S. I. A. to.
REPORT
SIXTY-PIKST MEETING
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
CAEDIFF IN AUGUST 1891.
LONDON :
JOHN MUEEAY, ALBEMAKLE STEEET.
1892.
OFFICE OF The association I BUSLlNGTOK fiOtJSE, LONDON, W.
rtlxrED Br
SPOTTISWOODE AXD CO., NEW-STUKET SQUARE
CONTENTS.
Page
Objects and Rules of the Association xxiv
Places and Times of Meeting and Oificera from commencement xxxi v
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
mencement xliii
List of Evening Lectures Ix
Lectures to the Operative Classes Ixiii
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Cardiff Meeting.., Ixiv
Treasurer's Account Ixvi
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings Ixviii
Officers and Council, 1891-93 Ixx
Report of the Council to the General Committee Ixxi
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Cardiff Meeting
in August 1891 Isxvi
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee Ixxxiv
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if
desirable Ixxxiv
Synopsis of Grants of Money Ixxxv
Places of Meeting in 1892 and 1893 Ixxxvi
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
for Scientific Purposes Ixxxvii
General Meetings c
Address by the President, William: Huggins, Esq., D.C.L.,LL.D., Ph.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., IIon.F.R.S.E., &c 3
A 2
iv CONTENTS.
KEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Page
Report of the Correspondinn: Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Frakcis
Galton (Chairman), Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir Douglas Galton,
Professor Boyd Uawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. J. G. Gaeson, Dr.
John Evans, Mr. J. IIopkinson, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Pro-
fessor T. G. JioNNET, Mr. W. Whiiakee, Mr. G. J. Symons, General PiiT-
RivEKs, and Mr. W. Toplet 41
Report of a Committee, consisting of Messrs. J. Laemoe and G. H. Brtait,
appointed to draw up a Report on the present state of our knowledge of
Thermodynamics, specially with regard to the Second Law 85
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Fitzgerald (Chair-
man), Armstrong, and 0. J. Lodge (Secretaries), Sir William Thomson,
Lord Ratleigh, J. J. Thomson, Schuster, Potnting, Crxtm Brown,
Ramsay, Feankland, Tilden, Haetlet, S. P. Thompson, McLeod,
Roberts- Austen, Rucker, Reinold, Caret Foster, and 11. B. Dixon,
{'aptain Abney, Drs. Gladstone, Hopkinson, and Fleming, and Messrs.
Crookids, Shelford Bidwell, W. N. Shaw, J. Laemoe, J. T. Bottomley,
R. T. Glazebkook, J. Brown, and John M. Thomson, appointed for the
purpose of considering the subject of Electrolysis in its Physical and (Jhemical
Bearings 122
Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir William Thomson, Mr.
R. Etheridge, Professor John Perky, Dr. Heney Woodward, Profe.ssor
Thomas Gray, and Professor John Milne (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of investigating the Earthqualie and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 123
Lodge (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of calculating Tables of cer-
tain Matliematical Functions, and, if necessary, of taking steps to carry out
the Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form 129
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman),
Professor R. Meldola, Mr. J. Hopkinson, and Mr. A. W. Clayden
(Secretary), appointed to consider the application of Photographv to the
Elucidation of Meteorological Phenomena. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 130
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor 0. J. Lodge, Professor Carey
Foster, and Mr. A. P. Chattock (Secretary), appointed to investigate the
Discharge ot Electricity from Points ]
Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord McLaeen (Chairman), Professor
(;rdm Brown (Secretary), Mr. Milne-Home, Dr. John Mureay Dr
BucHAN, and the lion Ralph Aberceomby, appointed for the purpose of
co-opeiatinK with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis
Third (Interim) Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Fitzgerald,
Dr. John Hopkinson fth-.R. A. Hadfibld, Mr. Trouton, Professor
Roberts- Austen Mr. H. F. Newall, and Professor Barrett (Secretary),
on the various Phenomena connected with the Recalescent Points in Iron
and other Metals
39
140
147
CONTENT?. V
Page
Second (Interim) Report of tbe Committee, consisting of Dr. John Kere, Sir
William Thomson, Professor Rucker, and Mr. H. T. Glazebeook (Secre-
tary), appointed to co-operate witli Dr. Keer in his researches on Electro-
optics 14/
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Liteing, Dr. C. PiAZZi
Smyth (Secretary), and Professors Dewae and Schxjstee, appointed to
co-operate with Dr. C. PiAZZi Smyth in his researches on the Ultra-violet
Rays of the Solar Spectrum 147
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Grylls Adams (Chair-
man and Secretary), Sir William Thomson, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A. Schuster, Professor Rucker, Mr. C. H,
Carpmael, Commander Creak, the Astronomer Royal, Mr. William
Ellis, and Mr. G. M. Whipple, appointed for the purpose of considering
the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations 149
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Carey Foster, Sir
William Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Perry, Professor AV.
G. Adams, Lord Rayleigh, Dr. 0. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. Herbert Tayloe, Professor Everett,
Professor Schustee, Dr. J. A. Fleming, Professor G. F. Fitzgerald,
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook (Secretary), Professor Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlin-
soN, Professor W. Garnett, Professor J. J. Thomson, Mr. W. N. Shaw,
Mr. J. T. Bottomley, and Mr. T. Gray, appointed for the purpose of
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measure-
ments lo-'
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor
Sylvestee, Mr. A. R. Forsyth, and Professor A. Lodge (Secretary), ap-
pointed for the purpose of carrying on the Tables connected with the Pellian '
Equation from the point where the work was left by Degen in 1817 160
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. Stokes (Chairman),
Professor Schuster, Mr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain
Abney, Mr. Whipple, Professor McLeod, and Mr. G. J. Symons (Secre-
tary), appointed for the purpose of considering the best methods of recording
the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation 100
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscoe, Mr. J. N. Lockyer,
Professors Dewar, Wolcott Gibbs, Liveing, Schustee, and W. N.
Hartley, Captain Abney, and Dr. Maeshall Watts (Secretary),
appointed to prepare a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements and Compounds 161
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Thoepe, Professor
Hummel (Secretary), Dr. Peekin, Professor Russell, Captain Abney, and
Professor Steoud, on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours. (Drawn up
by the Secretary) 26-j
Report (provisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors McLeod and
W. Ramsay and Mr. W. A. Shenstone (Secretary), appointed to investigate
the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other
Gases -G4
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors H. McLeod (Chair-
man), Robeets-Austen (Secretary), and Reinold and Mr. H. G. Madan,
appointed for the Continuation of the Bibliography of Spectroscopy 264
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Tilden and Professor
Armstrong (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating Isomeric
Naphthalene Derivatives. (Drawn up by Professor Aemsteong) 265
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden, McLeod,
PxcKEEiNG, Ramsay, and Young and Drs. A. R. Leeds and Nicol
/
^
Vi CONTEKTS.
Page
("Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting' on tlie Bibliography of ^
Solution 273
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tjlden and Ramsat
and Dr. NicOL (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating the
Properties of Solutions 273
Tliird Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Roberts- A ustex
(Chairman), Sir F. Abel, Messrs. E. Riley and J. Spiller, Professor J. W.
Langley, Mr. G. J. Snelus, Professor Tilden, and Mr. TnosfAS Turner
(Secretary), appointed to consider the best method of establishing an Inter-
national Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by the
Secretary) 2/3
Report (provisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors H. E. Arm-
strong and W. R. Dunstan and Messrs. C. H. Bothamley and W. A.
Shenstone (Secretary), appointed to investigate the direct formation of
Haloid Compounds from pure materials 274
Provisional Report of the Committee, consisting of General Festing, Captain
Abney, and Professor H. E. Armstrong (Secretary), on the Absorption
Spectra of Pure Compounds 275
Kineteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Prestwioh, Dr.
H. W. Crosskey, Professors W. Boyd Dawkins, T. McKenny Hughes,
and T. G. Bonney, and Messrs. C. E. De Rance, \Y. Pengelly, J. Plant,
and R. H. Tiddejiax, appointed for the purpose of recording the Position,
Height above the Sea, Lithological Characters, Size, and Origin of the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest
connected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation.
(Drawn up by Dr. Crosskey, Secretary) 276
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woodwaed (Chair-
man), Rev. G. F. Whidboene, Messrs. R. Etheeidge, R. Kibston. J. E.
Mare, C. D. Sheeboen, and A. S. Woodward (Secretary), for the Regis-
tration of all the Type Specimens of British Fossils .°... 209
Seventeenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Drs. E. Hull and
H. W. Crosskey, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor G. A. Lebour, and
Messrs. James GLAiSBtER, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, J. Pakkek, ^V.
Pengelly, James Plant, J. Prestwich, I. Roberts, C. Fox-Strangeways
T. S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Topley, Tylden-Wright, E. Wethe-
eed, W. Whitaker, and C. E. De Range (Secretary), appointed for tho
purpose of mvestigatmg the Circulation of Underground Waters in the
Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character
of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Forma-
tions. (Drawn up by C. E. De Range, Reporter) ... 300
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor James Geikie (Chair-
Z^J^'^'-^^^'^^^^^l^^^^^^'J^^'-'VALi.wrm^ Ball, Mr. James E. Bed-
ford, Pi;ofessor T. G. Bonney Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr. James W
DAvn. Mr. William Gray, Mr. Robert Kidston Mr Arthur SPrin
Mr. R. H. TiDDEMAN, Mr^W. W. Watxs, Mr. Horace BWoodw.rd and
Mr. Osmund W. Jeeps Secretary), to arrange for the collectionrpreser'-a-
tion and systematic registration of Photogi^aphs of Geological interest in
the United Kingdom. (Drawn up by the Secretary) '^'°'°°''''' ^^*'^^'* '° 3^^
CONTENTS. VU
Piige
Evans, Professors Peestwich, Hull, Lebotie, Meldola, and JrnD, Mr. M.
Walton Beown, and Mr. J. Glaisher, appointed to consider the advisa-
bility and possibility of establisliino- in other parts of the country Observa-
tions upon the Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar to those now being-
made in Durham in connection with coal-mine explosions 333
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woodwaed (Chairman),
Messrs. W. D. Cetce, T. G. George, Wm. Hull, E. A. Walfoed, E.
"Wilson, H. B. Woodward, and Beeby Thompson (Secretary), to work n(^
the very Eossiliferous Transition Bed between the Middle and Upper Lias
in Northamptonshire, in order to obtain a more clear idea of its fauna, and
to fix the position of certain species of fossil fish, and more fully investigate
the horizon on which they occur. (Drawn up by the Secretary) 334
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. W. Davis (Chairman), Rev. E.
Jones (Secretary), Drs. J. Evans and' J. G. Gaeson, and Messrs. W. Pen-
GELLT, R. H. Tiddeman, and J. J. Wilkinson, to complete the investiga-
tion of the Cave at Elbolton, near Skipton, in order to ascertain whether
Remains of Palaeolithic Man occur in the Lower Cave Earth ■J'il
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. John Evans (Chairman), Mr. B.
Haerison (Secretary), and Professors J. Peestwich and H. G. Seeley, •
appointed to carry on excavations at Oldbury Hill, near Ightham, in order
to ascertain the existence or otherwise of Rock-shelters at this spot.
(Drawn up by Mr. B. Hareison) 353
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Flowee (Chairman),
Mr. D. MoEEis (Secretary), Mr. Careuthees, Dr. Sclatee, Mr. Thiselton-
Dyer, Dr. Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman, Professor Newton, Dr.
GuNTHEE, and Colonel Feilden, appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the
AVest India Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the Fauna and Flora 3D4
Draft of Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Flowee (Chair-
man), Mr. D. Sharp (Secretary), Dr. Blanfoed, Dr. Hickson, Professor
Newton, Professor Riley, Mr. O. Salvin, and Dr. Sclatee, appointed to
report on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, and to take steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the
Fauna , 357
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Foster, Professor
Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thiselton-Dyer, Dr. Teimen, Professor Marshall
Ward, Mr. Careuthers, Professor Haetos, Mr. Waltee G.^ediner, and
Professor Bowee (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of taking steps for
the establishment of a Botanical Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon 358
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. W. Wills (Chairman),
Mr. E. W. Badger, Mr. G. Claeidge Deuce, and Professor Hillhouse,
for the purpose of coUectLna' information as to the Disappearance of Native
Plants from their Local Habitats. (Drawn up by Professor Hilehouse,
Secretary ) 359
Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor Newton, Mr. John Coedeaux-
(Secretary), Messrs. John A. Haevie-Beown, R. M. Barrington, W..
Eagle Clarke, and the Rev. E. P. Knubley, appointed at Leeds to make
a digest of the observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
Light- vessels, which have been carried on by the Migration Committee of
the British Association, and to report on the same at Cardiff 363
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Floaver (Chairman), Pro-
fessor M. Foster, Professor Ray Laneester, Professor Vines, and Mr. S. F.
Haemee (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupa-
■Viii CONTENTS.
Page
tion of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth 3G4
]leport of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Sclater, Professor Eat
Lajckkster, Professor Cossar Ewaet, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A.
Sedgavick, Professor A. M. Marshall, and Mr. Percx Sladen (Secre-
tary), nominated, for the pur]iose of arranging for the occupation of a Table
at the Zoological Station at Naples 3G5
Keport of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C. Haddox, Professor
W. A. Herdman, and Mr. W. E. Hotle (Secretary), appointed for im-
proving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net, for opening and
closing under water 382
Keport of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Gladstone (Chairman),
Professor H. E. Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. S. Bofrne, Dr. Ckosskey,
Mr. G. Gladstone, Mr. J. Hetwood, Sir John Ltibbock, Sir Philip
Magnus, Professor N. Story Maskelyne, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Sir E. Temple,
and Professors. P. Thompson, appointed for the piu-pose of continuing the
inquiries relating to the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools 383'
Third Eeport of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. N. Doxtglass, Professor
Osborne Eetnolds, Professor W. C. Untfin, and Messrs. W. Toplet,
P:. XiEadee Williams, W. Shelfoed, G. F. Deacon, A. R. Hunt, W. H.
Wheeler, W. Anderson, and H. Bamfoed, appointed to investigate the
Action of Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by
means of Working Models |, 38(j
Keport of the Committee, consisting of Professor Flower (Chairman), Dr.
Gaeson (Secretary), Dr. Beddoe, General Piit-Rivees, Mr. Francis
Galton, and Dr. E. B. Ttlor, appointed for the purpose of editing a new
Edition of 'Anthropological Notes and Queries' 404
Keport of the Committee, cousistLng of Professor Flower (Chairman), Dr.
G arson (Secretary), Mr. Bloxam, and Dr. Wilberpoece Smith, for the
purpose of carrying on the work of the Anthropometric Laboratory 405
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Ttlok Mr O W
Bloxam, Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr. G. M. Daws^^n, and Vlr ' r" g"
Halibueton, appointed to investigate the physical characters, languages
and industrial and social condition of the North- Western Tribes of the
Dominion of Canada am
Fiftii Eeport of the Committee, consisting of Sir John Lubbock, Dr. John
E VA-Ns, Professor W. Boyd Dawxins, Dr. R. Muneo, Mr. W. Pengelly Dr
Henry Hicks, Professor Meldola, Dr. Muiehead, and Mr. Jamks w"
Datis, appointed for the purpose of ascertaining and recording the localities
m the British Islands in which evidences of the existence of Prehistoric
Inhabitants of the country are found. (Drawn up by Mr. James W. Davis) 440
Fourth and Final Report of the Committee, consisting of the Hon. Ralph
Abercromby, Dr. A. Buchan, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr. J. Willis Bund,
Mr/f T4'.o,.''f ''?\^%^- C™^^^eHAM, ProfessorFiTZGEEALD, Dr. H. R
Mill (Secretary), Dr. John Mureay (Chairman), Mr Is^ic Robt-ets
Dr H. C. SOEBY, and the Rev.C. J. SteVaed, appoi'nJed t aitan^e anTn-'
vesfga^ion of the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers and
Estuaries m various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operat on with the
local societies represented on the Association. (Drawn^ by Dril. R
^"^ 454
The Recent Progress of Agriculture in India. By C. L. Tupper ..'. 532
CONTENTS.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Page
Address by Professor Oliver J. Lodge, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the
Section 547
1. Interim Report of the Committee on Phenomena connected with
Recalescence 557
2. On the Action of a Planet upon small Bodies passing near the Planet,
with special reference to the Action of Jupiter upon such Bodies. By
Professor H. A. Newton 557
3. On the Absorption of Heat in the Solar Atmosphere. By W. E. Wilson,
M.RI.A., F.R.AS 557
4. The Ultra-Violet Spectrum of the Solar Prominences. By Professor
Geokge E. Hale, Director of the Kenwood Physical Observatory,
Chicago 557
5. Report on Researches relative to the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
By Dr. J. Lakmor and G. H. Bryan ,.., 558
6. Note on a Simple Mechanical Representation of Carnofs Reversible
Cycle. By G. H. Bryan 658
FBIBA Y, A UG UST 2 1 .
L Interim Report of the Committee on Researches in Electro-optics 558
2. Note on the Electromagnetic Theory of the Rotation of the Plane of
Polarised Light. By Professor A. Gray, M. A., F.R.S.E 558
3. On an Experiment on the Velocity of Light in the neighbourhood of
rapidly-moving Matter. By Professor Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S 560
4. The Action of Electrical Radiators, with a Mechanical Analogy. By
J. Larmor 560
5. On the Measurement of Stationary Hertzian Oscillations along Wires, aud
the Damping of Electric Waves. By Professor D. E. Jones, B.Sc 561
G. On the Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Wires. By Walter
Thorp 562
7. On Reflection near the Polarising Angle from the Clean Surfaces of
Liquids. By Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R.S 563
SATURDA r, A UG UST 22.
Department I. — Physics.
1. Sixth Report of the Committee on Electrolysis 564
2. Interim Report on the present state of our Knowledge in Electrolysis
and Electro-Chemistry 664
CONTENTS.
3. Electrolytic Problems. By Robert L. MoND 564
4. On Clausius' Theory of Electrolytic Conduction, and on some Secret
Evidence for (he Dissociation Theory of Electrolysis. By J. Brown ... oG4
5. Report of the Committee on the Phenomena accompanying the Discharge
of Electricity from Points 565
6. On the Electrification of Needle Points in Air. By A. P. Chattock 5G5
7. On the Measurement of Liquid Resistances. By J. Swinburne 565
8. The Surface-Tension of Ether and Alcohol at Different Temperatures.
By Professor William Ramsay, Ph.D., F.R.S 565
Department II. — Mathematics.
1. Interim Report of the Committee on Mathematical Functions 566
2. Interim Report of the Committee on the Pellian Equation Tables 566
3. On Periodic Motion of a Finite Conservative System. By Sir William
Thomson, Pres.R.S 5G6
4. On a Geometrical Illustration of a Dynamical Theorem. By Sir Robert
Ball, F.R.S 566
5. On the Transformation of a Differential Resolvent. Bv the Rev. Robert
Haelet, M.A., F.R.S .' 566
G. On the Transformations used in connection with the Duality of Differential
Equations. By E. B, Elliott, F.R.S r,(\<
7. Note on a Method of Research for Invariants. By E. B. Elliott, F.R.S. 568
8. On Liquid Jets under Gravity. By Rev. H. J. Sharbe, M.A 668
0. The Geometry of Confocal Conies. By Professor T. C. Lewis 570
10. Some Tangential Transformations, including Laguerre's Semi-Droites
R&iproques. By Professor R. W. Genese, M.A 571
11. Note on the Normal to a Conic. By R. H. Pinkerton 572
12. On the Importance of the Conception of Direction in Natural Philosophy.
By E. T. Dixon *_ ; 572
JUOJVBAY, AUGUST 24.
1. Report^of the Committee on Researches on the Ultra-Yiolet Ravs of the
bolar Spectrum • k^o
2. Comparison of Eye and Hand Registration of Lines in the Violet and
Ultra-Violet of the Solar Spectrum, against Photographic Records of
the same, with the same Instrument, after a lapse of several vears. By
C. Piazza Smtth, LL.D., F.R.S.E ... ' 573
3. Note on Observing the Rotation of the Sun with the Spectroscope. By
G. JouNSTONE Signet, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S "oi-"i'e- ^y ^^^
*■ ^Lt'S'lF.S"^^" ^'"'' '"^ ^P''*'^- By G.Johnstone Stoney, _
o74
5. Seventh Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation
C. Report of the Committee on Meteorological Photography
0/0
575
CONTENTS. XI
Page
7. Report of the Committee on the Meteorological Observations on Ben
Nevis 5/5
8. Report of the Committee on the Redaction of Magnetic Oloservations 575
9. Report of the Committee on the Seasonal Variations in the Temperature
of Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries 576
10. On the probable Nature of the Bright Streaks on the Moon. By Dr.
Ralph Copeland, F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E 576
TUESBA Y, A UG UST 25.
1. Report of the Committea on Electrical Standards 576
2. The Causes of Variation of Clark Standard Cells. By J. Swjnburne ... 576
3. Joint Discussion with Section G on Units and their Nomenclature,
opened by Professor Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S., followed by W. H. Preece,
F.R.S 577
Some Revolutionary Suggestions on the Nomenclature of Electrical
and Mechanical L'nits. By Professor W. Stroud 577
On a Table to facilitate the Conversion of Electrostatic and Electro-
magnetic Measures into one another. By U. Johxstoxe Stoney,
M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S 577
Absolute Units of Measurement. By W. Moon 580
WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 26.
L On the Measurement of Lenses. By Professor Silvanus P. Thojipson,
F.R.S.. 580
2. On a new Polariser. By Professor Silvantis P. Trompson, F.R.S 580
3. Some Experiments on a new Method for the Determination of * v.' By
A. G. Webster 580
4. On the Magnetic Field in the neighbourhood of the South London Elec-
trical Railwav. By Professor W. E. Atrton, F.R.S., and Professor
RxJCKER, F.R.S 581
5. On the Periodic Time of Tuning-Forks maintained in Vibration Electric-
ally. By Professor J. VIRIAMT7 Jones and T. Harrison 581
6. Magnetic Experiments made in connection with the Determination of the
Rate of Propagation of Magnetisation in Iron. By F. T. Trouton 581
7. On the Connection between the Crystal Form and the Chemical Compo-
sition of Bodies. The Symmetry of Crystals accounted for by the Appli-
cation of Boscovich's Theory of Atoms to the Atoms of the Chemist.
By William Barlow, F.G.S 581
8. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
of Japan 583
9. On Phenomena which might be Observable if the Hypothesis that Earth-
ouakes are connected with Electrical Phenomena be entertained. By
Professor John Milne, F.R.S 583
10. Experimental Study of a Curious Movement of Ovoids and Ellipsoids.
By Professor Leconte 583
Xll CONTENTS.
Patre
11. On Vowel Sounds. By Dr. R. J. Lloyd ^s.-j
12. A Latent Characteristic of Aluminium. By Dr. A. Spkinger 553
'
Section B.— CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Address by Professor W. C. Roberts-Austei^, C.B., F.R.S., President of
the Section 584
1. Report of the Committee on International Standards for the Analysis of
Iron and Steel fiO 1
2. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours 601
3. Report on the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen
and other Gases 601
4. Report on the Bibliography of Solution 60:3
5. Report on the Properties of Solutions 602
6. Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy 602
FRIDAY, AUGUST 2i.
1. Report of the Committee on the Formation of Haloids G02
2. The Spontaneous Ignition of Coal. By Professor Vivian B. Lewes 602
o. On Nickel Carbon Oxide and its application in Arts and Manufactures.
By LuDWiG MoND, F.R.S 602
4, On the Electrical Evaporation of Metals and Alloys. By W. Ceookes
F.R.S
607
6. On the Cause of Imperfections in the Surface of Rolled Conner lllovs
By T. Turner, A.R.S.M .....^.. ....." 607
MOJVDAY, AUGUST 24.
1 . Certain Pyrometric Measurements and Methods of Recording them By
Professor W. C. RoBEETS-AtrsTEN, C.B., F.R.S 607
2. On the Existence of a Compound in Alloys of Gold and Tin Bv A P
Latjeie, M.A QQj
3. On the Relation between the Composition of a Double Salt and the Com-
position and Temperature of the Solution in which it is formed By
A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., and F. W. Humphert 608
4. Some Experiments on the Molecular Refraction of Dissolved Electrolytes.
By Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., aud W. Hibbert 609
^' ^^^^''^'°" "^^^^^ °'' Alkaline Hypochlorites. By Professor H. McLeod,
^•^•^ 609
6. A simple Apparatus for Storing Dry Gases. By W. Sfmons, F.C.S 609
CONTENTS. XIU
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
Page
1. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives 610
2. Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements 610
3. Report on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds 610
. 4. On the SpeciBc Heat of Basalt. By W. C. Roberts- Austen, C.B., F.R.S.,
and A. W. Ruckee, F.R.S 610
5. An Apparatus for Testing Safety Lamps. By Professor F. Clowes, F.C.S. 611
6. On Didymium from different Sources. By Professor C. M. Thompson,
F.C.S. ■ 611
7. On the Nature of Solution. By Professor W. Ramsay, F.R.S 612
8. The Interpretation of certain Chemical Reactions. By C. H. Bothamley,
F.C.S 612
9. Action of Nitrosvl Chloride on Unsaturated Carbon Compounds. By J.
J. SirDBOEOUQH,"'B.Sc., A.I.C., F.C.S 612
10. On the Formation of Peaty Colouring Matters in Sewage by the Action
of Micro-organisms. By W. E. Adenet, F.I.C, Assoc.R.C.Sc.I 612
11. On a new Method of Disposal of Sewage, with some references to Schemes
now in use. By C. G. Moor, B.A 612
12. The Reaction of Glycerides with Alcoholic Potash. By A. H. Allen,
F.C.S 613
13. Note on the Electrolysis of Alloys. By Heney C. Jenkins, Assoc. M.
Inst.C.E., F.C.S 613
Section C— GEOLOGY.
