on some species of dia-
toms with pseudopodia, 680.
Growth-curvatures in plants, F. Darwin
on, 660.
Giinther (Dr.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
denciencies in the fauna and flora,
354.
Haddon (Prof. A. C.) on improving and
experimenting with a deep-sea tow-net
for opening and closing under water,
382.
Hadfield (R. A.) on the various phenomena
connected with the recalescent points
in iron and other metals, 147.
Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands), family
life of the, by Rev. C. Harrison, 797.
Hale (Prof. G. E.), the ultra-violet spec-
trum of the solar prominences, 557.
Haliburton (R. G.) on the North-western _
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 407.
Haloid compounds, the direct formation
of, from pure materials, provisional
report on, 274.
*Hambleton (G. W.), the cure of consump-
tion in its economic aspect, 747.
Harcourt (A. Vernon) and F. W. Humph-
ery on the relation between the com-
pesition of a double salt and the com-
positionand temperature of the solution
in which it is formed, 608
Harcourt (L. F. Vernon), the river Usk
and the harbour of Newport, 757.
Harley (Rev. R.) on the transformation
of a differential resolvent, 566.
Harmer (S. F.) on the occupation of a
table at the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth,
364.
Harrison (B.) on excavations at Oldbury
Hill, near Ightham, 353.
Harrison (Rev. C.), family life of the
Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands), 797.
*Harrison (T.) and Prof. J. V. Jones on
the periodic time of tuning-forks
maintained in vibration electrically,
581.
Hartley (Prof) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122;
’
826
on the preparation of a new series of
wave-length tables of the spectra of
the elements and compounds, 161,
Hartog (Prof. M.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358; *on fertilisa-
tion and conjugation processes as allied
modes of protoplasmic rejuvenescence,
683; a preliminary classification of
sexual and allied modes of protoplas- |
mic rejuvenescence, &c., ib.
Harvie-Brown (J. A.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration
of birds, 363. :
Heat, the absorption of, in the solar at-
mosphere, W. E. Wilson on, 557.
*Heating and ventilation of buildings,
mechanical, by W. Key, 758.
Herdman (Prof. W. A.) on improving
and experimenting with a deep-sea
tow-net for opening and closing under
water, 382.
of the epipodial processes of some
nudibranchiate mollusca, 692.
Hertzian oscillations along wires, the
measurement of stationary, and the
damping of electric waves, Prof. D. E.
Jones on, 561.
Heywood (J.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 383.
Hibbert (W.) and Dr. J.. H. Gladstone,
some experiments on the molecular re-
fraction of dissolved electrolytes, 609.
Hicks (Dr. H.) on the prehistoric inhabit-
ants of the British Islands, 449 ; a com-
parison between the rocks of South
Pembrokeshire and those of North
Devon, 641; on the evidences of glacial
action in Pembrokeshire, and the
direction of ice-flow, 649.
Hicks (Prof. W. M.) on calculating tables
of certain mathematical functions, 129.
Hickson (Dr.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, and on the steps
taken to investigate ascertained defi-
ciencies in the fauna, 357.
Hillhouse (Prof.) on the disappearance
of native plants from their local habi-
tats, 359.
*Himalayas, physical aspects of the, and
notes on the inhabitants, by Col. H.
Tanner, 722.
Hittite discoveries, recent, by Dr. Phené,
814.
Holdich (Lt.-Col. T. H.), the application
of Indian geographical survey methods
to Africa, 717.
*Homology of continents, the, by Dr.
H. R. Mill, 715.
Hopkinson (Dr. J.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122 ;
on the various phenomena connected
and J. A. Clubb on the innervation |
INDEX.
with the recalescent points in iron and
other metals, 147; on standards for
use in electrical measurements, 152.
Hopkinson (J.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 41 ;
on the application of photography to
the elucidation of meteorological phe-
nomena, 130.
Hours of labour, the data available for
determining the best limit (physically)
for, Dr. J. T. Arlidge on, 746.
Howes (Prof. G. B.) on the arrangement
of the living fishes, as based upon the
study of their reproductive system,
694; on the customary methods of
describing the gills of fishes, 702.
Hoyle (W. E.) on improving and experi-
menting with a deep-sea tow-net for
opening and closing under water, 382.
* and L. F. Massey, exhibition of a
new apparatus for opening and closing
a tow-net by electricity, 693.
Hughes (Prof. T. McK.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
276.
Hull (Dr. E.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 300 ; on the advisability
and possibility of establishing obser-
vations upon the prevalence of earth
tremors, 333.
Hull (W.) on the very fossiliferous tran-
sition bed between the middle and
upper lias in Northamptonshire, 334.
Human remains from the Duggleby
‘Howe,’ Yorkshire, Dr. J. G. Garson
on, 806.
Hummel (Prof.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 263.
Humphery (F. W.) and A. Vernon Har-
court on the relation between the com-
position of a double salt and the com-
position and temperature of thesolution
in which it is formed, 608.
Hunt (A. R.) on the investigation of the
action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386; on the
occurrence of detrital tourmaline in a
quartz-schist west of Start Point, South
Devon, 643.
*Hunter (C.), description of Lewis and
Hunter’s system of coaling ships, 763.
Hymenomycetes, the nuclei of the, H.
Wager on, 700.
Ice age, the cause of an, by Sir R. Ball,
645.
Imperfections in the surface of rolled
copper alloys, the cause of, T. Turner
on, 607.
*Increase of food and population, the, by
W. E. A. Axon, 747.
INDEX.
India, railway communications of, by
W. C. Furnivall, 744.
——, the recent progress of agriculture
in, by C. L. Tupper, 532.
Indian geographical survey methods, the
application of, to Africa, by Lt.-Col.
T. H. Holdich, 717.
Indians of British Columbia, Dr. F. Boas
on the, 408.
Innervation of the epipodial processes
of some nudibranchiate mollusca, Prof.
W. A. Herdman and J. A. Clubb on
the, 692.
Instinctive criminality : its true character
and national treatment, by Dr. 8S. A. K.
Strahan, 811.
Internal phloém in the dicotyledons,
notes on, by Prof. D. H. Scott, 696.
International standard for the analysis
of iron and steel, third report on the
best method of establishing an, 273.
Invariants, note on a method of research
for, by E. B. Elliott, 568.
Inventors, the taxation of, by Dr. L.
Edmunds, 743.
Jron and steel, the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of, third report on, 273.
Jsomeric naphthalene derivatives, fifth
report on, 265.
Japan, the earthquake and volcanic
phenomena of, eleventh report on, 123.
Jeffs (O. W.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 321.
Jenkins (H. C.), note on the electrolysis
of alloys, 613.
Johnston-Lavis (Dr.) on the volcanic
phenomena of Vesuvius and its neigh-
bourhood, 312.
Jones (Prof. D. E.), on the measurement
of stationary Hertzian oscillations
along wires, and the damping of
electric waves, 561.
Jones (Rev. E.), on the cave at Elbolton,
351.
Jones (Prof. G. H.), barbaric elements in
ancient Greece and Italy, 803.
*Jones (Prof. J. V.) and T. Harrison on
the periodic time of tuning-forks main-
tained in vibration electrically, 581.
Jones (Prof. T. R.), Address to the Geo-
logical Section by, 614.
Judd (Prof.) on the advisability and
possibility of establishing observations
upon the prevalence of earth tremors,
333,
Jukes-Browne (A. J.), the cause of mono-
clinal flexure, 635; note on an un-
described area of lower greensand, or
vectian, in Dorsetshire, id.
827
*Karun river, the Bakhtiari country and
the, by Mrs. Bishop, 722.
Kellaways beds, the continuity of the,
over extended areas near Bedford,
A. C. G. Cameron on, 636.
Keltie (J. S.), recent geographical pro-
ress in Great Britain, 714.
Kendall (P. F.), notes of a section of drift
at Levenshulme, Manchester, 650.
Kerr (Dr. J.) on researches on electro-
optics, 147.
*Key (W.) on mechanical ventilation
and heating of buildings, 758.
Kidston (R.) on the registration of all
the type specimens of British fossils,
299; on the collection, preservation,and
systematic registration of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 321.
Kilimanjaro and Lake Chala, a visit to,
by Mrs. F. Sheldon, 719.
Knubley (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 363.
Krause (Prof. W.) on anatomical nomen-
clature, 682.
Labour and capital—their differences
and how to reconcile them, by C. H.
Perkins, 735.
Lake Chala, a visit to Kilimanjaro and,
by Mrs. F. Sheldon, 719.
*Lake Ngami region, journeys to the, by
H. D. Buckle, 719.
*Lamington (Lord), the Siam border,
720.
Langley (Prof. J. W.) on the best method
of establishing an international stand-
ard for the analysis of iron and steel,
273.
Lankester (Prof. Ray) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association at Ply-
mouth, 364; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 365.
Larmor (J.) on the present state of our
knowledge of thermodynamics, spe-
cially with regard to the second law,
85; on electrolysis in its physical and
chemical bearings, 122; the action of
electrical radiators, with a mechanical
analogy, 560. ; ;
Laurie (A. P.) on the existence of a com-
pound in alloys of gold and tin, 607.
Lava beds of California and Idaho, the,
and their relation to the antiquity of
man, by Prof. G. F. Wright, 651.
Lebour (Prof. G. A.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 300; on the
“advisability and possibility of esta-
blishing observations upon the preva-
lence of earth tremai® 33?
828
*Leconte (Prof.), experimental study of
a curious movement of ovoids and
ellipsoids, 583.
Leeches, the ciliated organs of the, by
Prof. Gilson, 690.
Leeds (Dr. A. B ) on the bibliography of
solution, 273.
Lenses, the measurement of, Prof. 8. P.
Thompson on, 580.
*Le Play’s method of systematic obser-
vation, by F. Auburtin, 747.
Lewes (Prof. V. B.), the spontaneous
ignition of coal, 602.
Lewis (Prof. T. C.), the geometry of con-
focal conics, 570.
*Lewis and Hunter's system of coaling
ships, description of, by C. Hunter, 763.
Life assurance, some economic aspects
of, J. M. McCandlish on, 739.
Light, the action of, upon dyed colours,
interim report on, 263.
, the velocity of, in the neighbour-
hood of rapidly moving matter, Prof.
O. J. Lodge on an experiment on, 560.
Lighting of railway trains electrically,
the, by I. A. Timmis, 773.
Liquid jets under gravity, Rev. H. J.
Sharpe on, 568.
Liquid resistances, the measurement of,
J. Swinburne on, 565.
Lister (J. J.) on the progress of the
investigation of the natural history of
the Friendly Islands, 679.
Liveing (Prof.) on researches on the
ultra-violet rays of the solar spec-
trum, 147; on the preparation of a
new series of wave-length tables of
the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 161.
Lloyd (Dr. R. J.) on recent progress in
the analysis of vowel-sounds, 796.
_Lockyer (J. N.) on the preparation of.a
new series of wave-length tables of
the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 161.
Lodge (Prof. A.) on calculating tables of
certain mathematical functions, 129;
on carrying on the tables connected
with. the Pellian equation from the
point where the work was left by
Degen in 1817, 160.
Lodge (Prof. O. J.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on the discharge of electricity from
points, 139; on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 152; Address
to the Mathematical and Physical Sec-
tion by, 547; on an experiment on the
velocity of light in the neighbourhood
of rapidly moving matter, 560; *on
units and their nomenclature, 577.
London-Paris telephone, the, by W. H.
Preece, 767.
Lowe (E. J.), facts regarding prothalli
INDEX.
and the propazation of ferns, 687; on
ferns and their multiple parents, 688.
Lower greensand, or vectian, note on an
undescribed area of, in Dorsetshire, by
A. J. Jukes-Browne, 635.
Lower tertiary tish fauna of Sardinia,
remarks on the, by A. S. Woodward,
O34.
Lubbock (Sir J.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 383;
on the prehistoric inhabitants of the
British Islands, 449.
McCandlish (J. M.) on some economic
aspects of life assurance, 739.
Macdonald (Rey. J.), East central African
customs, 809.
McLaren (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 140.
McLeod (Prof. H.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122 ;
on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation,
160; on the influence of the silent
discharge of electricity on oxygen and
other gases, 264; on the bibliography
of spectroscopy, %b.; on the biblio-
graphy of solution, 273; *the action of
heat on alkaline hypochlorites, 609.
Madan (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 264.
*Magnetic experiments made in con-
nection with the determination of the
rate of propagation of magnetisation
in iron, by F. T. Trouton, 581.
Magnetic field in the neighbourhood of
the South London electrical railway,
Profs. W. E. Ayrton and Riicker on
the, 581.
Magnetic observations, report of the
Committee for considering the best
means of comparing and reducing,
149,
*Magnetisation in iron, the rate of pro-
pagation of, magnetic experiments
' made in connection with the determi-
nation of, by F. T. Trouton, 581. —
Magnus (Sir P.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 383.
Mammoth, the, in Ontario, Canada, by
Prof. J. H. Panton, 654.
Man (E. H.), Nicobar pottery, 815.
* Maps, a local collection of, description
of, 718.
*—— illustrating Mr. Ravenstein’s Ad-
dress to Section E, explanation of, 718.
Marine Biological Association, at Ply-
mouth, report of the Committee for
arranging for the occupation ofa table
at the laboratory of the, 364.
, recent investigations (fishery and
physical) of the, W. L. Calderwood on,
635.
INDEX.
Marr (J. E.) on the registration of all
the type specimens of British fossils,
299.
Marshall (Prof. A. M.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 365.
Marten (E. B.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 300.
Maskelyne (Prof. N. 8.) on the teaching
of science in elementary schools, 383.
*Massey (L. F.) and W. E. Hoyle, exhi-
bition of a new apparatus for opening
and closing a tow-net by electricity,
693.
Mastodon, the, in Ontario, Canada, by
Prof. J. H. Panton, 654.
Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Prof. O. J. Lodge to the,
547.
Mathematical functions, second report
of the Committee for calculating tables
of certain, and, if necessary, for taking
steps to carry out the calculations and
publishing the results in an accessible
form, 129.
Meakin (J. E. B.), Morocco as a field
for geographers, 716; the Morocco
Berbers, 804.
Measurement of lenses, Prof. §. P. Thomp-
son on the, 580.
Measurement of liquid resistances, J.
Swinburne on the, 565.
Mechanical Section, Address by T. F.
Brown to the, 749.
*Mechanical ventilation and heating of
buildings, W. Key on, 758.
Meldola (Prof. R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
41; on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 130; on the advisability
and possibility of establishing observa-
‘tions upon the prevalence of earth
tremors, 333; on the prehistoric in-
habitants of the British Islands, 449.
Melly (W. R.) on the occupation of the
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 366.
Meteorites, the worship of, Prof. H. A.
Newton on, 805.
Meteorological observations on Ben
Nevis, report of the Committee for
co-operating with the Scottish Meteor-
ological Society in making, 140.
Meteorological phenomena, the applica-
tion of photography to the elucidation
of, report on, 130.
*Miall (Prof.) on floating leaves, 695.
Migration of birds, report of the Com-
: mittee for making adigest of the ob-
servations on the, 363.
Mill (Dr. H. R.) on arranging an inves-
; tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and es-
829
tuaries, 454; *the homology of conti-
nents, 715.
Milne (Prof. J.) on the earthquake and
volcanic phenomena of Japan, 123; on
phenomena whick might be observable
if the hypothesis that earthquakes are
connected with electrical phenomena
be entertained, 583.
Milne-Home (Mr.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 140.
Miners’ thrift and employers’ liability :
a remarkable experience, by G. L.
Campbell, 737.
Molecular refraction of dissolved electro-
lytes, some experiments on the, by
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and W. Hibbert,
609.
Mond (L.) on nickel carbon oxide and!
its application in arts and manufaec-
tures, 602.
Mond (R. L.), electrolytic problems, 564.
Monoclinal tlexure, the cause of, by A. J-
Jukes- Browne, 635.
Montefiore (A.), the physical and indus-
trial geography of Florida, 720.
Moon (W.), absolute units of measure-
ment, 580.
Moor (C. G.) on a new method of disposal
of sewage, with some references to.
schemes now in use, 612.
Morgan (EK. D.), antarctic exploration,
719.
Morocco as a field for geographers, by
J. E. B. Meakin, 716.
Morocco Berbers, the, by J. E. B. Meakin,
804.
‘ Morong,’ the, and other customs of the
natives of Assam, 8. EH. Peal on, 801.
Morris (D.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora, 354.
Morton (G. H.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 300
‘Mountain Chant,’ the, the Navajo myth
entitled, points of contact between
old-world myths and customs and, by
Miss A. W. Buckland, 808.
Muirhead (Dr.) on the prehistoric in-
habitants of the British Islands, 449.
Muirhead (Dr. A.) on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 152.
Miiller (Prof. F. Max), Address to the
Anthropological Section by, 782; on
theworkof Major J. W. Powell, director
of the U.S. Ethnological Bureau, 798.
Munro (Dr. R.) on the prehistoric inha-
bitants of the British Islands, 449.
Murray (Dr. J.) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 140 ; on arranging
an investigation of the seasonal varia-
tions of temperature in lakés, rivers,
and estuaries, 454.
830
Mus musculus and Mus decumanus, some
points in the early development of:
the relation of the yolk sac to the
decidua and the placenta, by Dr. A.
Robinson, 690. ;
——, observations upon the development
of the spinal cord in: the formation of
the septa and the fissures, by Dr. A.
Robinson, 691."
Nationalism and cosmopolitanism in
economics, by Prof. W. Cunningham,
723.
Natural history of the Friendly Islands,
the progress of the investigation of the,
J. J. Lister on, 679.
Navajo myth, the, entitled ‘the Mountain
Chant,’ points of contact between old-
world myths and customs and, by Miss
A. W. Buckland, 808.
Nematophycus, a species of, in the silu-
rian beds at Tymawr quarry, Rumney,
J. Storrie on the occurrence of, 652,
New Britain, burial customs of, by Rev.
B. Danks, 802.
Newall (H. F.) on the various phenomena
connected with the recalescent points
in iron and other metals, 147.
Newport, the harbour of, and the river
Usk, by L. F. Vernon Harcourt, 757.
Newton (Prof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 354 ; on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, and on the steps taken
to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the fauna, 357; on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 363.
Newton (E. T.), note on the occurrence of
Ammonites jurensis in the ironstone of
the Northampton sands, in the neigh-
bourhood of Northampton, 655.
Newton (Prof. H. A.) on the capture of
comets by planets, especially their cap-
ture by Jupiter, 511; on the worship
of meteorites, 805.
Nickel carbon oxide and its application
in arts and manufactures, L. Mond on,
602.
Nicobar pottery, by E. H. Man, 815.
Nicol(Dr.) on the bibliography of solution,
273; on the properties of solutions, ib.
Nitrosyl chloride, action of, on unsatu-
rated carbon compounds, by J. J.
Sudborough, 612.
Non-conducting coverings for steam
boilers and pipes, on the comparative
value of various substances used as, by
W. H. Collins, 780.
INDEX.
Non-sexual formation of spores in the
Desmidiacez, by A. W. Bennett, 678.
*Normal to a conic, note on the, by
R. H. Pinkerton, 572.
North-western tribes of the Dominion of
Canada, seventh report on the physical
characters, languages, and industrial
and social condition of the, 407; third
report on the Indians of British
Columbia, by Dr. F. Boas, 408.
Norway, notes on the glacial geology of,
by Dr. H. W. Crosskey, 647.
Nuclear structure in the bacteria, H.
Wager on, 681.
Nudibranchiate mollusca, the innervation
of the epipodial processes of some,
Prof. W. A. Herdman and J. A. Clubb
on, 692.
Observing, the art of, by J. Coles, 714.
Oldbury Hill, near Ightham, report of the
Committee for carrying on excavations
at, in order to ascertain the existence
or otherwise of rock-shelters at this
spot, 353; preliminary notes on the
excavations at, by Dr. J. Prestwich,
651.
Old-world myths and customs and the
Navajo myth entitled ‘the Mountain
Chant,’ points of contact between, by
Miss A. W. Buckland, 808.
Olenellus-zone, discovery of the, in the
North-west Highlands, by Sir A. Geikie,
633.
Ordnance Survey, the large scale maps
of the, suggestions for the revision
and improvement of, by H. T. Crook,
718.
*Ovoids and ellipsoids, experimental
study of a curious movement of, by
Prof. Leconte, 583.
Pachytheca in the silurian beds at Ty-
mawr quarry, Rumney, J. Storrie on
the occurrence of, 652.
Palinurus vulgaris, the larve of, observa-
tions on, ‘by J. T. Cunningham, 687.
Panton (Prof. J. H.), the mastodon and
mammoth in Ontario, Canada, 654.
Parker (J.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 300.
Parker (Prof. W. N.) *on some simple
models illustrating the vascular system
of vertebrates, 679; exhibition of, and
remarks upon, some young specimens
of Echidna aculeata, 693 ; experiments
on respiration in tadpoles of the com-
mon frog (Rana temporaria), 694.
*Parrot, a very small, from the Solomon
Islands, exhibition of, by Canon Tris-
tram, 702.
INDEX.
Pauper and destitute children, the up-
bringing of, Rev. J. O. Bevan on, 745.
Peal (S. E.) on the ‘morong’ and other
customs of the natives of Assam, 801.
Peaty colouring matters in sewage, the
formation of, by the action of micro-
organisms, W. HK. Adeney on, 612.
Pellian equation, interim report of the
Committee for carrying on the tables
connected with the, from the point
where the work was left by Degen in
1817, 160.
Pengelly (W.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 276;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 300; on the cave at Elbolton,
351; on the prehistoric inhabitants of
the British Islands, 449.
Peradeniya, Ceylon, fifth report on the
steps taken for establishing a botanical
laboratory at, 358.
*Periodic motion of a finite conservative
system, Sir W. Thomson on, 566.
*Periodic time of tuning-forks main-
tained in vibration electrically, Prof.
J. V. Jones and T. Harrison on the,
581.
Perkin (Dr.) on the action of light upon
dyed colours, 263.
Perkins (C. H.), labour and capital—
their differences and how to reconcile
them, 735.
Perry (Prof. J.) on the earthquake and
voleanic phenomena of Japan, 123; on
standards for use inelectrical measure-
ments, 152.
Pertz (D. F. M.) and F. Darwin on the
artificial production of rhythm in
plants, 695.
Petroleum, the origin of, by O. C. D.
Ross, 639.
Petroleum and natural gas, the geology
of, by W. Topley, 637.
Petroleum oil-engines, Prof. W. Robinson
on, 759.
_ Phené (Dr. J. S.), changes in coast lines,
716; on comparison of ancient Welsh
; customs, devices, and commerce with
those of contemporary nations, 807 ;
recent Hittite discoveries, 814.
_ Phenomena which might be observable
if the hypothesis that earthquakes are
connected with electrical phenomena
be entertained, Prof. J. Milne on, 583.
Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, second report on the
collection, preservation, and systematic
registration of, 321.
Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, report on, 130.
_ *Photography applied to exploration, by
J. Thomson, 719.
Physical and Mathematical Section,
oP Giada
831
Address by Prof. O. J. Lodge to the,
547,
Pickering (Prof.) on the bibliography of
solution, 273.
Pilchard, the reproduction of the, by J.
T. Cunningham, 686.
*Pinkerton (R. H.), note on the normal
to a conic, 572.
Pitt-Rivers (Gen.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
41; on editing a new edition of ‘An-
thropological Notes and Queries,’ 404.
Plant (J.) on the erratic blocks of Eng-
land, Wales, and Ireland, 276; on the
circulation of underground waters, 300.
Plesiosaurian and pterosaurian reptiles
in the cretaceous strata of Brazil, evi-
dence of the occurrence of, by A. 8.
Woodward, 635.
*Plutella Crucifera, the recent visitation
of, W. Fream on, 695.
Polarised light, the electromagnetic
theory of the rotation of the plane of,
Prof. A. Gray on, 558.
*Polariser, a new, Prof. 8. P. Thompson
on, 580.
Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of the zones of the
upper chalk, notes on the, by G. R.
Vine, 656.
*Pontypridd and Ystradyfodwg main
sewerage, the, by G. Chatterton, 757.
*Population, the increase of food and, by
W. EH. A. Axon, 747.
Population in England and Wales, recent
changes in the distribution of, by E.
Cannan, 747.
Portland cements, on some of the pecu-
liarities to be observed in, and on the
most advanced methods for determin-
ing their constructive value, by H.
Faija, 764.
Powell, Major J. W., director of the U.S.
Ethnological Bureau, the work of, Prof.
Max Miller on, 798.
Poynting (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122.
*Prairies and trees, by M. Christy, 715.
Prawle problem, the, by W. A. E., Ussher,
642,
Preece (W. H.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 152; *on
units and their nomenclature, 577; the
London-Paris telephone, 767.
Prehistoric and ancient remains of Gla-
morganshire, the formation of a record
of the, by E. Seward, 811.
Prehistoric inhabitants of the British
Islands, the localities in which evi-
dences are found of the existence of,
fifth report of the Committee for
ascertaining and recording, 449.
Prestwich (Prof. J.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 276; on
the circulation of underground waters
832
300 ; on the advisability and possibility
of establishing observations upon the
prevalence of earth tremors, 333; on
excavations at Oldbury Hill, near Igh-
tham, 353; preliminary notes on the
excavations at Oldbury Hill, 651.
Price (Prof. B.) on calculating tables of
certain mathematical functions, 129.
Prothalli and the propagation of ferns,
facts regarding, by E. J. Lowe, 687.
*Protoplasmic rejuvenescence, fertilisa-
tion and conjugation processes as allied
modes of, Prof. M. Hartog on, 683.
; a preliminary classification of
sexual and allied modes of, by Prof. M.
Hartog, 683.
Pterosaurian and plesiosaurian reptiles
in the cretaceous strata of Brazil, evi-
dence of the occurrence of, by A. S.
Woodward, 635.
*Pyrometric measurements, certain, and
methods of recording them, by Prof.
W. C. Roberts-Austen, 607.
Railway communications of India, by
W.C. Furnivall, 744.
Ramsay (Prof. W.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122 ;
on the intluence of the silent dis-
charge of electricity on oxygen and
other gases, 264; on the bibliography
of solution, 273; on the properties of
solutions, ib.; the surface-tension of
ether and alcohol at different tempera-
tures, 565 ; *on the nature of solution,
612.
Ravenstein (E. G.), Address to the Geo-
graphical Section (the field of geo-
graphy) by, 703; *explanation of a
series of maps illustrating his Address,
718 ; *on the proposed formation of a
topographical society in Cardiff, 722.
Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, |
41.
Rayleigh (Prof. Lord) onelectrolysisinits
physical and chemical bearings, 122 ;
on calculating tables of certain mathe-
matical functions, 129; on standards
for use in electrical measurements,
152; on reflection near the polarising
angle from the clean surfaces of
liquids, 563.
Recalescent points in iron and other
metals, the various phenomena con-
nected with the, third (interim) report
on, 147.
Reed (Sir E.) on the Channel tubular
railway, 758.
Reflection near the polarising angle from
the clean surfaces of liquids, Lord
Rayleigh on, 563.
Reid (A. 8.) on the collection, prese: va-
INDEX.
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 321.
Reinold (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on the bibliography of spectroscopy,
264,
Respiration in tadpoles of the common
frog (Rana temporaria), experiments
on, by Prof. W. N. Parker, 694.
Revolving purifier for the treatment of
water by metallic iron, Dr. W. Ander-
son on the, 762.
Reynolds (Prof. 0.) on the investigation
of the action of waves and currents om
the beds and foreshores of estuaries:
by means of working models, 386; on
model estuaries, 387.
Rbythm in plants, the artificial produc-
tion of, F. Darwin and D. F. M. Pertz
on, 695.
Riley (Prof.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, and on the steps taker
to investigate ascertained deticiencies
in the fauna, 357.
Riley (E.) on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 273.
Roberts (I.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 300 ; on the advisability
and possibility of establishing observa-
tions upon the prevalence of earth
tremors, 333; on arranging an investi-
gation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and estu-
aries, 454.
Roberts-Austen (Prof. W. C.) on elec-
trolysis in its physical and chemical
bearings, 122; on the various pheno-
mena connected with the recalescent
points in iron and other metals, 147 ;
on the bibliography of spectroscopy,
264; on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 273;
Address to the Chemical Section by,
584; *certain pyrometric measure-
ments and methods of recording them,
607.
and Prof. A. W. Riicker on the
specific heat of basalt, 610.
Robinson (Dr. A.), some points in the
early development of Mus musculus
and Mus decumanus: the relation of
the yolk sac to the decidua and the
placenta, 690; observations upon the
development of the spinal cord in Mus
musculus and Mus decumanus: the
formation of the septa and the fissures,
691.
Robinson (Prof. W.), petroleum oil-
engines, 759.
Rocks of South Pembrokeshire, the, and
=—
~~ os
as
—————
INDEX.
those of North Devon, a comparison
between, by Dr. H. Hicks, 641.
Rolled copper alloys, the cause of imper-
fections in the surface of, T. Turner
on, 607.
Roscoe (Sir H. E.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 160; on the prepara-
tion of a new series of wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements
and compounds, 161; on the teaching
of science in elementary schools, 383.
Ross (O. C. D.), the origin of petroleum,
639.
Rotation of the sun, on observing the,
with the spectroscope, by Dr. G. J.
Stoney, 573.
Roth (H. L.), ‘ couvade,’ 800.
Riicker (Prof. A. W.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
122; on researches on electro-optics,
147; on the best means of comparing
and reducing magnetic observations,
149.
==— and Prof. W. H. Ayrton on the
magnetic field in the neighbourhood
of the South London electrical railway,
581.
and Prot. W. C. Roberts-Austen on
the specific heat of basalt, 610.
Rudler (F. W.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 312.
Russell (Prof.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 263.
*Safety lamps, an apparatus for testing,
by Prof. F. Clowes, 611.
Salvin (O) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, and on the steps taken
to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the fauna, 357.
Sandwich Islands, draft report on the
present state of our knowledge of the
zoology of the, and on the steps taken
to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the fauna, 357.
Savage religion, the limits of, Dr. E. B.
Tylor on, $00.
Schlichter (Dr. H.), the geography of
South-west Africa, 719.
Schuster (Prof. A.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on researches o1 the ultra-violet rays
of the solar spectrum, 147; on the
best means of comparing and reducing
magnetic observations, 149 ; on stand-
ards for use in electrical measure-
ments, 152; on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 160; on the preparation of
a new series of wave-length tables of
TaeT.
833
the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 161.
Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, report on, 383.
Sclater (Dr. P. L.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the fauna and
flora of the West India Islands, and
cn the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 354; on the present state of onr
knowledge of the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, and on the steps taken
to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the fauna, 357; on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 365.
Scott (Prof. D. H.), notes on internal
phloém in the dicotyledons, 696.
Screw propellers, action of, by Major R.
de Villamil, 780.
Screw propulsion, a new system of, with
non-reversible engines, W. W. Beau-
mont on, 779.
Seasonal variations of temperature in
lakes, rivers, and estuaries in various
parts of the United Kingdom, fourth
and final report of the Committee for
arranging an investigation of the, in ©
co-operation with the local societies
represented on the Association, 454.
*Sea-wanderings, the first, of the English
race, by W. M. Adams, 808.
Sedgwick (A.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 365.
Seeley (Prof. H. G.) on excavations at
Oldbury Hill, near Ightham, 353.
Sewage, a new method of disposal of,
with some references to schemes now
in use, C. G. Moor on, 612.
, the formation of peaty colouring
matters in, by the action of micro-
organisms, W. E. Adeney on, 612.
Seward (E.) the formation of a record of
the prehistoric and ancient 1emains of
Glamorganshire, 811.
Sexual and allied modes of protoplasmic
rejuvenescence, &c., a preliminary
classification of, by Prof. M. Hartog,
683.
Sharp (Dr. D.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate as-
certained deficiencies in the fauna and
flora, 354; on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, and on the steps
taken to investigate-ascertained de-
ficiencies in the fauna, 357.
Sharpe (Rev. H. J.) on liquid jets under
gravity, 568.
Shaw (W.N.) on electrolysis in its phy-
sical and chemical bearings, 122; on
3H
834
standards for use in electrical mea-
surements, 152.
Sheldon (Mrs. F.), a visit to Kilimanjaro
and Lake Chala, 719.
Shelford (W.) on the investigation of the
action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386.
Shenstone (W. A.) on the influence of
the silent discharge of electricity on
oxygen and other gases, 264; on the
direct formation of haloid compounds
from pure materials, 274.
Sherborn (C. D.) on the registration of
allthe type specimensof British fossils,
C
*Siam border, the, by Lord Lamington,
720.
Similkameen Indians of British Columbia,
account of the, by Mrs. 8. 8. Allison,
815.
Sinking wells and shafts, by H. Davey,
766.
Sladen (P.) on the occupation of a table
at the zoological station at Naples, 365.
Smith (Dr. Wilberforce), on the work of
the anthropometric laboratory, 405.
Smyth (Dr. C. P.) on researches on the
ultra-violet rays of the solar spectrum,
147; comparison of eye and hand
registration of lines in the violet and
ultra-violet of the solar spectrum,
against photographic records of the
same, with the same instrument, after
a. lapse of several years, 573.
Snelus (G. J.) on the best method of
establishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 273.
Solar radiation, seventh report on the best
methods of recording the direct in-
tensity of, 160.
Solar spectrum, the ultra-violet rays of
the, report on researches on the, 147,
Solution, the bibliography of, fifth
report on, 273.
*____, the nature of, Prof. w. Ramsay
on, ‘612.
Solutions, the properties of, fifth report
on, 273.
Sorby (Dr. H. C.) on arranging an inves-
tigation of the seasonal variations of
temperature in lakes, rivers, and estu-
aries, 454.
South-eastern coal-field, the discovery of
the, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on, 637.
Spectra, on the cause of double lines in,
by Dr. G. J. Stoney, 574.
Spectra of the elements and compounds,
report on the preparation of a new
series of wave-length tables of the,
161.
Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, third
report on, 264.
Spiller J.) on the best method of esta-
INDEX.
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 273.
Spontaneous ignition of coal, the, by
Prof. V. B. Lewes, 602.
Springer (Dr. A.), a latent characteristic
of aluminium, 583.
State provision against sickness and old
age, and the German invalidity and
superannuation law, by L. Tylor, 739.
Statistics, Economic Science and, Address
by Prof. W. Cunningham to the Sec-
tion of,723.
Steady platform for guns, &c., at sea, a,
by B. Tower, 763.
Steel and iron, the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of, third report on, 273.
Steward (Rey. J. C.) on arranging an in-
vestigation of the seasonal variations
of temperature in lakes, rivers, and
estuaries, 454.
Stokes (Sir G. G.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 160.
Stoney (Dr. G. J.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 160; note on observing
the rotation of the sun with the spec-
troscope, 573; on the cause of double
lines in spectra, 574; on a table to
facilitate the conversion of electro-
static and electromagnetic measures
into one another, 577. ‘
Stooke (T. S.) onthe circulation of under-
ground waters, 300.
Storrie (J.) on the occurrence of pachy-
theca and a species of nematophycus
in the silurian beds at Tymawr quarry.
Rumney, 652.
Strahan (Dr. S. A. K.), instinctive crimi-
nality : its true character and national
treatment, 811.
Stroud (Prof.) on the action of light upon
dyed colours, 263.
Stroud (Prof. W.), some revolutionary
suggestions on the nomenclature of
electrical and mechanical units, 577.