THURSDA Y, A UG UST 20.
Address by Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the
Section ^ 61-4
1. Discovery of the Oknellus-zone in the North-west Highlands. By Sir
Aeohibald Geikie, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey... 633
2. On some recent Work of the Geological Survey in the Archaean Gneiss of
the North-west Highlands. By Sir Archibald GeiKie, F.R.S. , Director-
General of the Survey 634
3. Report of the Committee on the Registration of Type Specimens 634
4. Remarks on the Lower Tertiary Fish Fauna of Sardinia. By A. Smith
WooDWAED, F.G.S ' 634
5. Evidence of the Occurrence of Pterosaurian and Plesiosaurian Reptiles in
the Cretaceous Strata of Brazil. By A. Smith Woodwaed, F.G.S 635
6. The Cause of Monoclinal Flexure. By A. J. Jttkes-Beowne, F.G.S. ... 635
7. Note on an Undeacribed Area of Lower Greensand, or Vectian, in Dorset-
shire. By A. J. Jukbs-Beownb, F.G.S 635
dv CONTENTS.
Page
8. On the Continuity of the Kellaways Beds over extended areas near Bed-
ford, and on the Extension of the Fuller's Earth Works at Woburn.
By A. C. G. Cameron 636
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
1. On the Discovery of the South-Eastern Coal-field. V>y Professor W.
BoTD Dawkins, F.R.S " G37
2. The Geology of Petroleum and Natural Gas. By W, Topley, F.R.S.,
Assoc. Inst.O.E G37
3. The Origin of Petroleum. By 0. C. D. Ross G39
4. A Comparison between the Rocks of South Perabrokesliire and those of
North Devon. By Henry HiCEs, M.D., F.R.S., Sec. Geol. Soc 641
5. Yulcanicity in Lovrer Devonian Rocks. The Prawle Problem. By W.
A. E. UssHEE, F.G.S 642
6. On the Occurrence of Detrital Tourmaline in a Quartz-schist west of Start
Point, South Devon. By A. R. HuxT, M.A., F.G.S 643
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. Report of the Committee on the Circulation of Underground Waters ... 644
2. Note on the Discovery of Estheria Minuta (var. Brodieana) in the New-
Red Sandstone. By C. E. De Range, F.G.S 644
3. Report of the Committee on Geological Photographs 644
4. Notes upon Colobodm, a Genus of Mesozoic Fossil Fishes. By Montagu
Browne, F.Z.S., F.G.S * 644
5. Report of the Committee on Earth Tremors 64o
6. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 645
MONDAY, AUGUST 2L
1 . The Cause of an Ice Age. By Sir Robert Ball, F.R.S 645
2. Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks G47
3. Notes on the Glacial Geology of Norway. By H. W. Crosskey, LL.D ,
^•^•^ 647
4. Recent Discoveries concerning the Relation of the Glacial Period in North
America to the Antiquity of Man. By Professor G. Frederick Wright,
JjLi.LJ., IMi.o.A p._
5. 0.1 the Evidences of Glacial Action in Pembrokeshire, and the Direction
of Ice-flow. By IIenrt Hicks, M.D., F.R.S., Sec. Qeol. Soc 640
^' ^BoI-ZIT!^!^ ^* ^^'^^^' '''"■ *^^'^°'^'' ^^--^y^l^^-^e- By Herbert
650
^' ^^Zil, F.g!s! f .^"^ ^' Levenshulme, Manchester. By Percy F.
650
CONTENTS. XV
Page
8. The Lara Beds of California and Idaho, and their relation to the An-
tiquity of Man. Bj- Professor G. Feedeeick Weight, LL.D., F.G.S.A. 651
9. Report of the Committee on Excavations at Oldbury Hill b'51
10. Preliminary Notes on the Excavations at Oldhury Hill. By Joseph
Peestwich, D.C.L., F.R.S 651
11. Report of the Committee on Elbolton Cave, near Skipton 652
I
TVESDAY, AUGUST 2-^.
1. On the Occurrence of Pachjtheca and a Species of Nematophycus in the
Silurian Beds at Ty mawr Quarry, Rumney. By J. Stoerie 652
2. Report of the Committee on the Lias of Northamptonshire 654
3. The Mastodon and Mammoth in Ontario, Canada. By Professor J. Hotes
Panion, M.A., F.G.S 654
4. Note on the occurrence of Ammonites jurensis in the Irouatone of the
Northampton Sands, in the neighbourhood of Northampton. By E. T,
Newtoit, F.G.S., F.Z.S 655
5. On certain Ammonite-zones of Dorset and Somerset. By S. S. BtrcKJiAN,
F.G.S., Hon. Memb. Yorka. Phil. Soc .'. ,. 655
6. Notes on the Polyzoa {Bryozoa) of the Zones of the Upper Chalk. By
Geobqe Robeet Vijtb 656
Section D,— BIOLOGY.
THtmSDAT, AUGUST 20.
Address by FfiANCls DAliWiSf, M.A., M.B,, F.R,S., President of the Sec-
tion , 660
1. Foitrth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands, and taking steps to investigate ascertained deficien-
cies in the Flora and Fauna 678
2. Report of the Committee appointed to report on the present state of our
knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, and to take steps to
investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna 678
3. Fifth Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of taking steps
for the establishment of a Botanical Laboratory at Paradeniya, Ceylon... 678
4. Report of a Committee appointed to make a digest of the observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light'vessels which have been
carried on by the Migration Committee of the British Association 678
6. Fourth Report of the Committee for the purpose of collecting information
as to the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local Habitats 673
6. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of arranging for the
occupation of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion at Plymouth 678
xvi CONTEXTS.
Page
7. Report of the Committee appointed for Improving and Experimenting'
with a Deep-Sea Tow-Net 678
8. Non-sexual Formation of Spores in the Desmidiacese. By A. W. Bennett 678
9. On a simple Apparatus for the Cultivation of small organisms in Hang-
ing- Drops, and in various Gases, under the Microscope. By Professor
Marshall Ward, F.R.S 678
10. On some simple Models illustrating the Vascular System of Vertebrates.
By Professor W. N. Parker 679
11. On the Progress of the Investigation of the Natural History of the
Friendly Islands. By J. J. Lister 679
FRIDA Y, A UG UST 21.
1. Report of the Committee nominated for the purpose of arranging for the
occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples 680
2. On some Species of Diatoms with Pseudopodia. By J. G. Grenfell,
F.G.S., F.R.M.S 680
3. On Nuclear Structure in the Bacteria. By Harold Wager 681
4. Discussion on the Systematic Position of certain Organisms that are re-
garded by some Naturalists as Animals, and by others as Plants 682
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. On Anatomical Nomenclatm-e. By Professor W. Kratise 682
2. On Fertilisation and Conjugation Processes as allied Modes of Protoplas-
mic Rejuvenescence. By Professor Marcus Hartog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. 683
3. A Preliminary Clas9i6cation of Sexual and allied Modes of Protoplasmic
Rejuvenescence, &c. By Professor Marcus Hartog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. 683
4. On recent Investigations of the Marine Biological Association (Fishery
and Physical). By W. L. Calderwood, Director . 685
6. On the Growth of Food-fishes and their Distribution at different ages.
By J. T. Ctr.vNiNGHAM, M.A ° qo-
0. The Reproduction of the Pilchard. By J. T. Cunninghast, M.A 6S6
7. Observations on the LarvaB of Palinurm vulgaris. By J. T. Cunningham,
■'^ ' 687
8. Distribution of Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Gill. By J. T. Cunningham
^^^■"^ ." .' 687
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
^' RRs" F.L.S° ^'°*^''"' """'^ *^' Propagation of Ferns. By E. J. Lowe,
2. On Ferns and their Multiple Parents. By E. J. Lowe, F.R.S. F.L S '
3. The Ciliated Organs of the Leeches. By Professor G
687
688
JII.SON COO
CONtENTS. Xvii
Page
4. Some Points in the Early Development of Mu5 mueculus and Mas decu-
mauiis: the Relation of the Yolk Sac to the Decidua and the I'lacenta.
By Arthur Robinson, M.D GOO
5. Observations upon the Development of the Spinal Cord in Mus musculus
and Mus decumanus : the Formation of the Septa and the Fissures. By
Arthur Robinson, M.D (J9 1
G. On the Innervation of the Epipodial Processes of some Nudihranchiate
Mollusca. By Professor W. A. IIerdman, D.Sc, and J. A. Clubb 602
7. Exhibition of a new Apparatus for opening and closing a Tow-Net by
Electricity. By W. E. Hoyle and L. F. Masset .". G93
8. Exhibition of, and Remarks upon, some Young Specimens of Echidna
aculeata. By Professor W. N. Parkek, Ph.D Gl)3
1). Experiments on Respiration in Tadpoles of the Common Frog(i?ana tern-
poraria). By Professor W. N. Parker, Ph.D G9i
10. On the Arrangement of the Living Fishes, as based upon the Study of
their Reproductive System. By Professor G. B. Howes, F.L.S., F.Z.S. ... 694
11. On the Recent Visitation of Plutella Crucifera. By VV. Fream G95
TUESDA r, A U6 UST 25.
1. On the Artificial Production of Rhythm in Plants. By Francis Darwin
and Dorothea F. M. Pertz 695
2. On Floating Leaves. By Professor Miall, F.L.S 695
3. Notes on Internal Phloem in the Dicotyledons. By D. II. Scoit, M.A.,
Ph.D., F.L.S ." 696
4. On the Occurrence of Diastase in Pollen. By Professor J. R. Green,
M.A., B.Sc 696
5. The Presence of a Diastatic Ferment in Green Leaves. By Professor
S. H. Vines, M.A., F.R.S 697
6. On the Nuclei of the Hymenomycetes. By Harold Wager 700
7. New Form of Appendicularian 'Haus.' By Geo. Swainson, F.L.S 701
8. On the Customary Methods of describing the Gills of Fishes. Bv
Professor G. B. Howes, F.L.S., F.Z.S .". 702
9. Exhibition of a very small Parrot from the Solomou Islands. By Canon
Tristram, F.R.S 702
Section E.— GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Address by E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., President of the Section ... 703
1. The Art of Observing. By John Coles, F.R.A.S 714
2. Recent Geographical Progress in Great Britain. By J. Scott Keltie ... 714
.3. Trees and Prairies. By Miller Christy 715
1891. -a.
Xviii CONTENTS.
Page
4. The Homology of Continents. By Dr. Hugh R. Mill, F.R.S.E 715
5. On the Comparative Value of African Lands. By Arthur Sii-Vi White, ^
F.K.S.E., Sec.R.Scot.G.S 'l"*
FlilDAY, AUGUST 21.
1. On Acclimatisation. By Robert W. Felkin, M.D 715
2. Changes in Coast Lines. By Dr. J. S. Phen^e 716
3. Morocco as a Field for Geographers. By J. E. Budgett Meaktn 716
4. On the Aborigines of Western Australia. By Miss E. M. Clerke 716
6. The Application of Indian Geographical Survey Methods to Africa. By
Lieut.-Colouel T. IL IIoldich, R.E 717
6. Bar-Subtense Survey. By Colonel IIenet Tanner 718
SA TURD A Y, AUG UST 22.
1. Suggestions for the Revision and Improvement of the Large Scale Maps
of the Ordnance Survey. By Henry T. Crook, C.E 718
2. Mr. Ravenstein explained a Series of Maps illustrating his Presidential
Address to the Section 718
3. A Local Collection of Maps was described by the Librarian of the Public
Library 718
MOXDAY, AUGUST 24.
1. Antarctic Exploration. By E. Delmar MoRG.iN 719
2. Photography applied to Exploration. By James Thomson 719
3. Journeys to the Lake Ngami Region. By Harry D. Buckle 719
4. A Visit to Kilimanjaro and Lake Chala. By Mrs. French Sheldon ... 719
5. The Geography of South- West Africa. By Dr. Henry Schlichteu 719
TUESDAY, AUGUST 2b.
1. The Siam Border. By Lord Lamington 720
2. Colorado. By Dr. Bell 720
3. The Physical and Industrial Geography of Florida. By Arthur
Montefiore, F.G.S., F.R.G.S 720
4. The Volta River. By G. Dobson 722
5. The Bakhtiari Country and the Karun River. By Mrs. Bishop 722
G. Physical Aspoct-o of the Himalayas, and Notes on the Inhabitants. By
Colonel Henry Tanner 722
7. On the propo.sed Formation of a Topographical Society in Cardiff. By
E. Q. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S ,
722
CONTENTS. Xix
Section F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Page
Address by Professor W. Cunningham:, D.D., D.Sc, F.S.S., President of
the Section 723
1. Labour and Capital: their Differences and how to reconcile them. By
C. H. Perkins 735
2. On the Coal Question. By T. Forstee Brown, M.Inst.G.E 736
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
1. ' Miners' Thrift and Employers' Liability : a Remarkable Experience.'
By George L. Campbell 737
2. State Provision aorainst Sickness and Old Age, and the German Inva-
lidity and Superannuation Law. By Louis Ttlor 739
3. On some Economic Aspects of Life Assurance. By John M. McCandlish,
F.R.S.E 739
4. The Survival of Domestic Industries. By Professor Gonner 740
5. Free Travel. By S. M. Burroughs 740
SATURDAY, AUGUST 22.
1. The alleg-ed Differences in the Wages paid to Men and to Women for
Similar Work. By Sidney Webb, LL.B 742
2. The Taxation of Inventors. By Lewis Edmunds, D.Sc 743
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
1. Oq recent Progress in Indian Agriculture. By C. L. Tupper, Chie
Secretary to the Punjaub Government 7<4
2. Railway Communications of India. By W. C. Furnivall, M.Inst.C.E. 744
3. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools 745
4. On the Upbringing of Destitute and Pauper Children. By the Rev. J. O.
Bevan, M.A 745
TUESDAY, AUGUST 25.
1. On the Data available for determining the best Limit (physically) for
Hours of Labour. By J. T. Arlidge, M.D 746
2. The Cure of Consumption in its Economic Aspect. By G. W. Hambleton 747
3. The Increase of Food and Population. By W. E. A. Axon 747
4. Le Play's method of Sj'stematic Observation. By F. Auburtin 747
5. Recent Changes in the Distribution of Population in England and Wales.
By Edwin Cannan 747
a2
CONTENTS.
Section G.-MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 20.
Pagre
Address by T. Fokster Brown, M.Iost.C.E., President of the Section 749
1. Report of the Estuaries Committee 757
2. The Ystradyfodwg and Pontypridd Main Sewerage. By G. Ohatterton 757
3. The River Usk, and the Harbour of Newport. By L. F. Vebnon-Hak-
COURT, M.A., M.Inst.O.E., Engineer to the Newport Harbour Commission 757
4. On Mechanical Ventilation and Heating of Buildings. By W. Key 758
FBI DA T, A UO UST 21 .
1. On the Channel Tubular Railway. By Sir Edward Reed, K.C.B , M.P.,
F.R.S 758
2. Petroleum Oil-engines. By Professor William Robinson, M.E,, Assoc.
M.lnst.C.E 759
3 On the Revolving Purifier for the Treatment of Water by Metallic Iron.
By W. Anderson, D.C.L., F.R.S., M.lnst.C.E 762
4. A Steady Platform for Guns, &c., at Sea. By Beauchamp Toweb 763
5. Description of Lewis and Hunter's System of Coaling Ships. By C.
Hunter '. 763
6. On some of the Peculiarities to be observed in Portland Cements, and on
the most advanced methods for determining their Constructive Value.
By Henry Faija, M.lnst.C.E 764
7. On the Compound Principle in the Transmission of Power by Compressed
Air. By Professor A. C. Elliott, D.Sc.(Edin.) 765
8. Sinking Wells and Shafts. By Henry Datey, M.lnst.C.E 766
MONDAY, AUGUST 24.
1. The London-Paris Telephone. By W. H. Preece, F.R.S 767
2. On the Telephoning of Great Cities. By A. R. Bennett, M.I.E.E 769
3. Recent Progress in the Use of Electric Motors. By Professor G Forbes
F.R.S 771
4. On Electric Firedamp Indicators. By N. Watts 773
5. The Lighting of Railway Trains Electrically. By I. A. Timmis 773
TUESDA Y, A UG VST 25.
1. An Electrical Parcel Exchange System. By A. R. Bennett, M.I.E.E.... 774
2. The Bonier Hot-Air Engine. By M. Bonier 776
3. On the Internal and External W^ork of Evaporation. By W. Wokby
Beaumont, M.lnst.C.E ' 777
4. On a new System of Screw Propulsion with n on -reversible Engines Bv
W. Wokby Beaumont, M.lnst.C.E .....[ . 770
6. Action of Screw Propellers. By Major R. de Villamil, R.E 780
CONTENTS. xxi
Page
6. On the Comparative Values of various Substances used as Non-conduct-
ing Coverinofs for Steam Boilers and Pipea. By W. Hepworth Collins
F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S 780
7. Joint Discussion with Section A upon Units and their Nomenclature 781
Section H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDA Y, A UO UST 20.
Address by Professor F. Max Mijlleb, M.A., Foreign Member of the French
Institute, President of the Section 782
1. The Social and Religious Ideas of the Chinese, as illustrated in the Ideo-
graphic Characters of the Language. By Professor R. K. Douglas 796
2. On recent Progress in the Analysis of Vowel-sounds. By R. J. Lloyd,
D.Lit., M.A 796
3. Family Life of the Haidas (Queen Charlotte Islands). By the Rev.
Charles Harrison ' 797
4. Report of the North- Western Tribes of Canada Committee 798
6. On the Work of Major J. W. Powell, Director of the U.S. Ethnological
Bureau. By Professor Mai Muller, M.A 798
FRIDAY, AUGUST 21.
1. On the Ancient Language of the Natives of Tenerife. By the MAEftUESS
OF Bute, K.T 799
2. On the Limits of Savage Religion. By Edward B. Tyloe, D.C.L., F.R.S. 800
3. ' Couvade.' By H. Ling Roth 800
4. On the ' Morong ' and other Customs of the Natives of Assam. By S. E.
Peal 801
■5. Burial Customs of New Britain. By the Rev. B. Danes 802
MONDA r, A UG UST 24.
1. Barbaric Elements in Ancient Greece and Italy. By Professor G.
HAEtWELL-JoNES, M.A 803
2. The Morocco Berbers. By J. E. Budgett Meakin 804
3. On the Worship of Meteorites. By Professor H. A. Newton 805
4. On Human Remains from the Duggleby ' Howe,' Yorkshire. By J. G.
Garson, M.D 806
5. On Comparison of Ancient Welsh Customs, Devices, and Commerce with
those of Contemporary Nations. By Dr. Phene, F.S.A 807
6. The First Sea- Wanderings of the English Race. By W. M. Adams 808
7. Points of Contact between Old-world Myths and Customs and the
Navajo Myth entitled ' The Mountain Chant.' By Miss A. W. Buceland 808
8. East Central African Customs. By the Rev. James Macdonald 809
9. Report of the Prehistoric Inhabitants Committee 811
10. Report of the Elbolton Cave Committee 811
CONTENTS.
TUESDA T, A UGUST 25.
Page
1. The Formation of a TJecord of the Prehistoric and Ancient Remains of
Glamorganshire. By Edwin Sewakd 811
2. Instinctive Criminalitv : its true Character and National Treatment. By
S. A. K. Steahan, M.D 811
3. The Anthropometric Method of Identifying Criminals. By J. G.
Gakson, M.D 81.'i
4. Recent Ilittite Discoveries. By Dr. Phene, F.S.A 814
5. Account of the Similkameen Indians of British Columbia. By Mrs. S. S.
Allison 815
6. Nicobar Pottery. By E. H. Man 815
7. Report of the Anthropometric Laboratory Committee 816
8. Report of the ' Anthropological Notes and Queries C-ommittee ' 816
9. Report of the Indian Committee 816
Index 817
Tables 3, 5, G, and 9 of North-Western Tribes of Canada to face page 436
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATE I.
Illustrating the Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Volcanic
Phenomena of Vesuvius and its Neiorhbourhood.
PLATES II.— XIV.
Illustrating the Eeport of the Committee appointed to investigate the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of
Working Models.
PLATE XV.
Illustrating the Fourth and Final Report of the Committee appointed to investigate
the Seasonal Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in
various parts of the United Kingdom in co-operation with the local Societies
represented on the Association.
OBJECTS' AND RULES
OP
THE ASSOCIATIOK
OBJECTS.
The Association contemplates no interference with the gronnd oeenpied
by other institutions. Its objects are : — To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry, — to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
KULES.
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All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
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The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
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in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The OfiBcers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
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otbces of the Association.
Annual Subscribers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and m each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXV
gratvitoushj the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that n.ncl
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
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They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes : — •
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment.]
4. Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment.]
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members')
pi'ice, according to the following specification, viz. : —
1. Gratis. — Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sura of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members' Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
— Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only.]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6c?. per volume.'
Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
' A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Meetings.
The Association stall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance ; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association,
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It sball consist of the
following persons : —
Class A. Peemanent Members.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of tbe Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of suh-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
he sent to the Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Associa-
tion. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Assoc ia-
i-ion to he placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Class B. Tempo rakt Members.'
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Glaums under this Rule to be sent to the
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organising Sectional Committees."^
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nommated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,^ and of preparing Reports
' Revised by the General Committee, 1884.
2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
' Notice to Contributors of 3Iemoirs.—knXhmi are 'reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several bections before the beginning of tlie Meeting. It has therefore become
BULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXVii
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.'
An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 A.M., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease. '^
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.'^
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 P.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 A.M. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday,* Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 A.M., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below. [The arrangements for sectional meetings, adopted at
the Cardiff meeting, will be continued at Edinburgh in 1892, see p. Ixxxiv.J
The business is to be conducted in the following manner : —
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length siaitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
before , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. 'For Section ' If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Secretary, iefore
the conclvsion of the Meeting.
' Sheffield, 1879. ^ Swansea, 1880. ' Edinburgh, 1871.
* The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883.
Xxviii RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
isino- Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year's proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Eecommendatious adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.^ The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 A.M. on Thursday
in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furidshed by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secietaries of Sections become ex officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxvi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the conT-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted ; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects' of Science,
It IS expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
' These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth 1877
V ' 7^'!-?*^ '^^ following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgn, lb 1 1. '
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXIX
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and dlsJmrsing the grant (if any hasheen made^
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time ; and further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.
That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be us small as is consistent with its efficient luorking.
That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
tlieir reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Com,mittee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Com-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.^
Committees have power to add to tbeir number persons wbose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Secretary for presentation
to the Committee of Recommendations. Unlc'ts this be done, the Recom-
mendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B. — Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of tJiat Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.
The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.^
Notices regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made ; and the
Chairman of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must
forward to the General Officers, before July 1, a statement of the sums
which have been expended, with vouchers, and the balance which
remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire on Jane 3u following ; nor is the Treasurer authorised, after that
date, to allow any claims on account of such grants, unless they be
renewed in the original or a modified form by the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices
of the British Association without special permission from the General
• Eev'ised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
* Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879.
XXX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee to do so ; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Chairman is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., Burlington
House, London, W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from
time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In ail cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be depcsited at the Office of the Association, when not
employed in cari-ying on scientific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and api^roaclies thereto can he used for
no notices, exhibitwvs, or other purposes than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken,' and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 P.M. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section wbich
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member's, Associate's, or Lady's Ticket, or Reporter's
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.
3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can oidy be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which thev are appointed dar-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
' The sectional meetings on Saturday and on Wednesda}- may begin at any time
which may be fixed by the Committee, not earlier than 10 or later thau 1 1. Passed by
the Ueneral Committee at Bath, 1888,
BULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Comviittee of Recomifnendatiwis.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
■which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
Presidents of the Association in former years are ex officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.'
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.
All pi'oposals for establishing new Section."?, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.^
If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.^
Corresponding Societies*
1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addres.sed to the
Secretary on or before the 1st of June preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annual report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
4. Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled
np, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Association, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
' Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 186.3.
* Passed by the General Committee at Uirmingham, 18G5.
' Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1S90.
* Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
XXxii BULBS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them ; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.
9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal e.tplanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.
11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the OflScers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for theMeetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Ojfficers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Conncil appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
(1) The Council shall consist of '
1. The Trustees.
2. The past Presidents.
3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
4. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(8) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination : — 1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
— observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of General Com-
mittee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
' Passed by the General Committee, Belfast, 1874.
1891.
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xliii
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I. — MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.E.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.E.S
Rev. W. Whewell, F.E.S.
Eev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A. — MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS,
1835.
Dublin
1836.
Bristol
1837.
Liverpool...
1838.
Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840.
Glasgow ...
1841.
1842.
Plymouth
Manchester
1843.
Cork
1844.
York
1845.
Cambridge
1846.
1847.
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford
1848.
1849.
Swansea ...
Birmingham
1850.
Edinburgh
1851.
Ipswich ...
1852.
Belfast
1853
Hull
Eev. Dr. Eobinson
Rev. William Whewell, F.E.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.E.S
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.E.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.E.S....
Prof. Forbes, F.E.S
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.E.S
Very Eev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.E.S.
Prof. M'Culloch, M.R.LA. ...
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
The Very Eev. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.E.S.
Eev. Prof. Powell, M.A.,
F.E.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.E.S
William Hopkins, F.E.S
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.E.S.,
Sec. E.S.E.
Eev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
F.E.S.
Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.E.S. L. & E.
The Very Eev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Eev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Ds, Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M'Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Eev.
W. Scoresby.
J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Eev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Eev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Eev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Eidout Wills.
W. J.Macquorn Rankine, Prof .Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
xliv
REPORT 1891.
Date and Place
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
Aberdeen...
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee ...
Norwich ...
Exeter
Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
Brighton
Bradford
Belfast...
Bristol...
Glasgow
Plymouth
Dublin...
Sheffield
Presidents
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
R.S.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.I.A.
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.
The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
a. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof .W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.B.A.S.
W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.I.A.
Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S..
Pres. Physical Soc.
Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D.Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. TurnbuU.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. S. Barnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H. J. S. Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
FleemingJenkin, Prof. H. J.S.Smith,
Rev. S. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W.K. Clifford, J. W.L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. RodweU.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlv
Date and Place
1880.
Swansea ...
1881.
York
1882.
Southamp-
ton.
1883.
Southport
1884.
Montreal ...
1885.
Aberdeen. . .
1886.
Birmingham
1887.
Manchester
1888
Bath
1889.
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890.
Leeds
1891.
CardiflE
Presidents
Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.E.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Eayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof.O.Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,
■pi T> C3
Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,
R.E., F.R.S.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc,
I LL.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. 0. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E . Ayrton, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richard-
son.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A.
Johnson, Prof. 0. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Bavnes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
E. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, Prof. H.
Stroud.
R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
W. N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
LR. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
I Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.
I
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II. — CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
1832. Oxford
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh
•John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Daiton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. Hope
James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison,
SECTION B. — CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
1835. Dublin.
1836. Bristol.
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Gumming ..
Michael Faraday, F.R.S
Rev. "William Whewell,F,R. S.
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.LA
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Gumming
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson.
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playf air.
J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
Dr. L. Plajdiair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Dr. L. Playf air, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, "W. Randall.
xlvi
REPORT — 1891.
Date and Place
Presidents
1847. Oxford.
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dvmdee ...
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton
1873. Bradford
1874. Belfast...
1875. Bristol...
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth
1878. Dublin...
1879. Sheffield
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
F.K.S.
Richard Phillips, F.R.S
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F R S
Prof .W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playf air, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.,
FC.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
V.P.R.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. T. Anderson, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.,
F.C.S.
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
W. H. Perkin, F.R.S
F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...
Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. S. Bhmdell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A, Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.
J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlvii
Date and Place
1880. Swansea ..
1881. York.
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1881. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
1891. Cardiff
Presidents
Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.
F.R.S.
Prof . A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...
Prof. Sir H. E Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.
W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Dr. E. Schunck, F.E.S., F.C.S.
Prof. W. A, Tilden, D.Sc,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc,
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts- Austen,
C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Secretaries
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. Gough.
P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W. J.Simpson.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
Prof. P. Phillip.s Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, R. E. Moyle, Dr. W. W
J. Nicol.
Dr. H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel,
Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattin-
son, jun.
C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.
C. H, Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Morley, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, Dr.
G. S. Turpin.
GEOLOGICAL (and, until 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III. — GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1832. Oxford.
1833. Cambridge.
1834. Edinburgh.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S
G. B. Greenough, F.R.S
Prof. Jameson
John Taylor.
W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
18315. Dublin R.J.Griffith
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle. .
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geography, R. I. Murchison,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geography, G.B.Greenough,
F R S
C. Ly'eli, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.-
Geograpliy, G.B.Greenough,
F R S
Charles " Lyell, Y.'K.^.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, S. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter. — Geo-
griphy. Captain H. M. Denham
R.N.
W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W. J. Hamilton,Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.
xlviii
REPORT 1891.
Date and Place
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge.
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh"
[■Residents
a, I. Murchison, F.E.S
Kichard E. Griffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.I.A.
Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Leonard Horner.F.R.S. — Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.E.S.
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.E.S.
Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
Sir ' Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F.R.S.
Secretaries
E. W. Binney, E. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury,
Rev. J. C. Camming, A. C. Ramsay,
Eev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham. — Geography, Dr. C.
T. Beke.
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Eamsay, J. Euskin.
Starling Benson, riof. Oldham,
Prof. Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof, Oldham, Prof.
A. C. Ramsay.
A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.
SECTION c {continued). — geology.
1851.
Ipswich ...
1852.
Belfast
1853.
Hull
1854.
Liverpool . .
1855.
Glasgow ...
1856.
Cheltenham
1857.
Dublin
1858.
Leeds
1859.
Aberdeen , . .
1860.
Oxford
1861.
Manchester
1862.
Cambridge
1863.
Newcastle
1864
Bath
1865
Birmingham
1866
Nottingham
"W"illiamHopkins,M.A.,F.E.S.
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, E.E.,
F.E.S.
Prof. Sedgwick, F.E.S
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.E.S.
Sir E. L Murchison, F.E.S....
Prof. A. C. Eamsay, F.E.S....
The Lord Talbot de Malahide
WilliamHopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.E.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.E.S., F.G.S.
Sir E. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
Prof. A. C. Eamsay, LL.D.,
F.E.S.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M'Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Eev. E. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Eev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Eupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Eupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Eev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Eev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
E. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. AVright.
' At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ' That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the " Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,"' for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page liv.
PBESIDENTS AND SECRETAKIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlix
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
Dundee ...
Norwich ...
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
Sheffield ..
Swansea ..
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen ...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Sir Philip de M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ..
W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.
John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. C. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S.
W. T. Blanford, F.R S., Sec.
G.S.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rev. 0. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes»
R. H. Tiddeman.
L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ley.
J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler,W.Topley>
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O'Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
R. Betley, C. E. De Ranee, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.
F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
C. E. De Ranee, J. Home, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.
W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Tople}^ W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV. — ZOOLOGT, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
1832. Oxford iRev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ... Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge ' I Rev. W.L. P. Garnons, F.L.S. C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834. Edinburgh. I Prof. Graham IW. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. liii.
1891. c
REPORT 1891.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
SECTION D. — ZOOLOGY AND BOTANT.
1835. Dublin.
1836. Bristol,
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
] 839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
Dr. Allman
Rev. Prof. Henslow
W. S. MacLeay
Sir W. Jardine, Bart
Prof. Owen, F.R.S
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D
John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., P.L.S.
William Thompson, F.L.S. ...
Very Rev. the Dean of Man-
chester.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S... .
Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Curtis, Dr. Litton,
J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S.
Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R, Pat-
terson.
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R, Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.
Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston,
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
I Wollaston.
SECTION D (continued). — zoology and botany, including PHYSIOLOGY.
' " [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. liii.]
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdefin...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S
William Spence, F.R.S
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L.&E.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
F.R.S.
W. Ogilby
C, C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfoiir, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S,
Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S,
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E,
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...,
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S,
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S
Prof. Balfour, M.D.. F.R.S...!
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey. Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W.E.Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. B.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
PRESIDENTS AND SECBETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
Presidents
1864. Bath Dr. John E. Gray, F.E.S.
1865. Birmingham T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S-
Secretaries
H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
SECTION D {continued), — biology.'
1866, Nottingham
1867.
1868.
Dundee . . .
Norvs'ich ...
1869. Exeter,
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh,
1872. Brighton
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast.
1875. Bristol
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
— Physiological Dej)., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Antlifopoloqical Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.
— DejJ. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.
— Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.
Prof. G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S., Y.lj.^. — Dep. of
Anat. and Physinl.j'E'ioi.M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.— Dep.
of EtJino., J. Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.— i>e/A of Bot. and
ZtfoZ.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
¥.^.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.—
Dep. of Allot, and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S. — Dep. of Anthropol,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
Prof. Allman, ¥.^.S.~Dcp. of
Anat. and Phi/siol.,Fioi. Ru-
therford, l^l.t>.—Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Bcddoe, F.R.S.
Prof. Redfern, M.B.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— Z»(2>.o/^«-
throp.,SiT W.R.Wilde, M.D.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— 7>^^.o/
Anat.and Physiol.,Fvoi.C\e-
land, M.D., F.n.S.—Dep.of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H,
.B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
Dr. T. R. Eraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer,H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M'Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. LamjDrey.
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. 0. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pj'e-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M'Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
' At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved: — 'That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology ; ' and ' That for the word " Subsection,"
in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word "Department"
be substituted.'
c 2
Ui
KEPORT — 1891.
Date and Place
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879, Sheffield ..
1880. Swansea ..
1881. York.
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport'
1884. Montreal 2...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
Presidents
A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S. — 1)62}. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.8. — Bcp. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJeffreys,LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.L.S. — Bej). of Anat. and
Phj/siol., Prof. Macalister,
M.b. — Bej). of Anthrojml.,
Francis Gait on, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Di'2>. of Anthrojwl., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S. — Bej)
of Anat. and Pkysiol., R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S. — Bej). of Ant/irojjol. ,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S
— Bej). of Anat. and Pliy-
.fiol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
A. C. L. Gunther, M.D., F.R.S.
— Bcp. of Anat. and Phy-
trioL, F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.H.—Bep. of AntJiropoL.
F. W. Rudler,"F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,
F.n.S.—Bej/.of AnthrojjoL,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,
F.R.S.—Bt'p. of Anat. and
Physiol. ,'Proi. 3. S. Burden
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
-- Bej). of Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,
F.L.S. — Bvp. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. E. RayLankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— i>tf/A of Anthropol...
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. C. Jlclntosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.
W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S ,
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S.
Secretaries
B. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M'Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.
E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M'Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M'Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B . Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M'Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schafer.
G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.
G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M'Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. E. Spencer.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. W. Osier, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
Prof. T W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. P. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
' By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments
of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated.
■■! By authority of the General Committee, Anthropology was 'made a separate
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lix.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
liii
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1888. Bath
W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F. E. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
F.K.S., F.L.S.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
1889. Newcastle-
Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
upon-Tyne
M.A., M.D., F.R.S.
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
1890. Leeds
Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
M.A., M.D„ D.Sc, F.R.S.
Dr. S. J. Hickson, Prof. F. W.
Oliver, H. Wager, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
1891. Cardiff
Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
F. E. Beddard, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S., F.L.S.
Dr. S. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W. N. Parker, H. Wager.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OP SCIENCES, V. — ANATOMY AND PHTSIOLOGT.
1833. Cambridge |Dr. Haviland Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834. Edinburgh iDr. Abercrombie Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
SECTION E (until 1847). — ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
Dr. Pritchard
Dr. Roget, F.R.S
Prof. W. Clark, M.D
T. E. Headlam, M.D
John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....
James Watson, M.D
Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
Dr. Symonds.
Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
Dr. G. 0. Rees, F. Ryland.
Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
SECTION E. — PHYSIOLOGY.
1841. Plymouth...
}842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford' ...
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S.
Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ...
J. C. Pritchard, M.D
Prof. J. Haviland, M.D
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S
Dr. J. Butter, J, Fuge, Dr. R, S.
Sargent.
Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
Dr. R. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
gent. ,
Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
Ormerod.
1850. Edinburgh
1855. Glasgow ...
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. R. Harrison, M.D
Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J.Struthers.
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
C. G. Wheelhouse.
' By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ' Section D — Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology ' (see p. 1.). Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
•Geography.
liv
REPORT 1891.
Date and Place
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birming-
ham.'
Presidents
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.K.S.
Prof.G.Eolleston,M.D.,F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& B.
G. E. Paget, M.D
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.E.S.
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Secretaries
Prof. Bennett, Prof. Eedfern.
Dr. R. M'Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith,
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C
p. xlvii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Dr. Pritchard jDr. King.
Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ... Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
1846.Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh i Vice- Admiral Sir A. Malcolm I Daniel Wilson.
SECTION E. — GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,
Pres. R.G.S.
Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. L Murchison, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,
K.C.B.
Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.LA. I
Sir R.L Murchison, G.C.St.S.,'
F.R.S.
Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.E.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L..
F.R.S.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S
Francis Galton, F.R.S
Sir E. L Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B ,
F.R.S.
Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.
R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, E. JIacAdam, Dr. Norton
! Shaw.
E. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Dine, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
{ Norton Shaw.
IR. Cull, F. D. Havtland, W. H.
Rumscy, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. B.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O'Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C,
Lempri&re, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Himt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
J.W.Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. Hunt»
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield^
C. R. Markham, R. S. Watson.
H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet^
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
Vide note on page li.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Iv
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee ...
1868. Norwich ...
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.
Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.
Capt. G. H. Eichards, R.N.,
F.R.S.
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W.Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements
E. Markham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.
T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continued). — geography.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton . . .
Bradford . . .
Belfast
Bristol
GlasgovjT ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds ..
Cardiff
Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
SirR.LMurchison,Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,F.G.S.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S
Sir Riitherf ord Alcock, K. C.B.
Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.S.I.,F.R.S.,F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.
Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S
Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D., F.R.S. L.&E .
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.L,
C.B., F.R.S.
Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.I.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.
Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,V.P.R.G.S.
Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S.L, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.MG.,C.B., F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
Ie. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,
I F.S.S.
H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.
H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.
A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,.
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black. E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Rye.
Rev. Abbe Laflamme, J. S. O'HaUoran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
J. S. Keltic, J. S. O'HaUoran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
F. T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie,
E. G. Ravenstein.
Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. S. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.
J. S. Keltic, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.
J. S. Keltic, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.
A. Barker, John Coles, J. S. Keltie,
A. Silva White.
John Coles, J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.
Ivi
KEPOET 1891.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI. — STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge! Prof. Babbage, F.R.S I J. E. Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh I Sir Charles Lemon, Bart I Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F. — STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
Charles Babbage, F.R.S
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon
Colonel Sykes, F.R.S
Henry Hallam, F.R.S
Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,
F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S
G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...
Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...
Lieut. - Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,
F.L.S.
Rt.Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam
G. R.Porter, F.R.S
Travers Twiss, D.C.L.. F.R.S.
J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...
Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton
Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,
V.P.R.S.E.
Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S
R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...
W. Greg, Prof. Longfield,
Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.
F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.
Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock.
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.
J. Fletclier, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
Mac Adam, jun.
Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
E. Chesliire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W.H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march. Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continued). — economic science and statistics.
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin,
1858. Leeds
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. ' Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
1 M. Tartt.
His Grace the Archbishop of , Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Dublin, M.R.LA. | Newmarch.
Edward Baines JT. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown
' Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
PEESIDENTS AND SECRETAKIBS OF THE gECTIONS.
Ivii
Date and Place
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
Aberdeen...
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle .
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee ...
Norwich ..
Exeter
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast
Presidents
Col. Sykes, M.P., F.K.S
Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ...
William Newmarch, F.R.S.
Edwin Chadwick, C.B
William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ...
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D..
M.P.
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers
Secretaries
Bristol
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin
1879. Sheffield
M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P.
Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P. ...
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O'Hagan
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
Swansea
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. S.S.
Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P.
Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
I S.S.
'g. W. Hastings, M.P
iRt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.R.S.
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.
Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.I., CLE., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
ManchesterJRobert Qiffen, LL.D.,"V.P.S.S.
Bath.
.iRt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,
j LL.D., F.R.S.
Newcastle- jProf. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
upon-Tyne F.S.S.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M.
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macror}'', W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
E. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun.. Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. MNeel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. S. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R.
Price.
Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.
Iviii
EEPORT — 1891.
Date and Place
1890. Leeds .
1891. Cardiff.
Presidents
Prof. A. Marshall, M.A.,F.S.S,
Prof, W. Cunningham, D.D.
D.Sc, F.S.S.
Secretaries
W. A. Brigg, Eev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.
Prof. J. Broiigh, E. Cannan, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. LI. Smith,
Prof. W. R. Sorley.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G. — MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool..
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ....
1841. Plymouth
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846.Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Charles Babbage, F.R.S
Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson
John Taylor, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S
Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A...,
John Taylor, F.R.S
George Rennie, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S,
Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.S,
Rev. Prof .Walker, M.A..F.R.S,
Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.S,
Rev. R. Robinson
William Cubitt, F.R.S
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, C.E.,
F.R.S.
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...
W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
George Eennie, F.R.S
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof . W. J. Macqiiorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst
C.B., F.G.S.
Prof .W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T,
Webster.
J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,.
C. Vignoles.
Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet,
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Eev. W. T. Kingsley.
William Belts, jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. StruvS,
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall,
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,.
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.
John Grantham, J, Oldham, J,
Thomson.
L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J
Thom.son.
C. Atherton, B, Jones, jun., H, M»
Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright,
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright,
E. Abernethy, P, Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright,
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F, Harrison,
Henry Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,.
J. F. Spencer.
P, Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
P, Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,.
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,.
W. W. Urquhart.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lix
Date and Place
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool..
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ..,
1874. Belfast
-1875. Bristol
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. PljTnouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
Presidents
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
1891 Cardiff.
G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.E.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S
Chas. B, Vignoles, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. FleemingJenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E
W. H. Barlow, F.R.S
Prof. .James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S
Edward Woods, C.E
Edward Easton, C.E
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.
James Abernethy, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.R.S.E.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...
James Brunlees, F.R.S.E.
Pres.Inst.C.E.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.
V.P.Inst.C.E.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E
Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst,
C.E.
Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
W. H. Preece, F.R.S.,
M.Inst.C.E.
W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...
Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,
F.E.A.S.
T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie,
J. P. Smitli.
H. M. Brunei, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brimel, J. G,
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atcliison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, B.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.
E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.
C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION H. ANTHEOPOLOCY.
1884. Montreal ... ; E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...
1885. Aberdeen... Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.
1886. Birmingham Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L,
1 M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
G. W. Bloxam. Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst. Dr. A. Macgregor.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.
EEPOKT — 1891,
Date and Place
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
1891. Cardiff
Presidents
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A
Lieut. -General Pitt-Kivers,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. Evans, Treas.R.S ,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...
Secretaries
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J,
Harris Stone.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.
G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Date and Place
Lecturer
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork ,
1844. York ,
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford.
1848
1849
1850.
1851.
1862.
Swansea ...
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich . . .
Belfast
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S
Sir M. I. Brunei
R. I. Murchison
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S
Dr. Robinson
Charles Lyell, F.R.S
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S
G. B. Airy,F.R. S. .Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...
Charles Lyell, F.R.S
VV. R. Grove, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S
Hugh E. Strickland, F'.G^S....
John Percj', M.D., F.R.S
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faradaj-, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.
Dr. Mantell, F.R.S
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy,F R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Subject of Discourse
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the ^gean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse's Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Geology of Russia.
Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles.
Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Propertiesof the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schonbein ; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Shooting Stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo (IXdu» incptus).
.Metallurgical Operat ions of Swansea
and its Neighboiirhood.
Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot's Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickf ergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Ixi
Date and Place
1853. Hull.
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
Lecturer
Prof . J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.
F.G.S.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ..
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
W. R. Grove, F.R.S
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof. J. Phillips,LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. L Murchison, D.C.L... .
Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof .W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal .
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S
James Glaisher, F.R.S...
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S.
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S....
William Huggins, F.R.S. ...
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.,
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
•J. Fergusson, F.R.S
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.8.
J. Norman Lockyer F.R.S. ..
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof .W. J. Jlacquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
F. A. Abel, F.R.S
E. B. Tyler, F.R.S
Subject of Discourse
Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the
present time.
Correlation of Physical Forces,
The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia,
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
Recent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archseology of the early Buddliist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulae.
The Scient ific Use of the Imagination,
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
Ixii
REPORT — 1891.
Date and Place
1872. Brighton
1873. Bradford
1874. Belfast...
1875. Bristol ....
1876. Glasgow .
1877. Plymouth.
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield
1880. Swansea
1881. York
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
1891. Cardiff
Lecturer
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford
Prof. W. CWil liamson, F.R.S
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M. P..
F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S,
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S
Prof. Tait, F.R.S.B
Sir Wj'ville Thomson, F.R.S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S
W. Crookes, F.R.S
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Prof .W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S
Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S.
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S
Prof. J. G. McKendrick,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. 0. J. Lodge, D.Sc
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.
Prof. W. G.Adams, F.R.S...,
John Murray, F.R.S.E
A, W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D. ...
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ...
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ...
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. C. Robert.'i-Austen,
F.R.S.
Walter Gardiner, M.A
Subject of Discourse
E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof.L. C. Miall,F.L.S.,F.G.S.
Prof. A. W. Riicker, M. A.,F.R.S.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarised Light.
Railway Safety Appliances.
Force.
The Clialh iiflrr Expedition.
The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
The new Elemeut, Gallium.
Animal Intelligence.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
Radiant, Matter.
Degeneration.
Prinu^val Man.
Mental Imagery.
The Rise and Progress of Palason^
tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Tides.
Pelagic Life.
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Galvanic and Animal Electricity.
Dust.
The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
The Great Ocean Bafiins.
Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.
The Rate of Explosions in Gases.
Explorations in Central Africa.
The Electrical Transmission of
Power.
The Foundation Stones of the Earth's
Crust.
The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.
How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.
Mimicry.
Quartz Fibres and their Applications.
Some Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.
Electrical Stress.
LECTDEES TO THE OPEEATIVE CLASSES.
Ixiii
LECTUEES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Date and Place
1867. Dundee..
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter ..
1870. Liverpool.,,.
1872,
1873,
1874,
1875,
1876,
1877.
1879,
1880.
1881.
1882
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
Brighton
Bradford
Belfast . , .
Bristol ...
Glasgow
Plymouth
Sheffield
Swansea
York
Southamp-
ton.
Southp irt
Montreal ...
Aberdeen ...
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
CardifE
Lecturer
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.E.S.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Miller, M.D., F.E.S. ...
Sir John Lubbock, Bajt.,M.P.,
F.E.S.
'W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.E.S.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.E.S
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.E.S.
Commander Cameron, C.B.,
R.N.
W. H. Preece
W. E. Ayrton
H. Seebohm, F.Z.S
Prof. Osborne Reynolds,
F.E.S.
John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. E.S.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.E.S. ...
Prof. E.S. Ball, F.E.S
H. B. Dixon, M.A
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.S.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E
Prof. J. PeiTy, D.Sc, F.E.S.
Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.E.S.
Subject of Discourse
Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.
Experimental Illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum.
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
Fuel.
The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.
A Journey through Africa.
Telegraphy and the Telephone.
Electricity as a Motive Power.
The North-East Passage.
Eaindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.
Unwritten History, and how to
read it.
Talking by Electricity — Telephones.
Comets.
The Nature of Explosions.
The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.
Electric Lighting.
The Customs of Savage Races.
The Forth Bridge.
Spinning Tops..
Electricity in Mining.
Ixiv REPOET — 1891.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
CARDIFF MEETING.
SECTION A. — MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President. — Professor Oliver J. Lodge, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.
rice-Preside7its.— Sir Robert Ball, F.R.S. ; W. Crookes, F.R.S. ; Professor
G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.; Rev. Robert Harley, F.R.S. ; Professor
J. Viriamu Jones, M.A. ; Professor H. Lamb, F.R.S. ; Professor H.
A. Nev^ton ; Professor A. W. Riicker, F.R.S.
Secretaries. — R. E. Baynes, M.A. (Becorder) ; J. Larmor, M.A. ; Professor
A. Lodge, M.A. ; Professor A. L. Selby, M.A.
SECTION B. — CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
President.— Frokssov W. Chandler Roberts-Ansten, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S.
Vice.Preside7its.— Sir F. A. Abel, K.C.B., F.R.S. ; W. Crookes, F.R.S. ;
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. ; Professor G. D. Liveing, F.R.S. ; Pro-
fessor H. McLeod, F.R.S. ; Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S. ; Ludwig
Mond, F.R.S. ; Professor C. M. Thompson, M.A.
Secretaries. — C. H. Bothamley, F.C.S. ; H. Forster Morley, D.Sc.
(_Becorder) ; W. W. J. Nicol, M.A. ; G. S. Turpin, M.A.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY.
President. — Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Sir Archibald Geikie, For.Sec.R.S. ; Dr. H. Hicks,
F.R.S ; Professor C. Lapworth, F.R.S. ; Professor W. J. SoUas,
F.R.S. ; Rev. H. H. Winwood, M.A. ; Professor G. Frederick
Wright ; Professor F. Zirkel, Ph.D.
Secretaries.— W. Galloway; J. E. Marr, F.R.S.; Clement Raid; W. W.
Watts, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION D. — BIOLOGY.
President. — Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B., P.R.S., P.L.S.
Vice-Presidents.— D. H. Scott, M.A. ; Professor W. Stirling, M.D. ;
Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S. ; Professor H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— F. E. Beddard, M.A. ; Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc. ;
Sydney J. Hickson, D.Sc. (Recorder); George Murray, P.L.S. ; Pro-
fessor W. Newton Parker, Ph.D. ; Harold Wager.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. Ixv
SECTION E. — GEOGRAPHY.
President.—^. G. Tlavenstein, F.R.G.S., F.S.S., F.R.S.G.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Colonel Sir Francis de Winton, K.C.M.G., C.B. ; H.
Seebohm, Hon. Sec. R.G.S.
Secretaries.— John Coles, F.R.G.S. ; J. Scofcb Keltic, F.R.G.S. (Be.
corder) ; A. Silva White, F.R.S.B. ; Dr. Yeats.
SECTION F. — ECOXOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President. — Professor Cunningham, D.D., D.Sc, F.S.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Professor C. F. Bastable, F.S.S. ; Professor F. Y.
Edgeworth, F.S.S. ; Hon. Sir Charles W. Fremantle, K.C.B. ; J. B.
Martin, F.S.S.
Secretaries. — Professor J. Brough, LL.D. ; Professor E. C. K. Gonner,
F.S.S. (Recorder) ■ Professor W. R. Soiley, M.A.
SECTION G. — MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President. — T. Foster Brown, M.Tnst.C.E.