Sudborough (J. J.), action of nitrosyl
chloride on unsaturated carbon com-
pounds, 612.
Surface-tension, the, of ether and alcohol
at different temperatures, by Prof. W.
Ramsay, 565.
Survival of domestic industries, the, by
Prof. Gonner, 740.
Swainson (G.), new form of appena
larian ‘ haus,’ 701. :
Swinburne (J. ) on the cacoanineee of
liquid resistances, 565; the causes of
variation of Clark standard cells, 576.
Sylvester (Prof.) on carrying on the
tables connected with the Pellian equa- __
tion from the point where the work —
was left by Degen in 1817, 160.
INDEX.
Symons (G. J.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 41;
on the application of photography to
the elucidation of meteorological phe-
nomena, 130; on the best methods of
resording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 160; on the circulation of
underground waters, 300; on the ad-
visability and possibility of establish-
ing observations upon the prevalence
of earth tremors, 333.
Symons (W.), a simple apparatus for
storing dry gases, 609.
*Systematic observation, Le
method of, by F. Auburtin, 747.
*Systematic position of certain organisms
that are regarded by some naturalists
as animals, and by others as plants,
discussion on the, 682.
Play’s
Tables of certain mathematical functions,
second report of the Committee to
calculate, and, if necessary, to take
steps to carry out the calculations and
publish the results in an accessible
form, 129.
Tadpoles of the common frog (Rana
temporaria), experiments on respiration
in, by Prof. W. N. Parker, 694.
Tangential transformations, some, includ-
ing Laguerre’s semi-droites réciproques,
by Prof. R. W. Genese, 571. - ,
Tanner (Col. H.), bar-subtense survey,
718; *physical aspects of the Hima-
Jayas, and notes on the inhabitants,
722.
Taxation of inventors, the, by Dr. L.
Edmunds, 743.
Taylor (H.) on standards for use in elec-
trical measurements, 152.
Teall (J. J. H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 312.
Telephone, the London-Paris, by W. H.:
Preece, 767.
Telephoning of great cities, the, A. R.
Bennett on, 769.
Temple (Sir R.) on the teaching of
. science in elementary schools, 383.
. Tenerife, the ancient language of the
; natives of, the Marquess-of Bute on,
S 799.
: Thermodynamics, report on the present
. state of our knowledge of, specially
with regard to the second law, 85;
researches relating to the connection
} of the second law with dynamical
___ principles, by G. H. Bryan, id.
_ Thiselton-Dyer (Mr.) on the present
_ state of our knowledge of the zoology
and botany of the West India Islands,
and on the steps taken to investigate
835
ascertained deficiencies in the fauna
and flora, 354; on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358.
Thompson (B.) on the very fossiliferous
transition bed between the middle and
upper lias in Northamptonshire, 334.
Thompson (Prof. C. M.) on didymium
from different sources, 611.
Thompson (Prof. §. P.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings,
122; on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 383; on the measure -
ment of lenses, 580; *on a new polar-
iser, 20.
*Thomson (J.), photography applied to
exploration, 719. :
Thomson (Prof. J. J.) on electrolysis
its physical and chemical bearings,
122 ; on standards for use in electrical
measurements, 152.
Thomson (J. M.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122.
Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on electrolysis in
its physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on the earthquake and volcanic pheno-
mena of Japan, 123; on calculating
tables of certain mathematical func-
tions, 129; on researches on electro-
optics, 147; on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 149 on standards for use
in electrical measurements, 152; *on
periodic motion of a finite conservative
system, 566.
Thorp (W.) on the propagation of electro-
magnetic waves in wires, 562.
Thorpe (Prof.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 263.
Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 276 ;
on the collection, preservation, and
systematic registration of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 321; on the cave at, Elbol-
ton, 351. ;
Tilden (Prof.) on electrolysis in its
physical and chemical bearings, 122;
on isomeric naphthalene derivatives,
265; on the bibliography of solution;
273; on the properties of solutions, 2d. ;
on the best method of establishing an
» international standard for the analysis
of iron and steel, id.
Timmis (I..A.) the lighting of railway
- trains electrically, 773.
Tomlinson (H.) on standards for use in
electrical measurements, 152. ’
Topley (W.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 41 ;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 300; on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores a Bae irs
1
836
by means of working models, 386 ; the
geology of petroleum and natural gas,
637,
*Topographical society in Cardiff, the
proposed formation of a, E. G. Raven-
stein on, 722.
Tower (B.), a steady platform for guns,
&e., at sea, 763.
*Tow-net, a, exhibition of a new appa-
ratus for opening and closing by
electricity, by W. E. Hoyle and L. F.
Massey, 693.
—-—, a deep-sea, for opening and closing
underwater, report of the Committee
for improving and experimenting with,
382.
Transformation of adifferentialresolvent,
Rev. R. Harley on the, 566.
Transformations used in connection with
the duality of differential equations,
E. B. Elliott onthe, 568.
Transmission of power by compressed |
air, the compound principle in the,
Prof. A. C. Elliott on, 765.
*Trees and prairies, by M. Christy, 715.
Trimen (Dr.) on the steps taken for
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358.
*'ristram (Canon), exhibition of a very
small parrot from the Solomon Islands, |
_ €v, some experiments on a new method
702.
Trouton (F, T.) on the various phenomena
connected with the recalescent points
in ironand other metals, 147 ;*magnetic
experiments made in connection with
the determination of the rate of pro-
pagation of magnetisation in iron, 581.
*Tuning-forks maintained in vibration
electrically, the periodic time of, Prof.
J. V. Jones and ‘I’. Harrison on, 581.
Tupper (C. L.), the recent progress of
agriculture in India, 532.
Turner (T.), on the best method of estab-
lishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 273; on
the cause of imperfections in the sur-
face of rolled copper alloys, 607.
Tylden-Wright (Mr.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 300.
Tylor (Dr. E. B.) on editing a new edition
of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries,’
404 ; on the North-western tribes of the
Dominion of Canada, 407; on the limits
of savage religion, 800.
Tylor (L.), State provision against sick-
ness and old age, and the German in-
validity and superannuation law, 739.
Type specimens of British fossils, the
registration of all the, second report
on, 299.
tra-violet rays of the solar spectrum,
report on researches on the, 147.
INDEX.
Ultra-violet spectrum of the solar pro-
minences, the, by Prof. G. E. Hale,
557.
Underground waters in the permeable
formations of England and Wales, the
circulation of, and the quantity and
character of the water supplied to
various towns and districts from these
formations, seventeenth report on, 300.
Units, electrical and mechanical, some
revolutionary suggestions on the
nomenclature of, by Prof. W. Stroud,
577. ;
*Units and their nomenclature, discussion
on, 577.
Units of measurement,
W. Moon, 580.
Unwin (Prof. W. C.) on the investigation
of the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386.
Upbringing of destitute and pauper
children, Rev. J. O. Bevan on the, 745.
Usk, the river, and the harbour of New-
port, by L. F. Vernon Harcourt, 757.
absolute, by
Ussher (W. A. E.), vulcanicity in lower
establishing a botanical laboratory at |
Devonian rocks : the Prawle problem,
642.
for the determination of, by A. G.
Webster, 580.
*Vascular system of vertebrates, some
simple models illustrating the, Prof.
W. N. Parker on, 679.
Vectian, or lower greensand, note on an
undescribed area of, in Dorsetshire, by
A. J. Jukes-Browne, 635.
Velocity of light in the neighbourhood
of rapidly-moving matter, Prof. O. J.
Lodge on an experiment on the, 560.
*Ventilation and heating of buildings,
mechanical, by W. Key, 758.
*Vertebrates, some simple models illus-
trating the vascular system of, Prof.
W. N. Parker on, 679.
Vesuvius and its neighbourhood, the
volcanic phenomena of, report on, 312.
Villamil (Major R. de), action of screw-
propellers, 780.
Vine (G.R.) notes on the Polyzoa (Bryozoa)
of the zones of the upper chalk, 656.
Vines (Prof. H.S.) on the occupation of a
table at the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association at Plymouth,
364; the presence of a diastatic fer-
ment in green leaves, 697.
Violet and ultra-violet of the solar spec-
trum, comparison of eye and hand
registration of lines in the, against
photographic records.of the same, with
the same instrument, after a iapse of
several years, by Dr. C. P. Smyth, 573.
INDEX.
Volcanic and earthquake phenomena of
Japan, eleventh report on the, 123.
Volcanic phenomera of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, report on the, 312.
*Volta river, the, by G. Dobson, 722.
Vowel-sounds, recent progress in the
analysis of, Dr. R. J. Lloyd on, 796.
Vulcanicity in Lower Devonian rocks:
the Prawle problem, by W. A. HE.
Ussher, 642.
Wager (H.) on nuclear structure in the
bacteria, 681; on the nuclei of the
hymenomycetes, 700.
Walford (E. A.) on the very fossiliferous
transition bed between the middle and
upper lias in Northamptonshire, 334.
Ward (Prof. M.) on the steps taken for
establishing a botanical laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon, 358; on a simple
apparatus for the cultivation of small
organisms in hanging drops, and in
various gases, under the microscope,
678.
Watts (Dr. M.) on the preparation of a
new series of wave-length tables of
the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 161.
*Watts (N.) on electric firedamp indi-
cators, 773.
Watts (W. W.) on the collection, preser-
vation, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 321.
Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, report on the
preparation of a new series of, 161.
Waves and currents, the action of, on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries, third
report on the investigation of, by means
of working models, 386.
Webb (S.), the alleged differences in the
wages paid to men and women for
similar work, 742.
Webster (A. G.), some experiments on a
new method for the determination of
‘v, 580.
Welsh customs, devices, and commerce,
ancient, on comparison of, with those
of contemporary nations, by Dr. Phené,
807.
West India Islands, fourth report on the
present state of our knowledge of the
zoology and botany of the, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora, 354.
Wethered (E.) on the circulation of un-
derground waters, 300.
Wheeler (W. H.) on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on the
beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386.
837
Whidborne (Rev. G. F.), on the registra-
tion of all the type specimens of British
fossils, 299.
Whipple (G. M.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 149; on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 160.
Whitaker (W.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 41;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 300.
White (A. 8.) on the comparative value
of African lands, 715. :
Williams (E. L.) on the investigation of
the action of waves and currents on
the beds and foreshores of estuaries by
means of working models, 386.
Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 41.
Wilkinson (J. J.) on the cave at Elbolton,
351.
Wills (A. W.) on the disappearance of
native plants from their local habitats,
359,
Wilson (Sir D.) on the North-western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada,
407.
Wilson (EH.) on the very fossiliferous
transition bed between the middle
and upper lias in Northamptonshire,
334.
Wilson (W. E.) on the absorption of heat
in the solar atmosphere, 557.
Woodward (A. 8.) on the registration of
all the type specimens of British fos-
sils, 299; remarks on the lower
tertiary fish fauna of Sardinia, 634;
evidence of the occurrence of ptero-
saurian and plesiosaurian reptiles in
the cretaceous strata of Brazil, 635.
Woodward (Dr. H.) on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan,
123; on the registration of all the
type specimens of British fossils, 299;
on the very fossiliferous transition bed
between the middle and upper lias in
Northamptonshire, 334.
Woodward (H. B.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 321; on the
very fossiliferous transition bed be-
tween the middle and upper lias in
Northamptonshire, 334.
Worship of meteorites, the, Prof. H. A.
Newton on, 805.
Wright (Prof. G. F.), recent discoveries
concerning the relation of the glacial
period in North America to the anti--
quity of man, 647; the lava beds of
Californiaand Idaho, and theirrelation
to the antiquity of man, 651.
’
838
Young (Prof.) on the bibliography of
solution, 273.
*Ystradyfodwg and Pontypridd main
sewerage, the, by G. Chatterton, 757.
¢
Zoological station at Naples, report of
the Committee for
arranging for |
- the occupation of a table at the, 365; |
INDEX.
reports to the Committee, by Mr. W.
R. Melly, 366;- by Mr. E. J. Bles,
372.
Zoology and botany of the West India
Islands, fourth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 354.
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, draft
report on the present state of our
knowledge of the, 357
:
:
:
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BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
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of the Publication Price.
REPORT or rus FIFTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Bath, September
1888, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Third Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada ;-—Report of the Committee for considering the desirability of introducing
a Uniform Nomenclature for the Fundamental Units of Mechanics, and of co-
operating with-other bodies engaged in similar work;—Fourth Report on the best
means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations ;—Fourth Report on
Standards of Light ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish
Sieteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—
Second Report on the Bibliography of Solution;—Report of the Committee for
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—
Second Report'on the Influence of Silicon on the properties of Steel ;—Third Report
of the Committee for inviting designs for a good Differential Gravity Meter in super-
‘session of the pendulum ;—Report on the present methods of teaching Chemistry ;—
Report on the action of Light on the Hydracids of Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—
Second Report on the Nature of Solution ;—Report of the Committee for making
arrangements for assisting the Marine Biological Association Laboratory at Plymouth ;
_—Third Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—Third Report on the Pre-
“historic Race in the Greek Islands ;—Report on the effects of different occupations and
f
employments on the Physical Development of the Human Body ;—Sixteenth Report
a aty
840
on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland;—Report of the Committee
for preparing a further Report upon the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom ;
—Second Report on the * Manure’ Gravels of Wexford;—-Report of the Committee
for continuing the Itesearches on Food-Fishes at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory ;
—Fourteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable
Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water
supplied to various Towns and, Districts from these Formations ;—Report on the
Migration of Birds ;—Report on the Flora of the Carboniferous Rocks of Lancashire
and West Yorkshire ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station
at Naples ;—Report on the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ;—Sixth Report
on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ;—Second Report on the best method
of ascertaining and measuring Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard ;—
Report as to the Statistical Data available for determining the amount of the Precious
Metals in use as Money in the principal Countries, the chief forms in which the
Money is employed, and the amount annually used in the Arts;—Fourth Report on
the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada ;—-Report of the Corresponding
Societies Committee ;—Second Report on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British
Islands ;—Third Report of the Committee for drawing attention to the desirability
of prosecuting further research in the Antarctic Regions;—Report of the Committee
for aiding in the maintenance of the establishment of a Marine Liological Station at
Granton, Scotland ;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neigh-
bourhood ;—Report of the Committee to arrange an investigation of the Seasonal
Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the
United Kingdom, in co-operation with the local societies represented on the Associa-
tion ;—Report on an ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington Quay ;—Report on the
Development of the Oviduct and connected structures in certain fresh-water
Teleostei ;—Third Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;—
Report on the Flora of the Bahamas;—Second Report on the Physiology of the
Lymphati¢ System ;—Report on the Microscopic Structure of the Older Rocks of
Anglesey ;—Report on our present knowledge of the Flora of China ;—Second Report
of the Committee for taking steps for the establishment of a Lotanical Station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Eighth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan ;—Report on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of
the West India Islands, and the steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the Fauna and Flora;—Second Report on our Experimental Knowledge of the
Properties of Matter with respect to Volume, Pressure, Temperature, and Specific
Heat ;—Report on the advisability and possibility of establishing in other parts of
the country observations upon the prevalence of Earth Tremors similar to those now
being made in Durham;—The Relations between Sliding Scales and Economic
Theory ;—Index-numbers as illustrating the Progressive Exports of British Produce
and Manufactures;—The Friction of Metal Coils;—Sur Vapplication de l’analyse
spectrale 4 la mécanique moléculaire et sur les spectres de l’oxygéne ;—A List of
Works referring to British Mineral and Thermal Waters ;—Report on the Rate of
Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influence of the Artificial
Abstraction of Shingle or other material in that Action.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir F. J. Bramwell’s Address, and
Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
/
REPORT or tue FIFTY-NINTH MEETING, at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, September 1889, Published at £1 4s.
ConTENTS :—Fifth Report of the Committce for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada ;—Report on the Molecular Phenomena connected with the Magnetisation
of Iron ;—Report on the Collection and Identification of Meteoric Dust ;—Highteenth
Report on Underground Temperature ;— Fifth Report on the best methods of record-
ing the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation ;—Report of the Committee for con-
structing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—
Second Report of the Committee to arrange an investigation of the Seasonal Varia-
tions of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United
Kingdom, in co-operation with the local Societies represented on the Association ;—
Report on the proposals of M. Tondini de Quarenghi relative to the Unification
of Time, and the adoption of a Universal Prime Meridian ;—¥Fifth Report on
.
|
F.
|
.
841
the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations ;—Report
on the best method of establishing International Standards for the Analysis of
Tron and Steel;—Third Report on the Investigation of the Properties of Solutions ;
—Third Report on the Bibliography of Solution ;—Report (Provisional) on the
Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ; Report
of the Committee appointed to confer with the Committee of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science with a view of forming a Uniform System of
recording the results of Water Analysis;—Report on the Action of Light on the
Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—Seventh Report on the Fossil
Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks;—Report on the Flora of the Carboniferous
Rocks of Lancashire and West Yorkshire ;—Report on an Ancient Sea-beach near
Bridlington Quay ;—Fifteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in
the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character
of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—
Report on the Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight;—Third Report on the
‘Manure’ Gravels of Wexford ;—Second Report on the present state of our Know-
ledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and the steps taken to
investigate ascertained deficiencies in the 'auna and Flora ;—Second Report on the
development of the Oviduct and connected structures in certain freshwater Teleostei ;
-—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;— Report
of the Committce for improving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net, for
opening and closing under water ;—'Third Report on our present Knowledge of the
Flora of China ;—Report on the steps taken for the investigation of the Natural
History of the Friendly Islands, or other groups in the Pacific, visited by H.M.S.
« Egeria’;—Report of the Committee for making a digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds;—Report of the Committee for taking steps for the establish-
ment of a Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Seventeenth Report on the
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Third Report on the Physiology of
the Lymphatic System ;—Report on the Teaching of Science in Wlementary Schools ;—
Third Report on the best methods of ascertaining and measuring Variations in the
Value of the Monetary Standard ;—Report as to the Statistical Data available for
determining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the principal
ountries, the chief forms in which the Money is employed, and the amount annually
used in the Arts;—Report on the Geography and Geology of the Atlas Ranges in
the Empire of Morocco;—Fourth Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—
Report on the Habits and Customs and Physical Characteristics of the Nomad Tribes
of Asia Minor, and on the excavation of Sites of ancient occupation ;— Report on
the effects of different Occupations and Employments on the Physical Development
of the Human Body ;—Report of the Committee for editing a new Edition of
‘Anthropological Notes and Queries’ ;—Ieport of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee ;—Fourth Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;—
Report on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds ;—Second Report on the
present methods of teaching Chemistry ;—Third Report on the Influence of Silicon
on the properties of Steel;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and
its neighbourhood ;—Ninth Report on the Harthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological
Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—Third Report on the
Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British Islands;—Report on the Development of
Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science ;—Report on the investigation of the Action
of Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of Work-
ing Models ;—Report of the Committee for continuing the Bibliography of Spectro-
scopy ;—Report of the Committee for calculating the Anthropological Measurements
taken at Bath ;—Second Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants from their
Local Habitats ;—The Incidence and Effects of Import and Export Duties ;—Experi-
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—The Comtist Criticism of Economic Science ;—On the Advisability of assigning
Marks for Bodily Efficiency in the Examination of Candidates for the Public
Services ;—On the Principle and Methods of assigning Marks for Bodily Efficiency ;—
Experiments at Eton College on the Degree of Concordance between different
Examiners in assigning Marks for Physical Qualifications;—Fifth Report on the
North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor W. H. Flower’s Address,
and Resolutions of the General Committec of the Association.
- ,
842
REPORT or tar SIXTIETH MEETING, at Leeds, August 1890,
Published at £1 As.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Third Report
of the Committee to arrange an Investigation of the Seasonal Variations of Tempera-
ture in Lakes, Rivers, and “Estuaries in various parts of the United Kingdom, in co-
operation with the Local Societies represented on the Association ;—Report of the
Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements ;—Fifth Report on Electrolysis i in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;
—Sixth Report on the best methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radia-
tion ;—Report of the Committee for co- operating with Dr. Kerr in his Researches on
Electro-optics ;—Report on Molecular Phenomena associated with the Magnetisation
of Iron ;—Tenth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan ;—
Sixth Report on the best means of comparing and reducing Magnetic Observations ;
—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society
in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—Sixth Report of the Com-
mittee for promoting - Tidal Observations in Canada ;—Report on the present state of
our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ;—Report on the Preparation of
a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds ;
—Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ;—Fourth Report on the Influence of
Silicon on the Properties of Iron and Steel ;—Second Report on the best method of
establishing an International Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel ;—Report
on the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—
Third Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry ;—Fourth Report on
the Properties of Solutions ;—Fourth Report on the Bibliography of Solution ;—
Discussion on the Theory of Solution ;—Provisional Report on the Influence of the
Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ;—Report on the Absorp-
tion Spectra of Pure Compounds ;—Report on the best methods for the Registration
of all Type Specimens of Fossils in the British Isles;—Kighteenth Report on the
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Sixteenth Report on the Circulation
of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and
the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts
from these Formations ;—Final Report on an Ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington ~
Quay ;—Report on the Cretaceous Polyzoa;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of
Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ;—Fourth and final Report on the ‘ Manure’ Gravels
of Wexford :—Bighth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ;—
Report on the collection, preservation, and systematic registration of Photographs of
Geological Interest in the United Kingdom ;—Report‘on the occupation of a Table
at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth ;—Third Report
‘on the present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India
Islands, and on the steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna
and Flora ;—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples;
—Report of the Committee for making a Digest of the Observations on the Migration
of Birds;—Third Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local
Habitats ;—Fourth Report of the Committee for taking steps for the establishment
of a Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Report of the Committee for im-
proving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net for opening and closing under
water ;—The probable Effects on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of
Labour ;—Fovurth Report on the best methods of ascertaining and measuring Varia-
tions in the Value of the Monetary Standard ;—Report on the teaching of Science in
Elementary Schools ;—Fourth Report as to the Statistical Data available for deter-
mining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the principal Countries,
the chief Forms in which the Money is employed, and the Amount annually used in
the Arts;—On some new Telemeters or Range-finders ;—Second Report on the
Investigation of the Action of Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of
Estuaries by means of Working Models ;—Report on the Geography and the Habits,
Customs, and Physical Characters of the Nomad ‘Tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
Persia, and on the excavation of Sites of Ancient Occupation ;—Report on the
Habits, Customs, Physical Characters,and Religions of the Natives of India ;—Report
of the Committee for editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ ;
=
~~ eo
ww
843
—Fourth Report on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British Islands ;—Report on
the Calculation of the Anthropological Measurements taken at Newcastle ;—Sixth
Report on the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir F. A. Abel’s Address, and
Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
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BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Fol ae
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO DECEMBER 31, 1891.
Office of the Association:
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on
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Professor G. F. ARMSTRONG, M.A., C.E., F. GRANT OGILVIE, Esq., M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E.
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. JOHN HARRISON, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURGH.
ADAM GILLIES SMITH, Esq., C.A.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ANDERSON, Dr. W.. F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
AYRTON, Professor W. E., F.R.S, RAMSAY, Profess sor W., F.S.S.
BAKER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S, REINOLD, Professor A. Ww. F.R.S
Bates, H. W., Esq., F.R.3. Rogrrrs. AUSTEN, Professor W. C.,C.B., F.R.S.
P DaRWIN, Professor G. H., F.R.S. ScHAFER, Professor B. » F.R.S
DouGuass, Sir J. N., F.R.S. SCHUSTER, Professor A., F.R.S.
EDGEWorTH, Professor F. Y., M.A. Sipewick, Professor H., MLA.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., ERS.
h FItZGERALD, Professor G. F., F.R.S. THORPE, Professor T. E., F.R.S.
- GLAZEBROOK, R. T., Esq., F.R.S. WARD, Professor H. MARSHALL, F.R.S.
Jupp, Professor J. W., F.R.S. WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.
LIVEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S. WoopwakupD, Dr. H., F.R.S.
Lope, Professor OLIVER J., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents amd
Vv ice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
he Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
‘Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Sir Jonn Luppock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.
The Right Hon. Lorp RAYLEIGH, M A, D. C.L., LL. D., Sec.R. S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon PLAYFAIR, Bie) O.B. ,M. ps Ph. D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
Phe Duke of Argyll, K.G.,K.T. | Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, Pres.R&.S. | Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.
Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
‘Lord Armstrong, OB, An mED! Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
r William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I, Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S. | Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S.
ir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B., F.R.3.
Y rof. Huxley, LL. D., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S.
GENHRAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
-F, Galton, Esq., F.R S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S. Prof. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.
ir. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. L. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S.
AUDITORS.
Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S. | Prof, H. M‘Leod, F.R.S. | J. B. Martin, Esq., M.A., F.S.S.
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LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
1891
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report,
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1881.
1887,
1863.
1856.
1886.
1891.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1863.
1885.
*Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.
*Abbott, R.T. G. Whitley House, Malton.
tAbbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Apur, Sir Freprertck Aveustus, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sec., F.RB.S.,
V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on Explosives.
The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-read, London, 8.W.
t Abercrombie, John, M.D. 39 Welbeck-street, London, W.
+ABERcRoMBY, The Hon. Raxru, F.R.Met.Soc- 21 Chapel-street,
Belgrave-square, London, S.W.
SABERDARE, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Duf-
fryn, Mountain Ash, South Wales.
*ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D, 87 Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
tAberdeen, The Countess of. 387 Grosyenor-square, London, Ii
tAbernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.
*A pERNErHY, Jamus, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 4 Delabay-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.
6
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1&73.
1886.
iksyv We
1884,
187
1882.
1869.
1877.
1873,
1873.
*ABney, Captain W. bE W., R.E., C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
FCS. Willeslie House, Wetherby-road, ‘South Kensington,
London, S.W.
tAbraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.
tAce, Rev. Daniel, D.D., ERAS. Laughton, near Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.
tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.
3. tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.
*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.
tAcland, Charles T. D., M.P. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. 22 Cheyne-gardens, Chelsea,
London, 8. W.
*Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.
*ACLAND, Sir Henry W. D., Bart., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Radelitfe Librarian and Regius Professor of
Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.
*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, London, W.
. tActanD, Sir Tuomas Dyke, Bart., M.A., D.C.L. Sprydoncote,
Exeter ; and Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.
. fApamt, J.G., B.A. New Museums, Cambridge.
. {Adams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
. tAdams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glascow.
*Apams, Joun Covcu, M.A., LL.D., D.Se., F-R.S., F.R.A.S., Director
of the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.
. §Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, London, N.W.
. *ApAms, Rey. Toomas, M.A., D.C.L., Principal of Bishop’s College,
Lennoxyville, Canada.
. tApams, WitrraAm. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.
. *Apams, WILLIAM GRYLLS, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy i in King’s College,
London. 43 Notting Hill-square, London, W.
. tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic and Political
Economy in Owens College, Manchester. 1 Derby-road,
Fallowfield, Manchester.
. tAddyman, James W ilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.
. §ApEenzy, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsford-
terrace, Dublin.
. *Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.
3. TAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.
. TAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.
. tAenew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester. :
. tAikins, Dr. W. T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
. *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
. *Ainsworth, John Stirling, Harecroft, Cumberland.
|. tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
. *Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.
. §Aitken, John, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Akroyd, Edward. Bankfield, Halifax.
*Alabaster, H. 22 Paternoster-row, London, E.C.
. *Albright,G.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
. tAxncocr, Sir Rurwerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
. *Aleock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Sale, Manchester.
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
‘
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. “
of
Election.
1887
1891.
1883.
1888.
. tAlexander, B. Fernlea, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§ Alexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.
tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.
*Alexander, Patrick Y. 39 St. James’s-square, Bath.
1873. tAlexander, Reginald, M.D. 18 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1858.
1891
1833.
1883.
1883.
1867.
1885.
~lltsyeale
1871.
1887
{ALEXANDER, Wrt14M, M.D. Halifax.
. *Alford, Charles J., F.G.S., Boscombe, Hants.
tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
tAleer, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.
tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.
tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.K. 10 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
tAtcen, Atrrep H., F.C.S. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
. *Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
1879. *Allen, Rey. A. J.C. Cava House, Barton-road, Cambridge.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1891.
1887.
1878.
1861.
1887.
1891.
1889.
1865.
1889.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1873.
1891.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1876.
1885.
1850.
1883.
_ 1885.
1874.
1888.
1887.
1889.
1880.
1886.
*Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
tAllen, F. J. Mason College, Birmingham,
tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham.
§Allen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8.W.
§Allen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, vid Preston.
tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W
tAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
*Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Allen, W.H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.
tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.
{Allhusen, ©. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Allhusen, Frank. Low Fell, Gateshead.
*AriumMan, GrorcE J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L. & E., MRA. F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.
*Allnutt, J. W. F., M.A. 12 Chapel-row, Portsea, Hants.
tAllport, Samuel, 50 Whittall-street, Birmingham.
tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire,
tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
§Ambrose, D. R. 4 Richmond-terrace, Cardiff.
§Amery, John Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
+Ami, Henry. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
t Anderson, Alexander. 1 St. James's-place, Hilihead, Glasgow.
{Anderson, Charles Clinton, 4 Knareshorough-place, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.
tAnderson, Charles William. Belvedere, Harrogate.
+Anderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.
*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Frognal Park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
*Anderson, R. Bruce. 354 Great George-street, London, S.W.
tAnderson, Professor R. J., M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.
{Anderson, Robert Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne. .
*AnpeERson, Tempest, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York.
*ANDERSON, WILLIAM, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.H. Lesney House
Erith, Kent.
1880. tAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883,
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.
1886,
1886.
1878.
1890,
1886,
1870.
1874,
1884,
1851.
1884,
1883,
1883.
1887,
1861.
1867.
1857.
1879.
1886.
1873.
tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
§Andrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.
§Andrews, William. Gosford Lodge, Coventry.
tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.
§ANGELL, Jonn, F.C.S. 5 Beacons-field, Derby-road, Fallowtield
Manchester.
tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.
tAnsell, Joseph. 38 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.
tArblaster, Edmund, M.A. The Grammar School, Carlisle.
tArcher, Francis. 14 Cook-street, Liverpool. .
tArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.LA. 11 South Frederick-street,
Dublin.
*Archibald, FE. Douglas. Grosvenor House, Tunbridge Wells.
tAReYLL, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E.,
F.G.8. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W.; and Inverary,
Argyllshire.
§Arlidge, John Thomas, M.D., B.A. The High Grove, Stoke-upon-
Trent.
§Armistead, Richard. 28 Chambres-road, Southport.
*Armistead, William. 15 Rupert-street, Compton-road, Wolver-
hampton.
tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.
tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester.
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.
*Armsrrone, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Jesmond Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. :
*Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Albany, London, W.
tARmsrrone, Georcn Frepericx, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinburgh.
tArmsrrone, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Jnstitution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 55 Granville
Park, Lewisham, 8.E.
?
. tArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York. U.S.A.
tArmstrong, John A. 52 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Neweastle-upon-
Tyne.
. tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London,
> N.W
*Arthur, Rey. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, S.W.
tAscough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham,
*Ash, Dr. T, Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
. TAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
§Ashley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.
tAshton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
Asuton, Tuomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
Year of
Election
1887.
13866.
1887.
1888.
1890.
1887.
1887.
1875.
1861.
1861.
1887.
1865.
1884.
1863.
1861.
1881.
1881.
1863.
1884.
1886,
1860.
1865.
1881.
1888.
1877.
1884.
1863.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1883.
1885.
1883.
1870.
1887.
1878.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 386 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
fAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund, Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
tAshworth, Mrs. Harriet. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near Stock-
ort.
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
*Ashworth, J.J. 39 Spring-gardens, Manchester.
tAshworth, J. Reginald. 20 King-street, Rochdale.
tAshworth, John Wallwork. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near
Stockport.
tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. 93 Fellows-road, London, N.W.
§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
tAtkinson, Rey. C. Chetwynd, M.A. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-
Mersey.
*Arxrnson, EpmunpD, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.
tAtkinson, Edward. Brookline, Massachusetts, Boston, U.S.A.
* Atkinson, G. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tAtkinson, Rev. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.
tAtkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.
tArKryson, Ropert WixxiaM, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
*ATTFIELD, Professor J.,.M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
fAulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.
*Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E. C., M.A. The Gables, Win-
chester.
*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
fAxon, W. E. A. Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tAyre, Rev. J. W., M.A. 380 Green-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
*Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, London, 8. W.
*Bapineton, CHARLES CarparZ, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.
{Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
tBackhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.
*Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
t{Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
{Baden-Powell, Sir George S., K.C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.A.S.,
F.S.S. 8 St. George’s-place, Hyde Park, London, 8.W.
{Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
{Bagrual, P. H, St. Stephen's Club, Westminster, S.1W.
{Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S, Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.
{Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.
{ Bailey, John. The Laurels, Wittington, near Hereford.
10 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1865. {Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmin cham.
1855. {Bailey, W ‘ita Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.
1887. {Bailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
1866, {Baillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.
1878. {Baily, Walter. 176 Taverstock-hill, London, N.W.
1885. {Barn, AtrxanpER, M.A., LL.D., Rector of the University of
Aberdeen. Ferryhill Lodge, ‘Aberdeen.
1873. {Bain, Sir James, M.P. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
1885. {Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
1882. *Baxer, Sir Brnsamiy, FC. C.ALG., LL.D., FRS., M.Inst.C.E.
2 ‘Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.
1866. {Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham.
1886. { Baker, Harry. 262 Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
1891, §Baker, J. W. 195 Castle-road, Roath, Cardiff.
1861. *Baker, John. The Gables, Buxton.
1881. {Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.
1865. {Baker, Wiliam. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.
1875. {Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.
1881. {Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
1884. {Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.
1871. {Balfour,G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.
1875. {Bazrour, Isaac Baytey, D.Sc., M.D., F.RS.L. & E., F.L.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.
1883. {Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Invyerleith House, Edinburgh.
1878. *Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.
1866, *Baxt, Sir Roper Srawett, LL.D., F.RS., F.R.A.S., Andrews
Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, and
Royal Astronomer of Ireland. The Observatory, Dunsink,
Co. Dublin.
1878. {BaLzt, Vatenrine, C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S8., Director of
the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
1883. *Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1886. §Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.
1869. {Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 65 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.
1890. §Bamford, Harry, B.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.
1882. {Bance, Major Edward. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton.
1870. {Banisrer, Rev. Wirr1aAmM, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool,
1884. {Bannatyne, Hon. A.G. Winnipeg, Canada.
1884, {Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.
1866. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
1884. {Barber, Rev. 5. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaff ham, Norfolk.
1890, *Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.
1861. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
1855. {Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
1871. tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
1852. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
1860. *Barclay, Robert. Tigh Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.
1876, *Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
1887. *Barclay, Robert. Springfield, Kersal, Manchester.
1886. {Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.
1868. *Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
1881. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelfor d-place, Leicester.
1882. {Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 11
Year of
Election.
1863.
1886.
1890.
1860.
1879.
1882.
1879.
1865,
1870.
1889.
1886.
1875.
1889.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1885.
1873.
1861.
1881,
1889,
1868.
1884.
1886.
1881.
1890.
1859,
1891,
1883.
1883.
1860.
1872.
1885.
1887.
1874,
1874.
1885.
1881.
1866.
1886.
1886.
*Barford, James Gale. Wellington College, Wokingham, Berk-
shire.
TBarham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.
§Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross,
London, 8.E.
*Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.
{Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.
*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.
*Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Boroughbridge Vicarage,
Bridgwater.
TBarker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edebaston, Birmingham.
{Barxxy, Sir Heyry, G.C.M.G., K.C. B., FR. See F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
eardens, South Kensington, London, S.W.
{Barkus, Dr. B. 3 Ji esmond-terrace, Newecastle-upon-Tyne.
{Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
TBarlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, S.W.
§Barlow, H. W. L. Holly Bank, Croftsbank-road, Urmston, near
Manchester.
{Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.
sopra John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson's Col-
lege, Glasgow.
Barlow, John RB. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
{Barlow, William, F.G.S. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N.
{Bartow, Witi1am Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.—. 2 Old Palace-
yard, Westminster, 8. W.
*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham.
{Barnard, William, LL.B. Harlow, Essex.
{Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.
§ Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
{Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.
t Barnsley, Charles H. 32 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Barr, Archibald, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.
{Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.
{Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
§Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.
{Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
{Barrett, Mrs. J. C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
TBarrett, T. B. 20 Victoria-terrace, Welshpool, Montgomery.
*Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics in the
Roy: al College of Science, Devoe,
{Barrett, William Scott. Winton Lodge, Crosby, near Liverpool.
{Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
*Barrincton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
*Barrineton-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
*Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
erove, Shortlands, Kent.
§Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.
{Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
{Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
tBarrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham,
12
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1886.
1886.
1858.
1862,
1883.
1875.
1881.
1884.
1890.
1890.
1858.
1858.
1884,
1878,
1884,
1852.
1887.
1882.
1876.
1876.
1888.
1891.
1866.
1889.
1869.
1871.
1889.
1888.
1873.
1868.
1889.
1864,
1884.
1851.
1881.
1836.
1863.
1867.
1875.
1876,
1887.
{Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
{Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
{Barry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. Knapdale, Upper
Tooting, Surrey.
*BarRy, Cuartes. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W.
{Barry, Charles E. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W.
{Barry, John Wolfe,M.Inst.C.E. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster,S,. W.
tBarry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
*Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York.
“Barstow, J. J. Jackson, The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
*Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
“Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House, Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.
{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Bartley, George C. T., M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
{Barton, James. Farndree, Dundalk.
{Bartrum, John 8. 138 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
*Bastne, The Right Hon, Lord, F.R.S.. 74 St. George’s-square,
London, 8.W.
{Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
{Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
“Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Chapel Place Mansions, 322 Oxford-
street, London, W.
§Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
*Bassert, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London AN,
§Bastable, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 74 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Co, Dublin.
{Bastard, 8S. S. Summerland-place, Exeter.
{Bastian, H. Cuartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London. 84 Manchester-square, London, W.
{Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
{Batemap, A. E. Board of Trade, London, 8.W.
*Bateman, Daniel. Wissahickon, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Home House,
Worthing.
{Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
{Barzs, Henry Watrer, F.R.S., F.L.S., Assist.-Sec. R.G.S. 1-Savile-
row, London, W.
{Bateson, William, B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Barn anD WELLS, The Right Rey. Lord ArraurR Hervey, Lord
Bishop of, D.D. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.
*Bather, Francis Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. 207 Harrow-road, London, W.
{Batten, Edmund Chisholm. Thorn Falcon, near Taunton, Somerset.
§Bavrrman, H., F.G.S. 9 Hazlebourne-gardens, Cavendish-road,
Balham, London, S.W.
{Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
“Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 3 Church-walk, Oxford.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 13
Year of
Election.
1887. {Baynton, Alfred. 28 Gilda Brook Park, Eecles, Manchester.
1883. *Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
1886. {Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
1886. {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1860, *Bratz, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of the Principles and
Practice of Medicine in King’s College, London. 61 Grosyenor-
street, London, W.
1882. §Beamish,Lieut.-Colonel A.W., R.E. 28 Grosyenor-road,London,S. W.
1884. {Beamish,G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.
1872. {Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.
1883. {Beard, Mrs. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
1889. §Beare, Professor T. Hudson, F.R.S.E. University College, London,
W.C
1887. {Beaton, John, M.A. 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester.
1842. *Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.
1888. { Beatson, W. B., M.D, 11 Cavendish-place, Bath.
1889. {Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1855. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picea-
dilly, London, W.
1886. {Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal.
1861. *Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.
1887. *Beaumont, W. J. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
1885. §BEaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Melford, Palace-road,
Tulse Hill, London, 8. W.
1871. *Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G, 74 Redcliffe-square, London, 8S. W.
1887. *Brckert, Jonn Hamppen. Corbar Hill House, Buxton, Derbyshire.
1885. §Bepparp, Frank E., M.A., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoological
Society of London. Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
1866. {Beddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.
1870. §BEppoz, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. The Manor House, Clifton, Bristol.
1858. §Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.
1890. §Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Clifton-villas, Cardigan-road, Leeds.
1891. §Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.
1878. {Bepson, P. Purtres, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1884. {Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hull-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
1873. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.
1874. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
1891. *Belinfante, L. L., B.Se., Assistant-Secretary G.S. Geological
Society, Burlington House, London, W.
1873. {Bell, Asahel P. 32 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester.
1871. {Bell, Charles B. 6 Sprine-bank, Hull.
1884, {Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
1880. §Bell, Henry Oswin. 13 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1862. *Brtt, Sir Isaac Lowruran, Bart., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
1875. {Bell, James, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Laboratory,
Somerset House, London, W.C.
14
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1891.
1871.
1883.
1864.
1876.
1865.
1867.
1888.
1842.
1882,
1884,
1886.
1885.
§Bell, James, Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.
*Bert, J. Carrer, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.
*Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.
{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
{Bell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.E. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
*Bell, Thomas. Oakwood, Epping.
tBell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
tBellingham, William. 15 Killieser-avenue, Telford Park, Streat-
ham Hill, London, 8.W.
{Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada,
§Benger, Frederick Baden, F.1.C., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford.
{Bengam, Witt1am Braxtanp, D.Sc. University College, Lon-
don, W.C.
. §Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 22 St. Alban’s-road, Harlesden, London,
N.W.
. {Bennerr, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
. §Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
. {Bennett, James M. St. Mungo Chemical Company, Ruckhill, Glasgow.
. §Bennett, John R. 16 West Park, Clifton, Bristol.
. *Bennett, Laurence Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
. {Bennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.
. *Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
. {Bennion, James A., M.A. 1 St. James’-square, Manchester.
. tBenson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon Tyne.
. {Benson, Starling. Gloucester-place, Swansea.
. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
. *Bent, J. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.
. {Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
. {Benriey, Ropert, F.L.S. 38 Penywern-road, Earl’s Court, London,
S.W
: t Benton, William Elijah. Littleworth House, Hednesford, Stafford-
shire.
. t{Bergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
. tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
. {Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary. Canada.
. tBerry, William. Parklands, Bowdon, Cheshire.
. {Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
. {Besant, William Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
. *BEssEMER, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, 8.E.
. *Bessemer, Henry, jun. Town Hill Park, West Eud, Southampton.
. {Best, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
. {Betley, Ralph, F.G.S. Mining School, Wigan.
. tBettany, Mrs. 33 Oakhurst-grove, East Dulwich-road, London, S.E.
. *Bevan, Rev. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Vow-
church, Hereford.
. *Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
. {Beveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.
. *Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks.
. §Bevington, Miss Mary E. The Elms, Bickley Park, Kent.
. {Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney
Hill, London, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 15
Year of
Election.
1844, *Bickerdike, Rey. John, M.A. Shireshead Vicarage, Garstang.
1886. {Bickersteth, The Very Rey. E., D.D., Dean of Lichfield. The
Deanery, Lichfield.
1870. {Bickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
1888. *Bidder, George Parker. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1885. *BrpwELL, SueEtrorD, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, S.W.
1882. §Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, London, S.E.
1891. §Billups, J. E. 29 The Parade, Cardiff.
1886. {Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, London, N.W.
1887. *Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.
1884, *Bingham, John E. Electric Works, Sheffield.
1881. §Binnie, Alexander R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, London, 8.W.
1873. {Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1880. {Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport.
1866. *Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
1888. *Birley, Miss Caroline. Seedley-terrace, Pendleton, Manchester.
1887. *Birley, H. K. 13 Hyde-road, Ardwick, Manchester.
1871. *Biscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
1883. {Bishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1885. {Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.
1886, *Bixby, Captain W. H. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.
1884. {Black, Francis, F.R.G.S. 6 North Bridge, Edinburgh,
1889. {Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. §Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.
1881. tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.
1869. {Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
1834. Blackburn, Bewicke. Calverley Park, Tunbridge Wells.
1876. {Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.
1884, {Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
enham.
1877. {Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Blackie, John S., M.A., Emeritus Professor of Greek in the Uni-
sity of Edinburgh. 9 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.
1876. {Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glascow.
1855. *Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1884. {Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
1883. {Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.
1888. {Blaine, R.8., J.P. Summerhill Park, Bath.
1883. {Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.
1863. {Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. 4 Charlton-street, Fitzroy-square, London, W.
1886. {Blake, Dr. James. San Francisco, California.
1849, *Braxz, Henry Wottaston, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.
1883. *Braxn, Rey. J. F., M.A., F.G.8. 40 Loudoun-road, London,
N.W.
1846. *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
1891. §Blakesley, Thomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, London, S.E.
1878. {Blakeney, Rey. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield.
1886. {Blakie, John. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1861. §Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. Free Hills, Bursledon, Hants.
1887. {Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.
188i. §Blamires, Thomas H, Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.
16 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1884. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.
1869. {Buanrorp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
1887. *Bles, A. J.S. Moor End, Kersal, Manchester.
1887. *Bles, Edward J. Moor End, Kersal, Manchester.
1887. {Bles, Marcus 8. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester,
1884, *Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
1869. *BLOMEFIELD, Rey. Lzonarp, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
Bath.
1880. §Bloxam, G. W., M.A. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.
1888. §Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 73 Clarendon-road,
Crumpsall, Manchester.
1888. { Blumberg, Dr. 65 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1870. {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
1859. {Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
1859. {Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
1885. {Buiyra, Jans, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
1883. {Blyth, Miss Phceebe. 8 South Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.
1867. {Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
1887. {Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1870. {Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
1887. *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.
1889. {Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 10 Westwick-gardens, West
Kensington Park, London, W.
1884, {Body, Rev. C. W. E., M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Jesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.
1881. {Bojanowski, Dr. Victor de. 27 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
1883. §Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Stafford-
shire.
1883. §Bonney, Miss S. 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1871. *Bonnry, Rev. Tuomas GurorcE, D.Se., LL.D., F.RS., F.S.A.,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
186¢, {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
1888, §Boon, William. Coventry.
1890. *Booth, Charles, F.S.8. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, London,
E.C
1883. §Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.
183. | Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.O.
1876. {Booth, Rev. William H. St. Germain’s-place, Blackheath, London,
S.E
1883. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Rawlinson-road, Southport.
1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. Friedheim, Springfield-road, Wimble-
don, Surrey.
1876. *Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., New Univer-
sity Club, St. James’s-street, London, 8. W.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
1881. §BormamiEy, Cuartes H., F.C.S. Taunton, Somerset.
1867. {Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.
1887, {Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.
———————S,—C( sCUmUCOC OCC OOrt—™—S~—
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 1%
Election.
1872.
1868.
1887.
1871.
1884,
1876.
1890.
1885.
1883,
1889.
1866.
1890.
1884.
1888.
1870.
1881.
1867.
1856.
1886.
1884.
1880.
1887.
1865.
1887.
1884,
1887.
1871.
1865.
1884.
1872.
1869.
1884.
1857.
1863.
1880.
1864.
1870.
1888.
1879.
1865.
1872.
{Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
tBottle, J. T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
{Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.
*Borromiry, JAmEs Tomson, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 18
University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Bottomley, Mrs. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.
{Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
§Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
tBourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common,London, 8.W.
{Bovrng, A. G., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Presidency
College, Madras.
tBourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, London, W.
§ Bourne, SrerueEn, F.S.S. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey,
{Bousfield, C. HE. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
{Bovny, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal, Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada.
{Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.
{ Bower, Anthony. Dowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
*Bower, F. O., F.R.S., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the University
of Glasgow.
tBower, Dr. John. Perth.
*Bowlby, Miss F. EK. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
{tBowlby, Rev. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
tBowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent.
{Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
{tBowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.
§Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Halifax, Yorkshire.
Bowman, Sir Wittram, Bart., M.D., LL.D. F.R.S., F.R.C.S.
5 Clifford-street, London, W.
§Box, Alfred M. Scissett, near Huddersfield.
*Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.
{Boyd, Robert. Manor House, Didsbury, Manchester.
tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{Boytz, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury. The
Deanery, Salisbury.
*Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, London, 8.W.
*BraBRooK, EK. W., F.S.A., V.P.A.L. 28 Abingdon-street, West-
minster, 8, W.
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.
*Brace, W. H., M.D. 7 Queen’s Gate-terrace, London, S.W.
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
{Brapy, Grorcr S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.
*Brady, Rey. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, Romford,
Essex.
§BrawamM, Purp, F.C.S. Bath.
{Braidwood, Dr. 35 Park-road South, Birkenhead.
§Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath,
{Bramley, Herbert. 6 Paradise-square, Sheffield.
§BraMWweELL, Sir Frepericx J., Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
5 Great George-street, London, S.W.
{Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
B
’
18 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1867. {Brand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
1861. *Brandreth, Rev. Henry. 1 Cintra-terrace, Hill’s-road, Cambridge.
1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Oakfield Hall, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1890. *Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds,
1868. {Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
1877. {Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
1882. *Bretherton, C.K. 1 Garden-court, Temple, London, E.C.
1881. *Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford.
1866. {Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.
1875. {Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.
1886. {Bridge, T. W., M.A., Professor of Zoology in the Mason Science
College, Birmingham.
1884. {Bridges,C. J. Winnipeg, Canada.
1870. *Bridson, Joseph R. Sawrey, Windermere.
1887. {Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
1870. {Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
1886. tBrierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, dgbaston, Birmingham.
1879. {Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
1870. *Briae, Joun. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1889. {Brigy, T. H. The Grange, Weston, near Otley, Yorkshire.
1890, {Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
1866. *Briges, Arthur. Rawden Hall, Leeds.
1870. {Bright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.
1868. {Brine, Captain Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
1884. {Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.
1879. {Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Shettield.
1879. *Brirramn, W. H., J.P. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.
1878. {Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, 8.W.
1884. *Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1859. *Bropuurst, Brrnarp Epwarp, F.R.C.S.,F.L.S. 20 Grosyenor-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
. *Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common,
SH
. {Bropre, Rey. Prrer Beriinerr, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
. {Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A.
. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne.
*Brook, George, F.L.S. The University, Edinburch.
. §Brook, Robert G. Rowen-street, St. Helens, Lancashire.
. {Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
. *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.
. Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
. {Brooke, Rey. Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,
Bath.
. §Brooks, James Howard. Green Bank, Monton, Eccles, Man-
chester.
. {Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
. [Brooks, 8S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
. *Brooks, Sir Thomas, Bart. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester,
. *Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent.
. {Brotherton, EK. A. Fern Cliffe, Ikley, Yorkshire.
. §Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 19
Year of
Election.
1885.
1863.
1867.
1855.
1871.
1865.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1870.
1876.
188i.
1882,
1859.
1882.
1886.
1863,
1871.
1868.
1891.
1865.
1885.
1884,
1863.
1879.
1891.
1862.
1872.
1865.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1855.
1889,
1863.
1863.
1875.
1875.
*Browett, Alfred. 14 Dean-street, Birmingham.
“Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Pres.C.S., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
grave-crescent, Hdinbureh.
oe Charles Gage, M.D., C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, London,
.W.
{Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
{Brown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.
*Brown, Rey, Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
§Brown, Mrs. Ellen F, Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
{Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
{Brown, George. Cadishead, near Manchester.
{Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
{Brown, Gerald Culmer, Lachute, Quebec, Canada.
{Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 26 Ferryhill-place, Aberdeen.
{Brown, Harry. University College, London, W.C.
{Brown, Mrs. Helen. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh.
§Brown, Horace T., F.R.S., F.C.S. 47 High-street, Burton-on-Trent,
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh.
*Brown, Professor J. Camper, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.
§Brown, John. Belair, Windsor-avenue, Belfast.
*Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
*Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
{Brown, Rey. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Haddington, N,B.
*Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
§Brown R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth,
{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Brown, Roserz, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G:S. Fersley, Rydal-
road, Streatham, London, 8S. W.
{Brown, Samuel, M.Inst.C.E., Government Engineer. Nicosia, Cyprus,
§Brown T. Forsrnr, M.Inst.C.E. Guildhall Chambers, Cardiff,
{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
{Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.
{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co., Virginia, U.S.A.
{Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.F. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-l'yne.
{Browne, Sir J. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.L:.&E. 7 Caumber-
land-terrace, Regent's Park, London, N.W.
§Browne, Montagu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.
*Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow,
Ireland.
{Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks,
Kent.
*Browne, William, M.D. Heath Wood, Leighton Buzzard.
{Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C.
{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
§Bruce, J. Collingwood, LL.D., D.C.L., F.S.A. Framlington-place,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
“Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E, 21 Delahay-street, Westiuinster, S.W.
{Brunel, J. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Bruness, Sir Jamzs, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.
{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W,
B2
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1868.
1891.
1878.
1886.
1884.
1859.
1890,
1871.
1867.
1885.
1881.
1871.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1864.
1865.
1886.
1884.
1880.
1869.
1851,
1887.
1875.
1883.
1871.
1881.
1883.
1865.
1886.
1842.
1875.
1869,
1881.
1891.
1884.
1888.
1883.
1876.
1885.
1877.
1884,
1883.
1887.
{Brunron, T. Lauper, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, London, W.
§Bruton, Edward Henry. 181 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.
*Bryan, G. H. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.
{Bryce, Rev. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada.
{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.
§Bubb, Henry. Pendyftryn, near Conway, North Wales.
§BucHan, ALExanpER, M.A., LL.D, F.R.S.E., See. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
{Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
*Buchan, William Paton. Fairyknowe, Cambuslang, N.B.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C. 12 Barnard-road, Birkenhead, Cheshire.
*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.
{Bucwanan, Joun Younes, M.A., F.R.S. L.& E. 10 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.
{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.
{ Buckland, Miss A. W. 54 Doughty-street, London, W.C.
*Buckle, Edmund W. 25 Bedford-row, London, W.C.
{Bucxrn, Rev. Grorcn, M.A. Wells, Somerset.
*Buckley, Henry. The Upper Doon, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
§Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver-park, Didsbury.
*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, London, W.
{Buckney, Thomas, ¥.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, London, W.C.
tBuelmill, J.C., M.D., F.R.S. East Cliff House, Bournemouth.
*Bucxton, GrorcE Bownitr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey. ;
{Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester,
{Budgett, Samuel. Kirton, Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.
{Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.
{Bulloch, Matthew. 4 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
{Bulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.
{Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.
tBunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham.
§Burbury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C
*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.
{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
tBurdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
{Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly,
London, W.
§Burge, Very Rey. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.
*Burland, Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
t{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
*Burne, Colonel Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.8.L, CLE. F.R.G.S. 182
Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W.
TBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. The Grove, Kemnay, Aberdeenshire.
{Burns, Dayid. Alston, Carlisle.
§Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.
tBurr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, E.C.
{Burroughs, Egeleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.
,
.
:
:
4
.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 21
Year of
Election.
1881. §Burroughs, 8S. M. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.
18838.
1860.
1891.
1888.
1888.
1866.
1889.
1887.
1878.
1884.
1884.
1888.
1884,
1872.
1883.
1887.
1868.
1881.
1888,
1872.
1854.
1885.
1852.
1883.
1875.
1889,
1865.
1863.
1876.
1861.
1875.
1886.
1868.
1857.
1887.
1854.
1884.
1876.
1857.
1884.
1870.
1884.
1874.
1883.
*Burrows, Abraham. Greenhall, Atherton, near Manchester.
{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
§Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.
{Bourt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gard-ns, Kensington, London, W.
{Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
*Burron, Frepvertck M., F.G.8. Highfield, Gainsborough,
{Burton, Rev. R. Lingen. Zetland Club, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Burcner, J. G., M.A. 22 Ooilingham-place, London, S.W.
*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor.
TButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
{Buttanshaw, Rev. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Batb.
*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester.
t{Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
tBuxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Buxton, J. H. ‘Guardian’ Office, Manchester.
{Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
{Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, London, 8.W.
{Buxton, Rev. Thomas, M.A. 19 Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, South-
port.
{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., F.R.G.S. Warlies, Waltham
Abbey, Essex.
tByrrtey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth-park, Liverpool.
tByres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.
{Byrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
§Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairtield, near Manchester,
tByrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 31 King-street, Wigan.
{Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
{Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.
{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
{Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
{Caldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Rectory, Shipston-on-Stour.
*Caldwell, William Hay. Birnam, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.
tCaley, A. J. Norwich.
tCallan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.
{CaLtaway Cuartes, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Sandon, Wellington,
Shropshire.
{Calver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. 23 Park-place East, Sunder-
land, Durbam.
{Cameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Cameron, Charles, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.
{Cameron, Sir Cuartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tCampbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
*CAMPBELL, Sir Georer, K.C.S.1, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S., F.S.8.
Southwell House, Southwell-cardens, South Kensington,
London, 8.W.; and Edenwood, Cupar, Fife.
{Campbell, H. J. 81 Kirkstall-road, Taifourd Park, Streatham
Hill, 8. W.
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W. ; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwickshire.
22
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1876.
1862.
1882.
1890.
1888.
1880.
1883.
1887.
18738.
1885.
1877.
1867.
1867.
1876.
1884.
1887.
1884.
1854.
1888.
1884.
1889,
1889.
1867.
1886.
1883.
1861.
1868.
1866.
1855.
1870.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1870.
1884.
1884.
1883.
1887.
1866,
1871.
1873.
1888.
1874.
1859.
1886,
1887.
1886.
tCampbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.
*Campron, Rey. Wirrr1am M., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
tCandy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.
§Cannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.I.E. 14 Harrington-gardens, Lon-
don, W.
~Capper, Robert. Norfolk House, Norfolk-street, Strand, London, W.C.
{Capper, an R. Norfolk House, Norfolk-street, Strand, London,
W.C.
tCapstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
*Carpurt, Epwarp Hamer, M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-gardens,
London, W.
{ Carey-Hobson, Mrs. 54 Doughty-street, London, W.C.
{Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
{ Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.
t{Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.
{Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
tCarpenter, A., M.D. Duppas House, Croydon.
{Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A.
tCarpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
*Carpmael, Alfred. 1 Copthall-buildings, London, E.C.
*Carpmael, Charles. Toronto, Canada.
tCarr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
tCarr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
tCarrutuers, Witxr1AM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. British Museum,
London, S. W.
{Carstaxe, J. Barna. 380 Westfield-road, Birmingham.
tCarson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast.
*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., MRA. 18 Fitzwilliam-place,
Dublin.
{Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
tCarter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
tCarter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
*Cartwright, E. Henry. 1 Courtfield-gardens, London, 8.W.
§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury,
Lancashire.
*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, London, S.W.
tCarver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, S.W.
{Carver, James. Garfield House, Elm-avenue, Nottingham.
{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.
{Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. The Lawns, Highgate, London, N.
tCash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.
*Cash, William, F.G.S. 38 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.
tCater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.
tCaton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
Medical School. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.
tCatto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella. Repton Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham.
§Cawley, George. ‘ Industries,’ 358 Strand, London, W.C.
tCay, Albert. Ashleigh, Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
erm
ov ‘ _—
The OF ee OP ee ee ee ee ee ey |
|
LIST OF MEMBERS. 23
Year of
Election.
1860. §Caytey, Artuur, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.,
Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Garden House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
1860. {Cuapwick, Davm. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, $.E.
1883. {Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1859. {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
1883. {Chalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1859. {Chalmers, John Inclis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
1883, {Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South-
port.
1884. {Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada,
1883. {CHampers, Cuarzes, F.R.S. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
1883. tChambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
1883. {Chambers, Charles, jun., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Colaba Observatory,
Bombay.
1842. Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
1868. {Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
1881. *Champney, John E. Woodlands, Halifax,
1865. {Chance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Chance, James T. 51 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
1886. *Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1865. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1888. {Chandler, 8. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.
1861. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.
1889. {Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
1884, {Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.
1877. §Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Firbank, Hereford.
1874. {Charles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.
1836. CHARLEswortH, Epwarp, F.G.S. 277 Strand, London, W.C.
1874. {Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
1866. { Charnock, Richard Stephen, Ph.D., F.SA., F.R.GS. Junior Garrick
Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.
1886. tChate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1883. {Chater, Rey. John. Part-street, Southport.
1884, *Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1886. §Chattock, A. P. 15 Lancaster-road, Belsize Park, London, N.W.
1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.
1884, {Cuavveav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.
1883. {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
1864. {Curapie, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, S.W.
1887. {Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde.
1887. {Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.
1874. *Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E., C.B. Care of Messrs. Cox &
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8S. W.
1884, {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.
1879. *Chesterman, W. Clarkehouse-road, Sheftield.
CuicuEsterR, The Right Rev. Rrcwarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Chichester.
1865. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford.
24 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Yearof ~
Election.
1883. §Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.
1884. {Chipman, W. W. L. 6 Place d’Armes, Ontario, Canada.
1889. {Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.
1842. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-zrove, Manchester.
1863. {Cholmeley, Rey. C. H. The Rectory, Beaconsfield R.S.O., Bucks.
1882. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.
1887. {Chorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.
1861. {Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
1884. *Christie, William. 29 Qneen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.
1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. 6 Barrow-road, Streatham Common,
London, S.W.
1876. *CurystaL, Grorer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinbureh.
1870. §Caurcu, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Royal Academy of Arts, London. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road,
Kew, Surrey.
1860. {Church, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
E.C
1881. {Cuvrcumt, Lord Atrrep Spencer. 16 Rutland-gate, London,
S.W
1857. {Churchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Oc, Tyrone.
1857. {Clarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
Dublin.
1876. {Clark, David R., M.A. 381 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
1890. {Clark, E. K. 81 Caledonian-road, Leeds.
1877. *Clark, F. J. Street, Somerset.
Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.
1876. {Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
1876. {Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glascow.
1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 20 Bootham, York.
1861. {Clark, Latimer, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street, London,
S.W
1855. {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
1883. {Clarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1887. §Clarke, OC. Goddard. Ingleside, Elm-grove, Peckham, 8.E.
1865. {Clarke, Rev. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1875. {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1886. {Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.
1886. §Clarke, Rev, H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.
1872. *CiarKE, Hypr. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, S.W.
1875. {Crarxn, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1861. *Clarke, John Hope. 62 Nelson-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Man-
chester.
1877. {Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
1851. {Crarxs, JosHua. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.
1884, {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.
1861. {Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
1889. §CLraypen, A. W. Warleigh, Palace-road, Tulse Hill Park, London,
S.W.
1866. {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
1890. *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.
1850. {CLecnHorn, Hvueu, M.D., F.L.S. Strayithie, St. Andrews, Scot-
land.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 25
Year of
Election.
1859.
1875.
1861.
1886.
1888.
1861.
1878.
1873.
1883.
1863.
1881.
1885.
1868.
1891.
1884.
1889.
1864.
1889.
1883.
1861.
1881.
1865,
1884.
1887.
1887.
1853.
1868.
1879.
1878.
1854.
1857.
1887.
- 1887.
1869,
1854.
1861.
1865.
1876.
1876.
1884.
1868.
1882,
jCleghorn, John. Wick.
{Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.
§CirLanp, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.
{Clifford, Arthur. Beechcroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Currton, The Right Rey. the Bishop of, D.D. Bishop’s House,
Clifton, Bristol.
*Ouirron, R. Bertamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. _ Portland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
fClough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
*Crowes, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in Univer-
sity College, Nottingham. University College, Nottingham.
*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
*Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.
{Clyne James, Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.
tCoaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
*Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.
Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
§Cobb, John. Summerhill, Apperley Bridge, Leeds.
§Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Cochrane, James Henry. Elm Lodge, Prestbury, Cheltenham.
{Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Fairfield, Heaton, Bolton.
*Corrin, Water Harris, F.C.8. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, London, 8S. W.
Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
*Cohen, B. L. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, Iondon, W.
{Cohen, Julius B. Hawkesmoor, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
{Cohen, Sigismund. 111 Portland-street, Manchester.
tColchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.
tColchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
{Cole, Skelton. 3887 Glossop-road, Shetfield.
tColes, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
tColles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
{Collie, Norman. University Collere, Gower-street, London, W.C.
tCollier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Mdge, Manchester.
{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
tCollingwood, Cuthbert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, London, W.C.
*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street,
London, W.
*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tColiins, J. H., F.G.S. 4 Clark-terrace, Dulwich Rise, Eondon, SL.
{Collins, Sir William. 38 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
§Collins, William J., M.D., B.Sc. Albert-terrace, Regent's Park,
London, N.W.
*Corman, J. J..M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
{Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
26
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1888.
1884.
1891.
1884.
1852.
1890.
1871.
1881.
1876.
1882.
1876,
1881.
1868.
1868.
1884.
1878.
1881.
1859.
1883.
1883.
1865.
1888.
1885.
1884,
1883.
1850.
1838.
1884.
1846.
1889.
1884,
1878.
1871.
1885.
1881.
1863.
1842.
1891.
i887.
1881.
1885.
1870.
1889.
1884.
1885.
1888.
1891.
{Colomb, Sir J. C. R., M-P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare,
Kerry, Iveland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8. W.
tCommans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.
f{Common, A. A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing, Middle-
sex, W.
§Common, J. F. F. 4 Bute-crescent, Cardiff.
{Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.
{Connal, Sir Michael. 16 Lynedoch-terrace, Glasgow.
{Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.
*Connor, Charles C. Notting Hill House, Belfast.
{Conroy, Sir Jonn, Bart., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford.
tCook, James. 162 North-street, Glascow.
{Cooxs, Major-General A. C.; R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, London, 8S. W.
*CooxE, Conrad W. 2 Victoria-mansions, Victoria-street, London,
»W..
{Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.
{Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
tCooxn, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosyenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N,
tCooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
{Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F. Gs. Poona, Bombay.
+Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.
*Cooke, His Honour Judge, M.A., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
tCooke-Taylor, R. Whateley. Frenchwood House, Preston.
tCooke-Taylor, Mrs. Frenchwood House, Preston.
tCooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
tCooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherw ood, Nottingham.
{Coomer, John. Willaston, near Nantwich.
tCoon, John 8. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts,
S.A.
tCooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C.
tCoorrr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.
Cooper, James. 58 ‘Pembridge-villas, Bay swater, London, W.
tCooper, Mrs. M.A. West Tower, Marple, Cheshire,
tCooper, William White, F.R.CS. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.
{Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{tCope, E. D. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tCope, Rey. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.
{Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astr onomy in the University of Edinburgh.
{Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.
{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.
{Coppin, John. North Shields.
Corbett, Edward. Grange-ayenue, Levenshulme, Manchester,
§Corbett, E. W.M. Y. Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.
*Corcoran, Bryan. 381 Mark-lane, London, H.C.
§Cordeaux, John. Eaton Hall, Retford, Nottinghamshire.
*Core, Thomas H. Fallowfield, Manchester.
*CorFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., "FC. S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in Univ ersity College. 19 Savyile-row,
London, W.
{Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Cornwallis, F. 8. W. Linton Park, Maidstone.
{Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.
tCorser, Rev. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath.
§Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, Porthkerry, Cardiff.
—s ee. |e a
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Year of
Election.
1891. §Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Cardiff,
1883.
1891.
1857.
1874.
1864,
1869.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1874.
1889.
1890.
1863.
1863.
1876.
1872.
1886.
1871.
1860.
1867.
1867.
1882,
1867.
1888.
1867.
1883.
1890.
1884,
1876.
1858.
1884,
1887.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1890.
1883.
1870.
1885.
{Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 383 Chancery-lane, London, W.C.
*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt, Sand Park, Shaldon, Devonshire.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
tCottam, Samuel. King-street, Manchester.
*Correritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
{Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.
{Corron, Witt1am. Pennsylvania, Exeter,
tCottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallett, Somerset.
{Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glascow.
{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
tCourtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex.
{Courtney, F.8. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, London,
S.W.
{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
{Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
{tCowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
{Cowan, J. B., M.D. 4 Eglinton-crescent, Edinburgh. j
*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S. 31 Belsize Park-gardens,
London, N.W.
{Cowen, Mrs. G. R. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.
Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.
{tCowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
tCowper, Edward Alfred, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Great George-street,
Westminster, 8. W.
*Cox, Edward. Lyndhurst, Dundee.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
fCox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, London, 8. W.
*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
tCox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdown, Bath.
{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.
§Crabtree, William, M.Inst.C.E. Manchester-road, Southport.
{Cradock, George. Wakefield.
§Cratciz, Major P. G., F.S.S.. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
fCramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,
{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.
*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey,
Cheshire.
*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate-
ford, Edinburgh.
*CRAWFORD AND Barcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Dun Echt, Aber-
deen.
§Crawshaw, Charles B. Bank-terrace, Dewsbury.
*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, London, N,
*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Oathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.
§Creak, Staff Commander E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 36 Kidbrooke Park-
road, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1879.
1876.
1887.
1880.
1890.
1878.
1857.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1865,
1879.
1870.
1870,
1890.
1887.
1861.
1883.
1868.
1886.
1867.
1853.
1870.
1871.
1887.
1883.
1882.
1890,
1883.
1863.
1885.
1888.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1859.
1874.
1861.
1861.
tCreswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange. near Sheffield.
*Crewdson, Rev. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal.
*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.
*Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill,
London, W.
*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.
{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.
tCrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
t{Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tCrombie, John. 129 Union-street, Aberdeen.
tCrombie, John, jun. Davyeston, Aberdeen.
{Cromsiz, J. W., M.A. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.
tCrombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
tCrompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
tCrompton, Dickinson W. 40 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
§Orook, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.
{Crookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.
§Crooxrs, WiiiiaM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,
London, W.
tCrookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.
tCrosfield, C. J. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Crosfield, William. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
§Cross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent
Scarborough.
§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1Cross, Rey. John Edward, M.A. Halecote, Grange-over-Sands.
tCross, Rev. Prebendary, LL.B. Part-street, Southport.
{Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
tCrosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.
§Crosskny, Rey. H. W., LL.D., F.G.5. 117 Gough-road, Bir-
mingham.
tCrosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.
*Crossley, Edward, M.P., F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.
tCrossley, Herbert. Ferney Green, Bowness, Ambleside.
*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.
{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.
§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.
*Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oaks, Croydon,
{tCrowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield.
tCruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastie-upon-Tyne.
{Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen,
§Crummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
*Culverwell, Edward P. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.
tCulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.
tCumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.
tCumming, Professor. 33 Wellineton-place, Belfast.
*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.
*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 29
Year of
Election.
1882. *Cunntnenam, Lieut.-Colonel Artan, R.E., A.L.C.E. 19 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
1887. {Cunningham,David, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., F.S.S. Harbour-chambers,
Dundee; and Viewbank, Newport, Fife, Scotland.
1877. *Cunnincuam, D. J., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in Trinity
College, Dublin.
1891. §Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh,
1852. tCunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
1885. {Cunnincuam, J. T., B.A., F.R.S.E. Scottish Marine Station,
Granton, Edinburgh.
1869. {CunnincHAM, Rosert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen’s College, Belfast.
1883. *Cunnincuan, Rey. Witt14m, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-
bridge.
1850, {Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
1885. {Curphey, William 8. 268 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.
1884. {Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.
1867. *Cursetjee, Manochjee, F.R.GS., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.
1878. {Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
1884. {Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.
1883. tCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.
1881. §Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depét, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, London, 8.W.
1889. {Dagger, John H., F.1.C., F.C.S. Endon, Staffordshire.
1854, {Daglish, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
1883. {Diibne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place, ,
Swansea.
1889. *Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.