Vice-Presidents. — James Abernethy, M.Inst.C.E. ; Sir Beniamin Baker,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S. ; J. Wolfe Barry, M.Inst.C.E. ; G". Chatterton,
M.Inst.C.E. ; Professor Osborne Reynolds, F.R.S. ; T. Harry Riches,
M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries. — Conrad W. Cooke ; Professor A. C. Elliott, D.Sc. ; W. Bayley
Marshall, M.Inst.C.E. ; E. Rigg, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION H. — ANTHEOPOLOGT.
President. — Professor F. Max Miiller, M.A.
Vice-Presidents.— The Marquess of Bute, K.T. ; E. W. Brabrook, F.S.A. ;
J. G. Garson, M.D. ; Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S.
Secretaries. — G. W. Bloxam, M.A. (Recorder) ; H. Ling Roth ; Edwin
Seward.
1891.
Ixvi KEPORT — 1891
THE BEITISH ASSOCIATION FOE
2),._ THE GENERAL
From the commencement of the Leeds Meeting, 1890, and not
18!»0-91. RECEIPTS.
£ t. d.
By Balance brought forward 598 16
„ New Life Compositions at Leeds Meeting and since 250
„ New Annual Members „ „ 194
„ Annual Subscriptions „ ,, 598
„ Associates' Tickets at Leeds Meeting 678
„ Ladies' Tickets „ „ 334
,, Sale of Publications 47 17 6
„ Rent received from Mathematical Society, for year ended
September 29, 1890 12 15
„ Interest on Exchequer Bills 16 9 1
„ Dividends on Consols 227 18 4
,, Dividends on India 3 per cents 105 6
,, Amount received from Mr. Sclater on account of Grant
' Zoology and Botany of West India Islands ' 100
„ Amount received from Dr. H. Woodward, being unexpended
balance of Grant for ' Lias Beds in Northamptonsliire ' ... 16 12
,, Amount received from Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, being un-
expended balance of Grant made for ' Electrolysis ' 2 2 6
„ Amount received from Professor M. Foster, being the unex-
pended balance of Grant made for ' Botanical Station at
Peradeniya' 2
£2883 16 5
Investments Accovni : July 31, 1891.
£ 3. d.
New Consols 8500
India 3 per cents 3600
Exchequer Bills 500
BALANCE SHEET, 1890-91.
Ixvii
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
TREASURER'S ACCOUNT
inclading receipts on accoant of the CardiiF Meeting, 1891.
Or.
IS90-9L PAYMENTS.
£ s.
To Expenses of Leeds Meeting, including Priuting and Adver-
tising, purchase of Banners, and pajTiients in respect of
New Offices ". 362 10
„ Salaries, one year (1890-91) 528 15
„ Pent of Office, 22 Albemarle Street, W. (1890-91) 117
GrB.VXTS,
& S. d.
Anthropometric Committee 10
Improving Deep-sea Tow-net 40
Discharge of Electricity from Points 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri vatives 25
Botanical Station at Peradeniya 50
Variations of Temperature in Lakes 20
Photographs of Meteorological Phenomeua 5
CoiTespoEtiing Societies 25
Itivestigatieu of Caves at Elbolton 2a
North-Western Tribes of Canada 20O
Lias Beds of Northamptonshire 25
Meteorological Obserratious ou Ben Nevis 50
Seismological Phenomena of Japan 10
Geological Record 100
Anthropological Notes and Queries 50
Electrolysis 5
Action of Light ou Dyes 17 10
Analysis of Iron and Steel 10
TJltra-yiolet Rays of Solar Spectrum 60
Action of Waves and Currents iu Estuaries 125
Fossil Phyllopoda 10
Photographs of Geological Interest 9 6
Formation of Haloid Salts 25
Disappearance of Native Plants 5
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 10
Registration of Type-specimens of British Fossils 5 5
Electrical Standards 100
Marine Biological Association at PliTuouth 12 10
1029 10
By Balance at Bank of England, Western Pranch, 900 13 11
Less Cheques issued, but not presented to date 57 15
842 18 11
In hands of Assistant to General Treasurer ... 3 2 3
846 1
£2883 16 5
J. H. Gladstone,
Herbert McLeod
,}
Auditors.
Jul)/ 31, 1391.
d2
Table showing the Attendance and Receipti
Date of Meeting
1831, Sept. 27 ...
1832, June 19 ...
1833, June 25 ...
1834, Sept. 8 ...
1835, Aug. 10 ...
1836, Aug. 22 ...
1837, Sept. 11 ...
1838, Aug. 10 ...
1839, Aug. 26 ...
1840, Sept. 17 ...
1841, July 20 ...
1842, June 23 ...
1843, Aug. 17 ...
1844, Sept. 26 ...
1845, June 19 ...
1846, Sept. 10 ...
1847, June 23 ...
1848, Aug. 9 ...
1849, Sept. 12 ...
1850, July 21 ...
1851, July 2 ...
1852, Sept. 1 ...
1853, Sept. 3 ...
1854, Sept. 20 ...
1855, Sept. 12 ..,
1856, Aug. 6 ...
1857, Aug. 26 ..
1858, Sept. 22 ..,
1859, Sept. 14 ..
1860, June 27 ...
1861, Sept. 4 ..
1862, Oct. 1 ..
1863, Aug. 26 ..
1864, Sept. 13 ..
1865, Sept. 6 ..
1866, Aug. 22 ..
1867, Sept. 4 ..
1868, Aug. 19 ..
1869, Aug. 18 ..
1870, Sept. 14 ..
1871, Aug. 2 ..
1872, Aug. 14 ..
1873, Sept. 17 ..
1874, Aug. 19 ..
1875, Aug. 25 ..
1876, Sept. 6 ..
1877, Aug. 15 ..
1878, Aug. 14 ..
1879, Aug. 20 ..
1880, Aug. 25 ..
1881, Aug. 31 ..
1882, Aug. 23 ..
1883, Sept. 19..
1884, Aug. 27 ..
1885, Sept. 9 ..
1856, Sept. 1 ..
1857. Aug. 31 ..
188S, Sept. 5 ..
1889, Sept. 11 ..
1890, Sept. 3 ..
1891, Aug. 19 ..
■Where Iield
York
Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin
Bristol
Liverpool
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Birmingham
Glasgow
Plymouth
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge
Southampton
Oxford
Swansea
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast
Hull
Liverpool
Glasgow
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen
Oxford
Mancliester
Cambridge
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich
Exeter
Liverpool
Edinburgh
Brighton
Bradford
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow
Pl3'mouth
Dublin
Sheffield
Swansea
York
Southampton
Southport
Montreal
Aberdeen
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Leeds
Cardiff
Presiilents
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
The Kev. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
The Kev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L
The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdovvne ...
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
The Duke of Northumberland
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
The Marquis of Breadalbane...
The Rev. \V. Whewell, F.R.S.
The Lord Francis Egertou
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S
The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison,Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart
The Marquis of Northampton
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
Sir David Brewster, K.H
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
Lieut. -General Sabine, F.R.S.
William Hopkins, F.R.S
Tlie Earl of Harrowbv, F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
I'rof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.
The Rev.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
H.R.H. the Prince Consort
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A.
VVilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S.
The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A
Sir William G.Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S,
Tlie Duke of Buccleuch.K.C.B
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ...
Prof. A. W. AYilliamson, F.R.S,
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
SirJohnHawkshaw,C.E.,F.R.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S,
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S,
W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof .G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S....
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S,
Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S
Prof. A. Caylev, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F R.S. ...
SirLyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S
Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S
Sir F. J Bramwell, F.R.S
Prof. W.H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S
Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S. ...
Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S
Old Life
Members
169
303
109
226
313
241
314
149
227
235
172
164
141
238
194
182
236
222
184
286
321
239
203
287
292
207
167
196
204
314
246
245
212
162
239
221
173
201
184
144
272
178
203
235
225
314
428
266
277
259
189
• Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
t Tickets of Admission to Sections ou
at Annual Meeting
s of the Association
Attended by
Amount
received
Sums paid on
Account of
Grants for Scien-
tiflo Purposes
Old A
Mcml
inual New Annual
jers Members
A
ci
7e's I--"-
Foreigners
Total
during the
Meeting
Year
:;
7
6 siV
5 376
'.'. IIOO*
'.'. 60*
33t 331*
160
9t 200
37 172
-0 196
)5 203
-6 197
i?4
40
28
353
900
1298
1.350
1840
2400
1438
1353
891
1315
1831
1832
1833
18.34
1835
1836
1837
1838
18.39
1840
1841
1842
£20 o''o
167
435
922 12 6
932 2 2
1595 11
1546 16 4
1235 10 11
1449 17 8
7
4
1 185
5 190
1565 10 2
981 12 8
1843
1844
9
6
19
6
[ 22
5 39
7 40
4 25
4
2
4
3
3.5
36
53
15
1079
857
1320
819
831 9 9
685 16
208 5 4
275 1 8
1845
1846
1847
1848
£767"b"o
9
3 33
4
t7 237
22
1071
963
159 19 6
1849
12
S 42
5
10 273
44
1241
1085
345 18
18.50
6
1 47
2
t4 141
37
710
620
391 9 7
1851
6
3 60
5
LO 292
9
1108
1085
304 6 7
1852
5
5 57
3(
57 236
6
876
903
205
1853
12
I 121
7(
)5 524
10
1802
1882
380 19 7
1854
14
2 101
10!
)4 543
26
2133
2311
480 16 4
1855
10
i 48
4
2 346
9
1115
1098
734 13 9
1856
15
3 120
9(
)0 569
26
2022
2015
507 15 4
1857
11
I 91
7
509
13
1698
1931
618 18 2
1858
12
5 179
12(
)6 821
22
2564
2782
684 11 1
1859
17
7 59
6;
56 463
47
1689
1604
766 19 6
1860
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S9 791
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1862
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t 209
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9 1058
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2802
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1864
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> 149
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$ 195
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2878
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1572
1870
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L 127
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7 912
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2649
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r 99
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6 601
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1983
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S 59
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) 74
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9 319
13
1404
1425
1080 11 11
1879
171
41
38
9 147
12
915
899
731 7 7
1880
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t 176
123
514
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2557
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1881
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! 79
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6 189
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2 841
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' 219
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6 74
26&60H.§
1777
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1884
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' 122
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S 179
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7 429
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51(
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5 493
92
3838
4336
1186 18
1887
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t 100
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2 107
12
1497
1664
1029 10
1891
t Includ
ng Ladies. §
Fellc
ws of the Amsri
can Associati
3n were ad
luitted as Hon
Members for this
Meetiog.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1892.
PRESIDENT.
WILLIAM HUGGIiS'S, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Eon. FJl.S.E., F.R.A.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hon. Lokd WiNijaOH, Lord-Lieutenant
of Glamorganshire.
The Most Hon. the Marquess op Bote, K.T.
The Right Hon. Loed Ratleigh, M.A., D.C.L.,
LL.D.. Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
The Right Hon. Lokd Trf.deoah.
The Right Hon. Lord Arerdare, G.C.B., F.E.S.,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. T. D. LLEWET.Ttf , Bart., F.Z.S.
Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., D.Sc, For. Sec.
U.S., F.R.S.E., Pres. G.S, Director-General of
tl)e Geological Surrey of the United King-
dom.
Sir RnnjiRT BALL, F.R.S., Boyal Astronomer of
IrclauiL
PRESIDENT ELECT.
Sin ARCHIBALD GBIKIE, LL.D., D.Sc. For. Sec. R.S., F.R.S.E., Prbs. G.S., Director- General of
the Geological SuiTej of the United Kingdom.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the Lord Provost oi" Edix-
BURGH.
The Most Hon. the Marquess of Lothian, K.T.
The Right Hod. the Earl of Koserehy, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
The Right Hon. Lord Kingsburgh, C.B., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.B.
Principal Sir 'William Muik, K.CS.I.
ProfessorSir Douglas Maclagan, M.D.,Pres.R.S.E.
Professor Sir William Turner, F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
Professor P. G. Tait, M.A., F.R.S.E.
Professor A. Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S, P.R.S j:..
Pre?. CS.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Cliester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowlej Grange, Oxford.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S., Harrow.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor Arthur W, Rucker, M.A., F.R.S., Bui-lingtcm House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURGH.
Professor G. F. Armstrong, M.A., C.E., I F. Gran't Ogilvik, Esq., MA., B.Sc., F.R.S.E.
F.R.S.E., F.G.S. I JouN Harrison, Esq.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT EDINBURGH.
Adam Gillies Smith, Esq., C.A.
ORDINARY MEMBERS
Andbrson, Dr. W., FJ^.S.
ATUTDN, Professor W. B., F.R.3.
Baker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
Bates, H. W., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Professor G. H., F.R.S.
Douglass, Sir J. N., F.R.S.
Edgeworth, Professor P. Y., M.A.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.S.
Fitzgerald, Professor G. F., F.R.S.
GutZEBROOK, R. T., Esq., F.R.S.
Judd, Professor J. W., F.R.S.
Liveing, Professor 6. D., F.RA
Lodge, Professor Oliver J., F.R.S.
OF THE COUNCIL.
Preece, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Ramsay, Professor W., F.K.S.
Rkinold, Professor A. W., F.U.S.
Roberts-Austen, Prof es3orW.C.,C.B.,F.R.S.
SCHAPER, Professor E. A., F.R.S.
Schuster, Professor A., F.R.S.
Sidgwick, Professor H., M.A.
Symons, G. J., Esq, F.R.S.
Thorpe, Professor T. K, F.R.S.
Ward, Professor Marshall, FJi.S.
Wht'.'akee, W., Esq., P.R.S.
Woodward, Dr. H, FJi.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, tlie Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presitieats and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the Genera] and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer* and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Su- John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F RA S.
The Right Hon. Sir Eton Platpair, K.CB., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R S.
Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T.
Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D.
Sir Waiiam R. Grove, F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.CS.I.
tjir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER TEARS.
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, Pres.RS.
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
I Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D.CX., Sec. R.S.
Sir Lyon Playfair, K.U.B., F.RJS.
Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., P.R.S.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B.,F.R.S.
Sir Frederick Abel, K.C.B, F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER TEARS.
F Galton, Esq F.R.S. I Prof. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. I P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D.. F.R.S,
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. | George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.G.S. Prof. Bonney, D.bi., F.R.S.
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S.
I J. B. Martin, Esq., M.A., F.SA
Ixxi
REPORT OF THE COITNCIL.
Report of the Council for the year 1890-91, fresented to the General
^ Committee at Cardiff, on Wednesday, August 19, 1891.
The Council have received the usual Financial Reports from the
General Treasurer, during the past year, and his account for the year
1890-91, which was audited on the 31st July will be presented to the
General Committee
The Council were informed by Dr. Williamson in the early part of the
year that he would be unable to allow himself to be nominated to the
office of General Treasurer at the present meeting of the Association, and
that, as he would not be able to attend the meeting at Cardiff, he
wished to continue in office only until the commencement of that
meeting.
Dr. Williamson was appointed to succeed Mr. Spottiswoode in the
year 1874, and during this long period of seventeen years his wise and
calm judgment has afforded the Council, on all occasions of difficulty,
most valuable assistance.
The Council recommend that, in accordance with the wish expressed
by Dr. Williamson, a successor to his office be appointed at this meeting,
and they have much pleasure in recommending to the General Committee
that Professor Arthur W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S., be elected General
Treasurer, and that he be requested to enter at once upon the duties of
the office.
Lord Rayleigh, one of the Vice-Presidents elect, will not be able to
attend the meeting. The Council recommend that Sir Robert Ball, Royal
Astronomer of Ireland, be elected Vice-President.
The Council received a letter from the Board of Trade requesting
them to appoint one or two members of a committee about to be formed
for considering the standards for the measurement of the ohm, the
ampere, and the volt. The Council appointed Professor G. Carey Foster
and Mr. R. T. Glazebrook members of this committee.
The Council have elected the following Foreign Men of Science, who
attended the last Meeting of the Association, Corresponding Members : —
Prof. Brentano, Munich.
Prof. V. Dwelshauvers-Dery, Liege.
Prof. Mascart, Paris.
Prof. W. Ostwald, Leipzig.
Signor Maffeo Pantaleoni, Bari.
An invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association at Not-
tingham in the year 1893 has been received, and will be presented to
the General Committee on Monday,
Dr. Otto Pettersson, Stockholm.
Mr. A. Lawrence Eotch, Eeadville,
Mass., U.S.A.
Prof. J. H, van't HofE, Amsterdam.
Ixxii KKPORT — 1891.
Kesolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if
desirable : —
(A) ' That the Council consider and report whether grants should be made from
the funds of the Association for other than specific researches by specified
individuals.'
The Council consider that grants should not be made to any single
institution, or in support of a single object, for many years in succession.
It must be distinctly understood that the aid given by the Association to
any particular scientific institution or investigator must necessarily be
limited and intermittent.
The Council are of opinion that grants in aid of research should not
be made, except for specified subjects, and under snch circumstances that
satisfactory assurances can be given to the General Committee as to the
person or persons by whom the research is to be carried out.
(B) ' That it is desirable that the question of publishing the papers more fully
and expeditiously, and of adding reports of discussions, be considered by the
Council.'
The Council are informed that steps have been taken to insure a more
expeditious publication of the Annual Report.
They do not recommend that papers should be published more fully ;
nor do they recommend that discussions should be published, excepting
in special cases when this is strongly advocated by Sectional Committees,
and approved of by the General Committee. They recommend that, in
every such case, an arrangement be made by the General Officers for the
l^roper editing of the discussion.
(C) ' That in the arrangement of the Journal it is desirable, in the interests of
clearness and of ease of reference, to return to the old practice of printing first the
papers to be read in the various Sections, then the papers read on the previous day
in those Sections, and lastly the list of Sectional Officers and of the Committees.'
The Council recommend that the papers to be read in the various
Sections be printed first, then the lists of the Committees, and lastly the
papers read on the previous day, and that each page should have a suit-
able heading.
(D) ' That the Council be requested, if possible, to fix the date of each meeting
two years before it is held, and to bear in mind that the middle or latter part of
September is the time most convenient to many members of the Association.
The Council considered that it is not practicable to fix the date of the
Annual Meeting two years before it is held. They recommend that infor-
mation be _ obtained at as early a date as possible as to the times which
are convenient to the town where a meeting is to be held, and that the
authorities in such town be informed that the last fortnight in September
is most generally convenient to academical and other important Sections
of the members of the Association.
(E) ' That the hours at which the Sections and Committees meet be again con-
sidered by the Council.'
The Council have requested the Organising Committees to propose to
the Council times for the meetings of their respective Committees and
Sections, and recommend that these proposals be adopted for the Cardiff
Meeting as an experimental measure.
BEPOET OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxiii
(F) ' That a general Index to the Reports of the Committees of tlie Association,
and of all papers ordered to be printed in extenso, be published, and that the Council
be authorised to spend such sums as may be necessary for the purpose.'
The Council resolved that the Index to the Annual Reports of the
Association be continued from the year 1863 to 1890 inclusive, and that
it consist of one part only. References to Abstracts of Papers will be
printed in italics.
(Gr) ' That the Council urge upon the Government to take steps to hasten the
completion of the Ordnanfce Survey, and to afEord greater facilities for the purchase
of the Survey Maps.'
The Council having ascertained that the maps of the Ordnance Survey
are neither known to nor used by the public nearly to the extent they
should be, considering their value and the vast sums of money which
have been expended on their production, and that this neglect arises from
various causes, chief among which are the very defective arrangements
made for the sale of the maps to the public, the obsolete topography of a
large poi-tion of the Survey, and the want of legal authority for the
boundaries shown by the maps, resolved to make to the Government the
following suggestions, with a view to the removal of the present obstacles
to the usefulness of the maps : —
(1) That some modification be made in the present character of
arrangements for the sale of the maps of the Ordnance Survey, wherehy
the maps may become more accessible to the public.
(2) That such additions be made to the Parliamentary grant for the
Ordnance Survey as will enable the revision to be made more complete,
and the arrears to be brought up to date within a reasonable time.
(3) That the boundaries and areas of the Ordnance Survey maps be
made legal boundaries and areas in England and Scotland, as they
already are in Ireland, so that they may form a basis for all valuation for
local or imperial assessments.
This memorandum was communicated to the President of the Board
of Agriculture, together with the following letter from the President of
the Association : —
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.,
March 11, 1891.
Sir, — I have the honour to invite your consideration of the accompanying memo-
randum, conveying the conclusions of the Council of the Britisli Association for the
Advancement of Science, on the subject of representations made to them in the form
of a resolution passed at the last Annual Meeting of the British Association, held at
Leeds in 1890, relating to some points of importance connected with the Ordnance
Survey and its value to Her Majesty's dominions generally.
I have to express the hope that you will feel disposed to invite the favourable
consideration of Her Majesty's Government to the recommendations included iu the
memorandum in question, and to state that, should you desire any further informa-
tion upon the subjects to which these recommendations relate, the Council of the
British Association will be happy to arrange for a deputation to wait upon you for
the purpose of affording you such additional information.
I have the honour to be, Sir, your obedient Servant,
(Signed) F. A. Abel, President.
The Right Hon. Henry Chaplin, M.P.,
President of the Board of Agriculture.
Ixxiv REPOET — 1891.
The following reply from the Board of Agriculture has been
received ;
Board of Agriculture, March 14, 1891.
Sir,— I am directed by Mr. Chaplin to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the 11th inst., forwarding a memorandum on the Ordnance Survey, and to say that
the subject will have due consideration.
I am, yours faithfully.
To Sir F. Abel, C.B., F.R.S., &c., &c. (Signed) P. H. Bagenal.
(H) ' That the Council be requested to consider the question of watching the
operation of Acts relating to Scientific and Technical Education, and to take such
steps as may seem desirable for furthering the objects of those Acts.'
The Council considered this Resolution, and are of opinion that there
is no necessity at the present time for them to take any action,
(I) ' That the Council be requested to consider whether it is not desirable to
make special provision for the comprehensive consideration by the Association of
questions relating to Scientific and Technical Education.'
"With regard to this Resolution, the Council understand that the chief
object of the Sectional Committee which originated it was to have
general discussions on scientific and technical questions organised, in
which members of the various Sections who have a special knowledge of
these questions should take part.
The Council consider that the Sectional Committees have sufficient
powers to deal with this proposal severally and jointly.
(J) ' That the paper by Mr. J. F. Green on " Steam Life-boats " be printed in
extenso, with the necessary drawings.'
The Council decided that an abstract only of this paper should be
printed.
The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee has been re-
ceived, and will be presented to the General Committee.
The CoiTesponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola (Secretary), Professor A. W. William-
son, Sir Douglas Galton, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Rawson
Rawson, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W. Topley, and
Professor T. G. Bonney, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the
General Committee, together with Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.
The Council nominate Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., Chairman, Dr. J. G.
Garson, F.Z.S., Vice-Chairman, and Professor R. Meldola, F.R.S., Secre-
tary to the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to be
beld during the Meeting at Cardiff.
In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the Council,
exclusive of Professor Rticker (who is recommended for the office of
Treasurer), will be : —
Mr. Blanford. i Mr. J. B. Martin.
Mr. Crookes. | Capt. Wharton.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are distin-
guished by an asterisk in the following list : —
EEPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Ixxv
•Anderson, Dr. W„ F.R.S.
Avrton, Prof. W. E., F.R.S.
I'.kker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
*L!ates, H. W., Esq., F.R.S,
Barwin, Prof. G. H., F.R.S.
Dong-lass, Sir J. N., F.R.S.
♦Edgeworth Prof. F. Y., M.A.
Evans, Dr. J., F.R.S.
Fitzgerald, Prof. G. F., F.R.S.
Glazebrook, R. T., Esq., F.R.S.
Judd, Prof. J. W., F.R.S.
Liveinar, Prof. G. D., F.R.S.
*Lodge, Prof, Oliver J., F.R.S.
Preece, W. H.. Esq., F.R.S.
♦Ramsay, Prof. W.. F.R.S.
Reinold, Prof. A. W., F.R.S.
Roberts-Austen, Prof. W. C, C.B., F.R.S.
Schafer, Prof. E. A., F.R.S.
Schuster, Prof. A., F.R.S.
Sidgwick, Prof. H., M.A.
*Symon?, G. J,, Esq., F.R.S.
Thorpe, Prof. T. E., F.R.S.
Ward, Prof. Marshall, F.R.S.
Whitaker, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Woodward, Dr. H., F.R.S.
Ixxvi
REPORT — 1891.
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the
Cardiff Meeting in August 1891.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Making Experiments for improv-
ing ttie Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.
[This grant includes 111. As. 6d.,
the unexpended balance of last
year's grant.]
Co-operating with the Scottish Me-
teorological Society in making
Meteorological Observations on
Ben Nevis.
The Ajaplication of Photography
to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.
For Calculating Tables of certain
Mathematical Functions, and,
if necessarj% for taking steps to
carry out the Calculations, and
to publish the results in an
accessible form.
Carrying on the Tables connected
wdth the Pellian Equation from
the point where the work was
left by Degen in 1817.
[This grant includes 51., the un-
expended balance of a previous
grant.]
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor Carey
Foster.
Secretary. — Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir WiUiam Thomson, Professors
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Lord Eayleigh, Drs. 0. J.
Lodge, John Hopkinson, and A.
Bluirhead, Messrs. W. H. Preece
and Herbert Taylor, Professors
Everett and Schuster, Dr. J. A.
Fleming, Professors G. F. Fitz-
gerald, Chrystal, and J. J. Thom-
son, Messrs. W. N. Shaw, J. T.
Bottomley.and T. C. Fitzpatrick,
Professor J. Viriamu Jones, Dr.
G. Johnstone Stoney, and Pro-
fessor S. P. Thompson.
Chairman. — Lord McLaren.
Secretary. — Professor Crum Brown.
Messrs. John Murray and Buchan,
Professor R. Copeland, and Hon.