1887. {Dale, Henry F., F.R.MLS., F.Z.S. Royal London Yacht Club, 2
Savile-row, London, W.
1863. {Dale, J. B. South Shields.
1865. {Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
1867. {Dalgleish, W. Dundee.
1870. {DattincErR, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, London, 8.E.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D, Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
1862. {Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. 1 Westbourne-terrace-road, Lon-
don, W.
1876. {Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
1849, *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
1861, *DarsisHire, Ropurt Duxirierp, B.A.,F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
1883. {Darbishire, 8. D., M.D. 26 George-street, Manchester.
1876. {Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glascow.
1884. {Darling, Thomas. 99 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1882. {Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge,
1881. *Darwty, GEorcE Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.
1878. *Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Iluntingdon-road, Cambridge.
1882. {Darwin, W. E., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.
1888. {Daubeny, William M. Stratton House, Park-lane, Bath.
1872. {Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880.
1884.
1870.
1885.
1891,
1890.
1875.
1870.
1887.
1842.
1887.
1873.
1870.
1864.
1887.
1842.
1881.
1882.
1875.
1885.
1883.
1885.
1891.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869.
1869,
1860.
1864.
1886.
1891.
1885.
1884,
1855,
1859.
1871.
1870.
1861.
1887.
1861.
1884.
1866,
*Davey, Hevyry, M.Inst.C.E. 3. Prince’s-street, Westminster,
w
S.W.
tDayid, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, Lon-
don, E.C.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
tDavidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.
§Davies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.
t{Davies, Arthur. East Brow Cottage, near Whitby.
{Davies, Dayid. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.
Davyies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
{Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Korsal, Manchester.
*Davyis, Alfred. 28 St. Ermin’s Mansicns, London, 8. W.
*Davis, A. S. Vittoria House, Cheltenham.
{Davis, CHartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
§Davis, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham.
tDavis, George E. The Willows, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.
*Davis, JAMEs W., F.G.S., F.S.A. Chevinedge, near Halifax.
{ Davis, Joseph, J.P. Park-road, Southport.
t{Davis, Robert Frederick, M.A. Earlsfield, Wandsworth Common,
London, 8.W.
*Davis, Rudolf. Almswood, Evesham.
§Davis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
tDavis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
{Davison, Charles, M.A. 38 Charlotte-road, Birmingham.
*Dayison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Davy, Epwonp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
tDaw, R. R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.
*Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales.
{Dawxrns, W. Boyn, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.
{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.
§Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
*Dawson, Major H. P., R.A. Priddy’s Hard, Gosport.
t{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Dawson, Sir Wrii1aM, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S., 3
Principal of McGill University. McGill University, Montreal, :
Canada.
*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common,
Kent. ;
tDay, St. John Vincent, M.Inst.C.L., F.RS.E. 166 Buchanan- 3
street, Glasgow. :
*Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
tDeakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.
tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
*Debenham, Frank, F.S.8. 26 Upper Hamilton-terrace, London,
N.W
{Drsus, Heryrtcn, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, &.E. 1 Obere Sophienstrasse,
Cassel, Hessen. '
ve
—
LIST OF MEMBERS. 31
Year of
Election.
1884. §Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.
1887. §Dehn, R. Olga Villa, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1878. {Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.
1879. {De - Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London,
NW
1884. *De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.
1887. {De Meschin, Miss Hannah Constance. Sandycove Castle, Kingstown,
Ireland.
1870. {De Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. Sandycove Castle, Kingstown,
Ireland.
1889. {Dendy, Frederick Walter. 8 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.
1873. {Denham, Thomas, J.P. Huddersfield.
1884. {Denman, Thomas W. Lamb’s-buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
1889. §Dreyny, Atrrep, F.L.8., Professor of Biology in the Firth College,
Sheffield.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
1870. *Denton, J. Bailey. Orchard Court, Stevenage.
1874. §De Rancz, Cuartes E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S.W
1856. *Dzrsy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.8., Chancellor of the University of London. St. James’s-
square, London, 8.W.; and Knowsley, near Liverpool.
1874. *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S8. 76 Lancaster-gate, Lon-
don, W.
1878. {De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
1868. {Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 48 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.
1868. {Drwar, Jauus, M.A., F.R.S.L. & E., F.C.S., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian
Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
1881. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
1883. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.
1884. *Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.
1872. {Dewick, Rev. E. S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, Lon-
don, W.
1887. {De Winton, Colonel Sir F., K.C.M.G., C.B.. D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
1884, {De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.
1873. *Drw-Suitu, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge,
1889. {Dickinson, A. H. Portland House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1887. {Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.8. South Bank, Pendleton.
1884, {Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff, Preston.
1887. {Dickson, H. N. 388 York-place, Edinburgh.
1885. {Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.
1883. {Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.
1862. *Dixxn, The Right Hon. Sir Coartzs Wentworta, Bart., F.R.G.S,
76 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
1877. {Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 386 Dawson-street, Dublin.
1848, {Dixtwry, Lewis Lizwetyy, M.P., F.LS., F.G.S. Parkwerne,
near Swansea.
1869. {Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
1889. {Dinning, William. 41 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1876, {Ditchfield, Arthur, 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London, W.C,
32 LIST OF MEMBERS
Year of
Election.
1868. {Dittmar, William, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical
College. 11 Hillhead-street, Glasgow.
1884. {Dix, John William H. Bristol.
1874. *Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast.
1883. {Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliffterrace, Kendal.
1888. §Dixon, E. T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank, 54
; St. James’s-street, London, S,W.
1886. {Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1879. *Dixon, Harotp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College, Manchester. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Man-
chester.
1885. {Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.
1887. {Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
1885. {Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
1890. §Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.
1885. §Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh.
1860. *Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 384 Westbourne Park, Lon-
don, W.
1891. §Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.
1878. *Donson, G. E., M.A., M.B.,F.R.S.,F.L.S. Adrigole, Spring Grove,
Isleworth.
1864. *Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
1875. *Docwra, George, jun. 32 Union-street, Coventry.
1870. *Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.
1876. {Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.
1889. §Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.
Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
1885. {Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
1882. {Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
1869. {Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
1877. *Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.
1889. {Donkin, R.8., M.P. Campville, North Shields.
1861. {Donnelly, Colonel, R.E., C.B. South Kensington Museum, London,
S.W
1887. { Donner, Edward, B.A. 4 Anson-road, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1887. {Dorning, Elias, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 41 John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.
1881. {Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.
1889. {Dorsey, LZ. B. International Club, Trafalgar-square, London, S.W.
1867. tDougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
1871. { Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.
1863. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. Care of H. M. Doughty, Esq., 5 Stone-
court, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1876. *Douglas, Rev. G. C. M., D.D. 18 Royal-crescent West, Glasrow.
1877. *Dovetass, Sir James N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Trinity House, Lon-
don, E.C,.
1884. {Douglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Sayings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
1890. {Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.
1885. {Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.
1884. {Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.
1884. {Dove, P. Edward, F.R.A.S., Sec.R.Hist.Soc. 23 Old-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1884. {Dowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-ayenue, New York, U.S.A.
1876, {Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.
Pa, «
————————
LIST OF MEMBERS. 33
Year of
Election.
1884.
1878.
1857,
1865.
1881.
1887.
1883.
1868.
1890.
1887.
1889.
1870.
1889.
1856.
1870.
1867.
*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.
{Dowling Thomas. Claireville House, Terenure, Dublin.
tDownrne, 8., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Dowson, Ei. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
*Dowson, Joseph Emerson, M.Inst.C.h. 8 Great Queen-street, Lon-
don, S.W.
§Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.
{Dresser, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C,
§Drew, John. 12 Harringay Park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.
tDreyfus, Dr. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester.
tDrummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Drysdale, J. J.. M.D. 364 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tDu Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, London, W.
*Duciz, The Right. Hon. Henry Joun Reynoxtps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W.; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.
tDuckworth, Henry, F.L.8., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.
*Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrsruarr ELpHinstone GRaNT-,
G.C.S.L, F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham.
. {Dufferin and Ava, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.C.S.L, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.
tDutfey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
TDutin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.
tDufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
§Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.
*Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
*Duncan, John, J.P. 42 Park-place, Cardiff.
tDuncan, William 8. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, London, W.
{tDuncombe, The Hon. Cecil. Nawton Grange, York.
Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.
{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
§Dunn, J. T., M.Se., F.C.S. High School for Boys, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.
{Dunn, Mrs. Denton Grange, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
tDunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
{Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,
U.S.A.
tDuns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
tDunsford, Follett. Rougemont Villa, Headingley, Leeds.
*Dunstan, WynpHam R., M.A., F.C.S8., Professor of Chemistry to
the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
{Duprey, Perry. Woodberry Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
}D’ Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.S. Moorlands, Exmouth, Devon.
tDurnam, Arrnur Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.8., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosyenor-square,
London, W.
{Durham, William. Seaforth House, Portobello, Scotland.
{Dyason, John Sanford, F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. Boscobel-gardens,
London, N.W.
Cc
54
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1884.
1885.
1869.
1868.
1861.
1883.
1877.
1888.
1874.
1871.
1865.
1876.
1883.
1887.
1884.
1861.
1870.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1870.
18853.
1888.
1884.
1888.
1867.
1867.
1855.
1884.
1887.
1876.
1890.
1885.
1868.
1865.
1885.
1883.
1891.
1864.
1885.
1879.
1886.
{Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.
*Dyer, Henry, M.A. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.
tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
tEadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
tEagar, Rey. Thomas. The Rectory, Ashton-under-Lyne,
{Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
tEarson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tEason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dubliz,
*Easton, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 11 Delahay-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
{Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
}Easton, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh,
N.B.
tEastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.
§Eccles, Mrs. 8. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.
tEckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 6 Park-square, Leeds,
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
tEde, Francis J. Silchar, Cachar, India.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Edeell, R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. 66 Warwick-road, South Ken-
sineton, London, 8.W.
§EpcpwortH, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.8., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. Athenzum Club, Pall
Mall, London, 8.W.
*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C.
{Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Honiton, Devon.
*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, London, S.W.
*Hdmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
§Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B. 60 Park-street, Park-lane, London,
W
*Edward, Allan. Farineton Hall, Dundee.
{Zdward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-strect, Dundee.
*Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
tEdwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
§Elford, Perey. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Elear, Francis, LL.D., M.Inst.C.l., F.R.S.E., Director of H.M.
Dockyards. The Admiralty, London, S.W.
tElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston,
Bedford.
tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop.
{Ellingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.
{Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S.W.
Shot fe K , D.Sc. Professor of Engineering in University College,
arault.
tEMiott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A.
*Eiiiotr, Epwin Barrry, M.A., F.R.S. Queen’s College, Oxford.
Eiliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham.
tElliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire.
§Elliott, Thomas Henry, F.S.S. Local Government Board, White-
hall, London, S. W.
——————————————
LIST OF MEMBERS. 35
Year of
Election.
1877.
1875.
1883.
1880.
1864.
1864.
1891.
1884.
1869.
1887,
1862.
1883.
1887.
1870.
1863.
1891.
1891.
1884.
1865,
1858.
1890.
1866.
1884.
1853.
1869.
1883.
1869.
1844.
1864.
1885.
1862,
1878.
1887.
1887.
1869,
1888.
1883.
18091.
1881.
1889,
-1887.
{Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire,
*Ellis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
tENis, John. 17 Church-street, Southport.
*ELuis, Jonn Henry. Woodland House, Plymouth.
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
tks, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
§Ellis, Miss, M.A. 13 Horbury-crescent, Notting-hill, London, W.
{Ellis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada.
{tExris, Writram Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. EK. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tElmy, Ben. Eaton Hall, Congleton, Manchester,
fElphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.8. 2 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn,
London, W.C.
{Elwes, George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.
§Elworthy, Frederick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.
*Exy, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynz Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.
fEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
§Emerton, Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.
§Emerton, Mrs. Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.
{tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
{Emery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
{Empson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
fEmsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
fEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
tEngland, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.
fEnglish, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowzgate
Hull.
tEnglish, J.T. Wayfield House, Stratford-on-A von.
{Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.
*Enys, John Davis. Care of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.
tErichsen, John Eric, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., President of, and
Emeritus Professor of Surgery in, University College, London.
6 Cayendish-place, London, W.
*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
{Esselmont, Peter, M.P. 34 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*Esson, WiitAM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Merton College,
and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
{Estcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.
*Estcourt, Charles. Vyrnieu House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
*Esteourt, P. A. Vyrnieu House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
{Ernerrer, Rosert, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper (Geo-
logical and Paleontological Department) Natural History
Museum (British Museum). 14 Carlyle-square, London, S.W.
tEtheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, London, S.W.
§Eunson, Henry J. Morvi, Kathiawar, Bombay Presidency.
§Evan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,
Evans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.
*Hvans, A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Hillside, New Mills, near Stockport,
Derbyshire.
Cc 2
36 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870. *Evans, Arthur John, F.S.A. 35 Holywell, Oxford.
1865. *Evans, Rey. Coartes, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham.
1891. §Evans, Franklen. Llwynarthen Castleton, Cardiff.
1889. §Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.
1884. {Evans, Horace L. Moreton House, Tyndall’s ’ Park, Bristol.
1883. *Evans, James C. Albany-buildings, Lord-street, Southport.
1883. *Evans, Mrs. James C. Albany-buildings, Lord- street, Southport.
1861. “Evans, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., “Treas. R.S., FS.A., Rass
F.G.S. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
1881. {Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.
1885, *Evans, Percy Perel. The Spring, Kenilworth.
1875. {Evans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road,.Clifton, Bristol.
1865. *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.
1891. §Evans, Willian Llewellin. (uildhall-chambers, Cardiff.
1886. tEve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.
1871. tEve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.
1868, *Evrerert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.L. & E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. 5 Princess-
gardens, Belfast.
1863. *Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Inowle Hall, Warwickshire.
1886. {Everitt, William E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.
1883. TEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.
1881. {Ewart, J. Cossar, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the
University of Edinburgh.
1874. {Ewart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.
1859. *Ewing, Sir Archibald Orr, Bart., M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn,
Stirlingshire.
1876; *Ewine, James Atrrep, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of
Mechanism and Applied. Mathematics’ in the "University of
Cambridge.
1883. {Ewing, James “L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburch.
1871. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
1884. *Eyerman, John. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
1882. tEyre,G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
Eyton, Charles, Hendred House, Abingdon.
1890. {Fasrr, Epmunp Brcxett. Straylea, Harrogate.
1891. *Faija, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 2 Great Queen-street, London, S.W.
1884. {Farbarn, Dr. A. M. Airedale College, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1865. *Farriey, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
1886. {Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
1864, {Falkmer, F. H. Lyncomhe, Bath.
1886. {Fallon, T. P., Consul General. Australia.
1883. {Fallon, Rey. W.S. 1St. Alban’s-terrace, Cheltenham.
1877. §Farapay, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.8. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.
1891. §Fards,G. Penarth.
1887. {Farmer, Sir James. Hope House, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
1886. §Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes.
1879. *Farnworth, Ernest. Clarence Villa, Penn Fields, Wolverhampton.
1888. {Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
1883. {Farnworth, William. 8&6 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
1885. {Farquhar, Admiral. Carlogie, Aberdeen.
1859. {Farquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
1885, tFarquharson, Mrs. R. F. O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
1866. *Farrar, Ven. FREDERIC Wirra, M. A., D.D., F.R.S., Arch-
deacon of Westminster. 17 Dean’ s-yard Westminster, S. W.
—e
LIST OF MEMBERS. 37
Year of
Election.
1883. {Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland,
1857. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
1869. *Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.
1883. {Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.
1887. §Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester,
1890. *Fawcett, F. B. Torfels, Weston-super-Mare.
1886. §Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 20 Alva-street, Edinburgh,
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.
1864, *FrtLows, Franx P., K.S.J.J., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hamp-
stead, London, N. W.
1852. {Fenton,S.Greame. Keswick, near Belfast.
1883. tFenwick, EK. H. 29 Harley-street, London, W.
1890. §Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
1876. {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
1883. {Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
1871. *Frereuson, Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.
1867. {Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
1867. *Fergusson, H. B. 18 Airlie~place, Dundee.
1883. {Fernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham.
1883. *Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.
1862. t{Frrrers, Rev. Norman Macreop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College
Lodge, Cambridge.
1873. {Ferrier, David, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College. 84 Cavendish-square, Lon-
don, W.
1882. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton.
1887. {Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.
1875. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.
1886. {Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1869. *Frecp, Rocrrs, B.A., M.Inst.C.i. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, S.W.
1887. { Fielden, John C. 145 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
1882. {Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.
1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
1878. *Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1885. {Findlay, George, M.A. 50 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
1884. {Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
1887. {Finnemore, Rey. J., F.G.8. Aston-road, Birmingham.
1881. {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.
Firth, Thomas. Northwich.
1858. {Fishbourne, Admiral E. G., R.N. 26 Hogarth-road, Earls Court-
road, London, S.W.
1891. §Fisher. Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff,
1884. *Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
1869. {Fisumr, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge.
1873. {Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
1879. {Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield.
1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.8S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford,
1858. {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
1887. *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. University College, London, W.C.
1885. {Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.
1871. *Fison, Frepprick W., M.A., F.C.8. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.
38 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Yeer of
Election.
1871. {Frrcu, J. G., M.A., LL.D. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park,
London, N. W.
1883. {Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.
1868. {Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.
1878. {Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1878. §FirzaeRaLtp, Grorer Francis, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, Dublin.
1885. *Fitzgerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 37 Botanic-avenue, Belfast,
1857. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1888, *Fitzpatrick, Rev. Thomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1865, {Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
1881. {Fleming, Rev. Canon James, B.D. The Residence, Vork.
1876. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
1876. {Fleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.
1867. §FrercHEer, ALFRED E., F.C.S. The Hill House, Chalfont St. Peter,
Bucks.
1870. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
1890. §Fletcher, B. Morley. 12 Trevor-square, London, 8. W.
1886. { Fletcher, Frank M.
1869, {FitercHEr, Lavineron E., M.Inst.C.E. Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
1888. *FLetcHer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.GS., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
London, S.W.
1862. §FLowrr, WiLt1AM Henry, C.B., LL.D..D.C.L., D.Sc.,F.R.S.,F.LS.,
F.G.S., F.R.C.S., Director of the Natural History Departments,
British Museum, South Kensington, London, 26 Stanhope-
gardens, London, S.W.
1889. §Flower, Mrs. 26 Stanhope-gardens, London, S.W.
1877. *Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Helwan, Egypt.
1890. §Flux, A. W., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1887. {Foale, William. 3% Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
1885. {Foale, Mrs. William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
1891. §Féldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.
1881. {Foljambe, Cecil G. S., M.P. 2 Carlton House-terrace, Pall Mall,
London, 8. W.
1879. {Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
1880. {Foote, R. Bruce. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill,
London, E.C.
1873. *Forses, Goren, M.A., F.R.S. L. & E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, London, 8. W.
1883. {Forbes, Henry O., F.Z.S., Director of the Canterbury Museum,
Christchurch, New Zealand.
1885. {Forbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.
1890. {Forp, J. Rawiryson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.
1875. *ForpHam, H. Groren, F.G.8. Odsey, near Royston, Cambridge-
shire.
1883. §Formby, R. Formby, near Liverpool.
1887. {ForreEsz, Sir Joun, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Perth, Western Australia.
1867. {Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonards-on-Sea.
1883. {Forsyth, A. R., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1884. {Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.
1877. {ForrEscurn, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.
1882. §Forward, Henry. 4 Marine-avenue, Scuthend.
1870. {Forwood, Sir William B. THopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1875. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8. W.
1865. {Foster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College,
Birmingham. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 39
Year of
Election.
1865.
1883.
1857.
1877.
1859.
1863.
1866.
1868.
1888.
1892.
1876.
1882.
1884.
1883.
1888.
1883.
1847.
1860.
1876.
1888.
1886.
1881.
1889.
1866.
1884.
1846,
1887.
1889.
1882.
1885,
1859.
1865.
1871.
1859.
1871.
1884,
*Fosrer, Clement Lr Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Mining
in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno.
{Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.
*Fosrer, GrorcE Oarey, B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, London, N.W. /
§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.
*Fosrer, Micuart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., F.0.8.,
Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Shel-
ford, Cambridge.
tFoster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.
{Fowler,G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
§Fowler, Gilbert J. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
§Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludeate-circus,
London, E.C.
*Fowler, John. 4 Kelvin Bank-terrace, Sandyford, Glasgow.
{Fow ter, Sir Jonny, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, 5. W.
tFox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth.
*Fox, Charles. The Cedars, Warlingham, Surrey.
§Fox, Sir Charles Douglas, M.Inst.C.E. 28 Victoria-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.
{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Falmouth.
*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Cleve, Wellineton, Somerset.
{Fox, Joseph John. Lordship-terrace, Stoke Newington, London, N.
{ Fox, St. G. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, London, S.W.
tFox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.
tFoxwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Foxwett, Hersert §., M.A., F\S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
fFrain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-
ne.
*E ered G.B. Inglesby, North-road, Hertford.
{Francis, James D3. Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Francis, Witt1am, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.
}FRANKLAND, Epwarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.
*Frankland, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in University College, Dundee.
{Franklin, Rev. Canon. Clayton-street West, Newcast!e-upon-
ne.
aE yeaeY A lozainder, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.
tFraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.8. 282 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{Fraser, George B. 5 Airlie-place, Dundee.
Fraser, James William. 8a Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W.
*Fraser, Joun, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
tFraser, Tuomas R., M.D., F.R.S.L.&E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
*Frazer, Daniel. 127 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
tFrazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the
Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania. Room 1042, Drexel Build-
ings, Fifth and Chestnut-streets, Philadelphia, U.S,A.
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1847.
1877.
1865.
1841.
1884,
1869.
1886.
1886.
1887.
1857.
1887.
1882.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1875.
1884.
1872.
1859.
1869.
1884,
1891.
1881.
1887.
1836.
1857.
1865.
1876.
1850.
1876.
1863.
1885.
1888.
1888.
1861.
1861.
1889.
1875.
1887.
1860.
1860.
1869.
1887.
1870.
1889.
*FREAM, W., LL.D. , BSc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.8. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.
*Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester.
§Freeman, Francis Ford. 8 Leigham-terrace, Plymouth.
{Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Freeth, Major-General S. 30 Roy al-crescent, Noiting Hill, London, W,
*Fremantle, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. Royal Mint, London, KE.
{Frere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.
{Freshfield, Douglas W., Sec.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
{Freund, Miss Ida. Eyre Cottage, Upper Sydenham, SE.
{Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.
*Frith, Richard Hastings, M.R.IA,, F.R.GSLI. 48 Summer-hill,
Dublin.
{Froehlich, The Chevalier. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.
§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
tFrost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. St.James’s-chambers, Duke-street, London,S.W.
tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol.
§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.
{Fuiter, Freprerick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.
{FutLer, Grorcr, M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
§Fuller, William. Oswestry.
§Fulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.
tGabb, Rev. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire.
tGaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Ww ithington, Manchester.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F. S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
{GacEs, ALpHonse, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.
{Gairdner, ‘Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
Gairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giaszow.
tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.
*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.
tGallenga, Mrs. Anna. The Falls, Chepstow.
TGallenga, Mrs. A.A. R. The Falls, Chepstow.
tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Tron Works, Manchester.
tGalloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
tGalloway, Walter. Fichton Banks, Gateshead.
tGattoway, W. Cardiff.
*Galloway, W. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
*Gatron, Sir Dovetas, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS.,
FG. S., F.R.GS. ’ (GENERAL SECRETARY. ) 12 Chester-street,
Grosvenor -place, London, S.W.
*GaLTon, Francis, M.A., FERS, F.G.S8., F.R.G.S.° 42 Rutland-
vate, Knightsbridge, London, S.W.
tGatron, Joun C., M. A., F.L.S. 40 Great Marlborough-street,
London, W.
*Galton, Miss Laura Gwendolen Douglas, 12 Chester-street, Gros-
venor-place, London, S.W.
§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D., C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.
§Gamble, David, jun. St. Helens, Lancashire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Year of
Election.
1870. {Gamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.
1888.
1877.
1868.
1889.
1883.
1887.
1882.
1882.
1884.
1865.
1888.
1887.
1882.
1875.
1883.
1874.
1882.
1889.
1870.
1870.
1862.
1890.
1875.
1875.
1871.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1867.
1871.
1882.
1875.
1885.
1884,
1870.
1884.
1865.
1889.
1874.
1876.
1884.
tGamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.S. Surbiton.
tGamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.
{Gamerz, ArtHuUR, M.D., F.R.S. Cambridge.
tGamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.
Gant, Major John Castle. St. Leonards.
TGaRDINER Water, M.A., T’.R.S., F.L.S. Clare College, Cambridge.
*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. 25 Northbrook-road, Lee, Kent.
tGarpyver, JoHn Srarxip, F.G.S. 7 Damer-terrace, Chelsea, Lon-
don, 8. W.
tGarman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
tGarner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.
§Garnett, Frederick Brooksbank, C.B., F.S.S. 4 Areyll-road, Campden
Hill, London, W.
*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.
tGarnett, William, D.C.L., Principal of the College of Physical
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, 8.E.
§Garson, J. G., M.D. 52 Duke-street, St. James's, London, S.W.
*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B. M.RLA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.
{tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.
{Garwood, E. J. 14 St. Mary’s-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S. Felbridge Place, East
Grinstead, Sussex.
{Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.
tGavey, J. 43 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.
tGaye, Henry 8., M.D. Newton Abbot, Devon.
tGeddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
tGeddes, John. 383 Portland-street, Southport.
§Geddes, Professor Patrick. 6 James-court, Edinburgh.
tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.
tGEIKIE, Sir ARCHIBALD, LL.D., D.Sc., For.Sec.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pres.
G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United
Kingdom. (PReEsIDENT Exxcr.) Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
{Gurixnte, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. 81 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh.
*GEnESE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwith.
*George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.
Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.
*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. Worcester College, Oxford.
*Gervis, Walter S., M.D., F.G.S. Ashburton, Devonshire.
{Gibb, Charles. Abbctsford, Quebec, Canada.
tGibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,
tGibson, Charles, M.D. 8 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tGibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.
*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 <Alva-street,
Edinburgh.
tGibson, Rey. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
42
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1885.
1889.
1887.
1888.
1884,
1842.
1883.
1857.
1884.
1888.
1882.
1878.
1871.
1888.
1868.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1884.
1874.
1884.
1886.
1885.
1883.
1860.
1849.
1890.
1861.
1871.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1881.
1870.
1859.
1867.
1874.
1887.
tGibson, John, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.
*Gibson, T. G. 2 Eslington-read, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tGirren, Roserz, C.B., LL.D., V.P.S.S. 44 Pembroke-road, London,
sae
*Gifford, H. J. Lyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.
{Gilbert, E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.
GixBert, JosrpH Hunry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor
of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford. Harpenden,
near St. Albans.
tGilbert, Mrs. Harpenden, near St. Albans.
tGilbert, J. T., MR.LA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilbert, Philip H. 1875 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
Gilbert, Thomas. Derby-road, Southport.
Gilderdale, Rey. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
tGiles, Alfred, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. 26 Great George-street, London,
S.W
tGiles, Oliver. Crescent Villas, Bromsgrove.
Giles, Rey. William. Netherleich House, near Chester.
*Gitt, Davin, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royel Observatory, Cape
Town.
§Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.
TGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, I.C.)
tGillett, Charles Edwin. Wood Green, Benbury, Oxford.
tGilliland, KE. 'T. 259 West Seventy-fourth-street, New York, U.S.A.
tGillman, Henry. 150 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Gilroy, George. Woodlands, Parbold, near Southport.
tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
{Ginspure, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.
tGirdwood, Dr. G. P.. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.
tGisborne, Frederick Newton. Ottawa, Canada.
*Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle Station, Assa, N.W.T., Canada.
*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*Gladstone, Miss E. A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.8S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove,
Brighton.
*GLADSTONE, JOHN Hatt, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-
square, London, W.
*Gladstone, Miss Margaret E. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*GLAISHER, James, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, S.E.
*GLAISHER, J. W. L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.
*GuAZEBROOK, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
Glazer, Walter H., F.C.S. Courtlands, East Molesey, Surrey.
*Gleadow, Frederic. 84 Kensington Park-road, London, W.
§Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.
tGlennie, J. 8. Stuart, M.A. The Shealing, Wimbledon Common,
Surrey.
tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
tGlover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.
{Glover, Walter T. Moorhurst, Kersal, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 43
Year of
Election.
1870. {Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1889. {Goddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1872. {GopparD, Ricuarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1886, {Godlee, Arthur. 3 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1887. {Godlee, Francis., 51 Portland-street, Manchester.
1878. *Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1880. {Gopman, F. Du Cann, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
1885. {Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire,
1852. {Godwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
1879. {Gopwin-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.B.GS.,
F.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford.
1876. {Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.
1886. {Gotpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.C.S.1., F.R.GS.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.
1881. {Goldschmidt, Edward. Nottingham.
1873. {Goldthorp, Miss R. F.C. Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1890. *Gonner, E. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.
1884, {Good, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal,
Canada,
1878. {Good, Rev. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin.
1852. {Goodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
1878. {Goodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.
1884, {Goodbody, Robert. Jairy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1886. {Goodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1885. tGoopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. {Goodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.
1884. *Goodridge, Richard E. W. Oak Bank, Manitoba, Canada.
1884. {Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.
1883. {Goouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1885. {Gordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton. 50 Queen’s
Gate-gardens, London, 8. W.
1885. {Gordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.
1885. {Gordon, Rev. George, LL.D. Birnie, by Elgin, N.B.
1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne's Mansions, West-
minster, 8. W.
1884. *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Howley Lodge, 112 Har-
row-road, London, W.
1857. t{Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
1885. {Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.
1887. §Gordon, William John. 3 Lavender-gardens, London, S.W.
1865. {Gore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edebaston, Bir-
mingham.
1875. *Gotch, Francis, B.A., B.Se., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Liverpool. Holywell Cottage, Oxford.
1873. {Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parlkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1849. tGough, The Hon, Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
1857. {Gough, The Right Hon. George 8., Viscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S,
St. Helen’s, Booterstown, Dublin.
1881. {Gough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.0.8. Elmfield College, York.
1888. {Gouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey.
1878. {Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire,
1867. {Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
44
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1876.
1885.
1873.
1886.
1867.
1875.
1870.
1856.
1864,
1887.
1881.
1887.
1881.
1890.
1864.
1865.
1876,
1881.
1859.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1881.
1873.
1883.
1885.
1886.
1883.
1866.
1887.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1879.
1889.
1888.
1887.
1887.
1858.
1882.
1881.
1884,
{tGow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glascow.
§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. - Madeira.
*GRAHAM, Sir Cyrit C., Bart., C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Travellers’
Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
{Grawame, JAMES. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tGrant, Colonel James A., O.B., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
19 Upper Grosvenor-street, London, W.
*Grant, Rosert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.
{Grantham, Richard F. Northumberland-chambers, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C.
§Gratrix, Samuel. Alport Town, Manchester.
tGrayes, KE. 22 Trebovir-road, Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.
tGraves, John. Broomhurst, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
tGray, Alan, LL.B. Munster-yard, York.
§Gray, Professor Andrew, M.A., F.R.S.E. University College,
Bangor.
*Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Rotherham.
tGray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston.
tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glaszow.
tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
tGray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbushire.
§Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Spring Hill, Wellington-road South,
Stockport.
tGray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
{Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
tGray, William, M-R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, Colonel Wizt1am. Farley Hall, near Reading.
{Gray, William Lewis. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
tGray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
{Greaney, Rey. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham.
{Greathead, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.
tGreaves, H. R. The Orchards, Mill End, Stockport.
{Greayes, William. Station-street, Nottingham.
tGreaves, William. 3 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.
tGreen, A. F. 165 Ashwood-villas, Headingley, Leeds.
{Gremn, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the
University of Oxford. 137 Woodstock-road, Oxford.
§Green, Josepu R., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
tGreene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
{Greenhalgh, Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London, E.C. ‘
*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.
{Greenuity, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the :
Royal Artillery Colleze, Woolwich. 3 Staple Inn, London, W.C. ;
§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire. 2
{Greenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London,
ANe
=
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45
Year of
Election.
1884. {Greenshields, H.R. Montreal, Canada.
1884. {Greenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
1887. {Greenwell, G. C., jun. Poynton, Cheshire.
1863. {Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.
1889. {Greenwell, T. G. Woodside, Sunderland.
1890. Greenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.
1877. {Greenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.
1883. {GreEnwoop, J.G., LL.D. 34 Furness-road, Eastbourne.
1849. {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
1887. §Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.
1887. *Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.
1861. *Grec, Ropert Puriips, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
1860. {Grucor, Rev. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-
shire.
1868. {Gregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S.W.
1883. {Gregson, Edward, Ribble View, Preston.
1883. {Gregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.
1881. {Gregson, William. Baldersby, Thirsk.
1875. {Grenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 55 West Cromwell-road,
London, 5S. W.
1859. tGrrerson, THomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfiies-shire.
1870. {Grieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin-
cent-street, Glassow.
1878. {Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D, Trinity College, Dublin.
1859. *GrirritH, Gores, M.A., F.C.S. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.)
Druries, Harrow.
1870. {Griffith, Rev. Henry, F.G.S. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex.
1884. {Griffiths, KE. H. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
1884. {Griffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
1891. §Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1847. {Griffiths, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
1879. {Griffiths, Thomas, F.C.S., F.S.8. Heidelberg House, Kine’s-road,
Clapham Park, London, 8.W.
1870. tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1888. *Grimshaw, James Walter. Australian Club, Sydney, New South
‘Wales.
1884. {Grinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
-1881. {Gripper, Edward. Nottingham.
1864, {Groom-Naprer, Cartes Orrmry. 18 Elgin-road, St. Peter's
Park, London, N.W.
Grove, The Hon, Sir Wiit1am Roserr, Knt., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S. 115 Harley-street, London, W.
1891. §Grover, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.
1863. *Grovzs, THomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weyniouth.
1869. {Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.
1886. {Grundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.
1891. §Grylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.
1867. {Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
1887, {GuittEmaRD, F. H. H. Eltham, Kent.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-creen, Dublin.
1842. Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
1885. {Gunn, John. Dale, Halkirk, Caithness.
1891. §Gunn, John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.
46
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1877.
1866.
1880.
1876.
1883.
1857.
1876.
1884.
1887.
1865,
1884,
1881.
1842.
1888.
1870.
1879.
1875.
1887.
1872.
1879.
1885.
1881.
1854,
1887.
1872.
1885.
1884,
1866.
1891.
1891.
18758.
1888.
1886.
1858.
1883.
1885.
1869,
1888.
1851.
1881.
tGunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh.
{Gtyruer, Arpert C. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.
{Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
t¢Guthrie, Malcolm. 2 Parlkfield-road, Liverpool.
tGwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
yGwytuer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.
{Hackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester.
tHackney, William. 9 Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W.
{Hadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.
*Happon, ALFRED Cort, B.A., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
*Hadfield, R. A. Hecla Worls, Sheffield.
tHaigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
tHaxz, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenwood College, Hants.
tHale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.8.,F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor.
tHale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester.
{ Hall, Dr. Alfred. 8 Mount Ephraim, Tunbridge Wells.
*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.
*Hall, Miss Emily. Burlington House, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
{Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London,
W.C.
*Hat, Hueu Frreim, F.G.8. Tan-y-Bryn, Llandudno.
tHall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.
*Hall, Captain Marshall, F.G.S. Easterton Lodge, Parkstone R.S8.0.,
Dorset.
§Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N.
tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.
*Hatz, TownsuEend M.,F.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple.
*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorgan-
shire.