R. Abercromby.
Chairman. — Mr. G. J. Symons.
Secretary. — Mr. Clayden.
Professor Meldola and Mr. John
Hopkinson.
Chair?!ian. — Lord Rayleigh.
Secretary. — Professor A. Lodge.
Sir William Thomson, Professor
Cayley, Professor B. Price, and
Messrs. J. W. L. Glaishei, A. G.
Greenhill, and W. M. Hicks.
Chairman. — Professor Cayley.
Secretary. — Professor A. Lodge.
Professor Sylvester and Mr. A. R.
Forsyth.
C0M5JITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxvii
1. Rf reiving CrranU of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Considering the subject of Elec-
trol3sis in its Physical and
Chemical Bearings.
Members of the Committee
To investigate the Phenomena ac-
companying the Discharge of
Electricity from Points.
The Volcanic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan.
To consider the best Method of
establishing an International
Standard for the Analysis of
Iron and Steel.
[This grant is the unexpended
balance of last year's grant.]
The Investigation of the direct
Formation of Haloids from
pure Materials.
[This grant includes 5Z. 5«., the
unexpended balance of last
year's grant.]
The Properties of Solutions .
The Action of Light upon Dyed
Colours.
Chairman. — Professor Fitzgerald.
Secretaries. — Professors H. E.
Armstrong and O. J. Lodge.
Professors Sir William Thomson,
Lord Rayleigh, J. J. Thomson,
Schuster, Poynting, Crum
Brown, Earn say, Frankland,
Tilden, Hartlej', S. P. Thomp-
son, Roberts- Austen, Eiicker,
Reinold, Carey Foster, and H. B.
Dixon, Captain Abney, Drs.
Gladstone, Hopkinson. and
Fleming, and Messrs. Crookes,
Rhelford Bidwell, W. N. Shaw,
J. Larmor, J. T. Bottomley,
R- T. Glazebrook, J. Brown,
E. J. Love, and John M. Thom-
Chairman. — Professor O. J. Lodge.
Secretary. — Mr. A. P. Chattock.
Professor Carey Foster.
Chairman. — Sir Wm. Thomson.
Secretary. — Professor J. Jlilne.
Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. J. T.
Bottomley, and Professor A. H.
Green.
Chairman. — Professor Roberts-
Austen.
Secretary. — Mr. Thomas Turner.
Sir F. Abel, Messrs. E. Riley and
J. Spiller, Professor J. W. Lang-
ley, Mr. G. J. Snelus, and Pro-
fessor Tilden.
Chairman. — Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Secretary. — Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr.
C. H. Bothamley.
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Til-
den.
Secretary. — Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor Ramsay.
Chairman. — Professor Thorpe.
Secretary. — Professor J. J. Hum-
mel.
Dr. Perkin, Professor Russell,
Captain Abney, and Professor
Stroud.
Grants
s. d.
50
10
8 16
25 5
10
10
Ixxviii
REPORT— 1891.
1. Bccciring Grants of Mone]/— continued.
Subject for Investigatiou or Purpose
Recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Cha-
racters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England,
AVales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest con-
nected with the same, and tak-
ing measures for their preserva-
tion.
[This grant includes \0l. granted
last year but not drawn.]
The Description and Illustration
of the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Palaeozoic PiOcks.
[This grant was drawn last year,
but was not spent.]
The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Kegistration of
Photographs of Geological in-
terest.
To consider the best Methods for
the Registration of all Type
Specimens of Fossils in the
British Isles, and to report on
the same.
The Circulation of the Under-
ground Waters in the Permeable
Formations of England, and
the Quality and Quantitj- of
the Waters supplied to various
Towns and Districts from these
Formations.
To complete the Investigation of
the Cave at Elbolton, near Skip-
ton, in order to ascertain whether
the remains of Palajolithic Man
occur in the Lower Cave Earth.
To investigate the Extent and the
Faunal Contents of the Sonerhiji
Zone, and its Relationship to the
concavum and Sauzei Zones.
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor J. Prest-
wich.
Secretary. — Dr. H. W. Crosskey.
Professors W. Boyd Dawkins, T.
McK. Hughes, and T. G. Bonney
and Messrs. C. E. De Ranee,
P. F. Kendall, W. Pengelly, J.
Plant, and E. H. Tiddeman.
C/wirvmn.—'Rev. Prof. T. Wilt-
shire.
Secretary — Professor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman. — Professor J. Geikie.
Secretary.— Mr. 0. W. Jeffs.
Professors Bonney and Bo3'd Daw-
kins, Drs. V. Ball and T. Ander-
son, and Messrs. A. S. Reid, E. J.
Garwood, W. Gray, H. B. Wood-
ward, J. E. Bedford, R. Kidston,
VV. W. Watts, J. W. Davis, and
E. H. Tiddeman.
Chairman. — Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary. — Mr. A. Smith Wood-
ward.
Rev. G. F. Whidborne and Messrs.
R. Kidston and J. E. Marr,
Cltairman. — Professor E. Hull.
Secretarif. — Mr. C. E. De Ranee.
Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Sir D. Gal-
ton, Professor J. Prestwich, and
Messrs. J. Glaisher, P. Kendall,
E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton, W.
Pengelly, J. Plant, I. Roberts,
T. S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W.
Topley, Tylden - Wright, E.
Wethered, and W. Whitaker.
Chairman. — Mr. J. AV. Davis.
Secretary. — Rev. E. Jones.
Drs. J. Evans and J. G. Garson
and Messrs. W. Pengelly, R. H.
Tiddeman, and J. J. Wilkinson.
Chairman. — Professor T. Rupert
Jones.
Secretary. — Mr. S. R. Buckman.
Rev. Professor T. Wiltshire.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Ixxix
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To carry on Excavations at Old-
bur}' Hill, near Ightham, in order
to ascertain the existence or
otherwise of Kock Shelters at
that spot.
Completion of a Keport on the
Cretaceous Polyzoa.
To appoint Mr. Willey to investi-
gate the Morphology of the
Ascidiaus at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples, or, failing this,
to appoint some other competent
investigator to carrj' on a defi-
nite piece of work at the Zoolo-
gical Station at Naples approved
by the Council.
To arrange for the Occupation of
a Table at the Laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association,
Plymouth.
For improving and experimenting
with a Deep-sea Tow-net for
opening and closing under water.
[This includes 27Z.14«. 6<?. granted
last year but not drawn.]
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, and "to
take steps to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the Fauna,
with power to co-operate with
the Committee appointed for
the purpose by theKoyal Society,
and to avail themselves of such
assistance in their investiga-
tions as may be offered by the
Hawaiian Government.
[100/!. granted last year but not
drawn.]
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
and Botany of the West India
Islands, and to take steps to in-
vestigate ascertained deficien-
cies in the Fauna and Flora.
[100/. granted last year but not
drawn.]
Members of the Committee
Grants
Chairman. — Dr. J. Evans.
Secretary. — Mr. B. Harrison.
Professors Prestwich and H. G.
Seeley.
ChaArman. — Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary. — Mr. G. E. Vine.
Professor T. Rupert Jones and Dr.
H. C. Sorby.
Chairman. — Dr. P. L. Sclater.
Secretanj. — Mr. Percy Sladen.
Professors Kay Lankester, Cossar
Ewart, M. Foster, and A. Milnes
Marshall and Mr. Sedo-wick.
Chairman. — Professor E. Bay
Lankester.
Secretary. — Mr. S. F. Harmer.
Professors M. Foster and S. H.
Vines.
Chairman. — Professor A. C. Had-
don.
Secretai-y. — Mr. W. E. Eoyle.
Professor W. A. Herdman.
CItairman. — Professor Newton.
Secretary.— T)T. David Sharp.
Dr. Blanford, Dr. Hickson, Pro-
fessor Riley, Mr. Salvin, Dr.
Sclater, and Mr. Edgar A.
Smith.
s. d.
Chairman. — Dr. P. L. Sclater,
Secretary. — Mr. G. Murray.
Mr. Carruthers, Drs. Giinther and
Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
Professor Newton, and Dr. D. H.
Scott.
10
100
17 10
40
100
100
BEPORT — 1891.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject of Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Grants
Climatological and Hydrographi-
ChairmaM.— Mr. E. G. Ravenstein.
75
s. d.
cal Conditions of Tropical
Secretary. — Mr. G. J. Symons.
Africa.
Mr. Baldwin Latham.
For carrying on the Work of the
Chairman.—'Proiessor Flower.
5
Anthropometric Laboratory.
Secretary. — Dr. Garson.
Mr. Bloxam and Dr. Wilberforce
Smith.
Exploration of Prehistoric Remains
Chairman. — Dr. J. G. Garson.
50
in Maslionaland.
Secretary. — Mr. J. Theodoi'e Bent.
Mr. Rudler, Mr. Brabrook, and
Mr. Bloxam.
The Physical Characters, Lan-
Chairman.— T>r. B. B. Tylor.
100
guages, and Industrial and So-
Secretary. — Mr. Bloxam.
cial Condition of the North-
Sir Daniel Wilson, Dr. G. M. Daw-
western Tribes of the Dominion
son, Mr R. G. Haliburton, and
of Canada.
Mr. H. Hale.
The Habits, Customs, Physical
Chairman. — Sir William Turner.
10
Characteristics, and Eeligions
Secretary. — Mr. Bloxam.
of the Natives of India.
Professor Flower, Drs. Garson
and E. B. Tylor, and Mr, H. H.
Risley.
Editing a new Edition of ' Anthro-
Chairman. — Professor Flower.
20
pological Notes and Queries.'
■ Secretary.— Br. Garson,
Dr. Beddoe, General Pitt-Rivers,
Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. E. B.
Tylor, and Mr. Brabrook.
Corresponding Societies' Com-
Chairman. — Mr. G. J. Symons.
25
mittee.
^Secretary. — Professor R. Meldola.
Mr. Francis Galton, Professor A.
W. Williamson, Sir Douglas
Galton, Professor Boyd Daw-
kins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Dr. John Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
Bonney, Mr. W. Whitaker,
General Pitt-Rivers, Mr. W.
Topley, and Mr. T. V. Holmes.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To co-operate with Dr. Piazzi Smyth Iq
his Researches on the Ultra Violet
Rays of the Solar Spectrum,
Chairman. — Professor Liveing.
Secretary. — Dr. Piazzi Smyth.
Professors Dewar and Schuster,
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Ixxxi
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.
The Eate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.
Considering the best Methods of Ee-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Kadiation.
To co-operate with Dr. Kerr in his
researches on Eiectro-optics.
The various Phenomena connected with
the recalescent Points in Iron and
other Metals.
To consider the establishment of a
National Physical Laboratory for the
more accurate determination of Phy-
sical Constants, and for other Quanti-
tative Research, and to confer with
the Council of the Association.
Modes of measuring the Optical Con-
stants of Microscopic, Photographic,
and other Lenses, and of specifying
and enumerating the Properties of
their Combinations.
1891.
Chairman. — Mr. John Murray.
Secretary. — Mr. John Murray.
Professor Schuster, Sir William Thom-
son, the Abbe Renard, Mr. A. Buchan,
the Hon. R. Abercromby, and Dr. M.
Grabham.
Chairman. — Professor Everett.
Secretary. — Professor Everett.
Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr. G.
J. Symons, Sir A. C. Ramsay, Sir A.
Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly,
Professor Edward Hull, Professor
Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Pro-
fessor A. S. Herschel, Professor G. A.
Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Gallo-
way, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, Mr. A. Stra-
han, and Professor Michie Smith.
Chairman. — Professor W. G. Adams.
Secretary. — Professor W. G. Adams.
Sir W. Thomson, Professors G. H. Dar-
win and G. Chrystal, Mr. C. H. Carp-
mael, Professor Schuster, Mr. G. M.
Whipple, Captain Creak, the Astro-
nomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis, and
Professor A. W. Riicker.
Chaiiinan. — ^Sir G. G. Stokes.
Secretary. — Mr. G. J. Symons.
Professor Schuster, Mr. G. Johnstone
Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain
Abney, Mr. Whipple, and Professor
M'Leod.
Clmirman. — Dr. John Kerr.
Secretary. — Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir W. Thomson and Professor Riicker.
Chairman. — Professor Fitzgerald .
Secretary. — Professor Barrett.
Dr. John Hopkinson, Mr. R. A. Hadfield,
Mr. Trouton, Professor Roberts-Austen,
and Mr. H. F. Newall.
Chaiiinan. — Professor Oliver J. Lodge.
Secretary. — Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Sir William Thomson, Lord Rayleigh,
Professors J. J. Thomson, Riicker,
Clifton, Fitzgerald, Carey Foster, and
J. Viriamu Jones.
Chairman. — Professor G. C. Foster.
Secretary. — Professor S. P. Thompson.
Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, J. Walker, Sir
Howard Grubb, Mr. Whipple, and
Captain Abney.
e
lixxii KEPOET— 1891.
2. Not receiving Grants of ^J/ywcy— continued.
To examine and report how greater
uniformity may be introduced into
the Kecord of Spectroscopic Work.
Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.
To report on recent Inquiries into the
History of Chemistry.
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
Preparing a new Series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
The Influence of the Silent Discharge
of Electricity on Oxygen and other
Gases.
The Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of
Oxygen.
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives
Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds.
To inquire into the Proximate Chemical
Constituents of the various kinds of
Coai;
The Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of
England and Wales, and the Influence
of the Artificial Abstraction of
Shingle or other material in that
action.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.— TtT. Johnstone Stoney.
Secretary. — Dr. Johnstone Stoney.
Dr. Huggins and Professor Liveing.
Chairman.— Vmiessor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.— Bi. W. AV. J. Nicol.
Professors M'Leod, Pickering, Ramsay,
and Young and Dr. A. R. Leeds.
Chairman. — Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Secretary.— FToiessor John Ferguson.
Chairman. — Professor H. M'Leod.
Secretary. — Professor Roberts- Austen.
Professor Reinold and Mr. H. G. Madan.
Chairvia7i. — Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretary. — Dr. Marshall Watts.
Mr. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, Liveing,
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott
Gibbs, and Captain Abney.
Chairman. — Professor H. M'Leod.
Secretary. — Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor Ramsay and Mr. J. T. Cundall.
Chairman. — Dr. Russell.
Secretary. — Dr. A. Richardson.
Captain Abney and Professors
Hartley and W. Ramsay.
Noel
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary. — Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Cliairman. — General Festing.
Secretary. — Dr. H. E. Armstrong.
Captain Abney.
Chairman. — Sir I. Lowthian Bell.
Secretary. — Professor P. Phillips Bedson.
Mr. Ludwig Mond, Professors Vivian B.
Lewes and E. Hull, and Messrs. J. W.
Thomas and H. Bauerman.
Chairman. — Mr. R. B. Grantham.
Secretaries. — Messrs. C. E. De Ranee and
W. Topley.
Messrs. J. B. Redman, W. Whitaker, and
J. W.Woodall, Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Clarke,
Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Sir J . N.
Douglass, Capt. Sir G. Nares, Capt.
J. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton,
Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. E.
Easton, J. S. Valentine, and L. F.
Vernon Harcourt.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
2. Not receiving Granti of Money — continued.
Ixxxiii
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To undertake the Investigation of the
Sources of the River Aire, and also to
test the value of Uranin and other
Dyes in investigating the Courses of
Underground Streams.
The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius
and its neighbourhood.
Considering the advisability and possi-
bility of establishing in other parts
of the country Observations upon the
Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar
to those now being made in Durham
in connection with coal-mine explo-
sions.
To consider a project for investigating
the Structure of a Coral Keef by
Boring and Sounding.
Disappearance of Native Plants from
their Local Habitats.
To make a Digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Light-vessels.
For taking steps to establish a Botanical
Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon.
To consider proposals for the Legislative
Protection of Wild Birds' Eggs.
The Teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools.
Chairman. — Professor R. Meldola.
Secretary. — Professor Silvanus P. Thomp-
son.
Mr. J. Birbeck, Mr. Walter Morrison,
M.P., Rev. G. Style, and Mr. Thomas
Tate.
Chairman. — Mr. H. Bauerman.
Secretary. — Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis.
Messrs. F. W. Rudler and J. J. H. Teall.
ChairnMn. — Mr. G. J. S3'mons.
Sec7rtary.^M.T. C. Davison.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Mr. E. A. Cowper,
Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor
Ewing, Mr. Isaac Roberts, Mr. Thomas
Gray, Dr. John Evans, Professors Prest-
wich, Hull, Lebour, Meldola, and Judd,
Mr. M. Walton Brown, and Mr. J.
Glaisher.
Chairman. — Professor T. G. Bonney.
Secretary. — Professor W. J. SoUas.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Professors A. H.
Green, J. W. Judd, and C. Lapworth,
Captain Wharton, Drs. H. Hicks and J.
Murray, and Mr. F. Darwin.
Chairman. — Mr. A. W. Wills.
Secretary. — Professor W. Hillhouse.
Messrs. E. W. Badger and George Cla-
ridge Druce.
Chairman. — Professor Newton.
Secretary. — Mr. John Cordeaux.
Messrs. John A. Harvie-Brown, R. M.
Barrington, and W. E. Clarke and the
Rev. E. P. Knubley.
Chairman. — Professor M. Foster.
Secretary. — Professor F. 0. Bower.
Professor Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thiselton-
Dyer, Dr. Trimen, Professor Marshall
Ward, Mr. Carruthers, Professor Har-
tog, and Mr. W. Gardiner.
Chairman. — Mr. Thomas Henry Thomas.
Secretary.— T)T. C. T. Vachell.
Professors W. N. Parker, Newton, and
Leipner, Mr. Poulton, and Canon
Tristram.
Chairman. — Dr. J. H. Gladstone.
Secretary. — Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Mr. S. Bourne, Dr. Crosskey, Mr. George
Gladstone, Mr. J. Heywood, Sir J.
Lubbock, Sir Philip Magnus, Professor
N. Story Maskelyne, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Sir R. Temple, and Professor Silvanus P.
Thompson.
e 2
Ixxxiv
KEPOKX — 1891.
2. Not Teceiving Grants of Mmeiz—contiimed.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
Intermarriage between widely dis-
similar Peoples inhabiting the same
Country.
The Prehistoric and Ancient Remains
of Glamorganshire.
Chairman.— Froiessor F. Max Miiller.
Secretary.— Mr. H. Ling Roth.
Dr. E. B. Tylor.
Chairman. — Lord Aberdare.
Secretary.— Ml. E. Seward.
Lord Bute, Messrs. G. T. Clark, R. W.
Atkinson, Franklen G. Evans, C. Tan-
field Vachell, James Bell, and T. H.
Thomas, and Dr. Garson.
Other Resolutions adopted hy the General Gomimttee.
That Mr. W. N. Shaw be requested to continue his Report on the present state of
our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry,
That the Report on Thermodynamics presented by Dr. J. Larmor and Mr. G. H.
Brypii be printed among the Reports.
That Dr. J. Larmor and Mr. G. H. Bryan be requested to continue their Report
on the present state of our knowledge in Thermodynamics, specially with regard to
the Second Law.
That Professor H. A. Newton's paper on ' The Action of a Planet upon Small
Bodies passing near the Planet, with special reference to the Action of Jupiter upon
such Bodies,' be printed in extenso in the Report of the Association.
That the Report presented by the Committee appointed to arrange for the occupa-
tion of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples be printed in full in the Reports.
That the arrangements for Sectional Meetings adopted at the present Annual
Meeting be continued next year at Edinburgh.
Besolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
if desirable.
A Resolution relating to the Times of Meeting of the General Committee and the
Committee of Recommendations.
Resolutions referring to the Ordnance Survey, viz. :
(1) That the publication of the one-inch and six-inch Ordnance Survey Maps is,
in the interests of Science, urgently required at the earliest possible date, no less
than in the interests of Industry, Manufacture, and Technical Education.
(2) That steps be taken and provision made for keeping the Ordnance Maps up
to date.
(3) That the Maps should be made more accessible to the public, and should be
sold at a lower price, as is the case in nearly aU other official publications, such as
Admiralty Charts, Blue Books, &.c.
That the following papers be printed in full : ' Recent Progress in Indian Agricul-
ture,' by C. L. Tupper; ' Recent Progress in Indian Railways,' by W. C. Furnivall.
Ixxxv
k
4
6
' ■Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur-
poses by the General Committee at the Cardiff Meeting, in
August 1891. The Names of the Members entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.
£ s. d.
*roster, Professor Carey. — Electrical Standards (partly re-
newed) 27
*McLaren, Lord. — Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis 50
Symons, Mr. G. J. — Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena 15
*Cayley, Professor. — Pellian Equation Tables (partly I'ene wed) 15
*B/ayleigb, Lord — Tables of Mathematical Functions 15
*Fitzgerald, Professor. — Electrolysis 5
*Lodge, Professor 0. J. — Discharge of Electricity from Points 50
♦Thomson, Sir W. — Seismological Phenomena of Japan 10
Chemistry and Mineralogy.
*iloberts-Austen, Professor. — Analysis of Iron and Steel (re-
newed) 8 16
Armstrong, Professor H. B. — Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials (partly renewed) 25 5
*Tilden, Professor W. A. — Properties of Solutions 10
*Thorpe, Professor — Action of Light upon Dyed Colours
(partly renewed) 10
Geology.
*Prestwich, Professor. — Erratic Blocks (partly renewed) ... 15
*Wiltshire, Rev. T.— Fossil Phyllopoda (renewed) 10
*Geikie, Professor J. — Photographs of Geological Interest ... 20
*Woodward, Dr. H. — Registration of Type Specimens of
British Fossils (renewed) 5
*Hull, Professor E. — Underground Waters 10
*Davis, Mr. J. W.— Investigation of Elbolton Cave 25
Jones, Professor T. R. — Faunal contents of Sowerbyi Zone ... 10
*Evans, Dr. J.— Excavations at Oldbury Hill 25
*Woodward, Dr. H. — Cretaceous Polyzoa 10
Carried forward J371 5 6
* Reappointed.
IxXXVi REPORT — 1891.
£ 8. d.
Brought forward 371 5 6'
Biology.
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.— Table at the Naples Zoological Station 100
*Lankester, Professor E. R. — Table at Plymouth Biological
Laboratory (renewed) 17 10
*Haddon, Professor A. C. — Improving a Deep sea Tow-net
(partly renewed) 40 0-
*Newton, Professor — Fauna of Sandwich Islands (renewed) 100
*Sclater, Dr. P. L. — Zoology and Botany of the West India
Islands (renewed) 100
Geography.
Ravenstein, Mr. E. G. — Climatology and Hydrography of
Tropical Africa 75 0'
Anthropology.
*Flower, Professor. — Anthropometric Laboratory 5
*Garson, Dr. J. G. — Prehistoric Remains in Mashonaland ... 50
*Tylor, Dr. E. B.— North- Western Tribes of Canada 100
*Turner, Sir W. — Habits, Customs, &c., of Natives of India
(renewed) 10
*Flower, Professor. — New Edition of Anthropological Notes
and Queries 20
*Symons, Mr. G. J. — Corresponding Societies Committee ... 26
£1,013 15 6
* Keappoiuted.
The Annual Meeting in 1892.
The Meeting at Edinburgh will commence on Wednesday, August 3;
Place of Meeting in 1893.
The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Nottingham.
Ixxxvii
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. d.
1834.
Tide Discussions 20
1835.
Tide Discussions 62
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105
£167
1836.
Tide Discussions 163
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105
Thermometric Observations,
&c 50
Experiments on long-con-
tinued Heat 17 1
Kain-gauges 9 13
Eefraction Experiments 15
Lunar Nutation 60
Thermometers 15 6
£435
1837.
Tide Discussions 284 1
Chemical Constants 24 13 6
Lunar Nutation 70
Observations on Waves 100 12
Tides at Bristol 150
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 93 3
Vitrification Experiments ... 150
Heart Experiments 8 4 6
Barometric Observations 30
Barometers 11 18 6
£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions 29
British Fossil Fishes 100
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer (construc-
tion) 100
Cast Iron (Strength of) 60
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of) ... 19 1 10
Railway Constants 41 12 10
Bristol Tides 50
Growth of Plants 75
Mud in Kivers 3 6 6
Education Committee 50
Heart Experiments 5 3
Land and Sea Level 267 8 7
Steam-vessels 100
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5
£932 2 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology 110
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &c 63 10
£ s. d.
Mechanism of Waves 144 2
Bristol Tides 35 18 6
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 21 11
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7
Cast-iron Experiments 103
Railway Constants 28 7 2
Land and Sea Level 274 1 4
Steam-vessels' Engines 100
Stars in Histoire Celeste 171 18 6
Stars in Lacaille 11
Stars in R. A. S. Catalogue ...166 16 6
Animal Secretions 10 10
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50
Atmospheric Air 16 1
Cast and Wrought Iron 40
Heat on Organic Bodies 3
Gases on Solar Spectrum 22
Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
Kingussie 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles 118 2 9
Mining Statistics 50
£1595 11
1840.
Bristol Tides 100
Subterranean Temperature ... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments 18 19
Lungs Experiments 8 13
Tide Discussions 50
Land and Sea Level 6 11 1
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 242 10
Stars (Lacaille) 4 15
Stars (Catalogue) 264
Atmospheric Air 15 15
Water on Iron 10
Heat on Organic Bodies 7
Meteorological Observations . 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population 100
School Statistics 50
Forms of Vessels 184 7
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
nomena 40
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 80
Magnetical Observations 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves 30
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature 8 8
Actinometers 10
Earthquake Shocks 17 7
Acrid Poisons 6
Veins and Absorbents 3
Mud in Rivers 5
Ixxxviii
KEPOET 1891.
£ s. d.