§Hallett, J. H. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.
*Hatrerr, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
§Halliburton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S. 9 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-
street, London, W.C.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
§Hambleton, G. W. 23 Bryanston-street, Portman-square, London,
WwW
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Holmeside, Hazelwood,
Derby.
*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.
{Hamilton, David James. 14 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
tHamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Hammonp, AntHony, J.P. 10 Royal-crescent, Bath.
tHammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
*Hammond, Robert. Hilldrop, Highgate, London, N,
Ee
LIST OF MEMBERS. 47
Year of
Election.
1878, {Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 15 Pelham-grove, Sefton Park, Liver-
pool.
1875. {Hancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
1861. aaa Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon-
on, E.C.
1876. {Hancock, Mrs. W. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1890. {Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1882. {Hankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.
1884. §Hannaford, H.C. 1591 Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
1859. {Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
1886. §Hansford, Charles. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester.
1859, *Harcovrr, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.0.S8.
(GzuNERAL SroreTaRy.) Cowley Grange, Oxford.
1890. *Harcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1886, *Hardeastle, Basil W., F.S.S. Beechenden, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1884. *Hardeastle, Norman C., M.A., LL.D. Downing College, Cambridge.
1865. tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
1869. {Harding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter,
1877. {Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
1869. {Harding, William D, Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.
1886. {Hardman, John B. St. John’s, Hunter’s-lane, Birmingham.
1880 {Hardy John. 118 Embden-road, Manchester.
1838. *Harn, Cuartzs Joun, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, London, W.
1858. {Harerave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
1885. {Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1883. {Hargreayes, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1890. {Hargrove, Rey. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.
1881. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.
1890. §Harker, Alfred. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1876. {Harker, Allen, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.
1887. {Harker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
1878. *Harlmess, H. W. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco,
California, U.S.A.
1871. {Harkness, William, F'.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
V
1875, *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex.
1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. 4 Wellington-square, Oxford.
1862. *Hartey, Grorez, M.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, Lon-
don, W.
1885. *Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
1862. *Hartry, Rev. Ropurt, M.A., F.RS., F.RAS. 4 Wellington-
square, Oxford,
1868. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
1881. *Harwer, Srpney F., M.A., B.Sc. King's College, Cambridge.
1882. {Harper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton,
1872. tHarpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.
1884. {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. Wallbrac-place,
Montreal, Canada.
1872. *Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
1888. {Harris,C.T,. 4 Kilburn Priory, London, N.W.
1842.
*Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Mount Gambier, South Australia,
48
Year of
Election
1889.
1884.
1888.
1860.
1864.
1874.
1858.
1889,
1870.
1853.
1885.
1886.
1886.
1885.
1876.
1881.
1875.
1871.
1890.
1886.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1862.
1884.
1882,
1875.
1889.
1857.
1887.
1872.
1864.
1868.
1884.
1889.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1890.
1877.
1861.
1867.
1885.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
.
§Harris, H. Granam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, 8. W.
{Harris, Miss Katherine E, 73 Albert Hall-mansions, Kensington-
gore, London, 8. W.
tHarrison, Charles, 20 Lennox-gardens, London. S.W.
tHarrison, Rey. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.
{Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park,
London, W.
§Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.
fHarrison, Reatnarp, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, London, W.
{Harrison, Robert. 56 George-street, Hull.
tHarrison, Thomas. 34 Ash-street, Southport.
§Harrison, William. The Horsehills, Wolverhampton.
tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. 365 Lodge-road, Hockley, Birmingham.
tHart, Cuartes J. 10 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.
§Hart, Thomas, F.G.8S. Yewbarrow, Grange-over-Sands, Carnforth.
tHart, W. E. MKilderry, near Londonderry.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
tHartitzy, Water Nogrt, F.R.S.L.&E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
*Hartnell, Wilson. 8 Blenheim-terrace, Leeds.
*Hartoe, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen's College, Cork.
§Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. 6 Greville-road, London, N.W.
tHarvey, Surgeon-Major Robert, M.D. Calcutta.
§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.
*Harwood, John,jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors.
tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
tHaslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester.
*Hastines, G. W., M.P. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern,
tHatch, Dr. F. H., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tHaveuton, Rev. Samuet, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.,
M.R.LA., F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.
*Hawkins, William. 11 Fountain-street, Manchester.
*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
*HAWKSHAW, JOHN CrarKE, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 50 Harring- |
ton-gardens, South Kensington, S.W.; and 33 Great George-
street, London, 8.W.
tHawxstey, Toomas, M.Inst.C.E.,F.R.S., F.G.S. 380 Great George-
street, London, S. W.
*Haworth, Abraham. Hilston House, Altrincham,
§Haworth, George C. Ordsal-lane, Salford.
*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tHaworth, 8. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.
t{Haworth, Rey. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.
tHawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.
tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland. :
*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
tHay, William. 21 Macdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
*Haycraft, Professor John Berry, M.B., B.Se., F.R.S.E. Physiological
Laboratory, The University, Edinburgh.
Respir
LIST OF MEMBERS, 49
Yeur of
Election.
1891.
1878.
1869.
1858.
1888.
1879.
1851.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1883.
1889,
1866.
1863.
1884,
1883.
1886.
1886.
1865.
1889.
1884.
1833.
1888.
1888.
1855,
1867.
1869.
1882.
1887.
1863.
1881.
1887.
1867.
1873.
1883,
1880,
1891,
1885,
1856,
§Hayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff.
*Hayes, Rey. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
tHayward, J. High-street, Exeter.
*Haywarp, Rosert Batpwiy, M.A., F.R.S. Harrow.
tHazard, Rowland R. Little Mulgrave House, Hurlingham.
*Hazlehurst, George S. Rhyl, North Wales.
§Heap, Jeremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire.
tHeadley, Frederick Halcombe. Manor House, Petersham, 8,W.
tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere.
*Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C,
*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.
tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.
tHeape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
*Heape, Walter, M.A. St. Mary’s, Trumpington, Cambridge.
{Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
tHearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
tHeath, Dr. Westgate-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
tHeath, G. Y.,M.D. Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Calton Hil, Edinburgh.
fHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
tHeaton, C. W. 44 Woodstock-road, Bedford Park, London, W.
tHeaton, Miss Ellen. Woodhouse-square, Leeds.
tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham.
“Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
ne.
¢Heavixide, Rey. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.
tHeavisre, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
*Heawood, Edward, B.A., F.G.S. 41 Old Elvet, Durham.
*Heawood, Percy Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University,
41 Old Elvet, Durham.
tHecror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S..
Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington,
New Zealand.
tHeddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B.
{Hedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Rudford, Eveter.
tHedger, Philip. Cumberland-place, Southampton.
*Hepers, Kiniryewortu, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Storey’s-gate, London,
S.W
tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Hen-Suaw, H.8., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool.
§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S, Sussex Lodge, Sideup, Kent.
tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.
*Henderson, A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, S.E.
tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, &.E.
“Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall Mansions,
London, 8. W.
*Henderson, G. G.. D.Sc., M.A., F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.
tHenderson, William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.
fHewnessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science
for Ireland. Brookvale, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin.
D e
50 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Hiection.
1873. *Hewricr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
1873. Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Henry, WILLIAM Cuartes, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.S.
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
1884, tHenshaw, George H. 45 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
1870. tHenty, William. 12 Medina-villas, Brighton.
1855. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Dartford, Kent.
1855. tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
1890. tHepper, J. 48 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.
1890. {Hepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.
1887. *Herpman, WittiAm A., D.Sc., Professor of Natural History in
University College, Liverpool.
1891. Hern, 8. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.
1871. *HerscHer, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.
1874. §Herscuet, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.
1890. {Hewetson, H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 11 Hanover-square,
Leeds.
1884. §Hewett, George Edwin. Cotswold House, St. John’s Wood Park,
London, N.W.
1883. tHewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue,
The Plains, Belfast.
1881. {Hey, Rey. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York.
1882. tHeycock, Charles T., B.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
1883, sHbyen Bey John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 9 King-street,
Oxford.
1866. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
1879. {Heywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
1861. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
1886. §Heywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Cardiff.
*Huywoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.8., F.8.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
1861. *Hrywoop, Oxiver, J.P., D.L. Claremont, Manchester.
1887. tHeywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
1888, §Hichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The College, Cheltenham.
1881. §Hick, Tomas, B.A., B.Sc. Brighton Grove, Rusholme, Man-
chester.
1875. {Hicxs, Henry, M.D., F.R.S., Sec.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon,
Middlesex, N. W.
1877. §Hicks, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of Firth
College, Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield.
1886. {Hicks, Mrs. W. M. Duvheved, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.
1884. {Hickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.
1887. *Hicxson, Sypnzy J., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.
1864, *Hrern, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.
1875. Higgins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.
1871. {Hieers, Cremunt, B,A., F.0.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,
; London, W.
—
LIST OF MEMBERS. 51
Year of
Election.
1854,
1891,
1885.
1883.
1872.
1881.
1887.
1884.
1857.
1886.
1881.
1872.
1885.
1888.
1876.
1885,
1886.
1863.
1887.
1858.
1870.
1883,
1888,
1886.
1881.
1884.
1884.
1890.
1858.
1861.
1884.
1881.
1879.
1887.
1883.
1877.
1883.
1877.
1876.
1852.
tHrcarns, Rev. Henry H.,M.A. 29 Fallmer-square, Liverpool.
§Hiegs, Henry. 164 Brixton Hill, London, S.W.
Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
*Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D, Downing College, Cambridge.
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex.
{Hill, Berkeley, M.B., Professor of Clinical Surgery in University
College, London, 66 Wimpole-street, London, W.
§Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathly, East Grinstead.
*Hu1, Rev. Epwin, M.A., F.G.S. The Rectory, Cockfield, R.S.O.,
Suffolk.
Hill, G. H. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.
fHill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D, 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.
§Hall, John, M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s
Office, Ennis, Ireland.
{Hill, M. J. M., D.Sc., Professor of Pure Mathematics in University
College, London.
{Hill, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.
*Hill, Rey. Canon, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
THill, William. Hitchin, Herts.
{THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
*HittHovse, WItt1AM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College, Birmingham. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford.
tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.
tHincxs, Rev. THomas, B.A., F.RS. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,
Clifton, Bristol.
{Hrpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S._Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey.
*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.
*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.
tHingley, Benjamin, M.P. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Worcester-
shire.
{Hingston, J.T. Clifton, York.
tHineston, Wittram Hats, M.D., D.C.L. 387 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.
tHirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada.
*Hirst, James Andus. Adel Tower, Leeds.
tHirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
*Hirst, T. Ancuer, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 7 Oxford and GCam-
bridge Mansions, Marylebone-road, London, N.W.
tHoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Hobbes, Robert George. Livingstone House, 874 Wandsworth-road,
London, 8. W.
§Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. West Riding Union Bank, Dewsbury,
*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 388 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast,
D2
52 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863. *Hopexiy,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne..
1887. *Hodgkinson, Alexander. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
1880, §Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry
and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. &
Park-villas, Blackheath, London, S.E.
1873. *Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1884, {Hodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.
1863. {Hodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
1863. {Hodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. tHoey, D.G. 8 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
1865. *Hormann, Aucust Witnerm, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S,
10 Dorotheen-strasse, Berlin.
1854. ‘Hole, George. Tyddyngwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly, Nortls
‘Wales.
1883. tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.
1873. *Holden, Isaac, M.P. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
1883. {Holden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
1883. tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.
1884. tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada..
1857. *Holder, Henry William, M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
1887, *Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.
1891. §Holgate, Benjamin, I.G.S. Regent House, Grosvenor-road, Head--
ingley, Leeds.
1879. {Holland, Calvert Bernard. Ebbw Vale, South Wales.
*Holland, Philip H. 3 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N. W.
1889. §Hollander, Bernard. Unionist Club, 68 Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
1886. tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
1865. {Holliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
1883, {Hollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
1883. *Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1866. *Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.
1873. { Holmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1889. tHolmes, Ralph, B.A. Hulme Grammar School, Manchester.
1882. *Holmes, Thomas Vincent, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, 8.E.
1887. §Holt, Thomas. Atlas Iron Works, Molesworth-street, Rochdale.
1891. *Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1875. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.
1847. {Hooxer, Sir Josrrn Darron, K.0.S.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,.
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
1865. *Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, 8. W.
1877. *Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. The Vicarage, Blackheath Hill,.
reenwich, S.E.
1856. t{Hooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
1842. Hope, Thomas Arthur. 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
1884, *Hopkins, Edward M. 3 Upper Berkeley-street, Portman-square,.
London, W.
1865. {Hopkins, J.S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1884. *Hopxinson, CHARLES. 305 Moss-lane East, Manchester.
1882. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.
1870. oe Joun, M.A., D,Sc., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon,
urrey.
1871. *Hopxinson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 95 New Bond-
street, London, W.; and The Grange, St. Albans.
1858. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
1891. §Horder, T. Garrett. 29 Charles-street, Cardiff.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 53
Year of
Election.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
1886, {Horne, Edward H. Innisfail, Beulah Hill, Norwood, S.E.
1885, {Horne, John, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 41 Southside-road, Inverness.
1876. *Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glascow.
1875. *Horniman, F. J., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Mill,
London, 8.E.
1884. *Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
1887. tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.
1884. *Hotblack, G.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
1868. {Hotson, W. C0. Upper King-street, Norwich.
1859. tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.
1886. {Houghton, F. T. S., M.A. 119 Gough-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
1887. {Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
1858. {Hounsfield, James. Hemswor th, Pontefract.
1884. {Houston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
1883. *Hovenden, Frederick, FL. , F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, SE.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
1879. *Howard, D. Hungershall Lodge, Tunbridge Wells.
1883. tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.
1886, §Howard, James L., D.Sc. 20 Oxford-road, Waterloo, near Liver-
ool.
1887. ea S. S. Llanishen Rise, near Cardiff.
1882. {Howard, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 13 Cavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
1886. tHowatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.
1876. tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1885. tHowden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montn ose, N.B.
1889. §Howden, Robert, MB. Durham College of Medicine, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
1857. {Howell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria- street, Edinburgh.
1887. { Howell, J. A. Edward-strect, Werneth, Oldham.
1868. {Howertt, Rev. Canon Hinps. Drayton "Rectory, near Norwich.
1891. §Howell, Rev. William Charles, M.A. High Cross, Tottenham,
Middlesex.
1886. §Howes, Professor G. B., F.L.S. Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, London, S.W.
1884. {Howland, Edward P. ,M. D. 211 414-street, Washington, U.S.A.
1884. {Howland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.
1865. *Howtert, Rev. Freperick, F.R. AS, East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
1863. {Howortu, H. H., M.P., F.S.A. Bentcliffe, Eccles, Manchester.
1883. {Howorth, John, JP. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.
1883. {Hoyle, James. Blackburn.
1887. §Hoyrz, WitttAm E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
1888. {Hudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1888. {Hudson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 6 Royal York-crescent,
Clifton, Bristol.
1867. *Hupson, Witt1am H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
London, S.W.
1858. *Hveeins, Wittiam, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
(PRESIDENT). 90 Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.
1887. tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
1883. {Hughes, Miss E. P. Newnham College, Cambridge.
54
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
Election.
1871
1891
1887
1870
189]
1876
. *Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
. §Hughes, Rey. H. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.
. tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.
. “Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
. §Hughes, Thomas. West Wharf, Cardiff.
. *Hughes, Rey. Thomas Edward. Wallfield House, Reigate.
1868. §Hueuns, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of
1865.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1890.
1884.
1878.
1880.
1856.
1862.
1877.
1891,
1886,
1891.
1865.
1884.
1864,
1875.
1881.
1889.
1881.
1884,
1869.
1879.
1885.
1863.
1883.
1869.
1882.
1861.
1870.
1887.
1882.
Geology in the University of Cambridge.
tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Birmingham.
t{Hurxr, Jonn Wuiraxer, F.R.S., F.R.CS., F.G.S. 10 Old Bur-
lington-street, London, W.
§Hut, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in the Royal College of Science. 20 Arundel-gardens, Nottine
Hill, London, W.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
*Hummel, Professor J. J. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
§Humphrey, Frank W. 68 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W.
*Humphreys, A. W. 45 William-street, New York, U.S.A.
tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon,
tHumphreys, Noel A., F.S.8. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.
tHumphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
*Humpnry, Sir Grorce Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.
*Hont, Arruur Roop, M.A., F.G.8. Southwood, Torquay.
*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.
tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.
§Hunt, D. de Vere, M.D. Westbhourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,
Cardiff.
tHunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
tHount, T. Srerry, M.A., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. Park Avenue Hotel,
New York, U.S.A.
tHunt, W. Folkestone.
*Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham. °
tHunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Hunter, Michael, jun. Greystones, Sheffield.
*Hunter, Rey. Robert. LL.D., F.G.S. Forest Retreat, Staples-road,
Longhton, Essex.
{}Hountineron, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. King’s College, London, W.C.
{Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquis of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.
tHuntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
*Hurst, Charles Herbert. Owens College, Manchester.
tHurst, George. Bedford.
tHurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden.
*Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.
t{Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. The Roost, Miles-road, Clifton, Bristol.
Husband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.
}Hussey, Captain E. R., R.E, 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 55
Year of
Election.
1876.
1868.
1864.
1857.
1887.
1861.
1852.
tHutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
*Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. Barnhill, Brodick, Isle of Arran, N.B.
Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
tHutton, Henry D. 17 Palmerston-road, Dublin.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. 29 Dale-street, Manchester.
*Hurton, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
tHuxiey, THomas Heyry, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.S., Professor of Biology in the Royal College of Science,
London. MHodeslea, Eastbourne.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.
*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*T’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
§Iles, George. 7 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.
{im-Thurn, Everard F. British Guiana.
“Ince, Surgeon-Major John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley, Kent.
tIncham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
Tnglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.
fIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Librarian to the University of
Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.
tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
§Irvine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.8. Wellington College, Woking-
ham, Berks,
§Isaac, J. F. V. Freshford House, Freshford, Bath.
tIsherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square,
London, W.
*Ismay, Thomas, H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.
§Ito, Tokutaro, 83 Hichikenchio Nichomé, Nagoya, Aichiken, Japan.
tIzod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.
*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc., F.C.S. Care of Messrs. Wm.
Bowen & Co., Collins-street, Melbourne, Australia.
tJackson, Arthur, F.R.C.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.
Jackson, Mrs. Esther. 16 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.
*Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset.
§Jackson, George. Clareen, Higher Warberry, Torquay.
. *Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.
tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen,
. TJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincoln-
shire. .
. §Jackson, Moses. Lansdowne House, Tonbridge.
56 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863. *Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, Merton-road, South
Wimbledon, Surrey.
1887. §Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.
1874. *Jaffe, John. Edenvale, Strandtown, near Belfast.
1865. *Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1891. §James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.
1891. *James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.
1891. *James, Charles Russell. Courtland House, Merthyr Tydfil.
1872. tJames, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney-hill, London, E.C.
1860. {James, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.
1886. {James, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.
1886. *James, Harry Berkeley, F.R.G.S. 16 Ashburn-place, London, 8.W.
1891. §James, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.
1891. §James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street, Strand,
London, W.C.
1891. §James, John. 24 The Parade, Cardiff.
1891. §James, J. R., L.R.C.P, 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.
1858. fJames, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
1884. {Jameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W.
1881. {Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.
1887. §J amieson, G. Auldjo. 87 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
1885. {Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B.
1885. {Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.
1859. *Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
1889. *Japp, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Aberdeen.
1870. tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
1891. §Jasper, Henry. Holmedale, New Park-road, Clapham Park, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1886. §Jeffcock, Rey. Prebendary John Thomas, F.S.A. The Rectory,
Wolverhampton.
1891. §Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.
1855. *Jeffray, John. Winton House, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
1867. {Jeffreys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. Pump-court, Temple, London, E.C.
1885. §Jeftreys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield.
1887. §Jurrs, Osmunp W. 12 Queen’s-road, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.
1881. {JEttIcor, C. W. A. Southampton.
1864, {Jelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.
1873. §Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London, S.W.
1880. *JEnxIns, Sir Joun Jones. The Grange, Swansea.
1891. §Jenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 99 Iverson-road,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
1852. {Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S.,M.R.L.A. Brown-street, Cork.
i872. {Jemnings, W. 18 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
1878. {Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary’s Office, The Castle, Dublin.
Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
1889. {Jevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.
1884. {Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.
1891. §John, E. Cowbridge, Cardiff.
1884. tJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
1884. §Johnson, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.
1883, {Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 57
tJohnson, Ben. Micklegate, York.
*Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.8. West View, 19 Beulah-hill, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.
tJohnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
*Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
§Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, London, N.
tJohnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
{Johnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.
{Johnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
{Johnson, Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.
*Johnson, Thomas, D.Sc., F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
tJohnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.
{Johnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
t{Johnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.
tJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.
t{Johnston, H. H. Tudor House, Champion Hill, London, 8.E.
tJohnston, James, Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
tJohnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W
tJ ohnston, John L, 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.
. {Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,
*Johnston, W. H. 6 Latham-street, Preston, Lancashire.
{Jounston-Lavis, H.J., M.D., F.G.S. Palazzo Caramanico, Chiato-
mone, Naples.
tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.
*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.
tJohnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
tJonty, Wim, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.
tJoly, John. 39 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
{Jones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.
{Jones, Baynham. Walmer House, Cheltenham.
tJones, Professor D, E., B.Sc. University College, A berystwith.
§Jones, Rev. Edward, F.G.S. Osbourne-place, Fairfax-road, Prest-
wich, Lancashire.
§Jones, Dr. Evan. . Aberdare.
§Jones, Evan Rowland. Bonnyrigg, Penarth.
tJones, Francis. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park, Manchester.
*Jones, G. Hartwell, M.A., Professor of Latin in University College,
Cardiff.
*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.
. {Jones, Rev. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Normal School of Science, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W.
*Jongs, J. Virramvu, M.A., B.Sc., Principal of the University College
of South Wales and Monmouthshire. Cardiff.
tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
t{Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
{Jonzs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 10 Uverdale-road, King’s-
road, Chelsea, London, S.W.
. {Jones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
58
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1891,
1875.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1875. -
1847.
1879.
1890.
1872.
1848.
1883.
1886.
1891.
1848,
1870.
1883.
1868.
1888,
1887.
1859.
1833.
1884,
1884.
1875.
1886.
1878.
1887.
1884.
1864.
1885.
1887.
1884,
1890.
1891.
1875.
1884,
1876.
1884,
1884.
1886,
§Jones, William Lester. Llandough, Cardiff.
*Jose, J. HE. 11 Cressington Park, Liverpool.
tJoseph, J. H. 788 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,
§Jotham, F. H. Penarth.
§Jotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. Rothesay, N.B.
{Jowert, Rey. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.
tJowitt, A. Hawthorn Lodge, Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.
§Jowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.
tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
*Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berkshire.
tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
§Joynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire,
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
{Jupp, Jonn Wester, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
Royal College of Science, London. 31 Ennerdale-road, Kew.
fJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane,
London, W.C.
*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road,
London, N.
{Kapp, Gisbert. Erba, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.
tKay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester.
Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensineton,
London, W.
Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.
{Kearne, John H. Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tKeefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
§Keefer, Thomas Alexander. Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada.
{Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
tKeen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.
*Kelland, William Henry. Grettans, Bow, North Devon.
{Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 35 Crescent, Salford.
{Kellogg, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
§Keltie, J. Scott, Librarian R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
§Kemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester.
{Kemper, Andrew C., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.
§Kempson, Augustus. Care of Capital and Counties Bank, North-
ampton
§KendalJ, Perey F. 16 Leegate-road, Heaton Moor, Stockport.
tKeynepy, AtExanpErR B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of Engineering in University College, London. Lawn
House, Hampstead-square, London, N.W.
tKennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Kennedy, Hugh. Redelyffe, Partickhill, Glasgow.
{Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
{Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 59
Year of
Election.
1886.
1857.
1876.
1881.
1884.
1887.
1883.
1889.
1887.
1869.
1869.
1883.
1876.
1886.
1885.
1890.
1865,
1878.
1860.
1875.
1888.
1888.
1883.
1875.
aS Zl.
1855.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1860.
1875.
1870.
1889.
1869.
1876.
1875.
1867.
1870.
1860.
1875.
1885.
1870.
1890,
1886.
1869,
1886.
1883.
1888.
1872.
§Kenward, James, F.S.A. 280 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.
{Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
{Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.
{Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.
{Kerr, Dr. John. Free Church Training College, Glasgow.
{Kerry, W. H. R. Manor House, Poolton, Cheshire.
{Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.
*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Villa ‘Mon Repos, Altrincham,
Cheshire.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Villa ‘Mon Repos,’ Altrincham,
Cheshire.
*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
{Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
§Kipston, Rosert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling.
*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.
§Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.
*Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart., M.R.I.A. 11 Merrion-square
North, Dublin.
{Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
{Kovanan, G. Henry, M.R.LA. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S8. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath,
*King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.
*King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith. ,
*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
*Kine, John Godwin. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.
{King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
By Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
.W.
*King, Joseph, jun. 6 Wedderburn-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 1 Vittoria-square, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Perey L. 5 Clifton Park, Bristol.
tKing, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
§King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.
{Kinedon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
§Kingston, Thomas. The Limes, Clewer, near Windsor.
§Kanezerr, Cuartzs T.,F.C.S. Trevena, Amhurst Park, London, N.
{Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
}Kor«man, Rev. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.
{Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
{Kirsop, Mrs. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Krrson, Sir JAMzES, Bart. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
{Klein, Rey. L. Martial. University College, Dublin.
{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
{Knight, J. M. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
{Knight, J. R. 32 Lincoln's Inn-fields, London, W.C,
{Knott, Cargill G., D.Se., F.R.S.E. Tokio, Japan.
*Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Knowles Lodge, Cuckfield, Hay-
ward’s Heath, Sussex.
60
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1873.
1872.
1870.
1874.
18835.
1883.
1876.
1875.
1883.
1890.
1888.
1881.
1870.
1865.
1858.
1884.
1885.
1870.
1870.
1882.
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1884.
1890.
1884,
1871.
1886.
1877.
1883.
1859.
1886.
1870.
1865,
1880.
1884,
1878.
*Knott, Herbert. Wharf Street Mills, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
{Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
§Knott, T. B. Ellerslie, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.
*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.
{Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, S.W.
{ Knowles, Rev. J. L. 103 Larl’s Court-road, Kensington, London, VW.
tKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
{Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{tKnowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
*Knox, George James. 29 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W
*Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
{Knubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
*Krauss, John Samuel. Whitecot, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
*Kunz,G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.
tKurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, London, W.
{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool.
{Kynnersley, J.C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.
tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
tLaflamme, Rey. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec,
Canada.
*Laing, J. Gerard. 1 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.
{Laird, H.H. Birkenhead.
§Laird, John. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
{Lake, G. A. K., M.D. East Park-terrace, Southampton.
tLake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.
tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.
*Lamb, Edmund,M.A. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8. W.
t{Lamb, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. Burton-road, Didsbury, Manchester.
{Lamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Lamsert, Rev. Brooxs, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, Kent, S.E.
{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.
tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.
{Lancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.
{Lancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S8. Colmore-row, Birmingham.
tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, 8.E.
tLang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness.
tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.
*Lanaey, J.N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
{Lanxester, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of
Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
42 Half Moon-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
*LANSDELL, Rey. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Eyre Cottage,
The Grove, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
rien A G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
A
tLapper, E,, M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 61
Year of
Election.
1886.
1885.
1887.
1881.
1883.
1870.
1870.
1891.
1888.
1883.
1870.
1878.
1862.
1884.
1870.
1881.
1889.
1875.
1885.
1868.
1853.
1888.
1856.
1883.
1883.
1875.
1870.
1884.
1884.
1847.
1863.
1884.
1872.
1884.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1887.
1891.
1884.
1887.
1886.
1882,
1859.
1883,
{Lapraik, W. 9 Malfort-road, Denmark Hill, London, S.E.
jLarworru, Cuartes, LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham, 13
Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.
tLarmor, Joseph, M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
§Lascelles, B. P. Harrow.
*LatHaM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, 8. W.
tLavenron, Jonn Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 130 Sinclair-road, Wes¢
Kensington Park, London, W.
§Laurie, A. P. King’s College, Cambridge.
qLavri®, Colonel R. P., C.B., M.P. 35 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia,
*Law, Channell. Isham Dene, Torquay.
tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W.
tLaw, Rey. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
§Law, Robert. 11 Cromwell-terrace, West Hill Park, Halifax,
Yorkshire.
{Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.
§Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Winchester-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
{Lawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
{Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.
*Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S. Ootacamund, Bombay.
tLawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
§Layard, Miss Nina I’. 11 Museum-street, Ipswich.
tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.
§Leach, John. Claremont, Levenshulme, Manchester.
teach, Colonel R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dubiin.
*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. 6 Sussex-place, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.
t{Learmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.
*LeatHaM, Epwarp Arpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ;
and 46 Eaton-square, London, S.W.
tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.
tLesour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-.
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tLeckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
tLee, Daniel W. Halton Bank, Pendleton, near Manchester.
tLee, Henry, M.P. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.
fLee, J. H. Warburton. Rossall, Fleetwood.
*Lee, Sir Joseph Cooksey. Park Gate, Altrincham.
§Lee, Mark. 8 Llandati-road, Cardiff.
*Leech, Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.
tLeech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester..
*Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.
tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.
tLees, William, M.A. St. Leonard’s, Morningside-place, Edinburgh..
*Leese, Miss H. K, Fylde-road Mills, Preston, Lancashire.
62 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
*Teese, Joseph. Fylde-road Mills, Preston, Lancashire.
1883. tZeese, Mrs.
1889, *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., F.G.S. Clifden House, Twickenham,
Middlesex.
1881. {Le Fevvrer, J. E. Southampton.
1872. {Lurevrr, The Right Hon. G. Suaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Bryan-
ston square, London, W.
*Lech, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall. High Lech Hall, Cheshire.
1869. {Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
1868. {LertcesteER, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Nor-
folk.
1856. {Leteu, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 387 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,
1890. §Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.
1891. §Leigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.0., Glamorganshire,
1886. §Leipner, Adolph, Professor of Botany i in Univ ersity College, Bristol.
47 Hampton Park, Bristol.
1867. {Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
1859. {Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
1882. {Lemon, James, M.inst.C.K. 11 The Avenue, Southampton,
1867. tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
1878. {Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.
1887. *Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, London, W.
1874. {Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
i884, {Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.
1871. tLdslie, Alexander, M.Inst. 0. BK. 72 George-street, Edinbureh.
1890. *Lester, Joseph Henry. 39 March-street, Upper Brook-street,
Manchester.
1883. §Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.
1880. {LrrcuEr, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.
1887. {Leverkus, Otto. The Downs, Prestwich, Manchester.
1887. *Levinstein, Ivan. Villa Newberg, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1890. §Levy, J. H. Florence. 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park,
London, 8. W.
1879, {Lewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, London, 8. W.
1870. {Lewis, Atrrep Lionrt. 54 Highbury-hill, London, N.
1891. §Lewis, Dy J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.
1891. §Lewis, D Morgan, M.A. University College, Bangor.
1891. §Lewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff.
1891. §Lewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff,
1891. §Lewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.
1884, *Lewis, Sr W.T. The Mardy, Aberdare.
1860. {Lipprtt, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church,
Oxford.
1887. {Liebermann, L. 54 Portland-street, Manchester.
1876, {Lietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
1887. *Lightbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester.
1862. {Lrzrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.LS. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.
*Limericr, The Right Rev. Cuartzs Gravzs, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
1887. tLimpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical Works, Manchester.
1878. {Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
1881. *Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F. G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, London, S.E.
1871, {Lindsay, Rey. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 63
Year of
Election.
1876. ‘aa tae Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edin-
urgh.
1883. Lipscomb, Mrs. Lancelot C. dA, 95 Elgin-crescent, London, W.
1883. {Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.
1882. *Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.
1888, {Lister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, E
1876, {Little, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin.
1881. {Littlewood, Rev. B. C., M.A. Holmdale, Cheltenham.
1861. *Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
1876. *Liversidge, Archibald, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor
of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney,
N.S.W. Care of Messrs. Triibner & Oo., Ludgate Hill, Lon-
don, E.C.
1864. {Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
1880. {LLEweELyn, Sir Joun T. D., Bart. Penllegare, Swansea.
Lloyd, Rey. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
1889. {Lloyd, Rev. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
1842. Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
1865. {Lloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
1865. [Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
1886. {Lloyd, John Henry, Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
1891. *Lloyd, R. J., M.A.D.Litt. 46 Chatham-street Liverpool.
1886, {Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
1865. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury.
1854. *Losizy, James Loaan, F.G.S8., F.R.G.S. City of London College,
Moorgate-street, London, E.C.
1867. *Zocke, John. Whitehall Club, London, S.W.
1863, {Lockyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, London, 8. W.
1886. *Lodge, Alfred, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
1875. *Lopaz, Ottver J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 21 Waverley-road, Sefton Park,
Liverpool.
1889. {Logan, William. Langley Park, Durham.
1876. {Long, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.
1871. *Long, John Jex. 11 Doune-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
1883, “Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
1883. {Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
1883. {Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
1866, {Longden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
1883. {Longe, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham.
1883. {Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.
1875. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8, Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.
1871. {Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D.,F.C.S. Butterknowle, Wandsworth,
S.W.
1872. *Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
1881. *Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. _Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1883. *Longton, E. J.. M.D. Lord-street, Southport.
1861. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
1889. {Lord, Riley. Highfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-u on-Tyne.
1883. *Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, W.
1887. *Love, A. E. H. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
64
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
’ Election.
1886,
1876.
1883.
1875.
1889.
1867.
1885.
1891.
1885,
1861.
1884.
1886.
1850.
1881.
1853.
1881.
1870.
1889.
1878.
1889.
1891.
1875.
1881.
1873.
1885.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1853.
1883.
1874.
1864.
1871.
1884.
1884.
1884,
1874,
1885.
1857.
1878.
1862.
1852.
1854,
1876.
1868.
1878.
. *Love, E. F. J., M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.
*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8, 11 Notting Hill-square, Lon-
don, W.
§Love, James Allen. 8 Kasthourne-road West, Southport.
*Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 75 Clarendon-road, Crumpsall, Manchester.
{Low, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, London, W.
*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
§ Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwyn’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.
§Lowdon, John. Hillside, Barry, Cardiff.
*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.
*Lows, Epwarp JosEru, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.MLS,
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.
{Lowe, F. J. _ Elin-court, Temple, London, E.C.
*Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.E, Tngineer’s Office, Midland Rail-
way, Derby.
Hore, Malham Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
urgh.
tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
*Lupsock, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Down, Farnborough, Kent.
{Lubbock, John B. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
{Lucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.
tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, 8.W.
tLuckley, George. 7 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.
{Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.
tZumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
tLumsden, Robert. Ferryhill House, Aberdeen.
*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*Lundie, Cornelius. 382 Newport-road, Cardiff.
tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.
*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Mining Engineer-
ing in Yorkshire College. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.
*Lupton, Sypney, M.A. Grove Cottage, Roundhay, near Leeds.
*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
tLyell, Leonard, F.G.S. 92 Onslow-gardens, London, 8.W.
tLyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Lyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLyman, Roswell C. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.
§Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tLyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.I.A. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin.
tLyte, Cecil Maxwell. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, S.W.
*Lyrn, F. Maxwett, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, London, 8. W.
t{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.
*MacapaM, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
*MacapaM, WILLIAM Ivison. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.
{MacaisTER, ALEXANDER, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.
sp Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
ridge,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
Year of
Election.
1879.
1885.
3883.
1866.
1884,
1884,
1854,
1840.
1884,
1886,
1887.
1884.
1884,
1891.
1876.
1863.
1874,
1878.
1858.
1883,
1886,
1884,
1884.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1878.
1884.
1884.
1881.
1871.
1885.
1879.
1884,
1854,
1867.
1855.
1888.
1884.
1884,
1873.
1885.
1884,
1886.
1885.
1876.
1867.
§MacAndrew, James J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.
*M‘Arthur, Alexander, M.P., F.R.G.S. 79 Holland Park, London, W.
{Macarthur, Alexander. W. innipeg, Canada.
{Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
Macaunay, James, A.M., M.D. 25 Carlton-road, Maida Vale,
London, N. W.
*MacBrayne, Robert. 65 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tMcCabe,T. Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent’ Office, Ottawa, Canada.
{MacCarthy, Rey. E. F, M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham,
*McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.
*McCarthy, J. J... M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tMcCausland, Orr. Belfast.
§McClean, Frank, M.A. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.
*M‘CrEeLiann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
tM‘Crinrock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C. B., Ress
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, Ss W.
{M‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.
*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
tM‘Connell, J. E. “Woodlands, Great Missenden.
tMcCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.
tMacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.
*McDonald, W.C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMcDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin.
tMacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
{MacDonnell, Rey.Canon J.C.,D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutterworth.
t{McDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin,
{Macdougall, Alan. Toronto, Canada.
tMcDougall, John. 85 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. , Professor of Physics i in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
{M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
{Macfarlane, J. M., D.Se., FR. S-E. 15 Scotland- street, Edinburgh.
tMacfarlane, Walter, j jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.
tMacfie, K. N., B.A., B.C.L. Winnipeg, Canada.
*Macfie, Robert Andrew. Dreghorn, Colinton, Edinburgh.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
{MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
tMacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, London, W.
tMacGillivray, James, 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.
JMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont-
real, Canada.
tMcGowen, William Thomas. - Oak-ayenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
tMacgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*MacGrecor, James Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
{McGregor, William. Kohima Lodge, Bedford.
{M‘Gregor-Robertson, J.. M.A., M.B. 400 Great Western-road,
Glasgow.
tM‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
*M‘dInrosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural Histor 'y in the Univ ersity of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
E
66
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1873.
1885.
1880.
1884.
1884.
1883.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1884,
1887.
1867.
1889.
1891.
1884.
1850.
1867.
1872.
1873.
1885.
1860.
1875.
1882.
1884.
1884.
1884,
1862,
1868.
1861.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1862.
1888.
1874.
1867.
1885.
1878.
1887.
1883.
{MclIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.
tMack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.
tMackay, Alexander Howard, B.A., B.Sc. The Acaderay, Pictott,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
§Mackay, Joun Yutz, M.D. The University, Glasgow.
t{McKzyovricx, Joun G., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Phy-
siolozy in the University of Glasgow. The University,
Glasgow.
t{McKendrick, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.
*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Athenzeum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
{McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.
{McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.
t{Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.
tMackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hythe, Kent.
*Mackey, J. A. 1 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Macxrs, Sawvrt Josrpx. 17 Howley-place, London, W.
t{McKilligan, John B. 887 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,
§Mackinder, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{McKinley, Rev. D. 33 Milton-street, West Hartlepool.
§Mackintosh, A. ©. ‘Temple Chambers, Cardiff.
*Mackintosh, James B. Consolidated Gas Company, 21st-street, and
Avenue A, New York City, U.S.A.
tMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
t{Mackson, H. G. 25 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.
*McLAcuian, Ropert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, S.E.
t{McLandsborough, John, M.Inst.0.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manning-
ham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.
tMaclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
{MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
{Maclean, Inspector-General,O.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.
{McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
t{McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
{McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.
{Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden Hill-
road, London, W.
§M‘Lzop, Hersert, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines.
*Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range,
Manchester.
*McMahon, Major-General C.A. 20 Nevern-square, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8. W.
+MacMahon, Captain P. A., R.A., F.R.S., Instructor in Mathematics
at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
*MMaster, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland.
tMacmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey, S.W.
tMcMillan, Robert. 20 Aubrey-street, Liverpool.
tMacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
tM‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
t{MeNicoll, Dr. E.D, 15 Manchester-road, Southport.
tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
tMaconochie, Archibald White. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros.,
Lowestoft.
tMacpherson, J, 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
Election.
1886.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1875.
1878.
1869.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1881.
1874.
1889.
1857.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1888.
1878.
1864.
1888.
1891.
1889.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1864,
1863.
1888.
1888.
1881.
1888.
1857.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1887.
1864.
{Macpherson, Lieut.-Colonel J. C., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton.
§McRae, Charles, M.A. Science and Art Department, South Ken-«
sington, London, 8. W.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 2 Ilchester-gardens, Prince’s-square,
London, W.
{MeWhirter, William. 170 Kent-road, Glasgow.
tMacy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.
{Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.
{Maggs, Thomas Charles, F.G.S._56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.
tMagnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
*Magnus, Sir Philip, B.Sc. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square,
London, W.
{Mahony, W. A. 34 College-creen, Dublin.
tMain, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.
tMainprice, W. 8S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart. Stirling, N.B.
§Maitland, P.C. 1856 Great Portland-street, London, W.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, S.E.
tMalcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.
tMalcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
tMaling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
TMallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.
{MancuestER, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.
TManifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
t~Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
tMann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.
Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop’s House, West-
minster, S. W.
§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
{Mansel-Pleydell, J.C. Whatcombe, Blandford.
tMansergh, James, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Westminster-chambers, Lon-
don, S.W.
§Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.
tManville, E. 3 Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
*March, Henry Colley, M.D. 2 West-street, Rochdale.
tMarcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.
Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.
Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.
Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.
Marxnam, Crewents R., C.B., F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S., F.S.A,
21 Kccleston-square, London, 8S. W.
Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlineton.
Marling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
{Marling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Marr, John Edward, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. St, John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
§Marriott, A. S. Manor Lawn, Dewsbury.
tMarriott, William, F.C.S. 8 Belgrave-terrace, Huddersfield.
{Marsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
{Marsden, Joseph. Ardenlea, Heaton, near Bolton.
*Marsden, Samuel. St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.
*Marsh, Henry, Cressy House, Woodsley-road, Leeds.
tMarsh, J. E., BA. The Museum, Oxford.
{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 87 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
B2
fl
t+ +4 tra t+
68
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Yesr of
Election.
i889.
1882.
1889.
188].
1890.
1881.
1858.
1889.
1876.
1887.
1836.
1849.
1865.
1883.
. *Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.
. *Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.
. {Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
. [Martin, H. Neweter, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
1865.
1865.
1886,
1885.
1891.
1878.
1891.
1847,
1886.
1879.
1885.
1885.
18387.
1890.
1865.
1889.
*MarsHatt, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,
Cambridge. .
*MarsHaLtt, A. Mitnzs, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Zoology in’ Owens College, Manchester.
tMarshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Church Institute, Leeds.
tMarshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.
{Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Savioureate, York.
{Marshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
*Marshall, Miss Sophie Elise, B.Sc. 38 Percy-cardens, Tynemouth.
{Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
§Marshall, William. Thorncliffe, Dukinfield.
*MARSHALL, WILLIAM Bay.ey, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edebas-
ton, Birmingham.
*MarsHatt, Wittiam P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edebaston,
Birmingham.
§Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
Marten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, 8. W.
Biology in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
. *Marrin, Jonn Bropureg, M.A., F.S.S. 17 Hyde Park-gate, London,
.W. :
84. §Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 85 Osborne-road, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-
Tyn
e.
. *Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Lyon House, New
Barnet, Herts.
. §Martindale, William. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.
*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 385 Gordon-square, London,
MiOr
tMartineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.
{Marriveav, Sir THomas, J.P. West Hill, Augustus-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
tMarwick, James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.
§Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.
tMasaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.
§Massey, William H. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.
{Masxetyne, Nrvit Story, M.A., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Salthrop, Wroughton,
Wiltshire.
tMason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.
tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.
tMasson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.
*Mather, William, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Man-
chester.
tMathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.
*Mathews, G.S. 52 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Mathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London,
WwW
1861, *Marnews, Witi1aM, M.A., F.G.S. 60 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
Year of
Election.
1881.
1883,
1865.
1858.
1885.
1885.
1863.
1890.
1865.
1876.
1864.
1887.
18838.
1883.
1884.
1878.
1878.
1884.
1871.
1879.
1887.
1881.
1867.
1883.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1847.
1863.
1877.
1862.
1879.
1880.
1889.
1863.
1869.
1886.
1865.
1881.
1883.
1881.
1889,
1886.
tMathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.
{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Matthews, C. E. Watérloo-street, Birmingham.
{Matthews, F. C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire,
tMarruews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.
{Matthews, J. Duvcan. Springhill, Aberdeen.
t{Manughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Maund, E. A. 294 Revent-street, London, W.
*Maw, Guores, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Kenley, Surrey.
{Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
*Maxwell, Francis. 4 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
{Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.
§May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray,
Kent,
tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.
*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.
tMeath, The Right Rev. C. P. Reichel, D.D.; Bishop of. Dundrum
Castle, Dublin.
{Mecham, Arthur. 11 Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
tMeikie, James, F.S.8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W.
tMeischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-
ments.
*Metpona, Rapwast, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute, 6 Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
{Mxrtprum, Cuartss, C.M.G., LUD., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis,
Mauritius,
tMellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.
*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
{Me zo, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.
{Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.
{Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College, Gal-
way.
{Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
*Menabrea, General Count, LL.D. 14 Rue de l’Elysée, Paris.
{Mennett, Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-sireet,
London, E.C.
§MERIVALE, Joun Herman, M.A., Professor of Mining in the College
of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMerry, Alfred 8S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
tMratt, Louis C., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.
tMiddlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of,
Middlesbrough.
{Middleton, Henry. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
}Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.S. South Pittsburg, Tennessee.
Milburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMiles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.
70
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1881.
1885.
1859.
1889,
1876.
1876.
1875
1884.
1888.
1885.
1886,
1861.
1876.
1884.
1876.
1868.
1880.
1885.
1882.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1882.
1888.
1880.
1855.
1859.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1865.
1875.
1885.
1868.
1885.
1862.
Jn SSheshae acer
§Mitrs, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton.
§Mill, Hugh Robert, D.Sc, F.R. 8. E. Braid-road, Morningside,
Edinburgh.
{Millar, J ohn, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.
*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 56 George-street, Edinburgh.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R. S.E, Perth,
Millar, William. High ifield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
Millar, William. Hightield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
Miller, A. J. 12 Cumberland-place, Southampton.
Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
Miller, Mrs. Hugh. Lauriston-place, Edinburgh.
Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.
Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
§Miller, Rey. John. The College, Weymouth.
*Miller, Robert. Cranage Hall, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire.
*Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.
*Mints, Epuunp J., D.Sc., F. R. S., F.C.S., “Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glascow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 J ohn-street, Glasgow.
{Mills, Mansfeldt H. Old Hall, Mansfield Woodhouse, Mansfield.
{Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*Mitneg, Jonn, F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Mining and Geology in
the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan. Ingleside,
Birdhirst Rise, South Croydon, Surrey.
tMilne, J.D. 14 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
{tMilne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
tMilne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.
{Milnes, Alfred, M.A., FSS. 30 Almeric-road, London, 8. W.
{Milsom, Charles. 69 Pulteney-street, Bath.
{Minchin, G. M., M.A. Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's
Hill, Surrey.
{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glaszow.
}Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
tMitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glascow.
{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
{Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
tMitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Mitchell, Rey. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen,
{Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mitchell, W. Stephen, M.A., LL.B. Kenyon Mansions, Lough-
borough Park, London, S.W.
. {Mrvarz, Sr. Grorex, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Hurst-
cote, Chilworth, Surrey.
. [Moat, Robert. Spring Grove, Bewdley.
. §Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.
. {Mogg, John Rees. High Littleton House, near Bristol.
. tMoir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
5. tMollison, W.L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
. TMolloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
. *Molloy, Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
. (Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova. Scotia, Canada,
LIST OF MEMBERS. rel
Year of
Election.
1887.
1891.
1853.
1882,
1891.
1872.
1872.
1884.
1881.
1891.
1890.
1854.
1857.
1877.
1871.
1891.
1881.
1873.
1891.
1885.
1887.
1891.
1882.
1878.
1889.
1867.
1891.
1883.
1889,
1881.
1880.
1883.
1883.
1880.
1883.
1888.
1880.
1876.
*Mond, Ludwig, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
*Mond, Robert Ludwig, "B.A., F.R.S.E, 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
{Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
*Montagu, Samuel, M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, Lon-
don, W.
§Montefiore, Arthur, F.G.S., F.R.G.S, 6 Marlborough-road, Bedford
Park, London, W.
tMontgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Hdgware-road,
London, W.
t{Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
tMoore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.
§Moore, Henry. Collingham, Maresfield-gardens, Fitzjohn’s-avenue,
London, N.W.
§Moore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.
§Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.
*Moorn, Joun Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.5. 115 Haton-square,
London, 8.W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
{Moorn, THomas Jonn, Cor. M.Z.8. Free Public Museum, Liver-
pool.
*Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
tMoore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymouth.
{Morn, AtExanpEr G., F.L.8., M.R.LA. 74 Leinster-road, Dublin.
§Morel, P. Layernock House, near Cardiff.
tMorean, Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.
{Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, London,
S.W.
§Morgan, F. Ruspidge, Newnham.
tMorgan, John. 57 Thomson-street, Aberdeen.
{Morgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.
§Morgan, Sir Morgan. Cardiff.
§Morgan, Thomas. Cross House, Southampton.
{Morean, WrirrAM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea.
§Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tMorison, William R. Dundee.
§Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.
*Morley, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 29 Kylemore-road,
West Hampstead, London, N.W.
tMortey, The Right Hon. Jonny, LL.D., M.P. 95 Elm Parl-
gardens, London, 8. W.
{Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.
{Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn R.S.0., Car-
marthenshire.
{Morris, C.S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
*Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
York.
{Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
tMorris, John. 40 Wellesley-road, Liverpool.
{Morris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
t{Morris, M. I. E. The Lodge, Penclawdd, near Swansea.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
tMorris, Rev. 8. 8. 0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. HMLS. ‘Garnet,’
8. Coast of America.
72
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1874.
1890.
1871.
1886,
1865.
1869.
1857.
1858.
1871.
1887.
1886,
1883.
1891.
1878.
1876.
1864,
1873.
1869.
1865.
1866.
1862.
1856.
1878.
1863.
1861.
1877.
1850.
1887.
1888.
1884,
1884.
1876.
1874.
1876.
1884.
1872.
1884.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1891.
1884,
1880,
tMorrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. 65 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.
tMorrison, Sir George W. Municipal Buildings, Leeds.
*Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinbureh.
tMorrison, John T, Scottish Marine Station, Granton, N.B.
Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
Morton, GrorcE H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
Morton, Henry JosepH. 2 Westbourne-yillas, Scarborough,
tMorton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
tMorton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.
*Morton, P. F. Hook House, Hook, near Winchfield, Hampshire..
tMoseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.
§Moss, Arthur J., M.B., Penarth, Glamorganshire.
*Moss, Jonn Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.
§Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.C.S., MR.IL.A. St. Aubin’s, Bally-
brack, Co. Dublin.
*Mosse, J. R. Conservative Club, London, 8. W.
{Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.
§Morr, AtBERT J., F.G.S, Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.
{ Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.
§Mort, Freprricx T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester.
*Movat, FrepEerick Joun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.
tMould, Rey. J. G., B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk.
*Moulton, J. Fletcher, M.A.,Q.C., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-square, Lon-
don, 8. W.
tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
*Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.
{Movunt-Epecumse, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.
tMowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
tMoxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.
TtMoyle, R. E., B.A., F.C.S. The College, Bath.
tMoyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.
tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.
{Murr, M. M. Parrison, M.A., F.R.S.E. Caius College, Cambridge.
{Muir, Thomas, M.A.,LL.D., F.R.S.E. Beechcroft, Bothwell, Glasgow.
*Muir, William Ker. Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
tMuirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. Cowley-street, Westminsten,
S.W
Kat +t
*Muirhead-Paterson, Miss Mary. Laurieville, Queen’s Drive, Cross-
hill, Glasgow.
*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. Mason College, Bir-
mingham.
{Morwart, Micnart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
{Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
§MUiier, F. Max, M.A., Professor of Comparative Philology in
the University of Oxford. Oxford.
*Mttter, Hueco, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 18 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tMuller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.
Munby, Arthur Joseph, 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 73
Election.
1866,
1876.
1885.
1885.
1872.
1864.
1864,
1855.
1890.
1889.
1852.
1884.
1887.
1869.
1891.
1859,
1884,
1884,
1872.
1863.
1883.
1874.
1870.
1891.
1890,
1886.
1890.
1876.
1872.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1855.
1876.
1888.
1886.
1868.
1866,
tMunperra, The Right Hon. A. J.. MP., F.RS. FRGS. 16
Eivaston-place, London, 8.W.
tMunro, Donald, F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.
{Munro, J. E. Crawford, LL.D., Professor of Political Economy in
Owens College, Manchester.
*Munro, Robert, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
*Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton,
tMourcu, JErom. Cranwells, Bath.
*Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead.
tMurdoch, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
§Murphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.
tMurphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.
tMurphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
§Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland.
tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.
tMurray, Adam. 78 Manor Road, Brockley, S.E.
§Murray, G.R.M., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History), South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. ;
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
{tMurray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
tMurray, Jonny, F.R.S.E. ‘Challenger’ Expedition Office, Edin-
burgh.
{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logie and Mental and Morat
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada.
tMurray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
{tMurray, William, M.D. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyue.
tMurray, W. Vaughan. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park,
London, W.
§Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
§Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Myres, John L. Swanbourne, Winslow, Buckinghamshire.
§Nagel, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.
§Nalder, Francis Henry. 16 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London,
E.C.
{Napier, James 8S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{Nares, Admiral Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.RS., F.RGS. St.
Bernard’s, Maple-road, Surbiton.
Nason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D., F.C.S. Troy, New York,
U.S.A.
§Neale, E. Vansittart. 14 City-buildings, Corporation-street, Man-
chester.
§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.
*Neild, Theodore, B.A. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
tNeill, Joseph 8. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.
tNeill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
{Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
tNelson, D. M. 11 Bothwell-street, Glaszow.
{Nelson, The Right Rev. the Bishop of, D.D. Nelson, New Zealand.
tNettlefold, Edward. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tNevill,.Rev. H.R. The Close, Norwich.
*Nevill, fhe Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand. ;
74 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889. { Neville, F. H. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1857. { Neville, John, M.R.I.A. Roden-place, Dundalk. Lreland.
1869. {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1842. New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
1889. *Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.
1891, *Newell, W. H. A. 10 Plasturton-gardens, Cardiff.
1886. tNewbolt, F.G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.
1842, *Newman, Professor Francis Wittram. 15 Arundel-crescent,
‘Weston-super-Mare.
1889. §Newstead, A. H. L. Roseacre, Epping.
1860. *Newron, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.
1872. {Newton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
1883. {Nias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
1882. {Nias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
1867. {Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
1875, {Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.
1866. {Nicnotson, Sir Cuartes, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D. F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.
1867. {NicHotson, Hunry Attpynz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.8., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.
1887. *Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.
1884, {Nicholson, Joseph 8., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,
1883. {Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.
1887. {Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.
1881. tNicholson, William R. Clifton, York.
1887. {Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.
1885. §Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E, Mason Science College,
Birmingham.
1878. {Niven, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Aber-
deen.
1886, {Niven, George. Erkingholme, Coolhurst-road, London, N.
1877. {Niven, James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.
1874. {Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
1884. {Nixon, T. Alcock. 33 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
1863. *Nosiz, Captain ANDREW, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1879. {Noble, T. S., F.G.S. Lendal, York.
1886. §Nock, J. B. Mayfield, Chester-road, Sutton Coldfield.
1887. tNodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.
1870. {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.LA. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1882. {Norfolk, F. 16 Carlton-road, Southampton.
1863. §Norman, Rey. Canon Atrrep Mertz, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Burnmoor Rectory, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
1888, tNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.
1865. {Norris, Ricnarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birming-
ham.
1872. {Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
1883. *Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.
1881. §North, Samuel William, M.R.C.S., F.G.S. 84 Micklegate, York.
1881. {North, William, B.A., F.C.S. 84 Micklegate, York. :
1868, *Northbourne, The Right Hon. Lord, F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-gardens,
London, 8. W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75
Year of
Election.
*Norruwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
1886. {Norton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place, London, S.W.; and Hamshall,
1868.
1861.
1885.
1887.
1883.
1882.
1888.
1878.
1885.
1858.
1884.
1857.
1877.
1885.
1876,
1885.
1891.
1859.
1884,
1881.
1887.
1853.
1885.
1868.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1889.
1882.
1880
Birmingham.
{Norwicu, The Hon. and Right Rev. J. T. Prrmam, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Norwich.
{Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
{Nunnerley, John. 46 Alexandra-road, Southport.
§Nursey, Perry Fairfax, 161 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
*Nutt, Miss Lilian. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, 8.E.
§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
tO’Connell, Major-General P. 2 College-road, Lansdowne, Bath.
tO’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple,
London, E.C.
*Optine, Wittiam, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
tOdlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.
{O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
tOgden, Joseph. 13 Hythe-villas, Limes-road, Croydon.
tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
tOgilvie,Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffoll.
{Ocinviz,F. Granz, M.A., B.Sc. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.
§Ogilvie, Graeme. 4 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
tO’Halloran, J. S., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute, Northum-
berland-avenue, London, W.C.
tOldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.
tOldham, Charles. Syrian House, Sale, near Manchester.
f{OrtpHAM, Jamus, M.Inst.C.H. Cottingham, near Hull.
{Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.
fOliver, Daniel, F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany in
University College, London. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
{Oliver, F. W., D.Sc. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew, Surrey.
{Oliver, J. A. Westwood. The Liberal Club, Glasgow.
§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.
§Oliver, Professor T., M.D, Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Olsen, O. T., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby.
*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, London, W.
. *Ommanney, Rev. HE. A. 123 Vassal-road, Brixton, London, S.W.
1887, {O’Neill, Charles. Glen Allan, Manley-road, Alexandra Park, Man-
chester.
1872. fOntlow. D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
WwW
1883
é {Oppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.
1867. tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
1883, {Ord, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
1885
. {Ord, Miss Sarah, Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
76 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880. {O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
1861. {Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
1858. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
1883. {Orpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1884. *Orpen, Major R.T., R.E. Gibraltar.
1884. *Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridve.
1838. Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-sireet, Dublin.
1873. {Osborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
1887. §O’Shea, L. J., B.Sc. Firth College, Sheffield.
*OstER, A. Fotterr, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
1869. *Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
1884, {Osler, William, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
1884. {O’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.
1882. *Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.
1881. *Ottewell, Alfred D. 83 Siddals-road, Derby.
1882, tOwen, Rey. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1889, *Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.
Owen, Sir Rrcwarp, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS.
F.G.S., Hon, F.R.S.E, Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, S.W.
1888. *Owen, Thomas. 8 Alfred-street, Bath.
1877. {Oxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.
>
1891. §Pady, Samuel. Llantrisant House, Llantrisant.
1889. {Page, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. {Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.
1883. {Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.
1872, *Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham,
1884, {Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
1875. {Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire,
1870. *Pateravg, R. H. Ineus, F.R.S., F.S.S. Belton, Great. Yar-
mouth.
1883. {Palgrave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth,
1889. [PatmeEr, Sir CHartes Marx, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, Yorkshire,
1873. {Palmer, George, M.P. The Acacias, Reading, Berks,
1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. Howth, co Dublin.
1887. “Palmer, Miss Mary Kate. Kilburn House, Sherwood, Notts.
1866, §Palmer, William. Kilbourne House, Cavendish Hill, Sherwood,
Nottinghamshire.
1872. *Palmer, W. R. 1 The Cloisters, Temple, E.C.
Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
1890, {Pankhurst, R. M., LL.D. 8 Russell-square, London, W.C.
1883, §Pant, F. J. Vander. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.
1886, {Panton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westtield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1884, §Panton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.A., F.G.S. Ontario Agricultural
College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
1883, {Park, Henry. Wigan.
1883, {Park, Mrs. Wigan.
1880, *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 77
Year of
Election.
_ 1863. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1874. {Parker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
1886. {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1853. tParker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
1891. §Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S. Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.
1865, *Parkes, Samuel Hickling, F.L.S. 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham.
1864. { Parkes, Wilkam. 23 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W.
1879. §Parkin, William, F.S.8. The Mount, Sheffield.
1887. §Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.
1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.
1841. Parnell, Edward A., F.C.S. Ashley Villa, Swansea.
1862. *Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, N.E.
1883. {Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.
1877. {Parson, T. Edgcumbe. 386 Torrington-place, Plymouth.
1865, *Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
1878. {Parsons, Hon. C. A. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1878. tParsons, Hon. and Rev. R. C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.
1883. {Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.
1875. {Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.
1881. §Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.
1884. *Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.
1883. *Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.
1884, *Paton, Hugh. 992 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
1883. {Paton, Rev. William. The Ferns, Parkside, Nottingham.
1887. {Paterson, A. M., M.D. Owens College, Manchester.
1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 38 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1884. {Patterson, Edward Mortimer. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.
1876. §Patterson,T. L. Belmont, Marearet-street, Greenock.
1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.
1889. { Pattinson, H. L., jun. _Felling Chemical Works, Felling-upon-Tyne,
1863. {Parrinson, Jonny, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. {Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1867. §Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 11 Queen Victoria-street, London,
E.C.
1864. {Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.
1879. *Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.
1863. {Pauzt, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8. W.
1863. {Pavy, Freperick Wirttram, M.D., F.R.S. 385 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.
1887. {Paxman, James. Hill House, Colchester.
1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.
1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1877. *Payne, J.C. Charles. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
1881. tPayne, Mrs. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
1866. {Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1888. *Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.
1886. {Payton, Henry. Eversleigh, Somerset-road, Birmingham.
1876. {Peace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
1879. {Peace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.
1885. {Peach, B. N., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Geological Survey Office, Edin-
burgh.
1883. {Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeyille-place, Manchester-square, L.on-
don, W.
1875, {Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,
78
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1881.
1886.
1888
1884,
1886.
1877.
1881
1870
1883.
1863.
1889.
1863.
1863.
1883.
1855.
1888.
1885.
1884.
1883.
1878.
1881.
1884.
1861.
1878.
1865.
1861.
1887.
1856,
1881.
1875.
1889,
1868.
1884,
1864,
1885,
1886.
1886,
1883.
1891.
1885.
1881.
1883.
1872.
1881.
*Pzarce, Horace, F.R.A.S., F.LS., F.G.S. The Limes, Stour-
bridge.
*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.
§Pearce, Rev. R. J., D.C.L., Professor of Mathematics in the Univer-
sity of Durham. 7 South Bailey, Durham.
{Pearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.
tPearsall, Howard D. 3 Cursitor-street, London, E.O.
tPearse, J. Walter. Brussels.
{Pearse, Richard Seward. Southampton.
{Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, 8S. W.
§Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.
}Pearson, Miss Helen HE. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tPearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
{Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
*Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.
{Pearson, Richard. 23 Bootham, York.
{Pearson, Rey. Samuel, M.A. Highbury-quadrant, London, N.
*Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyffe, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.
§Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.
{Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
borough.
{Pease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Peck, John Henry. 52 Hoghton-street, Southport.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire,
*Peckover, Alexander, F.S.A., F.LS., F.R.G.S. Bank House,
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
{Peckover, Miss Alexandrina, Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S. Sibald’s Holme, Wisbech, Cam-
bridgeshire.
{Peddie, W. Spring Valley Villa, Morningside-road, Edinburgh.
tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.
tPeek, C. E. Conservative Club, London, 8.W.
*Peek, William. 16 Belgrave-place, Brighton.
tPegegs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.
{Pegler, Alfred. Elmfield, Southampton.
*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
{Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London,
W.C
{Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Pender, Sir John, K.C.M.G. 18 Arlington-street, London, S.W.
§PEenpLEBURY Witiiam H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.
§PENGELLY, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.
{Penty, W. G. Melbourne-street, York.
{Perceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.
}Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 6 Lovaine-crescent, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
*Perigal, Frederick. Cambridge Cottage, Kingswood, Reigate.
*PERKIN, WitLIAM Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.
{Perkin, William Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.
*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
{Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.
{Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N. W.
{Perrin, Mrs. 23 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, W.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
Election.
1879.
1874.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1882.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1886,
1886.
18653.
1870.
1853,
1855.
1877.
1863.
1889,
1883.
1862.
1887.
1880.
1883.
1890.
1883.
1881.
1868.
1884.
1883.
1885.
1884,
1888,
1871.
i884.
1865.
1873.
1857.
1883.
1877.
1868.
1876.
1884,
1887.
{Perry, James. Roscommon.
*Prrry, Jonny, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering and
Applied Mathematics in the Technical College, Finsbury. 31
Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
tPerry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
tPerry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.
tPetrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.
*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. 6 Fourth-avenue, Brighton.
{Pfoundes, Charles. Spring Gardens, London, 8.W.
{Phelps, Colonel A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Phelps, Charles Edgar. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Notting-
ham.
{Phelps, Mrs. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
{Phelps, Hon. E. J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, London, S.W.
{Phelps, Mrs. Hamshall, Birmingham.
*Puenf, Joun Samuet, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8. W.
{Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.
§Philips, T. Wishart. Dunedin, Wanstead, Hssex.
{Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Philipson, John. 9 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.
{Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 18 Exchange-street, Manchester.
§Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.
{ Phillips, Mrs. Leah R. 1 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
§Phillips, R. W., M.A., Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.
{Phillips, 8. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.
TPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.
Purtport, Right Rey. Henry, D.D. The Elms, Cambridge.
{Pureson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.8S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey,
SEN
*Pickard, Rey. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford.
*Pickard, Joseph William. Lindow Cottage, Lancaster.
*PickERING, SpencER U., M.A., F.R.S. 48 Bryanston-square, Lon-
don, W.
*Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason County, Kentucky,
U.S.A.
*Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, London, W.
{Pigot, Thomas F., M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
tPike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
{Prxz, L.OwxEn. 201 Maida-vale, London, W.
{Pike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada.
{ Pilkington, Henry M., LL.D., Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, Dublin,
{Pilling, R. C. The Robin’s Nest, Blackburn.
Pim, George, M.R.ILA. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
}Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.:
{Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
{Pirim, Rev. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,
tPirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
{Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.
&0
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1875.
4883.
1864.
1883.
1868.
1872.
1869.
1842,
1867.
1884.
1883.
1857.
1861.
1881.
1888.
1846.
1891.
1862.
1868.
1885.
1886.
1866.
1888.
1883.
1863.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1873.
1887.
1883.
1875.
1887.
1867.
1855.
1883.
1884.
{Pitman, John. Redcliff Mill, Bristol.
{Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 384 Ashburn-place, .South
’ Kensington, London, S.W.
{Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
{Pitt, Sydney. 34 Ashburn-place, South Kensington, London, S.W.
tPirr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.RS., F.GS.,
F.S.A. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, 8. W.
tPlant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evington-strect, Leicester.
{Prant, James, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
Puayrarr, The Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P.,
FRS.L.& E, F.C.S. 68 Onslow. -cardens, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
{Prayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria.
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, London, 8. W.)
*Playfair, W. S., M.D., ane Ds Professor of Midw ifery in King’s
College, London. 31 George-street, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Plimpton, R.T., M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, London,
S.W
{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.} }
*Pocuin, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
tPocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.
{Porn, Wrixx1aM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*Pollexfen, Rey. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
§Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
tPortaL, WynpHamw 8. Malshanger, Basingstoke.
*Porter, Rey. C. T., LL.D. Brechin Lodge, Cambridge-road, South-
ort.
iPorer, Paxton. Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birming-
ham.
tPorter, Robert. Highfield, Long Eaton, Nottingham.
{ Porter, Robert. Westfield House, Bloom rfield-road, Bath.
Weise, Professor J. P,, M.&. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tPotter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.
{Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S. St. Peter's College, Cambridge.
§Potts, John. ’ Thorn Tree House, Macclesfield.
*Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wykeham House,
Oxford.
*Powell, Francis 8., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire ;
and 1 Cambridze- -square, London, W.
*Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.
tPowell, John. Waunarlwydd House, near Swansea.
tPowell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.
§ Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Mosley-street,
Manchester,
tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
*Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland.
{Porntine, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham. 11 St. Augustine’s-road, Birmingham.
§Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 81
Year of
Election.
1884,
1891.
1869.
1888.
1884.
1889.
1884,
1856,
1882.
1888.
1881.
1875.
1891.
1875.
1876.
1875,
1883,
1864,
1846,
1889.
1876,
1888.
1881.
1863.
1885.
1863.
1884,
1879,
1865.
1872.
1871.
1873.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1842.
1887.
1885.
1852.
1881,
*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. Brazenose College, Oxford.
§Pratt, Bickerton. Brynderwen, Maindee, Newport, Monmouthshire.
*PREECE, Witttam Henry, F.R.S., MInst.C.E. Gothic Lodge,
Winbledon Common, Surrey.
*Preece, W. Llewellyn. Telegraph Department, Midland Railway,
Derby.
#Prornio- Fea}: His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.
§ Preston, Alfred Eley. 14 The Exchange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Prestwicu, JosepH, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S. Shore-
ham, near Sevenoaks,
*Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.
*Pricz, Rey. Barrnotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford.
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
tPrice, John E., F.S.A. 27 Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
1Price,.L. L. F. R., MA. F.S.S, Oriel College, Oxford.
§Price, Peter. 12 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.
§Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
{ Priestley, John. 174 Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
{Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Prince, Thomas. Horsham-road, Dorking.
*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent's Park, London,
N.W
*PritcHarD, Rey. Cartes, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor:
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.
*Pritchard, Eric Law. 12 Alwyne-place, Canonbury, London, N.
*PRITCHARD, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover~
square, London, W.
{Probyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, London, 8. W.
§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, Nunthorpe, York.
fProctor, R. 8S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
TProfeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B.
{Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, N: ewcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road,.
Ilfracombe.
tProwse, Albert P. Whitchuren Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth.
“Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts.
*Puckle, Thomas John. 42 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.
{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
*Pullar, Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Ochil, Perth.
§Pullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.
*Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.
§PumpuRey, Witt1am. Lyncombe, Bath.
§Purdie, Thomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews. St. Andrews, N.B.
{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
{Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York, The
Deanery, York. :
F
82
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Election.
1882.
1874.
1866.
1878.
1884.
1860.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1879.
1861.
1870,
1887.
1870.
1877.
1879.
1856.
1888.
1878.
1887.
1864.
1885,
1865.
15384,
1884.
1861.
1889.
1867.
1876.
1885.
1887.
1873.
1855.
1869.
1865.
1868.
1863.
1861.
1872.
1889.
i864,
1870,
fPurrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton.
{PurseR, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
{PurszER, Professor Joun, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast.
{Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stafford-place, Oxford-street, London, W.
*Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.
§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
§Pye-Smith, Mrs. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
{Pyz-Ssoru, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S, 54 Harley-street, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, London, S.E.
tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
*Pyne, Joseph John. The Willows, Albert-road, Southport.
{Rabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, S.E.
§Rabone, John. Penderell House, Hamstead-road, Birmingham,
{Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
tRadford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
tRadford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. 70 Portland-place, London, W.
{Radway, C. W. 9 Bath-street, Bath.
tRan, Joun, M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.G.S. 4 Addison-gardens,
Kensington, London, W.