Marine Zoology 15 12 8
Skeleton Maps 20
Mountain Barometers 6 18 6
Stars (Histoire Caeste) 185
Stars (Lacaille) 79 5
Stars (Nomenclature of) 17 19 6
Stars (Catalogue of ) 40
Water onlron 50
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness 20
Meteorological Observations
(reduction of) 25
Fossil Eeptiles 50
Foreign Memoirs 62 6
Kail way Sections 38 1
Forms of Vessels 193 12
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 55
Magnetical Observations ...!.. 61 18 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
stone 100
Tides at Leith 50
Anemometer at Edinburgh ... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations 9 6 3
Races of Men 5
Radiate Animals 2
£1285 10 11
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments . . 113 11 2
Anoplura BritanniEe 52 12
Tides at Bristol 59 8
Gases on Light 30 14 7
Chronometers 26 17 6
Marine Zoology 16
British Fossil Mammalia 100
Statistics of Education 20
Marine Steam-vessels' En-
gines 28
Stars (Histoire Celeste) 59
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) ... 110
Railway Sections 161 10
British Belemnites 50
Fossil Reptiles (publication
of Report) 210
Forms of Vessels 180
Galvanic Experiments on
Rocks 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments
at Plymouth 68
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments 90
Force of Wind 10
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8
Vital Statistics 50
Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race ... 7 9
£1449 17 8
1843.
Eevision of the Nomenclature
of Stars 2
£ s. d.
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue 25
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
Forth 120
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
Inverness 77 12 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth 55
Whewell's Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth 10
Meteorological Observations,
Osier's Anemometer at Ply-
mouth 20
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations 30
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities 39 6
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness 56 12 2
Magnetic Co-operation 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory 50
Action of Gases on Light 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries ... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
loons 81 8
Oxidation of the Rails of
Railways 20
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles 40
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks 30
Report on Zoological Nomen-
clature 10
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds ... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of) . 10
Marine Zoology 10
Marine Zoology 2 14 11
Preparation of Report on Brit-
ish Fossil Mammalia 100
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents 20
Vital Statistics 36 6 8
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels 70
Additional Experiments on
the forms of Vessels 100
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels 100
Morin's Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials 60
£1565 10 2
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ixxxix
£ s. d.
1844.
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12
Completing Observations at
Plymouth 35
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
Stars 35
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland ... 100
Revision of the Nomenclature
of Stars 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-
vatory 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10
Subterraneous Temperature
in Ireland 5
•Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections ]5 17 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
of the Lower Tertiary Strata 100
Eegistering the Shocks of
Earthquakes 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20
Eadiata and Mollusca of the
iEgean and Bed Seas 1842 100
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology 1842 10
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Corfu 10
Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds 9
Experiments on the Vitality
of Seeds 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura 15
Strength of Mat erials 1 00
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships 100
Inquiries into Asphyxia 10
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals 50
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin's Instrument 1842 10
£981 12 8
1845.
iPablication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation 16 16 8
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh 18 11 9
Seduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25
£
s.
d.
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory
43
17
8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
149
15
For Kreil's Barometrograph
25
Gases from Iron Furnaces...
50
The Actinograph
15
Microscopic Structure of
Shells
20
Exotic Anoplura 1843
10
Vitality of Seeds 1843
2
7
Vitality of Seeds 1844
7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall .
10
Physiological Action of Medi-
20
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York
20
Earthquake Shocks 1843
15
14
8
£831
9
9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
of Stars 1844 211 15
Fossil Fishes of the London
Clay 100
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 5
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146
Strength of Materials 60
Researches in Asphyxia 6
Examination of Fossil Shells 10
Vitality of Seeds 1844 2
Vitality of Seeds 1845 7
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Marine Zoology of Britain ... 10
Exotic Anoplura 1844 25
Expenses attending Anemo-
meters 11
Anemometers' Repairs 2
Atmospheric Waves 3
Captive Balloons 1844 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York 12
£685 16
16
7
16
2
15
10
12
3
7
6
3
6
3
3
19
8
6
3
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 50
Habits of Marine Animals ... 10
Physiological Action of Medi-
cines 20
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10
Atmospheric Waves 6 9 3
Vitality of Seeds 4 7 7
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
£208 5 4
zc
REPOKT 1891.
£ s. d.
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves 3 10 9
Vitality of Seeds 9 15
Completion of Catalogue of
Stars 70
On Colouring Matters 5
On Growth of Plants 15
£275 1 8"
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory 50
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at ditto 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 8 1
On Growth of Plants 5
Kegistration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ■ 13 9
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50
Periodical Phenomena 15
Meteorological Instruments,
Azores 25
£345 18~0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
1849) 309 2 2
Theory of Heat 20 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants 5
Vitality of Seeds 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30
Ethnological Inquiries 12
Researches on Annelida 10
£391 9^7
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of grant
for 1850).. 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-
tion of Heat 5 2 9
Influence of Solar Radiations 20
Geological Map of Ireland ... 15
Researches on the British An-
nelida 10
Vitality of Seeds 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates 10
£304~6~7
£ «. d,
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0'
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation 15 0"
Researches on the British
Annelida 10
Dredging on the East Coast
of Scotland 10
Ethnological Queries 5
£205 O'
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former grant) 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax 11 0-
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron 10 a
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
British Annelida 10 Q
Vitality of Seeds 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat 4 2
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425
Earthquake Movements 10
Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds 10 7 11
Map of the World 15
Ethnological Queries 5
Dredging near Belfast 4
£480T6~4
575
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854 £ 75 0\
1855 £500 0/
Strickland's Ornithological
Synonyms 100
Dredging and Dredging
Forms 9 13
Chemical Action of Light ... 20
Strength of Iron Plates 10
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena 10
Propagation of Salmon 10
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350 0'
Earthquake Wave Experi-
ments 40 0'
Dredging near Belfast 10
Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland 10
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XClr
£ s. d.
Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California 10
Experiments on Flax 5
Natural History of Mada-
gascar 20
Researches on British Anne-
lida 25
Report on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool ... 10
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
mon 10
Temperature of Mines 7 8
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations 5 7 4
Life-boats 5
£507 1 5 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Eartliquake Wave Experi-
ments 25
Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland 10
Dredging near Dublin 6
Vitality of Seeds 5 5
Dredging near Belfast 18 13 2
Report on the British Anne-
lida 25
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
Fluids 20
Report on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
land 10
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Dredging near Dublin 15
Osteology of Birds 50
Irish Tunicata 5
Manure Experiments 20
British Medusidae 5
Dredging Committee 5
Steam -vessels 'Performance... 5
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland 10
Photographic Chemistry 10
Lanarkshire Fossils 20 1
Balloon Ascents 39 11
£684 11 i
1860. ~^~~~~
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew^ Observatory 500
Dredging near Belfast 16 6
Dredging in Dublin Bay 15
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels 124
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20
£ s. d.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals 25 0-
Researches on the Growth of
Plants 10 0'
Researches on the Solubility
of Salts 30
ResearchesontheConstituents
of Manures 25
Balance of Captive Balloon
Accounts 1 13 6
£766 19~6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 500
Earthquake Experiments 25
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland 23
Dredging Committee : —
1860 £50 \
1861 £22 J
Excavations at Dura Den 20
Solubility of Salts 20
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150
Fossils of Lesmahagow 15
Explorations at Uriconium ... 20
Chemical Alloys 20
Classified Index to the Trans-
actions 100
Dredging in the Mersey and
Dee 5
Dip Circle 30
Photoheliographic Observa-
tions 50
Prison Diet 20
Gauging of Water 10
Alpine Ascents 6
Constituents of Manures 25
£1111
0-
72
0-
0'
0-
5 la'
5 la
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Patent Laws 21 6
Molluscaof N.-W. of America 10
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine 5
Tidal Observations 25 0-
Photoheliometer at Kew 40
Photographic Pictures of the
Sun 150 0-
Rocks of Donegal 25 0-
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland 25 0-
Connection of Storms 20 0^
Dredging North-east Coast
of Scotland 6 9
Ravages of Teredo 3 11
Standards of Electrical Re-
sistance 50
Railway Accidents 10
Balloon Committee 200
Dredging Dublin Bay 10
xcu
REPORT — 1891.
£ s. d.
Dredging the Mersey 5
Prison Diet 20
•Gauging ofWater 12 10
Steamships' Performance 150
Thermo-electric Currents ... 5
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600
Balloon Committee deficiency 70
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
penses) 25
Entozoa 25
Coal Fossils 20
Herrings 20
Granites of Donegal 5
Prison Diet 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 13
Dredging Shetland 50
Dredging North-east Coast of
Scotland 25
Dredging Northumberland
and Durham 17
Dredging Committee superin-
tendence 10
Steamship Performance 100
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
Volcanic Temperature 100
Bromide of Ammonium 8
Electrical Standards 100
Electrical Construction and
Distribution 40
Luminous Meteors 17
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph 100
Thermo-electricity 15
Analysis of Kocks 8
Hydroida 10
£1608
3 10
3
10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Coal Fossils 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
ments 20
Dredging Shetland 75
Dredging Northumberland... 25
Balloon Committee 200
Carbon under pressure 10
Standards of Electric Re-
sistance 100
Analysis of Rocks 10
Hydroida 10
Askham's Gift 50
Nitrite of Amyle 10
Nomenclature Committee ... 5
Rain-gauges 19 15 g
Cast-iron Investigation 20
£ g. d.
Tidal Observations in the
Humber 50
Spectral Rays 45
Luminous Meteors 20
£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Balloon Committee 100
Hydroida 13
Rain-gauges 30
Tidal Observations in the
Humber 6 8
Hexylic Compounds 20
Amyl Compounds 20
L-isii Flora 25
American Mollusca 3 9
Organic Acids 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
Eurypterus 50
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Researches 30
Oyster Breeding 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent's Hole Excavations 100
Moon's Surface Observations 35
Marine Fauna 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in Water 100
Bath Waters Analysis 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors 40
£l591~7^r6
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory. . 600
Lunar Committee 64 13 4
Balloon Committee 60
Metrical Committee 50
British Rainfall 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron 50
Amyl Compounds 25
Electrical Standards 100
Malta Caves Exploration 30
Kent's Hole Exploration 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50
Dredging the Mersey 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in Water 60
Polycyanidesof Organic Radi-
cals 29
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ s. d.
Rigor Mortis 10
Irish Annelida 15
Catalogue of Crania 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene
Islands 50
Typical Crania Researches ... 30
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100
£1750 13 4
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,
Palestine 50
Lunar Committee 120
Metrical Committee .. 30
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 100
Palestine Explorations 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine 30
British Rainfall 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf -bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30
Dredging Shetland 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-
tion 100
Electrical Standards 100
Ethyl and Methj'l series 25
Fossil Crustacea 25
Sound under Water 24 4
North Greenlaad Fauna 75
Do. Plant Beds 100
Iron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent Laws .30
ij& £173^ 4
^ 1868.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory. . 600
Lunar Committee 120
Metrical Committee 50
Zoological Record 100
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150
Steamship Performances 100
British Rainfall 50
Luminous Meteors 50
Organic Acids 60
Fossil Crustacea 25
Methyl Series 25
Mercuryand Bile 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks 25
Scottish Earthquakes 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds 50
Greenland Explorations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature ... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances 5
£
Secondary Reptiles, &;c 30
British Marine Invertebrate
Fauna 100
£1940
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory. . 600
Lunar Committee 50
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water 25
British Rainfall 50
Thermal Conductivitj' of Iron,
&c 30
Kent's Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances 30
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron 80
Iron and Steel jManufacture 100
Methj'l Series 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks 10
E arthquakes in Scotland 10
British Fossil Corals 50
Bagshot Leaf -beds 30
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature ... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances 5
Organic Acids 12
Kiltorcan Fossils 20
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
tions 15
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage 10
Products of Digestion 10
£1622"
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Ears in Fishes 10
Chemical Nature of Cast Iron 80
Luminous Meteors 30
Heat in the Blood 15
British Rainfall 100
Thermal Conductivity of
Iron, &c 20
British Fossil Corals 60
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150
Scottish Earthquakes 4
Bagshot Leaf -beds 15
Fossil Flora 25
Tidal Observations 100
Underground Temperature ... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
». d.
0'
a-
0'
0-
0-
0-
0'
0'
0'
XCIV
EEPORT — 1891.
£ ». d.
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage 50
"Organic Chemical Compounds 30
■Onny Kiver (Sediment 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat 5
£1572
J871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
.Monthly Keports of Progress
in Chemistry 100
Metrical Committee 25
Zoological Record 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine 10
Tidal Observations 100
Fossil Flora 25
Luminous Meteors 30
British Fossil Corals 25
Heat in the Blood 7 2 6
British Eainfall 50
Kent's Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea 25
Methyl Compounds 25
Lunar Objects 20
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing 20
Bagshot Leaf-beds 20
Moab Explorations 100
"Gaussian Constants 40
£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 300
Metrical Committee 75
Zoological Eecord 100
Tidal Committee 200
Carboniferous Corals 25
Organic Chemical Compounds 25
Exploration of Moab 100
Terato-embryological Inqui-
ries 10
Kent's Cavern Exploration.. 100
Luminous Meteors 20
Heat in the Blood 15
Fossil Crustacea 25
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25
Lunar Objects 20
Inverse Wave-lengths 20
British Rainfall 100
Poisonous Substances Antago-
nism 10
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
stitution, &c 40
Mathematical Tables 50 Q
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
tals 25
£1285 0"
£ s. d.
1873.
Zoological Record 100
, Chemistry Record 200
! Tidal Committee 400
i Sewage Committee 100
j Kent's Cavern Exploration... 150
Carboniferous Corals 25
Fossil Elephants 25
1 Wave-lengths 150
British Rainfall 100
Essential Oils 30
Mathematical Tables 100
Gaussian Constants 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Underground Temperature ... 150
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Fossil Flora, Ireland 20
Timber Denudation and Eain-
fall 20
Luminous Meteors 30
£r685
1874.
Zoological Eecord 100
Chemistry Eecord 100
Mathematical Tables 100
Elliptic Functions 100
Lightning Conductors 10
Thermal Conductivity of
Eocks 10
Anthropological Instructions,
&c 50
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 150
Luminous Meteors 30
Intestinal Secretions 15
British Eainfall 100
Essential Oils 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations ... 25
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Mauritius Meteorological Re-
search 100
Magnetisation of Iron 20
Marine Organisms 30
Fossils, North- West of Scot-
land 2 10
Physiological Action of Light 20
Trades Unions 25
Mountain Limestone-corals 25
Erratic Blocks 10
Dredging, Durham and York-
shire Coasts 28 5
High Temperature of Bodies 30
Siemens's PjTometer 3 6
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
measures 7 15
£1151 l6~0
1875.
Elliptic Fimctions 100
Magnetisation of Iron 20
British Rainfall 120
Luminous Meteors 30
Chemistry Eecord 100
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCV
£ g. d.
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 10
Isometric Cresols 20
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 100
Settle Cave Exploration 50
Earthquakes in Scotland 15
Underground Waters 10
Development of Myxinoid
Fishes 20
Zoological Record 100
Instructions for Travellers ... 20
Intestinal Secretions 20
Palestine Exploration 100
£960
1876.
Printing Mathematical Tables 159
British Rainfall 100
Ohm's Law 9
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200
JSpecific Volume of Liquids... 25
Isomeric Cresols 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
acetate 5
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 13
Exploration of Victoria Cave,
Settle 100
Geological Record 100
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 100
Thermal Conductivities of
Rocks 10
Underground Waters 10
Earthquakes in Scotland 1
Zoological Record 100
Close Time 5
Physiological Action of Sound 25
Zoological Station 75
Intestinal Secretions 15
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles 13
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam-vessels 5
£1092
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
Minerals 20
Elliptic Functions 250
Thermal Conductivity of
Rocks 9
Zoological Record 100
Kent's Cavern 100
Zoological Station at Naples 75
Luminous Meteors 30
Elasticity of Wires 100
Dipterocarpse, Report on 20
4 2
15
10
15
4 2
11
7
0'
£ s. d.
Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat 35
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and Nickel 8
Underground Temperatures 50
Settle Cave Exploration 100
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone 10
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
acetate 10
British Earthworks 25
Atmospheric Elasticity in
India 15
Development of Light from
Coal-gas 20
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 1 18
Geological Record 100
Anthropometric Committee 34
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric Acid, &c 15
£1128 9 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100
Geological Record 100
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
Recorder 10
Zoological Station at Naples 75
Investigation of Underground
Waters 15
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure 30
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million 100
Anthropometric Committee... 66
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less - known
Alkaloids 25
Exploration of Kent's Cavern 50
Zoological Record 100
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 15
Thermal Conductivity of
Rocks 4 16 6
Luminous Meteors 10
Ancient Earthworks 25
£726 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples 75
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland ... 20
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth 17
Record of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids 25
XCVl
KEPOET 1891.
£ s. d.
Exploration of Caves in
Borneo 50
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 100
Record of the Progress of
Geology 100
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 5
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts 25
Anthropometric Committee... 50
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions ... 150
Circulation of Underground
Waters 10
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10
Improvements in Astrono-
mical Clocks 30
Marine Zoology of South
Devon 20
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat 12 15 6
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum 40
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
efficients 30
Datum Level of the Ordnance
Survey 10
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira 15
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines 22
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships 17 1 8
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel 10
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
Key 10
CTnderground Temperature ... 10
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
Heat 8
Elasticity of Wires 50
Luminous Meteors 30
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Fundamental Invariants 8
Laws of Water Friction 20
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum 20
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients 50
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines 10
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines 4
Report on Carboniferous
Polyzoa 10
17 7
£
Caves of South Ireland 10
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
saurus 10
Kent's Cavern Exploration... 50
Geological Record 100
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland 15
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations 5
Record of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Table at Zoological Station
at Naples 75
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico 50
Anthropometry 50
Patent Laws 5
£731
1881.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Undergiound Temperature ... 20
Electrical Standards 25
High Insulation Key 5
Tidal Observations 10
Specific Refractions 7
Fossil Polyzoa 10
Underground Waters 10
Earthquakes in Japan 25
Tertiary Flora 20
Scottish Zoological Station ... 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Natural History of Socotra ... 50
Anthropological Notes and
Queries 9
Zoological Record 100
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings 30
£476
3 1
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ,... 76 1 11
Standards for Electrical
Measurements 100 0'
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
mometers 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Elements 50
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra 25
Geological Record 100
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 25
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
Rocks 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 (>
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground
Waters 15
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ s. d.
Tertiarv Flora of North of
Ireland 20
British I'olyzoa 10
Exploration of Caves of South
of Ireland 10
Exploration of Eaygill Fis-
siure 20
Naples Zoological Station ... SO
Albuminoid Substances of
Serum 10
Elimination of Kitrogen by
Bodily Exercise 50
Migration of Birds 15
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Natural History of Timor-laut 100
Kecord of Zoological Litera-
ture 100
Anthropometric Committee... 50
:eil2C 1 11
1883.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
vatives : 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 60
Fossil Plants of Halifax 20
British Fossil Polyzoa 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palteo-
zoic Eocks 25
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 15
Geological Record 50
Exploration of Caves in South
of Ireland 10
Zoological Literature Eecord 100
Migration of Birds 20
Zoological Station at Naples 80
Scottish Zoological Station ... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise 38 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro 500
Investigation oE Loughton
Camp 10
Natural Historj- of Timor-laut 50
Screw Gauges 5
£1083 3 3
£ s. d.
1884.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust 20
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstow ' 25
Tidal Observations 10
Ultra- Violet Spark Spectra ... 8 4
1891,
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 75
Fossil Plants of Halifax 15
Fossil Polyzoa 10
Erratic Blocks oC England ... 10
Fossil Phylloi^oda of Palaso-
zoic Eocks 15
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata .'iO
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, East Africa 500
Migration of Birds 20
Coagulation of Blood 100
Zoological Literature Eecord 100
Anthropometric Committee... 10
£1173
1885.
Synoptic Chart of Indian
Ocean 50
Eeduction of Tidal Observa-
tions 10
Calculating Tables in Theory
of Numbers 100
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 50
Meteoric Dust 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
Solutions 25
Physical Constants of Solu-
tions 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 25
Eaj'gill Fissure 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic
Eocks 25
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50
Geological Eecord 50
Circulation of Underground
Waters 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoological Literature Eecord. 100
Migration of Birds 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
njaro 25
Eecent Polyzoa 10
Marine Biological Station at
Granton 100
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom 150
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100
£1385
4
XCVIU
RErORT — 1891.
£ s. d.
]8S6.
Electrical Standards 40
Solar Radiation 9 10 (i
Tidal Observations 50
Magnetic Observations 10 10
Jleteoroloffical Observations
on Ben Nevis 100
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis 20
Chemical Nomenclature 5
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds... £0
Exploration of Caves in North
Wales 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius no
Geological Eecord 100
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic
Rocks 15
Zoological Literature Eecord . 100
Marine Biological Station at
Granton 75
Naples Zoological Station CO
Eesearches in Food-Fishes and
Invertebrataat St. Andrews 75
Migration of Birds i>0
Secretion of Urine 10
Exjiloration of New Guinea... 150
Regulation of AVagcs under
Sliding Scales 10
Prehistoric Race in Greek
Islands 20
North -Western Tribes of Ca-
nada 50
£'9 95 6
18S7. *
Solar Radiation 18 10
Electrolysis 30
Pen Nevis Observatory 75
Standards of Light (1886
grant) ^ 20
Standards of Light (18S7
grant) 10
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations 15
Magnetic Observations 2fi 2
Electrical Standards 50
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20
Absorption Spectra 40
Nature of Solution 20
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1886 grant) 50
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1887 grant) 50
Exploration of Cae Gwyn
Cave, North Wales 20
Erratic Blocks 10
Fossil Phyllopoda 20
Coal Plants of Halifax .^5
£
Microscopic Structure of the
Eocks of Anglesey 10
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isle of Wight. . . 20
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
' JIanure ' Gravels of Wexford 10
Provincial Museum Eeports 5
Investigation of Lymphatic
System 25
Naples Biological Station ... 100
Plymouth Biological Statiun 50
Granton Biological Station... 75
Zoological Eecord 100
Flora of China 75
Flora and Fauna of tlie
Cameroons 75
Migration of Birds iiO
Bath.y-hypsographical Map of
British Isles 7
Eegulation of Wages 10
Prehistoric Eace of Greek
Islands 20
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20
£1186
1888.
Ben Nevis Observatory ■ 150
Electrical Standards 2
Magnetic Observations 15
Standards of Light 79
Electrolysis iiO
Uniform Nomenclature in
Mechanics 10
Silent Discharge of Elec-
tricity 9
Properties of Solutions 25
Intiuence of Silicon on Steel 20
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
try 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
tives 25
Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
Geological Eecord 50
Manure Gravels of Wexford ... 10
Erosion of Sea Coasts 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
Pateontographical Society ... 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth... 50
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Zoology and Botany of West
Indies 100
Flora of Bahamas 100
Development of Fishes — St.
Andrews 50
JIarine Laboratorj-, Plymouth 100
IMigi-ation of Birds 30
Flora of China 75
s. d,
6
IS
6 4
2 :{
11 10
GENERAL STATEMENT.
XCIX
£ s. d.
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
I,yiiiphatic Sj-stem 25
IMological Station at Granton SO
I'craileniya Botanical Sta-
tion no
Development of Teleostei ... \~>
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
Regions 5
Precious Metals in Circula-
tion 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Eft'ect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development 25
North-Western Tribes of
Canada 100
Preliistoric Eace in Greek
Islands 20
£1511 5
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory 50
Electrical Standards 75
Electrolysis 20
Observations on SurfaceWater
Temperature .30
Silent Discharge of Electricity
on Oxygen 6 4 8
Methods of teaching Chemis-
try ■:.. 10
Action of Light on Hydracids 10
Geological Record .80
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paheo-
zoic Rocks '. 20
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of
Wight 15
AVcst Indian Explorations ... 100
Flora of China 25
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Physiology of Lymphatic
System 25
Experiments with a Tow-net 5 16 3
Natural History of Friendly
Islands 100
Geology and Geography of
Atlas Range 100
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries bj^ means of
Working Models 100
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
nada 150
Characteristics of Nomad
Tribes of Asia Minor 80
Corresponding Societies 20
Marine Biological Association 200
Bath ' Baths Committee ' for
further Researches 100
£1417 11
£ s. d.
1890.
Electrical Standards 12 17
Electrolysis 5
Electro-optics 50
Calculating Mathematical
Tables 25
Volcanic and Seismological
Phenomena of Japan 75
Pellian Equation Tables 15
Properties of Solutions 10
International Standard for
the Analysis of Iron and
Steel 10
Influence of the Silent Dis-
charge of Electricity on
Oxygen 5
Methods of teaching Chemis-
try 10
Recording Results of Water
Analysis 4 10
Oxidation of Hydracids in
Sunlight 15
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 20 (>
Fossil Phyllopoda of the Pa-
lieozoic Rocks 10
Circulation of Underground
Waters 5
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 O
Cretaceous Polyzoa 10
Geological Photographs 7 14 11
Lias Beds of Northampton-
shire 25
Botanical Station at Perade-
niya 25
Experiments with a Tow-net 4 3 9
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands 100
Marine Biological Association 30
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries 150
Graphic Methods in Mechani-
cal Science 11
Anthropometric Calculations 5
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25
Corresponding Societies 20 G
^99T6~8
1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory 60
Electrical Standards 100
Electrolysis 5
Seismological Phenomena of
Japan 10
Variations of Temperature in
Lakes 20
Photographs of Meteorological
Phenomena 5
Discharge of Electricity from
Points 10
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar
Spectrum 50 (>
EEPOET — 1891.
£ S. d.
International Standard for
the Analysis of Iron and
Steel ". 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
tives 25
Formation of Haloids 25
Action of Light on Dj'es 17 10
Geological Record 100
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
vius 10
Fossil Phyllopoda 10
Photographs of Geological
Interest 9 5
Lias Beds of Northampton-
shire 25
Registration of Type-Speci-
mens of British Fossils 5 5
Investigation of Elbolton
Cave 25
£ s. d.
Botanical Station at Pera-
deniya.... 50
Experiments with a Tow-Net 40
Jlarine Biological Association
at Plymouth 12 10
Disappearance of Native
Plants 5
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries 125
Anthropometric Calculations 10
New Edition of ' Anthropo-
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General Meetingis.
On Wednesday, August 19, at 8 p.m., in the Park Hall, Sir
Frederick Abel, C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S., V.P.C.S., resigned the
office of President to Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S.,
who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 1.
On Thursday, August 20, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place in the
Park Hall.
On Friday, August 21, at 8.30 p.m., in the Park Hall, Professor L. C.
Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S., delivered a discourse on ' Some difficulties in the
life of Aquatic Insects.'
On Monday, August 24, at 8.30 p.m., in the Park Hall, Professor A.
W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ' Electrical Stress.'
On Tuesday, August 25, at 8 p.m., a Soiree took place in the Park
Hall.
On Wednesday, August 26, at 2.30 p.m., in the Dumfries Proprietary
School, the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings
of the General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes
were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Edinburgh. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, August 3, 1892.]
PRESIDENT'S ADDEESS.
1891.
ADDRESS
WILLIAM HUGGINS, ESQ.
D.C.L. (Oxon.), LL.D. (Cantab., Edin., et Dubl.), Ph.D. (Lugd. Bat.),
r.R.S., F.R.A.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., &c., Correspondant
de rinstitnt de France,
PRESIDENT.
It is now many years since this Association has done honour to the
science of Astronomy in the selection of its President.
Since Sir George Airy occupied the chair in 1851, and the late Lord
Wrottesley nine years later in 1860, other sciences have been represented
by the distinguished men who have presided over your meetings.
The very remarkable discoveries in our knowledge of the heavens
which have taken place during this period of thirty years — one of amazing
and ever-increasing activity in all branches of science — have not passed
unnoticed in the addresses of your successive Presidents ; still it seems to
me fitting that I should speak to you to-night chiefly of those newer
methods of astronomical research which have led to those discoveries,'and
which have become possible by the introduction since 1860 into j^ the
observatory of the spectroscope and the modern photographic plate.
In 1866 I had the honour of bringing before this Association, at one
of the evening lectures, an account of the first-fruits of the novel and
unexpected advances in our knowledge of the celestial bodies which fol-
lowed rapidly upon Kirchhofi"s original work on the solar spectrum and
the interpretation of its lines.
Since that time a great harvest has been gathered in the same field
by many reapers. Spectroscopic astronomy has become a distinct and
acknowledged branch of the science, possessing a large literatiire of its
own and observatories specially devoted to it. The more recent discovery
of the gelatine dry plate has given a further great impetus to this modem
side of astronomy, and has opened a pathway into the unknown of which
even an enthusiast thirty years ago would scarcely have dared to dream.
B 2
4 EEPOET — 1891.
In no science, perhaps, does the sober statement of the results which
have been achieved appeal so strongly to the imagination, and make so
evident the almost boundless powers of the mind of man. By means of
its light alone to analyse the chemical nature of a far distant body ; to be
able to reason about its present state in relation to the past and future ;
to measure within an English mile or less per second the otherwise in-
visible motion which it may have towards or from us ; to do more, to
make even that which is darkness to our eyes light, and from vibrations
which our organs of sight are powerless to perceive to evolve a revelation
in which we see mirrored some of the stages through which the stars
may pass in their slow evolutional progress — surely the record of such
achievements, however poor the form of words in which they may be
described, is worthy to be regarded as the scientific epic of the present
centni'y.
I do not purpose to attempt a survey of the progress of spectroscopic
astronomy from its birth at Heidelberg in 1859, but to point out what we
do know at present, as distinguished from wiiat we do not know, of a few
only of its more important problems, giving a prominent place, in
accordance with the traditions of this chair, to the work of the last
year or two.
In the spectroscope itself advances have been made by Lord Rayleigh
by his discussion of the theory of the instrument, and by Professor Row-
land in the constrnction of concave gratings.
Lord Rayleigh has shown that there is not the necessary connection,
sometimes supposed, between dispersion and resolving power, as besides
the prism or grating other details of construction and of adjustment of a
spectroscope must be taken into account.
The resolving power of the prismatic spectroscope is proportional to
the length of path in the dispersive medium. For the heavy flint glass used
in Lord Rayleigh's experiments the thickness necessary to resolve the
sodium lines came out 102 cm. If this be taken as a unit, the resolving
power of a prism of similar glass will be in the neighbourhood of the sodium
lines equal to the number of centimetres of its thickness. In other parts
of the spectrum the resolving power Avill vary inversely as the third
power of the wave-length, so that it will be eight times as great in the
violet as in the red. The resolving power of a spectroscope is therefore
proportional to the total thickness of the dispersive material in use,
irrespective of the number, the angles, or the setting of the separate
prisms into which, for the sake of convenience, it may be distributed.
The resolving power of a grating depends upon the total number of
lines on its surface, and the order of spectrum in use ; about 1,000 lines
being necessary to resolve the sodium lines in the first spectrum.
is it is often of importance in the record of observations to state the
efficiency of the spectroscope with which chey were made, Professor
ADDRESS. O
Schuster has proposed the use of a unit of purity as well as of resolving
power, for the full resolving power of a spectroscope is realised in practice
only when a sufficiently narrow slit is used. The unit of purity also is
to stand for the separation of two lines differing by one-thousandth of their
own wave-length ; about the separation of the sodium pair at D.
A farther limitation may come in from the physiological fact that, as
Lord Rayleigh has pointed out, the eye when its full aperture is used is
not a perfect instrument. If we wish to realise the full resolving power
of a spectroscope, therefore, the emergent beam must not be larger than
about one-third of the opening of the pupil.
Up to the present time the standard of reference for nearly all spec-
troscopic work continues to be Angstrom's map of the solar spectrum,
and his scale based upon his original determinations of absolute wave-
length. It is well known, as was pointed out by Thalen in his work on
the spectrum of iron in 1884, that Angstrom's figures are slightly too
small, in consequence of an error existing in a standard metre used by
him. The corrections for this have been introduced into the tables of
the wave-lengths of terrestrial spectra collected and revised by a Com-
mittee of this Association from 1885 to 1887. Last year the Committee
added a table of corrections to Rowland's scale.
The inconvenience caused by a change of standard scale is, for a time
at least, considerable ; but there is little doubt that in the near future
Rowland's photographic map of the solar spectrum, and his scale based
on the determinations of absolute wave-length by Piei'ce and Bell, or
the Potsdam scale based on original determinations by Miiller and
Kempf, which differs very slightly from it, will come to be exclusively
adopted.
The gi-eat accuracy of Rowland's photographic map is due chiefly to
the introduction by him of concave gratings, and of a method for their
use, by which the problem of the determination of relative wave-lengths
is simplified to measures of near coincidences of the lines in different
spectra by a micrometer.
The concave grating and its peculiar mounting, in which no lenses or
telescope are needed, and in which all the spectra are in focus togethw,
formed a new departure of great importance in the measurement of
spectral lines. The valuable method of photographic sensitizers for
different parts of the spectrum has enabled Professor Rowland to include
in his map the whole visible solar spectrum, as well as the ultra-violet
portion as far as it can get through our atmosphere. Some recent photo-
graphs of the solar spectrum, which include A, by Mr. George Higgs,
are of great technical beauty.
During the past year the results of three independent researches have
appeared, in which the special object of the observers has been to distin-
guish the lines which are due to our atmosphere from those which are
truly solar — the maps of M. ThoUon, which, owing to his lamented death
6 REPORT — 1891.
just before their final completion, have assumed the character of a memo-
rial of him ; maps by Dr. Becker ; and sets of photographs of a high and
a low sun by Mr. McClean.
At the meeting of this Association in Bath, M. Janssen gave an
account of his own researches on the terrestrial lines of the solar spec-
trum, which owe their origin to the oxygen of our atmosphere. He
discovered the remarkable fact that while the intensity of one class of
bands varies as the density of the gas, other diffuse bands vary as the
square of the density. These observations are in accordance with the
work of Bgoroff and of Olszewski, and of Liveing and Dewar on condensed
oxygen. In some recent experiments Olszewski, with a layer of liquid
oxygen thirty millimetres thick, saw, as well as four other bands, the
band coincident with Fraunhofer's A ; a remarkable instance of the
persistence of absorption through a great range of temperature. The
light which passed through the liquid oxygen had a light blue colour
resembling that of the sky.
Of not less interest are the experiments of Knut Angstrom, which
show that the carbonic acid and aqueous vapour of the atmosphere reveal
their presence by dark bands in the invisible infra-red region, at the
positions of bands of emission of these substances.
It is now some thirty years since the spectroscope gave us for the
first time certain knowledge of the nature of the heavenly bodies, and
revealed the fundamental fact that terrestrial matter is not peculiar to
the solar system, but is common to all the stars which are visible
to us.
In the case of a star such as Capella, which has a spectrum almost
identical with that of the sun, we feel justified in concluding that the
matter of which it is built up is similar, and that its temperature is also
high, and not very different from the solar temperature. The task of
analysing the stars and nebula becomes, however, one of very great diffi-
culty when we have to do with spectra differing from the solar type.
We are thrown back upon the laboratory for the information necessary
to enable us to interpret the indications of the spectroscope as to the
chemical nature, the density and pressure, and the temperature of the
celestial masses.
What the spectroscope immediately reveals to us are the waves which
were set up in the ether filling all interstellar space, years or hundreds
of years ago, by the motions of the molecules of the celestial substances.
As a rule it is only when a body is gaseous and sufficiently hot that the
motions within its molecules can produce bright lines and a corresponding
absorption. The spectra of the heavenly bodies are indeed to a great
extent absorption spectra, but we have usually to study them through
the corresponding emission spectra of bodies brought into the gaseous
form and rendered luminous by means of flames or of electric dis-
ADDRESS.
charges. In both cases, unfortunately, as has been shown recently by
Professors Liveing and Dewar, Wiillner, E. Wiedemann, and others,
there appears to be no certain direct relation between the luminous
radiation as shown in the spectroscope and the temperature of the
flame, or of the gaseous contents of the vacuum tube, that is, in the
usual sense of the term as applied to the mean motion of all the
molecules. In both cases, the vibratory motions within the molecules
to which their luminosity is due are almost always much greater than
would be produced by encounters of molecules having motions of transla-
tion no greater than the average motions which characterise the tempera,
ture of the gases as a whole. The temperature of a vacuum tube through
which an electric discharge is taking place may be low, as shown thermo-
metrically, quite apart from the consideration of the extreme smallness
of the mass of gas, but the vibrations of the luminous molecules must be
violent in whatever way we suppose them to be set up by the discharge ;
if we take Schuster's view that comparatively few molecules are carrying
the discharge, and that it is to the fierce encounters of these alone that
the luminosity is due, then if all the molecules had similar motions, the
temperature of the gas would be very high.
So in flames where chemical changes are in progress, the vibratory
motions of the molecules which are luminous may be, in connection with
the energy set free in these changes, very different from those correspond-
ing to the mean temperature of the flame.
Under the ordinary conditions of terrestrial experiments, therefore,
the temperature or the mean vis viva of the molecules may have no direct
relation to the total radiation, which, on the other hand, is the aum of the
radiation due to each luminous molecule.
These phenomena have recently been discussed by Ebert from the
standpoint of the electro-magnetic theory of light.
Very great caution is therefore called for when we attempt to reason
by the aid of laboratory experiments to the temperature of the heavenly
bodies from their radiation, especially on the reasonable assumption that
in them the luminosity is not ordinarily associated with chemical changes
or with electrical discharges, but is due to a simple glowing from the
ultimate conversion into molecular motion of the gravitational energy of
shrinkage.
In a recent paper Stas maintains that electric spectra are to be re-
garded as distinct from flame spectra, and, from researches of his own,
that the pairs of lines of the sodium spectrum other than D are produced
only by disruptive electric discharges. As these pairs of lines are found
reversed in the solar spectrum, he concludes that the sun's radiation is
due mainly to electric discharges. But "Wolf and Diacon, and later, "Watts,
observed the other pairs of lines of the sodium spectrum when the vapour
was raised above the ordinary temperature of the Bunsen flame. Recently,
Liveing and Dewar saw easily, besides D the citron and green pairs and
8 EEPOKT 1891.
sometimes the blue pair and the orange pair, when hydrogen charged
with sodium vapour was burning at different pressures in oxygen. In
the case of sodium vapour, therefore, and presumably in all other vapours
and gases, it is a matter of indifference whether the necessary vibratory
motion of the molecules is produced by electric discharges or by flames.
The presence of lines in the solar spectrum which we can only produce
electrically is an indication, however, as Stas points out, of the high
temperature of the sun.
We must not forget that the light from the heavenly bodies may
consist of the combined radiations of different layers of gas at different
temperatures, and possibly be further complicated to an unknown extent
by the absorption of cooler portions of gas outside.
Not less caution is needed if we endeavour to argue from the
broadening of lines and the coming in of a continuous spectrum as
to the relative pressure of the gas in the celestial atmospheres. On
the one hand, it cannot be gainsaid that in the laboratory the widening
of the lines in a Pliicker's tube follows upon increasing the density of the
residue of hydrogen in the tube, when the vibrations are more frequently
disturbed by fresh encounters ; and that a broadening of the sodium lines
in a flame at ordinary pressure is produced by an increase of the quantity
of sodium in the flame ; but it is doubtful if pressure, as distinguished
from quantity, does produce an increase of the breadth of the lines. An
individual molecule of sodium will be sensibly in the same condition,
considering the relatively enormous number of the molecules of the other
gases, whether the flame is scantily or copiously fed with the sodium salt.
With a small quantity of sodium vapour the intensity will be feeble
except near the maximum of the lines ; when, however, the quantity is
increased the comparative transparency on the sides of the maximum
will allow the light from the additional molecules met with in the path
of the visual ray to strengthen the radiation of the molecules farther
back, and so increase the breadth of the lines.
In a gaseous mixture it is found, as a rule, that at the same pressure
or temperature, as the encounters with similar molecules become fewer,
the spectral lines will be affected as if the body were observed under
conditions of reduced quantity or temperature.
In their recent investigation of the spectroscopic behaviour of flames
under various pressures up to forty atmospheres, Professors Liveing and
Dewar have come to the conclusion that though the prominent feature of
the Kght emitted by flames at high pressure appears to be a strong con-
tinuous spectrum, there is not the slightest indication that this continu-
ous spectrum is produced by the broadening of the lines of the same
gases at low pressure. On the contrary, photometric observations of the
brightness of the continuous spectrum, as the pressure is varied, show
that it is mainly produced by the mutual action of the molecules of a gas.
Experiments on the sodium spectrum were carried up to a pressure of
ADDEESS. 9
forty atmosplieres without prodacing any definite effect on the width of
the lines which could be ascribed to the pressure. In a similar way the
lines of the spectrum of water showed no signs of expansion up to twelve
atmospheres ; though more intense than at ordinary pressure, they
remained narrow and clearly defined.
It follows, therefore, that a continuous spectrum cannot be considered,
when taken alone, as a sure indication of matter in the liquid or the solid
state. Not only, as in the experiments already mentioned, such a.
spectrum may be due to gas when under pressure, but, as Maxwell
pointed out, if the thickness of a medium, such as sodium vapour, which
radiates and absorbs different kinds of light, be very great, and the
temperature high, the light emitted will be of exactly the same composi-
tion as that emitted by lamp-black at the same temperature, for the-
radiations which are feebly emitted will be also feebly absorbed, and can
reach the surface from immense depths. Schuster has shown that
oxygen, even in a partially exhausted tube, can give a continuous spec-
trum when excited by a feeble electric discharge.
Compound bodies are usually distinguished by a banded spectrum ;.
but on the other hand such a spectrum does not necessarily show the
presence of compounds, that is, of molecules containing different kinds
of atoms, but simply of a more complex molecule, which may be mad&
up of similar atoms, and be therefore an allotropic condition of the same
body. In some cases, for example, in the diffuse bands of the absorption
spectrum of oxygen, the bands may have an intensity proportional to the
square of the density of the gas, and may be due either to the formation,
of more complex molecules of the gas with inci'ease of pressure, or it may
be to the constraint to which the molecules are subject daring their
encounters with one another.
It may be thought that at least in the coincidences of bright lines we
are on the solid ground of certainty, since the length of the waves set up.
in the ether by a molecule, say of hydrogen, is the most fixed and abso-
lutely permanent quantity in nature, and is so of physical necessity, for
with any alteration the molecule would cease to be hydrogen.
Such would be the case if the coincidence were certain ; but an
absolute coincidence can be only a matter of greater or less probability,,
depending on the resolving power employed, on the number of the lines
which correspond and on their characters. When the coincidences are
very numerous, as in the case of iron and the solar spectrum, or the lines-
are characteristically grouped, as in the case of hydrogen and the solar
spectrum, we may regard the coincidence as certain ; but the progress of
science has been greatly retarded by resting important conclusions upon
the apparent coincidence of single lines, in spectroscopes of very small
resolving power. In such cases, unless other reasons supporting the
coincidence are present, the probability of a real coincidence is almost
too small to be of any importance, especially in the case of a heavenly-
10 REPORT 1891.
body which may have a motion of approach or of recession of unknown
amount.
But even here we are met by the confusion introduced by multiple
spectra, corresponding to different molecular groupings of the same
substance ; and, further, to the influence of substances in vapour upon
each other ; for when several gases are present together, the phenomena
■of radiation and reversal by absorption are by no means the same as if
the gases were free from each other's influence, and especially is this the
<;ase when they are illuminated by an electric discharge.
I have said as much as time will permit, and I think indeed sufl&cient,
to show that it is only by the laborious and slow process of most
cautious observation that the foundations of the science of celestial
physics can be surely laid. We are at present in a time of transition
when the earlier, and, in the nature of things, less precise observations
are giving place to work of an order of accuracy much greater than was
formerly considered attainable with objects of such small brightness as
the stars.
The accuracy of the earlier determinations of the spectra of the
terrestrial elements is in most cases insufficient for modern work on the
stars as well as on the sun. They fall much below the scale adopted in
Rowland's map of the sun, as well as below the degree of accuracy attained
at Potsdam by photograpliy in a part of the spectrum for the brighter stars.
Increase of resolving power very frequently breaks up into groups, in the
spectra of the sun and stars, the lines which had been regarded as single,
and their supposed coincidences with terrestrial lines fall to the ground.
For this reason many of the early conclusions, based on observations as
good as it was possible to make at the time with the less powerful spec-
troscopes then in use, may not be found to be maintained under the
much greater resolving power of modern instruments.
The spectroscope has failed as yet to interpret for us the remarkable
spectrum of the Aurora Borealis. Undoubtedly in this phenomenon
portions of our atmosphere are lighted up by electric discharges ; we
should expect, therefore, to recognise the spectra of the gases known to
be present in it. As yet we have not been able to obtain similar spectra
from these gases artificially, and especially we do not know the origin of
the principal line in the green, which often appears alone, and may have
therefore an origin independent of that of the other lines. Recently the
suggestion has been made that the Aurora is a phenomenon produced by
the dust of meteors and falling stars, and that near positions of certain
auroral lines to lines or flutings of manganese, lead, barium, thallium, iron,
.&c., are sufficient to justify us in regarding meteoric dust in the atmosphere
as the origin of the auroral spectrum. Liveing and Dewar have made a
•conclusive research on this point, by availing themselves of the dust of
excessive minuteness thrown off' from the surface of electrodes of various
ADDRESS.
11
metals and meteorites by a disruptive discharge, and carried forward into
the tube of observation by a more or less rapid current of air or other gas.
These experiments prove that metallic dast, however fine, suspended in a
gas will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its cha-
racteristic spectrum in an electric discharge, similar to that of the Aurora.
Professor Schuster has suggested that the principal Hue may be due to
some very light gas which is present in too small a pi-oportion to be
detected by chemical analysis or even by the spectroscope in the presence
of the other gases near the earth, but which at the height of the auroral
discharges is in a sufficiently greater relative proportion to give a spectrum.
Lemstrom, indeed, states that he saw this line in the silent discharge of
•a Holtz machine on a mountain in Lapland. The lines may not have
been obtained in our laboratories from the atmospheric gases, on account
of the difficulty of reproducing in tubes with sufficient nearness the
conditions under which the auroral discharges take place.
In the spectra of comets the spectroscope has shown the presence of
•carbon presumably in combination with hydrogen, and also sometimes
with nitrogen ; and in the case of comets approaching very near the sun,
the lines of sodium, and other lines which have been supposed to belong
+0 iron. Though the researches of Professor H. A. Newton and of
Professor Schiaparelli leave no doubt of the close connection of comets
-with corresponding periodic meteor swarms, and therefore of the probable
identity of cometary matter with that of meteorites, with which the
spectroscopic evidence agrees, it would be perhaps unwise at present to
attempt to define too precisely the exact condition of the matter which
forms the nucleus of the comet. In any case the part of the light of
the comet which is not reflected solar light can scarcely be attributed
to a high temperature produced by the clashing of separate meteoric
stones set up within the nucleus by the sun's disturbing force. We must
look rather to disruptive electric discharges produced probably by pro-
cesses of evaporation due to increased solar heat, which would be amply
sufficient to set free portions of the occluded gases into the vacuum of
space. May it be that these discharges are assisted, and indeed possibly
increased, by the recently discovered action of the ultra-violet part of the
«un's light ? Hertz has shown that ultra-violet light can produce a dis-
charge from a negatively electrified piece of metal, while Hallwachs and
Righi have shown further that ultra-violet light can even charge posi-
tively an unelectrified piece of metal ; phenomena which Lenard and
Wolf associate with the disengagement from the metallic surfaces of very
minute particles. Similar actions on cometary matter, unscreened as it is
by an absorptive atmosphere, at least of any noticeable extent, may well
be powerful when a comet approaches the sun, and help to explain an
electrified condition of the evaporated matter which would possibly bring
it under the sun's repulsive action. We shall have to return to this
point in speaking of the solar corona.
12 REPORT — 1891.
A very great advance lias been made in our knowledge of the consti-
tution of the sun by the recent work at the Johns Hoi^kins University
by means of photography and concave gratings, in comparing the solar
spectrum, under great resolving power, directly with the spectra of
the terrestrial elements. Professor Rowland has shown that the lines
of thirty-six terrestrial elements at least are certainly present in the solai-
spectrum, while eight others are doubtful. Fifteen elements, including
nitrogen as it shows itself under an electric discharge in a vacuum tube,
have not been found in the solar spectrum. Some ten other elements,
inclusive of oxygen, have not yet been compared with the sun's spectrum.
Rowland remai'ks that of the fifteen elements named as not found in
the sun, many are so classed because they have few strong lines, or none
at all, in the limit of the solar spectrum as compared by him with the arc.
Boron has only two strong lines. The lines of bismuth are compound
and too diffuse. Therefore even in the case of these fifteen elements
there is little evidence that they are really absent from the sun.
It follows that if the whole earth were heated to the temperature of
the sun, its spectrum would resemble very closely the solar spectrum.
Rowland has not found any lines common to several elements, and in
the case of some accidental coincidences, more accurate investigation
reveals some slight difference of wave-length or a common impurity.
Further, the relative strength of the lines in the solar spectrum is gene-
rally, with a few exceptions, the same as that in the electric arc, so that
Rowland considers that his experiments show ' very little evidence ' of
the breaking up of the terrestrial elements in the sun.
Stas in a recent paper gives the final results of eleven years of research
on the chemical elements in a state of purity, and on the possibility of
decomposing them by the physical and chemical forces at our disposal.
His experiments on calcium, strontium, lithium, magnesium, silver, sodium
and thallium, show that these substances retain their individuality uiider
all conditions, and are unalterable by any forces that we can bring to bear
upon them.
Professor Rowland looks to the solar lines which are unaccounted
for as a means of enabling him to discover such new terrestrial ele-
ments as still lurk in rare minerals and earths, by confronting their
spectra directly with that of the sun. He has already resolved yttrium
spectroscopically into three components, and actually into two. The
comparison of the results of this independent analytical method with the
remarkable but different conclusions to which M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran
and Mr: Crookes have been led respectively, from spectroscopic observa-
tion of these bodies when glowing under molecular bombardment in a
Tacuum tube, will be awaited with much interest. It is worthy of remark
that as our knowledge of the spectrum of hydrogen in its complete form
came to us from the stars, it is now from the sun that chemistry is pro-
bably i\\)< wt to be enriched by the discovery of new element?.
ADDRESS. 13
In a discussion in the Bakerian lecture for 1885 of what we knew up
to that time of the sun's corona, I was led to the conclusion that the
corona is essentially a phenomenon similar in the cause of its formation
to the tails of comets, namely, that it consists for the most part probably
of matter going from the sun under the action of a force, possibly electrical,
which varies as the surface, and can therefore in the case of highly
attenuated matter easily master the force of gravity even near the snn.