*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester.
tRainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath.
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol. °
tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.
tRamsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S, 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.
{Ramsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.
t{Ramsay, Mrs.G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.
tRamsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.
{Ramsay, Major R. G. W. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.
*Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 109 Sinclair-road, West Kensington Park,
London, W.
*Ramsay, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, London, W.C.
t{Ramsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, London, W.
{Ramsbottom, John, Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire,
*Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
*Rance, Henry. 6 Ormonde-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-
sington, London, S.W.
{Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Ashburnham-road, Bedford.
§Ransom, William Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
f{Ransome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Devisdale, Bowdon,
Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 11 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's
Inn, London, W.C.
§Rapkin, J. B. Sidcup, Kent.
ome 9 Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
tRathbone, Benson. Mxchange-buildings, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 83
Year of
Hlection.
1870.
1870.
1874.
1889.
1870.
1866.
tRathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.
tRathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.
tRavenster, E.G., F.R.G.S., F.S.8. 91 Upper Tulse-hili, London,
S.W.
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.
{Rawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common,
Surrey.
{Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
*Rawiinson, Rey. Canon Gurorer, M.A. The Qaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
. *Rawzinson, Major-General Sir Henry C., Bart., G.C.B., LL.D.,
E.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W,
. tRawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Hecles, Manchester.
§Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
. Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A., F.C.S. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-
gate, London, 8. W.
3. [Ray, Miss Catherine. Mount Cottage, Flask-walk, Hampstead}
London, N.W.
. *Rarieren, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.RS.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.
*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. Queen-street, Lancaster,
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.
tReavez, THomas Metparp, F.G.8. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
§Readman, J. B., D.Sc.,F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.
*REDFERN, Professor PerER, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
_tRedmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
tRedmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.
tRedmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
yRednall, Miss Edith E. Ashfield House, Neston, near Chester.
. *Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 4 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
. §Reece, Lewis Thomas. Somerset House, Roath, Cardiff.
{Reep, Sir Epwarp J., K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
gardens, London, 8. W.
tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill.
. *Reed, Thomas A. Merchants’ Exchange, Cardiff.
. §Rees, J. Treharne. The Elms, Penarth.
. §Rees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.
§Rees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.
tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
tRees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
§Reid, Arthur 8., B.A., F.G.8. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
*REID, CLEMENT, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tReid, George, Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
. {Reid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
. tReid, Rev. James, B.A. Bay City, Michigan, U.S.A.
. *Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.
. tReid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar Fife.
. Reid, William. 19} Blake-street, York.
. §Rervorp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physical Science in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.
. tRenats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham,
. §Rendell, Rev. J. R. Whinside, Accrington.
7
84
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885.
1889.
1867.
1883.
1871.
1870.
1858.
1887.
1883.
1890.
1858.
1877.
1888.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1891.
1889.
1888.
1863.
1861.
1869.
1887.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1884.
1870.
1889.
1881.
1861.
1876.
1891.
1891.
1886.
1863.
1868.
1877.
1885.
1862.
1861.
1889.
1884.
1863.
tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
*Rennie, George B. Hooley Lodge, Redhill.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
*Reynolds, A. H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
{Rxrynoxps, Jamns Euzrson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.8., M.R.LA.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin,
*Rrynoips, Ossorneg, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor:
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 28 Lady Barn-
yoad, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Rrynoips, Ricwarp, F.C.S. 18 Briggate, Leeds.
tRhodes, George W. The Cottage, Victoria Park, Manchester.
tRhodes, Dr. James. 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.
§Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.
*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.
*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
§Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George’s-road,
London, 8. W.
tRhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.
*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.
§Richards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.
§Richards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.
+Richards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
USA.
*Ricuarpson, ARTHUR, M.D. University College, Bristol.
+Ricwarpson, Brensamin Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 25
Manchester-square, London, W.
{Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
*Richardson, Charles. 4 Northumberland-avenue, Putney, 8. W.
*Richardson, Miss Emma. Conway House, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
§Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.
*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, 150 Piceadilly,
London, W.
ԤRichardson, Hugh, Sedbergh School, Sedbergh R.S.O., York-
shire.
*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.
tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E, 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.
tRichardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
{Richardson, W. B, Elm Bank, York.
{Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
§Riches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.
§Riches T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.
§Richmond, Robert. Leighton Buzzard.
+ Richter, Otto, Ph.D. 407 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Rioxerrs, CHarces, M.D.,F.G.S. 18 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.
TRicketts, James, M.D. St. Helens, Lancashire.
*RIppELL, Major-General Cuartes J. Bucwanay, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
*Rideal, Samuel, D.Nc.,F.C.S.,F.G.S. 41 Carlyle-square, London,S. W.
tRidgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Ridley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.
{Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.
*Rigby, Samuel. Fern Bank, Liverpool-road, Chester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 85
Year of
Election.
1881.
1883.
1883,
1883.
1878.
1867.
1867.
1889.
1869.
1888.
1854,
1869.
1878.
1887.
1859.
1870.
1891.
1883.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1883.
1868.
1883.
1859.
1884.
1871.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1888.
1886.
1886.
1861.
1852.
1887.
1887.
1861.
1888.
1863.
1878.
1876.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
*Rige, Arthur. 71 Warrington-crescent, London, W.
*Riec, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, London, E.
tRigg, F. F., M.A. 32 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Rigge, Samuel Taylor, F.S.A. Balmoral-place, Halifax.
tRipley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
*Rrvon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G.,G.C.8.1., C.LE., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, London,
S.W.
tRitchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
{Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
fRitson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.
tRobb, W. J. Firth College, Sheffield.
{Robberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
*Rossins, Jonny, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.
tRoberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.
*Roberts, Evan. 38 Laurel-bank, Alexandra-road, Manchester.
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
*Roperts, Isaac, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S.. Crowborough, Sussex.
§Roberts, Rey. J. Crossby, F.R.G.S. 41 Derby-road, Kast Park,
Nottingham.
{Roberts, Ralph A. 4 Colville Mansions, Powis-terrace, London, W.
t{Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 1 Field-court, Gray’s Inn,
London, W.C.
{Roberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.
f{Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.
tRoperrs, Sir Witram, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Manchester-square,
London, W.
*Roperts-Austen, W. Cuanpter, O.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Chemist to
the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Col-
lege of Science, London. Royal Mint, London, E.
tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.
tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
tRobertson, E. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tRobertson, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Atheneum Club, Lon-
don, S.W.
TRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.
{Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.
tRobertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
*Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 46 Berners-street, Oxford-
street, London, W.
*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.
{Robinson, Edward E. 56 Dovey-street, Liverpool.
{Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tRobinson, Rey. George. Beech Hill, Armagh.
tRobinson, Henry. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
tRobinson, James. Akroydon Villa, Halifax, Yorkshire.
tRosrnson, Jonny, M.Inst.C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.
§Robinson, John. Engineer’s Office, Barry Dock, Cardiff.
{Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.
tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
Robinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
§Robinson, Richard. Belltield Mill, Rochdale.
{Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, London, S.W.
*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Beechwood, Darlington.
tRobinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
86
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863.
1891.
1888.
1870.
1876.
1872.
1885.
1885.
1872.
1866.
1867.
1890,
1885.
1882,
1883.
1884,
1886.
1889,
1876.
1876.
1891.
1869,
1872.
1881.
1855,
1883.
1885.
1874.
1857.
1887.
1880,
1872.
1859.
1869.
1891.
1865.
1876.
1884,
186].
1861.
1885.
1887.
1881.
1865.
tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
§Robinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.
§Robottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, London,
N.W.
*Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, 5S. W.
tRobson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Robson, William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-
burgh.
§Rodger, Edward. 1 Claremont-gardens, Glasgow.
*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 John-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.
t Rodwell, George F. Marlborough College, Wiltshire.
t{Roe, Thomas. Grove-yvillas, Sitchurch.
tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee.
*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds, 18 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.
tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.
§Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.
t Rogers, Thomas Stanley, LL.B. 77 Albert-road, Southport.
*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth.
tRogers, W. Woodbourne. Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham,
{Rogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.
tRorrit, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.
t}Romansgs, Groree Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.L.S, St. Aldate’s,
Oxford.
§Rénnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.
tRoper, 0. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
*Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
*Roper, W.O. Eadenbreck, Lancaster.
*Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrretp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., M.P.,
F.R.S., F.C.S. 10 Bramham-gardens, London, 8. W.
*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. Aboyne, Bedford Hill-road, Balham,
London, 8. W.
tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.
tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.
tRoss, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.
tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.
tRoss, Captain G. E. A., F.R.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, London, S. W.
tRoss, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester.
*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.
*Rossp, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.
§Roth, H. Ling. Lightcliffe, Leeds.
*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.
tRottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
*Rouse, M. L. 348 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Rovrn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.
tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow.
tRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tRowe, Rey. Alfred W., M.A., F.G.S. Felstead, Essex.
tRowe, Rev. G. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.
tRowe, Rey. John, 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 87
Year of
Election.
1877.
1890.
1855,
1881.
1881.
1862,
1876.
1883.
1885.
1888,
1875.
1869.
1882.
1884.
1887.
1847,
1889.
1875.
1884,
1890.
1883.
1852.
1876.
1886,
1852.
1886.
1883.
1889,
1891.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1875.
1889,
1886.
1865.
1861.
tRows, J. Brooxine, F.LS., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth.
tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.
*Rowney, Tromas H., Ph.D., F.0.5., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway.
*Rowntree, Joseph. 37 St. Mary’s, York.
*RowntreE, J. 8. The Mount, York.
fRowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-
ming.
tRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
tRoy, Charles S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
TRoy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.
tRoy, Parbati Churn, B.A. Calcutta, Bengal, India.
"Ricker, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
College of Science, London. (GENERAL TREASURER) 19 Gled-
how-gardens, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
§Rupter, f. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.
fRumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen” Anne’s-gate, London,
S.W
§Runtz, John. Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.
§Ruscoe, John, F.G.S. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
tRusxin, Jonny, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.8, Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side.
§Russell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.
*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.
{Russell, Ciaahie) 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, London, S.E.
§Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.
*Russell, J. W. 10 Fyfield-road, Oxford.
Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
*Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
§Russell, R., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
tRussell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
*RussEtL, Wit11AM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 384 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.
*Ruston, Joseph, M.P. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln.
{Rutherford, Rev. Dr. 6 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Rutherford, George. Garth House, Taft’s Well, Cardiff.
§RurnerrorD, WitriAM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
fRutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
tRuxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell-
gardens, London, 8. W.
fRyalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 38 Brick-court, Temple, London,
E.C
§Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tRyland, F. Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham,
*Ryxanps, THomas Giazesroox, F.L.S.,F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington. ;
88
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883.
1883.
1871,
1885.
1866.
1886.
1887.
1881.
1857.
1883.
1873.
1883.
1872.
1887.
1861.
1861.
1883.
1878.
1885.
1884.
1883.
1872.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1883.
1846.
1884.
1891.
1884.
1887.
1871.
1883.
1885.
1872.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1884,
1868.
1879.
1883.
*Sabine, Robert. 3 Great Winchester-street-buildings, London, E.C.
tSadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
Wiltshire.
§Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
*St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.
§St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 127 Bristol-road, Birmingham.
*SALForD, the Right Rev. the Bishop of. Bishop’s House, Salford.
{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.
{Satmon, Rev. Grorex, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.
ere Robert G. .The Nook, Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood,
E
*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.
tSalt, Shirley H., M.A. 73 Queensborough-terrace, London, W.
{Satvin, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hawhksfold, Haslemere.
tSamson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Garry Cottage, Perth.
{Sandeman, E. 53 Newton-street, Greenock.
{Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.
*Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
{Sanders, Henry. 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Sanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, London, S.W.
tSanprErson, J. 8S. Burpon, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Oxford. 64 Banbury-road,
Oxford.
{Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
§Sankey, Perey EF. Hill House, Lyndhurst, Kent.
{Sauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.
tSaundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund-street, Birmingham.
tSaunders, A., M.Inst.0.E. King’s Lynn.
tSaunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.
tSaunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, W.
tSaunders, Rey. J. C. Cambridge.
{Saunpers, TRELAWNEY W., F.R.G.S. 8 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.
tSaunders, William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.
§Saunders, W.H. R. Lilanishen, Cardiff.
tSaunderson, 0. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Savage, Rev. E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Parsonage, Douglas,
Isle of Man.
§Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.
tSavery,G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.
*Sawyer, George David, F.R.M.S. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
§Saycr, Rey. A. H., M.A., D.D. Queen’s College, Oxford.
{Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Scarborough, George. Holly Bank, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
§Schacht, G. F. 1 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*Scudrmr, E. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, London. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.
{Schiifer, Mrs. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 89
Year of
Election.
1888.
1880.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.
1888.
1887.
1873.
1887.
1847.
1883.
1867.
1881.
1882.
1878.
1881.
1889.
1885.
1886.
1857.
i861.
1884.
1869.
1881.
1885.
1890.
1859.
1880.
1880,
1861.
1891.
1855.
1879.
1885.
1887.
1875.
§Scmarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc. Keeper of the Natural History
Museum Department of Science and Art, Dublin.
*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.
Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
tSchofield, T. hornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.
tSchofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.
§Scholes, L. 49 Dover-street, Higher Crumpsall, Manchester.
tScholey, J. Cranefield. 30 Sussea-villas, Kensington, London, WV.
{Schorlemmer, Carl, LL.D., F'.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the Owens College, Manchester. Victoria Park, Man-
chester.
Scnunck, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,
Manchester.
*Scuusrpr, ARruuR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.
tSchwabe, Colonel G. Salis. Portland House, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.
*Sciater, Paine Lurrey, M.A., Ph.D., ¥.BR.8., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.8. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.
*Scratpr, Witiram Luriery, B.A., F.Z.8. 3 Hanover-square, Lon-
don, W.
tScorr, AtExanpER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
*Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. 4 North Bailey, Durham.
TScott, Colonel A.deC., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David's College, Lampeter.
§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angus. Lancashire College, Whalley Range,
Manchester,
§Scorr, D. H:, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. The Laurels, Bickley, Kent.
{Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.
tScott, Robert. 161 Queen Victcria-street, London, E.C.
*Scorr, Roserr H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.8., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8. W.
§Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
*Scott, Sydney C. 15 Queen-street, Cheapside, London, F.C.
tScott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
*Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.
t{Serivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.
§Searle, G. F. C., B.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
{Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.
{Srpewrcr, Anam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Srppoum, Henry, F.R.G.S., F.L.8., F.Z.8. 22 Courtfield-gardens,
London, 8.W.
*SreLEyY, Harry Govimr, F.R.S., F.L.S8., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.8.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
§Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.
{Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
§Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincine-lane, London, E.C.
§Semple, Dr. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
§Semple, James C., M.R.LA. 64 Grosvenor-road, Rathmines,
Dublin.
{Semple, R. IL, M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
90
LIST OF MEMBERS.
leotion.
1888. §Senier, Alfred, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S. Thornfield, Harold-road,
London, 8.E.
1858. *Senior, George, F.S.8. Old Whittington, Chesterfield.
1888. *Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. Temple-chambers, Victoria
Embankment, London, E.C.
1870. *Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1883. {Seville, Miss M.A. Blythe House, Southport.
1875, {Seville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport.
1891. §Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1891. §Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1888. {Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.
1883. {Shadwell, John Lancelot. 17 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, London, W.
1871. *Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, London, S.W.
1867. {Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
1869, *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.
1878. {SHarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Waketield.
1886, {Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
*Sharp, William, M.D., ’.R.S.,F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rey. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
1883. {Sharples, Charles H., F.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
1865. {Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1887. *Shaw, James B. Holly Bank, Cornbrook, Manchester,
1870. {Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
1891. §Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, London, E.C.
1887. §Shaw, Saville. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. *SHaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
1883. {Shaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
1885. {Sheard, J. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1891. §Sheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1884, {Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.
1878. {Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, S. W.
1865. {Shenstone, Frederick 8. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.
1881. {Suenstonz, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
1885. {Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.
1863. {Shepherd, A. B. 17 Great Cumberland-place, Hyde Park, London, W.
1885. {Shepherd, Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen.
1890. §Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds.
1883. {Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.
1883. §Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
1883. §Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
1883. {Sherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vid Lancaster.
1888. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.
1886. {Shield, Arthur H. 354 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
1883, *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, Lon-
don, E.C.
1867. {Shinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey, 5S. W.
1887. *Suiptey, ArtHuR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1889, {Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 91
Year of
Election.
1885.
1883.
1870.
{Shirras, G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tShone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.
*SHOOLBRED, JAmes N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 1 Westminster-chambers,
London, 8S. W.
1888. {Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
1888, §Shoppee, G, A., M.A., LL.D. 61 Doughty-street, London,
W.C
1875. {Suorz, Tuomas W., F.C.S., F.G.8. Hartley Institution, South-
ampton.
1882. {Suorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
1889,
1883.
1888
1883
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Sunny Bank, Church-lane,
Hornsey, London, N.
{Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Harley-street, London, W.
{Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton,
. *Sidebotham, Edward John, LErlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1885
1873.
. *Sripewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-cardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
1878. {Steprson, Professor Guoren, M.D., F.L.S., MRA. 38 Clare-
1859.
1871.
1862.
1874.
1876.
1887.
1847.
1866,
1871.
1883.
1887.
1867.
1859.
1863.
1857.
1883.
street, Dublin.
tSim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
{Simms, James. 188 Fleet-street, London, H.C.
{Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.
tSimon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.
*Simon, Henry. Darwin House, Didsbury, near Manchester.
{Simon, Sir John, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Consulting
Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square,
London, W.
{Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
*Surpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.
{Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
{Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire,
{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
{Smrpson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
t{Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
1887. {Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.
1874. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
1870. *Sinclair, W. P.,M.P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1864, *Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., O.1.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
1879.
1883.
1885.
1888.
1870.
cutta.
{Skertchly, Sydney B. J., F.G.S. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshal-
ton, Surrey.
{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
{Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.
§Sxrrinz, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath,
§SrapEN, WaAttsER Percy, F.G.S., F.L.8. 13 Hyde Park-gate, Lon-
don, S.W.
92
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1889.
1884,
1877.
1891.
1884.
1849.
1860.
1867.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1885.
1889,
1858.
1876.
1877.
1890.
1876.
1876.
1867.
1857.
1872.
1874.
1887.
1875.
1887.
1889.
1865.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1866.
1887.
1855.
1885.
1860.
1870,
1889.
1888.
1885,
1876.
1874.
1871.
1883.
1837.
tSlater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
§Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
tSleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Clifton, Bristol.
§Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.
{Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Sloper, George Elear. Devizes.
{Sloper, S. Elgar. "Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.
{Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.
§Small, E. W., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Arthur-street, Nottingham.
§Small, William. Cavendish-crescent North, The Park, Nottingham.
{Smallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport.
§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
*Smart, William. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
{Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
§Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., FRAS. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
§Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
{Smieton, James, Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smieton, John G. 38 Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham,
London, S.W.
{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure V illa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
tSmith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.LA. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
*Smith, Basil Woodd, is A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W
*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, Fr R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
tSmith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
*Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., FRSE, F.R.A.S. Christian
Collere, Madras.
t{Suaru, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
{Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.
{Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
{Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham.
*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
§Smith, Rev. F. J., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.
{Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.
{Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 91 Fountainhall-road, Aberdeen.
*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.
tSmith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
*Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 49 Beaumont-square,
London, E.
Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.
tSmith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
*Smith, J. Guthrie. 54 West Nile-street, Glasgow.
{Smith, John Haigh. 77 Southbank-road, Southport.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire,
{Smith, J. William Robertson, M.A., Lord Almoner’s Professor of
Ayabie in the University of Cambridge.
tSmith, M. Holroyd. Fern Hill, Halifax.
Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 92
Year of
Election.
1885.
1870.
1866.
1873.
1867.
1867.
1859.
1884.
1885.
1887.
1852.
1875.
1876.
1883.
1888.
1883.
1882.
1874.
1850.
1883.
1874.
1878.
1857.
1888.
1888.
1887.
1878.
1889.
1879.
1859.
1879.
1888.
1886.
1865.
1859.
1887.
1883.
1890.
1868.
1889.
1869.
1887.
1881.
1884,
1889,
1861.
1891,
{Saaru, Rosert H., M-Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Birmingham.
{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C,
{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Smith, Thomas. Dundee.
{Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.
{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.8., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire.
tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.
*Smith, Watson.. University College, London, W.C.
{Smith, Dr. Wilberforce. 14 Stratford-place, London, W.
{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.
*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.
{Smith, William, 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{SmrrHErts, ARTHUR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
tSmithson, Edward Walter. 18 Lendal, York.
{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.
§Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.
{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.
*SuryrH, CHARLES Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.
{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.
{Smyth, Henry. Downpatrick, Ireland.
§Smyth, Mrs. Isabella. Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-avenue,
Dublin.
*Suryru, JonN, jun., M.A, F.C.S., F.R.MLS., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.
*Swarz, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.
{Snell, Albion T. Messrs. Immisch & Co., London, N.W.
{Snell, Rev. Bernard J.. M.A. 5 Park-place, Broughton, Man-
chester.
{Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.
{Snell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, 8. W.
*Sottas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
*Sorsy, H. Curton, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheffield.
tSorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.
tSouthall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birmingham.
*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
tSouthall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
§Sowerbutts, Eli, FR.G.S. Market-place, Manchester.
{Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.
{Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.
*Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle.
{Spence, Faraday. 67 Grey-street, Hexham.
*Spence, J. Berger. 31 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
{Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.
{Spencer, Herbert E. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.
§Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.
*Spencer, John. Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tSpencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, S.W.
*Spencer, Richard Evans. 6 Working-street, Cardiff.
94
Year
Electi
1863
1875.
1864,
1864.
1878.
1864.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
on,
. *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.
{Spencer, W. H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.
*Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
bury, London, N.
*SPILLER, JoHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, 8. W.
ag W. Hugh, F.C.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, London,
W.
. *SpracuE, Tuomas Bonn, M.A., F.R.S.E. 26 St. Andrew-square,
Edinburgh.
. {Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.
. {Spratt, Joseph James. West-parade, Hull.
. {Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, London, E.C.
. *Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.
Square, Joseph Elliot. 147 Maida Vale, London, W.
. {Squarg, Witti1AM,F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Plymouth,
*Squire, Lovell. 6 Heathfield-terrace, Chiswick, Middlesex.
. {Stables, James. Lane Ends, Horsham.
. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 7 and 8 Paternoster-row, London, E.C.
. *Srarnron, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. Mountsfield, Lewis-
ham, 8.E.
. [Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,
. *Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent,
. {SranrorD, Epwarp C.C., F.C.S. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, S.E.
. {Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin,
. {Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe.
. {Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
. *Stead, Charles, Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire.
. {Stead. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
. (Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
. {Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada,
. §Steeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
. {Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
. {Steinthal, Rey. S. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester.
. {Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester.
. {Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,
. [Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreai, Canada.
. *Stephens, W. Hudson. Lowville (P.O.), State of New York, U.S.A.
. *STEPHENSON, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.
. *Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. 23 Elm Grove-terrace, London-road,
Salisbury.
. *Stephens, Miss Gulielma. Girtups, Bridport.
. *Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. 10 Cleveland-terrace, Swansea.
. {Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester.
. *Srpvenson, James C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields,
. {Stevenson, T. Shannon. Westoe, South Shields.
. [Steward, Rev. C. E., M.A. The Polygon, Southampton.
. “Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S. Somerleyton Rectory, Lowes-
toft. :
. *Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 95
Year of
Election.
1887.
1864,
1885.
1886.
1887.
1867.
1865,
1890.
1883.
1854,
1845.
1887.
1862.
1886.
1886.
1874.
1888.
1876.
1883.
1857.
1878.
1861.
1876.
1883.
1887.
1887,
1873,
1884,
1859.
1888.
1874,
1871.
1881.
1876,
1863.
1889,
1882.
*Stewart, A. H. New College, Oxford.
{Srewarr, Cuartus, M.A., F.L.S, St. Thomas's Hospital, London,
S.E
{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, Duncan. 12 Montgomerie-crescent, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
{Stewart, George N. Physiological Laboratory, Owens College, Man-
chester.
. “Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
1876.
1867.
1876.
Clifton, Gloucestershire.
{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
tSrrrtine, Witi1AM, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester,
*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Stock, Joseph S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
{Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.
*Srocker, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
{Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
*Sroxes, Sir Guoree Garren, Bart., M.P., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
D.Se., F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.
tStone, E. D., ¥.C.S. The Depleach, Cheadle, Cheshire.
{Sronz, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
TStone, J. B. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
{Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.LS., F.CS. 11 Sheffield-gardens, Ken-
sington, London, W.
{Stone, Joun. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.
TStone, Octavius C., F_R.GS. Springfield, Nuneaton.
{Stone, Thomas William. 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush,
London, W.
{Sronzy, Brypoy B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.
“Stoney, G. Gerald. 69 Seventh-avenue, Heaton, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
*Sronry, GroreE Jounsrone, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MR.L.A. 9 Pal-
merston Park, Dublin.
§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S, Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, S.E.
§Stopes, Mrs, Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, 8.E.
{Storer, Edwin. Woodlands, Crumpsall, Manchester.
*Storey, H. L. Caton, near Lancaster.
§Storr, viene. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.
§Storrs, George H. Fern Bank, Stalybridge,
§Story, Captain James Hamilton. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
*Stothert, Percy K. Audley, Park-gardens, Bath.
{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
“Srracugy, Lieut.-General Ricuarp, R.E., 0.8.1., F.R.S., E.R.G.S.,
F.LS., F.G.S. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, London, W.
{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, 8S.W.
{Strain, John, 145 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
tStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
§Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mill-on-Tyne.
{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A, Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham,
96
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1881.
1889.
1879.
1884.
1859.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1878.
1876.
1872.
1886.
1884.
1888.
1885.
1879.
1891.
1883.
1884.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1873.
1873.
1863.
1862.
1886.
1884,
1863.
1889.
1891.
1881.
1876.
1881,
1861.
1862.
1879.
1888.
1887.
1870.
1885,
{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
§Streatfield, H. 8. The Limes, Leigham Court-road, Streatham,
S.W.
*Strickland, Charles, 21 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
{Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Whitgift House. Croydon.
{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
*Stroud, Professor H., M.A., D.Sc., College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
*Stroud, William, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.
*Struruers, JoHN, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Aberdeen. 24 Buckingham Terrace, Edin-
burgh.
{Strype, W. G. Wicklow.
*Stuart, Charles Maddock. High School, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Stuart, Rey. Edward A., M.A. 116 Grosvenor-road, Highbury New
Park, London, N.
{Stuart, G. Morton, M.A. East Harptree, near Bristol.
{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
*Stubbs, Rev. Elias T., M.A. 4 Springfield-place, Bath.
§Stump, Edward C. 26 Parlkfield-street, Moss-lane East, Manchester.
*Styring, Robert. 38 Hartshead, Sheffield.
*Sudborough, J. J. 111 Stratford-road, Birmingham.
Sulivan, H. N., F.R.G.S. King-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Summers, William, M.P. Sunnyside, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, London, E.
{Sunderland, John E. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.
tSutcliffe, J.S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.
{Sutcliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds. .
tSutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*SUTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE WILLIAM, Duke of, K.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8. W.
{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
tSutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.
{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
{Sutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.
{Swales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.
{Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.
§Swan, Joseph Wilson, M.A. Lauriston, Bromley, Kent.
*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
*Swan, Witiiam, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Emeritus Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of St. Andrews. Ardchapel,
Helensburgh, N.B.
t{Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.
[Sweeting, Rey. T. E. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.
§Swinburne, James. 49 Queen’s-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.
*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Capheaton, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
{Swindells, Miss, Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 97
Year of
Election.
1887.
1873.
1890.
1891.
1889,
1883.
1873.
1887.
1890.
1862.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1881.
1859,
1855.
1886.
1872.
1865.
1877.
1871.
1867.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1890.
1883.
1878.
1861.
1857.
1870.
1890.
1858.
1886.
1878.
1884.
1887.
1874.
1887.
1881.
1884.
*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
§Swinhoe, Colonel C. Avenue House, Oxford.
§Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Amrasti, Berar, India.
§Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S, 152 Railton-road, Herne Hill,
London, 8.E.
tSykes, Alfred. Hichfield, Huddersfield.
{Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. 17 Albert-square,
Clapham, London, 8. W.
§Sykes, Joseph. 113 Beeston-hill, Leeds.
tSykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, T. H. Cheadle, Cheshire.
SytvestEr, JAMES JosnpH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. Oxford.
{Symus, Ricwarp Grascorr, B.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Ireland. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
tSymington, Johnson, M.D. 2 Greenhill Park, Edinburgh,
*Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Kdinbureh.
§Synons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, London,
N.W.
*Symons, Wittram, F.C.S. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton.
§Symons, W. H., F.L.C., F.R.M.S, 180 Fellows-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
{Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.R.G.S. United Service
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
tTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.
*Tarr, Lawson, F.R.C.S. The Crescent, Birmingham.
{Tarz, Perer Gururie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
tTait, P. M., F.S.S. Hardwicke House, Hardwicke-road, Eastbourne,
{Talbot, Rev. E.S. The Vicarage, Leeds.
§Tamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.
§Tanner, Colonel H. C.O. The Red House, Petersfield.
§Tannur, H. W. Luoyp, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.
§Tapscott, R. L., F.G.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.
{Tarrry, Huew. Dublin.
*Tarratt, Henry W. Moseley, Owl’s-road, Boscombe, Bournemouth,
*Tate, Alexander. Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.
tTate, A. Norman, F’.C.S. 9 Hackins Hey, Liverpool.
{Tate, Thomas, F.G.S. 5 Eldon-mount, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds.
*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
{Taunton, Richard. Brook Vale, Witton.
*Taylor, A. Claude. North Circus-street, Nottingham.
*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge,
Taylor, Frederick. Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
§Taylor, G@, H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
{Taylor,G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
§Taylor, George Spratt, F.C.S. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W.
*Taylor, a A, 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, London,
)
*Taylor, H. M., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
G
98 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1882. *Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. 17 Castlegate, Nottingham.
1887. {Taytor, Rey. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
1879. {Taylor, John. Broomhall-place, Sheffield.
1861. *Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 29 Portman-square, London, W.
1873. air J ony Eton, Ph.D., F.LS., F.G.S. The Mount,
swich.
1881. “Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.
1865. {Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham,
1883. {Taylor, Michael W., M.D, Hatton Hall, Penrith.
1876. {Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.
1878. {Taylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corbaillis, Drogheda.
1884, *Taylor, Miss 8. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.
1881. {Taylor, Rev. 8. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.
18838. {Taylor, 8. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1870. {Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon,
1887. {Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.
1883. tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.
1884. {Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.
1858. tTeale, Thomas Pridgin, M.A., F.R.S. 588 Cookridge-street, Leeds.
1885. eee . HL, M.A, E.R.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
1869. {Teesdale, C.S. M. Whyke House, Chichester.
1879. {Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near
‘Worcester.
1880. {TrempLe, Sir Ricard, Bart., GCI, CLE, D.C.L., LL.D.,
M.P., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8. W.
1863. {Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. §Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.
1882. §Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.
1881. {Terry, Sir Joseph. Hawthorn-yilla, York.
1883. {Tetley,C. F. ‘The Brewery, Leeds.
1883. {Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
1887. {Tetlow, T. 275 Stamford-street, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1882. *Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Gower-street, London, W.C. fi
1885. {Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W.
1871. {Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
1871. {Tutsetron-Dyrr, W. T., C.M.G., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.,F.R.S., F.L.S.
Royal Gardens, Kew.
1835. Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
1870. {Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
1891, §Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.
1871. {Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
1891. §Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.
1875. *Tnomas, CHRISTOPHER JAMES. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol.
1891. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O.
1891, §Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.
1891. §Thomas, E. Franklen. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.
1883. {Thomas, Ernest C., B.A. 18 South-square, Gray’s Inn, Lon-
don, W.C.
1884, tTHomas, F. Worrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
1875. {Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.
1869. t{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
188]. §THomas, J. Brount. Southampton.
1869. {Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, F.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 99
Year of
Election,
1891,
1880,
1883.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1886.
1875.
1891.
1887.
1883.
1891.
1882.
1888.
1885.
1883.
1891.
1859,
1870,
1889.
1883.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1891.
1861.
1876.
1883.
1874.
1876.
1884,
1883.
1863.
1867.
1850.
1889.
1868.
1876.
1890.
1883.
1871,
1886,
§Thomas, John Tubb, L.R.C.P. Eastfields, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Drumpellier, Brunswick-road,
Gloucester.
{Thomas, P. Bossley. 4 Bold-street, Southport.
§Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff.
¢Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.
{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.
§Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.8. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton.
§Thompson, C. 15 Patshull-road, Kentish Town, London, N.W.
{Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
§Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.
{Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.
{Thompson, D’Arcy W., B,A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee. University College, Dundee.
*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.
§Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.
fThompson, George, jun. Pitmedden, Aberdeen.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire.
{THomrson, Sir Henry. 35 ‘Wimpole-street, London, W.
{Thompson, Henry. 2 Eslington-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 8 Addiscombe-villas, Croydon,
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
§Thompson, H. M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.
§Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.
*THomPson, Isaac Cooxr, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. Woodstock, Waverley-
road, Liverpool.
§Thompson, J. Tasham. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.
§Thompson, John, 62 Upper Tulse Hill, London, 8.W.
*THompson, JosepH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.
*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.
{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.
{Thompson, Robert. Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.
{THompson, Srtvanus Purtrirs, BAS DSc; F. RSs FRA
Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Institute,
Finsbury Technical Institute, E.C.
t Thompson, Sydney de Courcy. 16 Canonbury-park South, London, N.
*Thompson, T. H. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
tThompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
fThoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
*THomson, Jamus, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.L.&E. 2 Florentine-
gardens, Hillhead-street, Glasgow.
*Thomson, James, jun., M.A. 2 Florentine-gardens, Hillhead-
street, Glasgow.
§THomson, Jamus, F.G.S. 26 Leven-street, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
t{Thomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
§Thomson, J. Arthur. 30 Royal-cireus, Edinburgh.
fTuomson, J. J., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in
the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*THomson, Jonn Mrrtar, F.0.S., Professor of Chemistry in King’s
College, London. 53 Prince’s-square, London, W.
{Thomson, Joseph. Thornhill, Dumfries-shire.
rele]
“
100 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Eleotion. .
1863. {Thomson, Murray. 44 Victoria-road, Gipsy Hill, London, 8.E.
1847. *.Homson, Sir Wittram, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Pres.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Glaszow. The University, Glasgow.
1877. *Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow.
1874. §THomson, WittrAM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.
1880. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.
1871. {Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
1886. §Thornley, J. E, Lyndon, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.
1887. {Thornton, John. 35 Park-street, Bolton.
1867. ¢{Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.
1883. §Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.
1845. {Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lypiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.
1881. {Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.
1871. {Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.
1881. *Thorp, Josiah. 87 Selborne-street, Liverpool.
1864, *Thorp, William, B.Sc., F.C.S. 24 Crouch Hall-road, Crouch End,
London, N.
1871. {THorrn, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.L.& E., F.C.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
1883. §Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 12 London-street, Southport.
1883. {Thresh, John C., D.Sc. The Willows, Buxton.
1868. {Tuurttrer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A, O.S.1, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.
1889. {Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
1870. {Tichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.8S., MR.IL.A. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.
1873. *Trppeman, R. H., M.A.,F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
1885. §Tipy, Cuartes Muymorr, M.D. 38 Mandeville-place, Cavendish-
square, London, W.
1874, {TimpEy, WitriAm A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham,
1873. {Tilzhman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
1883. {Tillyard, A. I., M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.
1883. {Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.
1865. {Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.
1876. {Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, 8.E.
1891. §Todd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.
1889. §Toll, John M. Monkton Lodge, Anfield, Liverpool.
1887. ¢{Tolmé, Mrs. Melrose House, Higher Broughton,.Manchester.
1857. {Tombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
1888, {Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
1864, *Tomnryson, Cuartzs, F.RS., F.C.S. 7 North-road, Highgate,
London, N.
1887. {Tonge, Rev. Canon. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
1887. {Tonge, James. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.
1865. {Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood. Grange, Knowle, Warwickshire.
1865. *Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
1873. *Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
1887. {Topham, F. 15 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
1861. *Topham, J ey A.LC.E, 63 Annandale-road, Vanbrugh Hill, Lon-
don, 8.E.
1872. *Torpnny, Wittram, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.LC.E. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
1886. {Topley, Mrs. W. Hurstbourne, Elgin-road, Croyden,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 101
Year of
Election.
1875. {Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
. wood, Nottingham.
1886. {Torr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham.
1884, {Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada.
1884. *Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
1873. {Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1875. {Townsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol.
1883. {Townsend, Francis Edward. 19 Aughton-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1861. {Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
1877. {Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
1876. *TRain, Professor J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. University of Aber-
deen, Old Aberdeen.
1883. {Traitt, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.
1870. {TRaitt, Witrtam A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.
1875. {Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.
1868, {TRraqvarr, Ramsay H., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Natural
4 History Collections, Museum of Science-and Art, Edinburgh.
1891. §Trayes, Valentine. The Hill, Abergavenny.
1884, {Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.
1868. {Trehane, Jobn. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
1891. §Treharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
1883. {Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks.
1884, {Trenham, Norman W. 18 5St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884, §Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
U.S.A.
1879. {Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
1877. {Trimen, Henry, M.B., F.RS., F.L.S. Peradeniya, Ceylon.
1871. {frmen, Rotanp, F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary's
Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
1860. §TristRAM, Rev. Henry Baker, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon
of Durham. The College, Durhain.
1884, *Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 22 Cottesmore-gardens, Victoria-roaa,
Kensington, London, W.
1885. §TRorrer, Courts, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 17 Charlotte-square, Edin-
burgh.
1891. §Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1887. *Trouton, Frederick T. Trinity College, Dublin.
1869. {Troyte,C. A. W. THuntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.
1885. *Tubby, A. H. Guy’s Hospital, London, S.E.
1847. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.
1888. {Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D, 18 Daniel-street, Bath.
Tuke, James H. Bancroft, Hitchin.
1871. {Tuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
1887. {Tuke, W. C. 29 Princess-strect, Manchester.
1883. {Tuprrr, The Hon. Sir Cuarues, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B., High Com-
missioner for Canada. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
1855, {Turnbull, John. 387 West George-street, Glasrow.
1871. {Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E. Menslaws, Jedburgh, N.B.
1891. §Turner, Miss EK. R. Ipswich.
1882. {Turner, G. 8. 9 Cariton-crescent, Southampton.
1883. {Turner, Mrs. G. 8S. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton,
1888. {Turner, J. S., J.P. Granville, Lansdowne, Bath.
1886. *TurNER, THomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.C. Mason Science College,
Birmingham,
102
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1863.
1890.
1883.
1884,
1884,
1886.
1847.
1888.
1882,
1865,
1858.
1885.
1861.
1884.
1888.
1886.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1887.
1872.
1876.
1859.
1866.
1880.
1885.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1868.
1865.
1870.
1869.
1884,
1875.
1883.
1881.
1873.
1883.
*TurNeER, Sir WILLIAM, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-
terrace, Edinburgh.
§Turpin, G.8., M_A., D.Sc. 2 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.
{Turrell, Miss 8. 8. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol.
*Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.
*Tweddell, Ralph Hart. Meopham Court, Gravesend, Kent.
*Twigg, G. H. Church-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
{Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, F.C,
§Tyack, Llewellyn Newton. University College, Bristol.
§Tyer, Edward. Horneck, Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, London,
N.W
§Tytor, Epwarp Burnerr, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the
University Museum, Oxford.
*TynpaLL, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Hon. Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution, London,
Hind Head House, Haslemere, Surrey.
tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Garden-wharf, Battersea, London, 8.W.
*Tysoe, John. 28 Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.
*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
{Underhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.
{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.
§Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.
§Unwin, John. Park-crescent, Southport.
§Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, near Liverpool.
*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institute, City and Guilds of London. 7 Palace-
gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W.
tUpton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.
tUpward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London, S.W.
tUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
{Urquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Ireland.
{Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
tUssuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tVachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.
*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.
{Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.
{Van Horne, W. C. Dorchester-street West, Montreal, Canada,
*VanSittart, 'l'he Hon. Mrs, A. A. Haywood House, Oakfield-road,
Bromley, Kent.
tVarpy, Rev. A. R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.
{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
*Vartey, 8. Atrrep. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Varley, Mrs. 8. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N. W.
{Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
{Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, London, W.
{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
{Vaughan, William, 42 Sussex-road, Southport.
§ Very, V. H., M.A., F.C.S. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.
“Verney, Captain Epmunp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Rhianva, Bangor,
North Wales.
“Verney, Mrs. Rhianva, Bangor, North Wales.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 103
Year of
Election.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
1883. {Vernon, H.H., M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1864.
1890.
1868.
1883.
*Vicary, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
*Villamil, Major R. de, R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Char-
ing Cross, London, 8.W.
{Vincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
*Vines, Sydney Howard, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.
. {Vrvran, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay.
“Vivian, Sir H. Hussry, Bart, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern,
Swansea; and 27 Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.
§ Vivian Stephen. Llantrisant.
*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.
{Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcomhe, Gloucestershire.
§ Wadsworth, George Henry. 8 Southfield-square, Bradford, York-
shire.
tWadworth, H. A. Devizes, Wiltshire.
§ Wager, Harold W. T. 18 Consort-terrace, St. John’s-road, Leeds.
§Wailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
{ Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.
tWaite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
{ WAKE, CHARLES STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire.
tT Waldstein, Charles, M.A., Ph.D. Cambridge.
§Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.
{ Wales, James, 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
§ Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.
*Walkden, Samuel. The Thorne, Bexhill, near Hastings, Sussex.
§ Walker, A. T. Headingley, Leeds.
{ Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
{ Walker, Charles Clement, F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport,
Shropshire.
§ Walker, Mrs. Emma. 18 Lendal, York.
tWalker, KE. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
t{ Walker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool.
{Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
t Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee.
{WaLkerR, General J. T., C.B, R.E., LLD., F.RS., F.R.GS.
13 Cromwell-road, London, 8.W.
*WALKER, JoHN Francis, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.8., F.L.S. 45 Bootham,
York.
{Watker, Joun James, M.A., F.R.S. 12 Denning-road, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
tWalker, John Sydenham. 83 Bootham, York.
*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
*Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.
{Walker, 8, D. 88 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
{Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, 8.E.
§Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.
tWalker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.
{Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
. §Walker, T. W. Hunslet, Leeds.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
*Walker, William. 18 Lendall, York.
104
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883,
1863.
' 1887.
1862.
1886.
1889.
18853.
1884.
1886,
1883.
1887.
1891.
1883.
1862.
1881.
1863.
1884.
Pulser.
1874.
1881.
1879.
1890.
1874.
1887.
1857.
1880.
1884.
1883.
1887.
1882.
1867.
1858.
1884.
1887.
1878.
1882.
1884,
1875.
1887.
1856,
1875.
1870.
1875.
1881.
1887.
tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
tWattace, AtrreD Russet, D.C.L., F.L.8., F.R.G.S. Corfe View,
Parkstone, Dorset.
*Waller, Augustus, M.D. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove End-road, Lon-
don, N.W.
t{Wallich, George Charles, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 26 Addison-road
North, Notting Hill, London, W.
{Walliker, Samuel. Grandale, Westfield-road, Edybaston, Birmingham.
*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.
t Wallis, Rey. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
{ Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
TWallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Westfield, Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
tWalmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.
tWalmsley, J. Winton, Patricroft, Manchester.
§Walmsley, Professor R. M., D.Sc. Heriot Watt College, Edin-
burgh.
igre. T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
tWatpotz, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W.
Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.
{Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
tWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
t Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Owens College, Manchester.
§Ward, F. D., J.P., M-R.I.A. Clonaver, Strandtown, Co. Down.
§Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.
}Warp, H. Marswatr, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in
the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill,
Egham.
tWard, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.
§ Ward, John, F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
§ Warp, Jonny, F.G.S. 23 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.
{Ward, John S. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
*Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford,
S.E.
*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.
tWard, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool.
tWard, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.
}Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,
{Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.
tWardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
§ Wardwell, George J. Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.
*Waring, Richard 8. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
§ Warrneron, Ropert, F.R.S.,F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Albans, Herts.
t Warner, F. W., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.
*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
tWarren, Algernon. 6 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
{WarreN, Major-General Sir Cuartzs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
FE.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8.W.
t Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
*Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. 40 Hamilton-terrace, London,
N.W.
tWaters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
{Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Yhe Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.
§ Watherston, E. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, S.W.
}Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, London, W.
—
LIST OF MEMBERS. 105
Year of
Election.
1884.
1886,
1883.
“1885.
1882.
1887.
1884.
1889.
1859.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1879.
1882.
1884,
1869.
1888.
1891.
1875.
1884,
1870,
tWatson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.
*Watson, C. J. Botteville-road, Acock’s Green, Birmingham.
{Watson, C. Knight, M.A. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House,
London, W.
§Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham. :
tWarson, Rev. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry,
{Watson, J. Beauchamp. Gilt Hall, Carlisle.
tWatson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada,
t Watson, John, F.I.C. 19 Bloomfield-terrace, Gateshead.
tWarson, JouHn Fores, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, Ex-
hibition-road, London, S.W.
t Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
tWatson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
tWatson, Thomas Donald. 23 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
*Wartson, Wittr1AM Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Analytical Laboratory,
The Folds, Bolton.
tWatt, Alexander. 89 Hartington-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
tWatt, D. A. P, 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.
{tWatt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
tWarts, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.
*Watts, E. Hannay, F.R.G.S. Springfield, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
*Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.
*Watts, Rey. Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.
§Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.
. *Warts, W. Marsnatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
§Watts, W. W., M.A., F.G.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
tWaugh, Edwin. New Brighton, near Liverpool.
. §Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, Howard-gardens, Cardiff.
tWay, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
{Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.
. [Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
§Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village Hast, London, N.W.
*Wess, WILLIAM FREDERICK, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
§WesBEeR, Major-General C. E., C.B. 17 Egerton-gardens, Lon-
don, 8. W.
§ Webber, Thomas. 25 Queen-street Arcade, Cardiff.
tWebster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.
{ Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, Q.C., M.P. Hornton Lodge,
Hornton-street, Kensington, London, 8. W.
*Webster, William, F.C.S. 50 Lee Park, Lee, Kent.
*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Karlsruhe.
tWeeks, John G. Bedlington.’
§ Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S. Birch Bank, Christchurch-road,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
. [ Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
. tWelch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, London, 8. W.
*Wetpon, W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London. 304 Wim-
pole-street, London, W.
106
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880. *Weldon, Mrs. 30a Wimpole-street, London, W.
1881. § Wellcome, Henry 8. First Avenue Hotel, Holborn, London,
W.C.
1879. §Weuts, Coartes A., A.I.E.E. Bridge House, Lewes.
1881. § Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.
1883. {Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.
1887. *Welton, T. A. Rectory House-grove, Clapham, London, S.W.
1850. t Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
1881.
1864.
1886.
1865.
1853.
1853.
1853.
1882.
1882.
1863.
1875.
1860.
1882.
1884,
1885.
1888.
1853.
1866,
1884.
1883.
1878.
1888.
1885.
1888.
1888.
1879.
1873.
1884,
1874.
1883.
1859,
1886.
1886.
1876.
*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. 8 Great Cumberland-place, Lon-
don, W.; and Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
§ Wertheimer, J., B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. Merchant Venturers’ School,
Bristol.
{ Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, London, W.
tWest, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
tWest, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
tWest, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
§ Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. 2 Ridgeway-road, Redhill.
{ Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.
tWestmacott, Percy. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
*Weston, Sir Joseph D., M.P. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
tWestwoop, Joun O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford. Oxford.
§WernereD, Epwarp, F.G.S. 5 Berkeley-place, Cheltenham.
tWharton, E. R., M.A. 4 Broad-street, Oxford.
*WHaRTON, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Florys,
Prince’s-road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.
{Wheatcroft, William G. 6 Widcombe-terrace, Bath.
{ Wheatley, KE. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
tWheatstone, Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
tWheeler, Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
U.S.A
* Wheeler, George Brash, Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham,
Kent.
*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Boston, Lincolnshire.
§Whelen, John Leman. 73 Fellows-road, London, N.W.
{ Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.
*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.
*WHIDBORNE, Rey. Grorcr Ferris, M.A., F.G.8. St. George’s
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, London, 8.W.
tWhipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.
tWhischer, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.
tWhitaker, Henry,M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast.
*Whitaker, T. Savile Heath, Halifax.
*WHITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, 8.W.; and 383 East Park-
terrace, Southampton.
WE hitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.
tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 107
Year of
Election.
1886.
1883.
1882.
1885.
1875.
1859.
1883.
_ 1865.
1869.
1884.
1859.
1877.
1883.
1886.
1861.
1861.
1885.
1871.
1884.
1881.
1866.
1852.
1891.
1857.
1887.
1874.
1883.
187¢.
1888.
1865.
1886.
1885.
1885.
1881.
1878.
1883.
1889.
1881.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1857.
1886,
1879.
1887.
1872.
1890.
1859.
1872.
1891.
{White, A. Silva, F.R.G.S., Secretary to the Royal Scottish Geo-
graphical Society, Edinburgh.
t{White, Charles. 235 Alexandra-road, Southport.
t{White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.
*Whitée, J. Martin. Spring Grove, Dundee.
{White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
tWuire, Joun Forses. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.
TWhite, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.
{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
{ White, Laban. Blandford, Dorset.
tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.
tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
*White, William. 9 The Paragon, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
*White, Mrs. 9 The Paragon, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
{White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. 99 New John-street West, Birming-
ham.
t Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.
t Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
{Whiteley, Joseph. Huddersfield.
{Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.
{Whitfield, Samuel. Eversfield, Eastnor-grove, Leamington.
t{Whitla, Valentine. Benecen, Belfast.
Whitley, Rev. Canon C. T., M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington Vicarage,
Northumberland.
§Whitmell, Charles Thomas. 47 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Wuitty, Rey. Jonn Irwiys, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 40 Kingswood-
road, Penge, London, 8.E.
{Whitwell, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*Whitwill, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.
}Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.
{Waurtwortn, Rey. W. Arren, M.A. Glenthorne-road, Hammer-
smith, London, W.
{Wickham, Rev. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.
{Wiggin, Henry, M.P. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,
{Wigein, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.
t Wigglesworth, Alfred. Gordondale House, Aberdeen.
TWigelesworth, Mrs. Ingleside, West-street, Scarborough.
*Wigelesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate.
t¢Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
{Wigner, G. W. Plough-court, 37 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
*Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Wiserrorcr, W. W. Fishergate, York.
{Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
Wilkinson, OC. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.
TWilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
*Wilkinson, J. H. Corporation-street, Birmingham.
tWilkinson, Joseph. York.
* Wilkinson, Thomas Read. The Polygon, Ardwick, Manchester.
{Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton. i
tWillans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.
{Willet, John, M.Inst.C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Wuutterr, Henry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.
§ Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.
108
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1861, *Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
1887.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1857.
1888.
1891.
1887.
1888.
1875.
1879.
1891.
1886,
1885.
1888.
18835.
1888.
1877.
1865.
1883.
1850.
1857.
1876.
1863.
1883,
1882.
1859.
1886,
1886.
1885.
1878.
1859.
1876.
1874,
1850.
1876.
1890.
1863.
1847.
1875.
1874.
1863.
1883.
Grosyenor-square, London, W.
{ Williams, i. Leader, M.Inst.C E. The Oaks, Altrincham.
*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.
{ Williams, Rev. H. A. The Ridgeway, Wimbledon, Surrey.
t Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairmghornwy, Holyhead.
{Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entryhill, Bath.
§ Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. The Cedars, Llandaff-road, Cardiff.
tWilliams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.
*Williams, Miss Katherine. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale, Clifton,
Bristol.
*Williams, M. B. allay House, near Swansea.
tWrtiams, Marrnew W., F.C.8. Queenwood College, Stock-
bridge, Hants.
§ Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.
{ Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.
t Williams, R. Price. North Brow, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.
t Williams, T. H. 2 Chapel-walk, South Castle-street, Liverpool.
§ Williams, T. Howell. 58 Lady Margaret-road, London, N.W.
{Williams, W. Cloud House, Stapleford, Nottinzhamshire.
*Wiiiams, W. Carteron, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.
tWilliams, W. M. Stonebridge Park, Willesden.
{ Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire,
*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.C.S:, Corresponding Member of the French Academy. High
Pitford, Haslemere.
{WirLtansoy, Bensamiy, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.
{ Williamson, Rey. F. J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
} Williamson, John. South Shields.
Witriamson, Wiiiiam C., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany
in Owens College, Manchester. 4 Everton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
t Willis, T. W. 51 Stanley-street, Southport.
{ Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.
*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, London,
S.W.
Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham.
t Wilson, Alexander B. Holyw ood, Belfast.
t Wilson, Alexander H. 2 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
TW. ilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. 124 Bothwell-street,
Glasgow.
t Wilson, “Alexander Stephen. North Kinmundy, Summerhill, by
Aberdeen.
t{ Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 eee Edinburgh.
tWutsoy, Colonel Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M. G5) DiGwu,
E.R. 1 F.R.G.S. . Ordnance ies Office, Southampton.
{ Wilson, Sir Daniel. Toronto, Canada.
{ Wilson, Dayid. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
{Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.
{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
*Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.8., F.L.S. Weatherbank,
Wey bridge Heath, Surrey.
* Wilson, George Orr. ’Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. >
t Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N. B.
*Wilson, Henry, M.A. F arnborough Lodge, R.S.0O., Kent.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 109
Year of
Election.
4879.
1885.
1886
1890.
1865.
1884.
1879.
1876,
1847.
1883.
1861.
1887.
1871.
1861].
1877.
1886.
1887.
1886.
1863,
1888.
1883.
1884,
1881.
1883.
1863.
1861.
1883.
1875.
1878.
1883.
1881.
1883.
1886.
1883.
1864,
1890.
1871.
1850.
1865.
1872.
1863.
1884,
1883.
1884.
1884,
Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffieid.
{Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
{ Wilson, J. E. B. Woodslee, Wimbledon, Surrey.
§ Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.
{Wirson, Rev. James M., M.A., F.G.S. Clifton College, Bristol.
fWilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.
{Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield,
TWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.
*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
{Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.
{Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillock, Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.
* Wilson, Wilham E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
*WitrsuireE, Rey. Tomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S. , Assistant
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London.
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, London, S.E.
{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
§Winp_e, Brrrram OC. A., M.A., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in
Queen’s College, Birmingham.
{Windsor, William Tessinond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.
t Winter, George W. 55 Whceley's-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent,
Bath.
t{Woprnovss, E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, London, 8.W.
{Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire,
{Womack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics
at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. 68 Abbey-road, London, N.W.
*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
§Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey,
“Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
t{Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
f{Woop, Sir H. Trurman, M.A. Society of Arts, J ohn-street,
Adelphi, London, W.C.
*Woop, Jams, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport,
§ Wood, John, B.A., F.R.A.S. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa,
Yorkshire.
*Wood, J. H. Woodbine Lodge, Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tWood, Rey. Joseph. Carpenter-road, Birmingham.
{Wood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.
tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
“Wood, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Bainbrigge-road, Headingley,
Leeds.
{Wood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
tWood, Rey. Walter. Elie, Fife.
*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.
§ Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
“Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
*Woopatt, Joun Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas Ho ase,
Scarborough,
{ Woodbury, C. J. H. 31 Devonshire-street, Boston, U.S.A.
{Woodeock, Herbert S. The Elms, Wigan.
t Woodcock, T.,M.A. 150 Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
tWoodd, Arthur B, Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N. W.
110
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1850.
1888.
1888.
1872.
1883.
*Woodd, Charles H. L.,F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
*Woodiwiss, Alfred. Belair, Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.
*Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Belair, Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.
t Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
London, 8. W.
{ Woods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S. Carlton House, 57 Hoghton-
street, Southport.
Woops, Samvrt., 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,
E
C.
tWoodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Co., 45 Pall Mall, Lon-
don, 8. W.
*Woopwarp, ArtHuR SmirH, F.G.S., F.L.S. 1838 King’s-road,
Chelsea, London, 8. W.
*Woopwarb, C. J., B.Sc. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
. [Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, London, S.W.
t}Woopwarp, Heyzy, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, London, 8. W.
t}Woopwarp, Horace B.,F'.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
tWooler, W. A. Sadberge Hall, Darlington.
*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.
. §Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S., MAR.LA. 14
Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tWoollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.
*Woolley, George Stephen. 69 Market-street, Manchester.
TWoolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
t Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
tWormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
tWorthy, George 8. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N. W.
tWragege, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
}Wrentmore, Francis. 384 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
Sb NE
*Wricht, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queen's College, Cambridge.
*Wright, Rey. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.
. { Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.
. §Wrieut, C. R. A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
. tWrieut, E. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.I.A., Professor
of Botany and Director of the \luseum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
tWright, Frederick William, 4 Full-street, Derby.
{tWright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
tWright, James. 114 John-street, Glaseow.
t Wright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.
{TWright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.
Wright, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.
LIST OF MEMBERS. ill
Year of
Election.
1831. Wrisut, T.G.,M.D. 91 Northgate, Wakefield.
1876, { Wright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.
1871. {Wxicutson, THomas, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S, Norton Hall, Stockton-
on-Tees.
1887. { Wrigley, Rev. Dr., M.A., M.D., F.R.A.S. 15 Gauden-road, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1876. {Wunscu, Epwarp Atrrep,F.G.S. Carharrack, Scorrier, Cornwall.
1867.
1883.
1885.
1871.
1862.
1875.
1865.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1884,
1891,
1886.
1884.
1884,
1876.
1885.
1886.
1883.
1887,
1890.
1868.
1886.
1886,
{Wylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.
tWyllie, Andrew. 1 Leicester-street, Southport.
tWyness, James D., M.D. 53 School-hill, Aberdeen.
tWynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
f{Wrnnz, Arruur Brevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
{Yabbicom, Thomas Henry, 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
TYates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.
tYeaman, James. Dundee.
tYeats, Dr. Chepstow.
tYee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.
TYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
§Yorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.
{York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
§Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, London,
S.E
*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.
TYoung, Frederick, 5 Queensberry-place, London, S.W.
tYoung, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.
fYoune, Jonny, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tYoung, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.
*Youne Sypyey, D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in University College.
Bristol.
§Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
§ Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.
fYoungs, John, Richmond Hill, Norwich.
{Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham,
tZair, John. Merle Lodge. Moseley, Rirmingham.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1881.
1870.
1887.
1880.
1887.
1887.
1884,
1890.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1887,
1887.
1861.
1887,
1855.
1881.
1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1889.
1862.
1864.
1872.
1890.
1870.
1876.
1874.
1886.
1887.
1872.
1856.
1887,
Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agriculture,
Washington, United States.
Professor G. F, Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, :
United States.
Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium.
Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 7, 64, Germany.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Miinchen.
His Excellency R. Bonghi. Rome.
Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States.
Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Boston, Massachusetts, United
States.
Professor Brentano. Maximilian-platz, Munich.
Professor George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
Professor J. W, Bruhl. Freiburg.
Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna.
Professor J. B. Carnoy. Louvain,
H. Caro. Mannheim.
Dr. Carus. Leipzig.
F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.
Professor Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. The University, Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Josiah P. Cooke. Harvard University, United States.
Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.
Professor Cornu. L’Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.
J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Kcole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.
nig a Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
tates.
Wilhelm Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
bere.
M. Des Cloizeaux. Rue Monsieur, 13, Paris.
Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.
Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. Liége.
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.
Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.
Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.
Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.
Professor R. Fittig. Strasburg.
W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.
Professor E. Frémy. L’Institut, Paris.
Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. The University, Prague.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 118
Year of
Election.
1881.
1866.
1861.
1884,
1884,
1889,
1870.
1889.
1889.
1876.
1884.
1862.
1876.
1889.
~ 1881.
1872.
1889.
1887.
1877.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1884,
1867.
1876,
1881.
1887.
1876.
1877.
1862.
1884.
1873,
1874.
1856.
1887.
1887,
1877.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1882.
1887.
1887.
1872,
C. M. Gariel, Secretary of the French Association for the Advance-
ment of Science. 4 Rue Antoine Dubois, Paris.
Dr. Gaudry. Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
G. K. Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States,
William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.
Professor Gustave Gilson. Louvain.
A. Gobert. 214 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.
Dr. Benjamin A. Gould. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.
Major A. W. Greely. Washington, United States.
Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.
Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.
Horatio Hale. Clinton, Ontario, Canada.
Dr. Edwin H. Hall. Baltimore, United States.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
Dr. Max von Hantken. Budapesth.
Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.
Professor H. L. F. von Helmholtz. Berlin.
Professor W. His. Leipzig.
S. Dana Horton. New York.
Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. Utrecht.
Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Professor C. Loring Jackson. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States. :
Dr. Janssen, LL.D, The Observatory, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.
Dr. W. J. Janssen. Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubitinden, Switzerland.
W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. Annapolis, United States.
Professor C. Julin. Liége.
Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.
M. Akin Karoly. 92 Rue Richelieu, Paris.
Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn.
Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokio, Japan.
Dr. Felix Klein. The University, Leipzig.
Professor Dr. Knoblauch. The University, Halle, Germany.
Professor A, K6lliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, University,
Berlin.
Professor Krause. Gdéttingen.
Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.
Lieutenant R. Kund, German African Society, Berlin.
Professor A. Ladenburg. Breslau.
Professor J. W. Langley. Michigan, United States.
Professor S. P. Langley, LL.D., Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. Washington, United States.
Professor Count Solms Laubach. © Strasburg.
Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.
M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.
H
114
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1883.
1877.
1887.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1887.
1867.
1881.
1867.
1887.
1890.
1887,
1887.
1887.
1884.
1848.
1887,
1877.
1864,
1887.
1889,
1866.
1864,
1884,
1869,
1887.
1890.
1889.
1890.
1887.
1890.
1857.
1870.
1884,
1887.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1868.
1886,
1872,
1873.
1887.
Professor A. Lieben. Vienna.
Dr. F. Lindemann, Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Konigsberg.
Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.
Professor G. Lippmann. Paris.
Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. The University, Zurich.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany.
Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.
Dr. Henry C. McCook. Philadelphia, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.
Professor O, C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Ch, Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier
France.
Dr. O. A. Martius. Berlin.
Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 Rue de l'Université,
Paris.
Professor D. Mendeléef. St. Petersburg.
Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.
Professor Lothar Meyer. ‘Tiibingen.
Albert A. Michelson. Cleveland, Ohio, United States.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris,
Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
E. S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Massachusetts,
United States.
Dr. F. Nansen. Christiania.
Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society.
Turm, Italy.
Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
Professor Simon Newcomb. Washington, United States.
Aa H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United
tates.
Professor Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass.
Professor W. Ostwald. Leipzig.
Professor A. S. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, United States.
Maffeo Pantaleoni, Director of the Royal Superior School of Com-
merce. Bari.
Dr. Pauli. H6chst-on-Main, Germany.
Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholm.
Gustave Plarr, D.Sc. 22 Hadlow-road, Tunbridge, Kent.
Professor Felix Plateau. 64 Boulevard du Jardin Zoologique, Gand.
Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, United States.
Professor W. Preyer. The University, Berlin.
Professor N. Pringsheim. The University, Berlin.
Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States.
Professor G. Quincke. Heidelberg.
L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich
Rey. A. Renard. Royal Museum, Brussels.
Professor Victor von Richter. Victoria-strasse, 9, Breslau.
Professor Baron yon Richthofen. The University, Berlin.
Dr. C. V. Riley. Washington, United States.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS, 115
Year of
Election.
1890.
1881.
1887,
1857,
1883.
1874.
1846,
1872.
1873.
1861.
1849,
1876.
1887.
1888.
1866.
1889.
1881.
1881.
1871.
1870,
1884,
1864.
1887.
1887.
1890.
1889.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1874.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1876,
1887.
1887.
A. Lawrence Rotch. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.
M. le Marquis de Saporta. Aix-en-Provence, Bouches du Rhéne.
Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersberg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.
Dr. Ernst Schréder. Karlsruhe, Baden.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.
Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague.
Dr, Werner von Siemens. Berlin.
Dr. Siljestrém. Stockholm,
Professor R. D. Silva. L’Ecole Centrale, Paris.
Ernest Solvay. Brussels.
Dr. Alfred Springer. Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.
Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.
Professor G. Stefanescu. Bucharest.
Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘The University, Athens,
Professor Sturm. Miinster, Westphalia.
Dr. Joseph Szab6. Pesth, Hungary.
Professor Tchebichef, Membre de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg.
Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.
Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.
Dr. T. M. Treub. Java.
Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa~
chusetts, United States.
Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
Professor J. H. Van’t Hoff. Amsterdam.
Wladimir Vernadsky, Keeper of the Mineralogical Museum, University
of St. Petersburg.
Professor John Vilanova. Madrid.
M. Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium.
Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich,
Professor L. Weber. Kiel.
Professor August Weismann. Freiburg.
Dr. H. C, White. Athens, Georgia, United States.
oe H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
tates.
Professor E. Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor G. Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor R. Wiedersheim. Freiburg.
Professor J. Wislicenus. Leipzig.
Dr. Otto N. Witt. 33 Lindenallée, Westend-Charlottenburg, Berlin,
Professor Adolph Wiillner. *Aix-la-Chapelle.
Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, United States.
Professor F. Zirkel. Leipzig.
116
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN
Admiralty, Library of the.
Anthropological Institute.
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society (Royal).
Astronomical Society (Royal),
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Brighton Public Library.
Bristol Philosophical Institution.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College of South
‘Wales.
Chemical Society.
Civil Engineers, Institution of.
Cornwall, Royal Geological
ciety of.
Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.
, Royal College of Surgeons in
Ireland,
, Royal Geological Society of
Ireland.
, Royal Irish Academy.
, Royal Society of.
Dundee, University College.
East India Library.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
+—, Royal Medical Society of.
— , Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum,
Geographical Society (Royal),
Geological Society.
Geology, Museum of Practical.
Glasgow Philosophical Society.
——, Institution of Engineersand Ship-
builders in Scotland.
Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
Kew Observatory.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
So-
AND IRELAND.
Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.
Linnean Society.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London Institution.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
——.,, Mechanics’ Institute.
Mechanical Engineers, Institution of,
Meteorological Office.
Meteorological Society (Royal).
Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.
, Public Library.
Norwich, The Free Library.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
——., Radcliffe Observatory.
Physicians, Royal College of.
Plymouth Institution.
Royal Engineers’ Institute, Chatham.
Royal Institution.
Royal Society.
Royal Statistical Society.
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
‘Sheffield, Firth College.
Southampton, Hartley Institution.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Surgeons, Royal College of.
United Service Institution.
University College.
Wales (South), Royal Institution.
War Office, Library of the.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Zoological Society.
117
EUROPE.
BRGEIET conscce oes Die Kaiserlichee Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.
demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.
schaften. Moscow ........ Society of Naturalists.
$$ veveveveeees Royal Academy of | ——.........sss0e University Library.
Sciences. Munich ......... University Library.
SONNE aes schoo ee. University Library. Naples: .c.5,0e5-pe2 Royal Academy of
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of Sciences.
Sciences. Nicolaieff......... University Library.
Charkow ......... University Library. Danis Weeececeserss Association Frangaise
Compra ......:.. Meteorological = Ob- pour l’Avancement
servatory. des Sciences.
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of | —— ............ Geographical Society.
Sciences. ——seseeveeeees Geological Society.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, ———seceseeeeees Royal Academy of
Dresden .........Royal Museum. Sciences.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | ——_ ......eeeee School of Mines.
ciety. P Pultoya,” .<..+0- Imperial Observatory.
Geneva..........+. Natural History So- | Rome ............/ Accademia dei Lincei.
ciety. SS encore ba- Collegio Romano.
Gottingen ...... University Library. eee Italian Geographical
RETA eer cns0se~sics Society.
Gees cstess «se Leopoldinisch-Caro- | —— ...seeseeee Italian Society of
linische Akademie. Sciences.
Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise | St. Petersburg . University Library.
des Sciences, © | = weweov seers Imperial Observatory.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Helsingfors...... University Library. Muni Pssconesecs Royal Academy of
Kasan, Russia ...University Library. Sciences.
HatGlrers=cc-co-<5~-- Royal Observatory. Witrechtiesscscese University Library.
LSS] sgognpeedeosone University Library. Vienna......0..00 The Imperial Library.
Lausanne......... The Academy, = | ——_eecaveaeeeee Central Anstalt fur
Leyden ......... University Library. Meteorologie und
Liége ..........-. University Library. Erdmagnetismus.
Lisbon ...........+ Academia Real des | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.
Sciences.
ASIA.
Agra ............Lhe College. Calcutta ......... Presidency College,
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— .........6 Hooghly College.
fion. =~ Fae e neces Medical College.
—$_ seveeseceers Grant Medical Col- | Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo.
lege. Madras.......0..0 The Observatory.
Calcutta ...,.....Asiatic Society. mm tichs da vaueeare University Library.
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope .
« The Royal Observatory.
118
AMERICA.
Alban yp jens aba The Institute. Ottawa ...... -.-Geological Survey of
Boston.......-..--- American Academy of Canada.
Arts and Sciences. | Philadelphia...American Medical As-
California ...... The University. sociation.
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | —— ..........., American Philosophical
Library. Society.
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. | —— ............ Franklin Institute.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | Toronto ...... The Observatory.
tific Society. Washington...The Naval Observa-
Montreal ......... McGill College. tory.
Sgsieaestmaecen Council of Arts and | ——............Smithsonian Institution.
Manufactures. sev eneeceeee United States Geolo-
New York ...... Lyceum of Natural gical Survey of the |
History. Territories.
AUSTRALIA,
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.
Brisbane. . . . Queensland Museum,
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND,
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12 OCT. 92
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a
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GEORGE (Ernust). The Mosel ; Twenty Etchings. Imperial
4to, 428.
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GERMANY (History or). [See Marxuam.]
GIBBON’S History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
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Narrative of Sale’s Brigade in Affghanistan. Post 8vo. 2s.
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|
12 LIST OF WORKS
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GUILLEMARD (F. H.), M.D. The Voyage of the Marchesa to
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Islands of the Malay Archipelago. New Edition. With Mapsand 150
Illustrations. One volume. Medium 8vo, 2s.
HAKE (G. Napier) on Explosives. [See Cunprut.]
HaLL’S (i. D.) School Manual ot English Grammar. With
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Primary English Grammar for Elementary Schools.
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28 LIST OF WORKS
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Intended for Cadets, Subalterns, and Parents. Crown 8vo. 6s.
YULE (Cotonet). The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian,
concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. Illustrated by the
Light of Oriental Writers and Modern Travels. With Maps and £0
Plates. 2 Vols. Medium 8yo.
and A. C. Burnevzr. A Glossary of Anglo-Indian
Colloquial Words aud Phrases, and of Kindred Terms; Etymological,
Historical, Geographical, and Discursive. Medium 8vo0. 36s.
(A. F.). The Cretan Insurrection. Pust 8vo. 2s. 6d.
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & co., LIMD., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
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