Though many of the coronal particles may return to the sun, those which
form the long rays or streamers do not return ; they separate and soon
become too diffused to be any longer visible, and may well go to furnish
the matter of the zodiacal light, which otherwise has not received a satis-
factoiy explanation. And further, if such a force exist at the sun, the
changes of terrestrial magnetism may be due to direct electric action,
as the earth moves through lines of inductive force.
These conclusions appear to be in accordance broadly with the lines
along which thought has been directed by the results of subsequent
eclipses. Professor Schuster takes an essentially similar view, and
suggests that there may be a direct electric connection between the sun
and the planets. He asks further whether the sun may not act like a
magnet in consequence of its revolution about its axis. Professor Bigelow
has recently treated the coronal forms by the theory of spherical har-
monics, on the supposition that we see phenomena similar to those of free
electricity, the rays being lines of force, and the coronal matter discharged
from the sun, or at least arranged or controlled by these forces. At the
extremities of the streams for some reasons the repulsive power may be
lost, and gravitation set in, bringing the matter back to the sun. The
matter which does leave the sun is persistently transported to the equa-
torial plane of the corona ; in fact, the zodiacal light may be the accumu-
lation at great distances from the sun along this equator of such like
material. Photographs on a larger scale will be desirable for the full
development of the conclusions which may follow from this study of the
curved forms of the coronal structure. Professor Schaeberle, however,
considers that the coronal phenomena may be satisfactorily accounted for
on the supposition that the coi'ona is formed of streams of matter ejected
mainly from the spot zones with great initial velocities, but smaller than
382 miles a second. Further that the different types of the corona are
due to the effects of perspective on the streams from the earth's place at
the time relatively to the plane of the solar equator.
Of the physical and the chemical nature of the coronal matter we know
very little. Schuster concludes, from an examination of the eclipses of
1882, 1883, and 1886, that the continuous spectrum of the corona has the
maximum of actinic intensity displaced considerably towards the red when
compared with the spectrum of the sun, which shows that it can only be
due in small part to solar light scattered by small particles. The lines of
calcium and of hydrogen do not appear to form part of the normal spectrum
14 KEPORT 1891.
of the corona. The green coronal line has no known representative in
terrestrial substances, nor has Schuster been able to recognise any of our
elements in the other lines of the corona.
The spectra of the stars are almost inBnitely diversified, yet they can
be arranged with some exceptions in a series in which the adjacent
spectra, especially in the photographic region, are scarcely distinguish-
able, passing from the bluish-white stars hke Sirius, through stars more
or less solar in character, to stars with banded spectra, which divide-
themselves into two apparently independent groups, according as the-
stronger edge of the bands is towards the red or the blue. In such an
arrangement the sun's place is towards the middle of the series.
At present a difference of opinion exists as to the direction in the series
in which evolution is proceeding, whether by further condensation white
stars pass into the orange and red stages, or whether these more coloured
stars are younger and will become white by increasing age. The latter
view was suggested by Johnstone Stoney in 1867.
About ten years ago Ritter, in a series of papers, discussed the behaviour
of gaseous masses during condensation, and the probable resulting con-
stitution of the heavenly bodies. According to him, a star passes through
the orange and red stages twice, first during a comparatively short
period of increasing temperature which culminates in the white stage, and
a second time during a more prolonged stage of gradual cooling. He-
suggested that the two groups of banded stars may correspond to these-
different periods : the young stars being those in which the stronger
edge of the dark band is towards the blue, the other banded stars, which
are relatively less luminous and few in number, being those which ar&
approaching extinction through age.
Recently a similar evolutional order has been suggested, which is based
upon the hypothesis that the nebulae and stars consist of colliding meteoric
stones in different stages of condensation.
More recently the view has been put forward that the diversified
spectra of the stars do not represent the stages of an evolutional progress,
but are due for the most part to differences of original constitution.
The few minutes which can be given to this part of the address are
insufficient for a discussion of these different views. I purpose, therefore,
to state briefly, and with reserve as the subject is obscure, some of the
considerations from the characters of their spectra which appeared to me to
be in favour of the evolutional order in which I arranged the stars from
their photographic spectra in 1879. This order is essentially the same
as Vogel had previously proposed in his classification of the stars in
1874, in which the white stars, which are most numerous, represent the
early adult and most persistent stage of stellar life, the solar condition
that of full maturity and of commencing age ; while in the orange and red
stars with banded spectra we see the setting in and advance of old age.
ADDRESS. 15-
But this statement must be taken broadly, and not as asserting tbat all
stars, however dififerent in mass and possibly to some small extent in
original constitution, exhibit one invariable succession of spectra.
In the spectra of the white stars the dark metallic Hues are relatively
inconspicuous, and occasionally absent, at the same time that the dark
lines of hydrogen are usually strong, and more or less broad, upon a con-
tinuous spectrum, which is remarkable for its brilliancy at the blue end.
In some of these stars the hydrogen and some other lines are bright,,
and sometimes variable.
As the greater or less prominence of the hydrogen lines, dark or
bright, is characteristic of the white stars as a class, and diminishes-
o-radually with the incoming and increase in strength of the other lines,
we are probably justified in regarding it as due to some conditions
which occur naturally during the progress of stellar life, and not to
a peculiarity of original constitution.
To produce a strong absorption-spectrum a substance must be at the
particular temperature at which it is notably absorptive; and, further,,
this temperature must be sufficiently below that of the region behind
from which the light comes for the gas to appear, so far as its special
rays are concerned, as darkness upon it. Considering the high tem-
perature to which hydrogen must be raised before it can show its
characteristic emission and absorption, we shall probably be right in
attributing the relative feebleness or absence of the other lines, not to the
paucity of the metallic vapours, but rather to their being so hot relatively
to the substances behind them as to show feebly, if at all, by reversion.
Such a state of things would more probably be found, it seems to me, in
conditions anterior to the solar stage. A considerable cooling of the sun
would probably give rise to banded spectra due to compounds, or to more
complex molecules, which might form near the condensing points of the
vapours.
The sun and stars are generally regarded as consisting of glowing
vapours surrounded by a photosphere where condensation is taking place,
the temperature of the photospheric layer from which the greater part of the
radiation comes being constantly renewed from the hotter matter within.
At the surface the convection currents would be strong, producing
a considerable commotion, by which the different gases would be mixed
and not allowed to retain the inequality of proportions at different levels
due to their vapour densities.
Now the conditions of the radiating photosphere and those of the
gases above it, on which the character of the spectrum of a star depends,
will be determined, not alone by temperature, but also by the force of
gravity in these regions ; this force will be fixed by the star's mass and
its stage of condensation, and will become greater as the star continues
to condense.
In the case of the sun the force of gravity has already become so
16 EEPORT — 1891.
great at tlie snrrace that the decrease of the density of the gases must be
extremely rapid passing in the space of a few miles, from atmosphei'ic
pressure to a density infinitesimally small ; consequently the temperature-
gradient at the surface, if determined solely by expansion, must be ex-
tremely rapid. The gases here, however, are exposed to the fierce
I'adiation of the sun, and unless wholly transparent would take up heat,
especially if any solid or liquid particles were present from condensation
or convection currents.
From these causes, within a very small extent of space at the surface
of the sun, all bodies with which we are acquainted should fall to a con-
dition in which the extremely tenuous gas could no longer give a visible
spectrum. The insignificance of the angle subtended by this space as
seen from the earth should cause the boundary of the solar atmosphere to
appear defined. If the boundary which we see be that of the sun pi-oper,
the matter above it will have to be regarded as in an essentially dynamical
condition — an assemblage, so to speak, of gaseous projectiles for the most
part falling back upon the sun after a greater or less range of flight.
But in any case it is within a space of relatively small extent in the sun
and probably in the other solar stars, that the reversion vyhich is mani-
fested by dark lines is to be regarded as taking place.
Passing backward in the star's life, we should find a gradual weak-
ening of gravity at the surface, a reduction of the temperature-gradient
so far as it was determined by expansion, and convection currents of less
violence producing less interference with the proportional quantities of
gases due to their vapour densities, while the efi"ects of eruptions would
be more extensive.
At last we might come to a state of things in which, if the star were
hot enough, only hydrogen might be sufficiently cool relatively to the
radiation behind to produce a strong absoi'ption. The lower vapours
would be protected, and might continue to be relatively too hot for their
lines to appear very dark upon the continuous spectrum ; besides, their
lines might be possibly to some extent eSaced by the coming in under
such conditions in the vapours themselves of a continuous spectrum.
In such a star the light radiated towards the upper part of the atmo-
sphere may have come from portions lower down of the atmosphere itself,
or at least from parts not greatly hotter. There may be no such great
difierence of temperature of the low and less low portions of the star's
atmosphere as to make the darkening efiect of absorption of the protected
metallic vapours to prevail over the illuminating efiect of their emission.
It is only by a vibratory motion corresponding to a very high tem-
perature that the bright lines of the first spectrum of hydrogen can be
brought out, and by the equivalence of absorbing and emitting power
■that the corresponding spectrum of absorption should be produced ; yet for
a strong absorption to show itself, the hydrogen must be cool relatively
to the source of radiation behind it, whether this be condensed particles
ADDRESS. 1 7
or gas. Such conditions, it seems to me, should occur in the earlier rather
than in the more advanced stages of condensation.
The subject is obscure, and we may go wrong in our mode of conceiv-
ing of the probable progress of events, but there can be no doubt that in
one remarkable instance the white-star spectrum is associated with an
early stage of condensation.
Sirius is one of the most conspicuous examples of one type of this
class of stars. Photometric observations combined with its ascertained
parallax show that this star emits from forty to sixty times the light of
our sun, even to the eye, which is insensible to ultra-violet light, in which
Sirius is very rich, while we learn from the motion of its companion
that its mass is not much more than double that of our sun. It follows
that unless we attribute to this star an impi-obably great emissive power,
it must be of immense size, and in a much more diffuse and therefore
an earlier condition than our sun ; though probably at a later stage
than those white stars in which the hydrogen lines are bright.
A direct determination of the relative temperature of the photospheres
of the stars might possibly be obtained in some cases from the relative
position of maximum radiation of their continuous spectra. Langley
has shown that through the whole range of temperature on which we can
experiment, and presumably at temperatures beyond, the maximum of
radiation-power in solid bodies gradually shifts upwards in the spectrum
from the infra-red through the red and orange, and that in the sun it has
reached the blue.
The defined character as a rule of the stellar lines of absorption sug-
gests that the vapours producing them do not at the same time exert any
strong power of general absorption. Consequently we should probably
not go far wrong, when the photosphere consists of liquid or solid parti-
cles, if we could compare select parts of the continuous spectrum between
the stronger lines or where they are fewest. It is obvious that if extended
portions of different stellar spectra were compared, their true relation
would be obscured by the line-absorption.
The increase of temperature, as shown by the rise in the spectrum of
the maximum of radiation, may not always be accompanied by a corre-
sponding greater brightness of a star as estimated by the eye, which is an
extremely imperfect photometric instrument. Not only is the eye blind
to large regions of radiation, but even for the small range of light that
we can see the visual effect varies enormously with its colour. According
to Professor Langley, the same amount of energy which just enables us to
perceive light in the crimson at A would in the green produce a visual
effect 100,000 times greater. In the violet the proportional effect would
be 1,600, in the blue 62,000, in the yellow,28,000, in the orange 14,000,
and in the red 1,200. Captain Abney's recent experiments make the
•sensitiveness of the eye for the green near P to be 750 times greater than
for red about C. It is for this reason, at least in part, that I suggested
1891. ' C
18 REPORT— 1891.
in 1864), and have since shown by direct observation, that the spectrum,
of the nebula in Andromeda, and presumably of similar nebulae, is in
appearance only wanting in the red.
The stage at which the maximum radiation is in the green, corre-
sponding to the eye's greatest sensitiveness, would be that in which it
could be most favourably measured by eye-photometry. As the maxi-
mum rose into the violet and beyond, the star would increase in visual
brightness, but not in proportion to the increase of energy radiated by it.
The brightness of a star would be affected by the nature of the sub-
stance by which the light was chiefly emitted. In the laboratory solid
carbon exhibits the highest emissive power. A stellar stage in which
radiation comes, to a large extent, from a photosphere of the solid parti-
cles of this substance, would be favourable for great brilliancy. Though
the stars ai'e built up of matter essentially similar to that of the sun, it
does not follow that the proportion of the different elements is everywhere
the same. It may be that the substances condensed in the photospheres
of different stars may differ in their emissive powers, but probably not to
a great extent.
All the heavenly bodies are seen by us through the tinted medium of
our atmosphere. According to Langley, the solar stage of stars is not
really yellow, but, even as gauged by our imperfect eyes, would appear
bluish-white if we could free ourselves from the deceptive influences of
our surroundings.
From these considerations it follows that we can scai'cely infer the
evolutional stages of the stars from a simple comparison of their eye-
naagnitudes. We should expect the white stars to be, as a class, less
dense than the stars in the solar stage. As great mass might bring in
the solar type of spectrum at a relatively earlier time, some of the brightest
of these stars may be very massive and brighter than the sun — for example,,
the brilliant star Arcturus. For these reasons the solar stars should not
only be denser than the white stars, but perhaps, as a class, surpass them
in mass and eye-brightness.
It has been shown by Lane that, so long as a condensing gaseous mass
remains subject to the laws of a purely gaseous body, its temperature will
continue to rise.
The greater or less breadth of the lines of absorption of hydrogen in
the white-stars may be due to variations of the depth of the hydrogen in
the hue of sight, arising from the causes which have been discussed. At
the sides of the lines the absorption and emission are feebler than in the
middle, and would come out more strongly with a greater thickness of gas.
The diversities among the white stars are nearly as numerous as the
individuals of the class. Time does not permit me to do more than to-
record that in addition to the three sub-classes into which they have been
divided by Vogel, Scheiner has recently investigated minor differences-
as suggested by the character of the third line of hydrogen near G. He
ADDRESS. 19
has pointed out too that so far as his observations go the white stars in
the constellation of Orion stand alone, with the exception of Algol, in
possessing a dark line in the blue which has apparently the same posi-
tion as a bright line in the great nebula of the same constellation ; and
Pickering finds in his photographs of the spectra of these stars dark lines
corresponding to the principal lines of the bright-line stars, and the plane-
tary nebulae with the exception of the chief nebular line. The association
of white stars with nebular matter in Orion, in the Pleiades, in the region
of the Milky Way, and in other parts of the heavens, may be regarded
as falling in with the view that I have taken.
In the stars possibly further removed from the white class than our
sun, belonging to the first division of Vogel's third class, which are dis-
tinguished by absorption bands with their stronger edge towards the
blue, the hydrogen lines are narrower than in the solar spectrum. In
these stars the density-gradient is probably still more rapid, the depth of
hydrogen may be less, and possibly the hydrogen molecules may be
affected by a larger number of encounters with dissimilar molecules. In
some red stars with dark hydrocarbon bands the hydrogen lines have not
been certainly observed ; if they are really absent, it may be because the
temperature has fallen below the point at which hydrogen can exert its
characteristic absorption ; besides, some hydrogen will have united with
the carbon. The coming in of the hydrocarbon bands may indicate a later
evolutional stage, but the temperature may still be high, as acetylene
can exist in the electric arc.
A number of small stars more or leas similar to those which are known
by the names of their discoverers. Wolf and Rayet, have been found
by Pickering in his photographs. These are remarkable for several
brilliant groups of bright lines, including frequently the hydrogen lines
and the line D3, upon a continuoiis spectrum strong in blue and violet
rays, in which are also dark lines of absorption. As some of the bright
groups appear in his photographs to agree in position with corresponding
bright lines in the planetary nebulae, Pickering suggests that these stars
should be placed in one class with them, although the brightest nebular
line is absent from these stars. The simplest conception of their nature
would be that each star is surrounded by a nebula, the bright groups beine
due to the gaseous matter outside the star. Mr. Roberts, however, has
not been able to bring out any indication of nebulosity by prolono-ed
exposure. The remarkable star 17 Argus may belong to this class of
the heavenly bodies.
In the nebulae, the elder Herschel saw portions of the fiery mist or
' shining fluid ' out of which the heavens and the earth had been slowly
fashioned. For a time this view of the nebulas gave place to that which
regarded them as external galaxies, cosmical " sandheaps,' too remote to
be resolved into separate stars ; though indeed in 1858 Mr. Herbert
c 2
20 REPORT — 1891.
Spencer showed that the observations of nebulae up to that time were
really in favour of an evolutional progress.
In 1864 I brought the spectroscope to bear upon them ; the bright
lines which flashed upon the eye showed the source of the light of a
number of them to be glowing gas, and so restored these bodies to what
is probably their true place, as an early stage of sidereal life.
At that early time our knowledge of stellar spectra was small. For this
reason partly, and probably also under the undue influence of theological
opinions then widely prevalent, I unwisely wrote in my original paper
in 1864, ' that in these objects we no longer have to do with a special
modification of our own type of sun, but find ourselves in presence of
objects possessing a distinct and peculiar plan of structure.' Two years
later, however, in a lecture before this Association, I took a truer position.
' Our views of the universe,' I said, ' are undergoing important changes ;
let us wait for more facts with minds unfettered by any dogmatic theory,
and therefore free to receive the teaching, whatever it may be, of new
observations.'
Let us turn aside for a moment from the nebulae in the sky to the
conclusions to which philosophers had been irresistibly led by a considera-
tion of the features of the solar system. We have before us in the
sun and planets obviously not a haphazard aggregation of bodies, but
a system resting upon a multitude of relations pointing to a common
physical cause. i?rom these considerations Kant and Laplace formulated
the nebular hypothesis, resting it on gravitation alone, for at that time
the science of the conservation of energy was practically unknown. These
philosophers showed how, on the supposition that the space now occupied
by the solar system was once fiUed by a vaporous mass, the formation
of the sun and planets could be reasonably accounted for.
By a totally difi"erent method of reasoning, modern science traces
the solar system backward step by step to a similar state of things at
the beginning. According to Helmholtz the sun's heat is maintained
by the contraction of his mass, at the rate of about 220 feet a year.
Whether at the present time the sun is getting hotter or colder we do
not certainly know. We can reason back to the time when the sun was
sufliciently expanded to fill the whole space occupied by the solar system,
and was reduced to a great glowing nebula. Though man's life, the life
of the race perhaps, is too short to give us direct evidence of any distinct
stages of so august a process, still the probability is great that the
nebular hypothesis, especially in the more precise form given to it by
Roche, does represent broadly, notwithstanding some difficulties, the
succession of events through which the sun and planets have passed.
The nebular hypothesis of Laplace requires a rotating mass of fluid
which at successive epochs became unstable from excess of motion, and
left behind rings, or more probably perhaps lumps, of matter from the
equatorial regions.
ADDBESS. 21
The difficulties to whicli I have referred have suggested to some
thinkers a different view of things, according to which it is not necessary
to suppose that one part of the system gravitationally supports another.
The whole may consist of a congeries of discrete bodies even if these
bodies be the ultimate molecules of matter. The planets may have been
formed by the gradual accretion of such discrete bodies. On the view
that the material of the condensing solar system consisted of separate
particles or masses, we have no longer the fluid pressure which is an
essential part of Laplace's theory. Faye, in his theory of evolution from
meteorites, has to throw over this fundamental idea of the nebular
hypothesis, and he formulates instead a different succession of events in
which the outer planets were formed last ; a theory which has difficulties
of its own.
Professor George Darwin has recently shown, from an investigation
of the mechanical conditions of a swarm of meteorites, that on certain
assumptions a meteoric swarm might behave as a coarse gas, and in this
way bring back the fluid pressure exercised by one part of the system on
the other, which is required by Laplace's theory. One chief assumption
consists in supposing that such inelastic bodies as meteoric stones might
attain the effective elasticity of a high order which is necessary to the
theory through the sudden volatilisation of a part of their mass at an
encounter, by which what is virtually a violent explosive is introduced
between the two colliding stones. Professor Darwin is careful to point
out that it must necessarily be obscure as to how a small mass of solid
matter can take up a very large amount of energy in a small fraction of a
second.
Any direct indications from the heavens themselves, however slight,
are of so great value, that I should perhaps in this connection call atten-
tion to a recent remarkable photograph by Mr. Roberts of the great
nebula in Andromeda. On this plate we seem to have presented to us
some stage of cosmical evolution on a gigantic scale. The photograph
shows a sort of whirlpool disturbance of the luminous matter which is
distributed in a plane inclined to the line of sight, in which a series of
rings of bright matter separated by dark spaces, greatly foreshortened by
perspective, surround a large undefined central mass. The parallax of this
nebula has not been ascertained, but there can be little doubt that we are
looking upon a system very remote, and therefore of a magnitude great
beyond our power of adequate comprehension. The matter of this nebula,
in whatever state it may be, appears to be distributed, as in so many
other nebulae, in rings or spiral streams, and to suggest a stage in a suc-
cession of evolutional events not inconsistent with that which the nebular
hypothesis requires. To liken this object more directly to any particular
stage in the formation of the solar system would be ' to compare things
great with small,' and might be indeed to introduce a false analogy ; but
on the other hand, we should err through an excess of caution if we did
22 REPOKT — 1891.
not accept the remarkable features brought to light by this photograph
as a presumptive indication of a progress of events in cosmical history
following broadly upon the lines of Laplace's theory.
The old view of the original matter of the nebulae, that it consisted of
a. ' fiery mist,'
' a tumultuous cloud
Instinct with fire and nitre,'
fell at once with the rise of the science of thermodynamics. In 1854
Helmholtz showed that the supposition of an original fiery condition of
the nebulous stuff was unnecessary, since in the mutual gravitation of
■widely separated matter we have a store of potential energy sufficient to
generate the high temperature of the sun and stars. We can scarcely go
wrong in attributing the light of the nebulce to the conversion of the
gravitational energy of shrinkage into molecular motion.
The idea that the light of comets and of nebulse may be due to a suc-
cession of ignited flashes of gas from the encounters of meteoric stones
was suo-o-ested by Professor Tait, and was brought to the notice of this
Association in 1871 by Sir William Thomson in his Presidential Address.
The spectrum of the bright-line nebulje is certainly not such a spec-
trum as we should expect from the flashing by collisions of meteorites
similar to those which have been analysed in our laboratories. The
strongest lines of the substances which in the case of such meteorites
would first show themselves, iron, sodium, magnesium, nickel, &c., are
not those which distinguish the nebular spectrum. On the contrary, this
spectrum is chiefly remarkable for a few brilliant lines, very narrow and
defined, upon a background of a faint continuous spectrum, which con-
tains numerous bright lines, and probably some lines of absorption.
The two most conspicuous lines have not been interpreted; for
though the second line falls near, it is not coincident with a strong double
line of iron. It is hardly necessary to say that though the near position
of the brightest line to the bright double line of nitrogen, as seen in a
small spectroscope in 1864, naturally suggested at that early time the
possibility of the presence of this element in the nebulae, I have been
careful to point out, to prevent misapprehension, that in more recent
years the nitrogen line and subsequently a lead line have been eruployed
by me solely as fiducial points of reference in the spectrum.
The third line we know to be the second line of the first spectrum of
hydrogen. Mr. Keeler has seen the first hydrogen line in the red, and
photographs show that this hydrogen spectrum is probably present in its
complete form, or nearly so, as we first learnt to know it in the absorp-
tion spectrum of the white stars.
We are not surprised to find associated with it the line D3, near the
position of the absent sodium lines, probably due to the atom of some
unknown gas, which in the sun can only show itself in the outbursts of
ADDRESS. 23
highest temperature, and for this reason does not reveal itself by absorp-
tion in the solar spectrum.
It is not unreasonable to assume that the two brightest lines, which
are of the same order as the third line, are produced by substances of a
similar nature, in which a vibratory motion corresponding to a very high
temperature is also necessary. These substances, as well as that repre-
sented by the line D3, may be possibly some of the unknown elements
which are wanting in our terrestrial chemistry between hydrogen and
lithium, unless indeed D3 be on the lighter side of hydrogen.
In the laboratory we must have recourse to the electric discharge to
bring out the spectrum of hydrogen ; but in a vacuum-tube, though the
radiation may be great, from the relative fewness of the luminous atoms
or molecules or from some other cause, the temperature of the gas as
a whole may be low.
On account of the large extent of the nebulte, a comparatively small
number of luminous molecules or atoms would probably be sufficient to
make the nebute as bright as they appear to us. On such an assumption
the average temperature may be low, but the individual particles, which
by their encounters are luminous, must have motions corresponding to
a very high temperature, and in this sense be extremely hot.
In such diffuse masses, from the great mean length of free path, the
encounters would be rare but correspondingly violent, and tend to bring
about vibrations of comparatively short period, as appears to be the case
if we may judge by the great relative brightness of the more refrangible
lines of the nebular spectrum.
Such a view may perhaps reconcile the high temperature which the
nebular spectrum undoubtedly suggests with the much lower mean tem-
perature of the gaseous mass, which we should expect at so early a stage
of condensation, unless we assume a very enormous mass ; or that the
matter coming together had previously considerable motion, or consider-
able molecular agitation.
If the hydrogen shown by the spectroscope in the nebulae and in the
atmospheres of the stars is retained by these bodies, we should be able to
assign approximately an inferior limit for the force of gravity at their
surfaces ; provided that we assume that the gas is in the uncombined
state, and always exists in some greater proportion than in the free space
about them.
The inquisitiveness of the human mind does not allow us to remain
content with the interpretation of the present state of the cosmical masses,
but suggests the question —
' What see'st thou else
In the dark backward and abysm of time ? '
What was the original state of things ? how has it come about that by
the side of ageing worlds we have nebulse in a relatively younger stage ?
Have any of them received their birth from dark suns, which have col-
24 REPORT — 1891.
lided into new life, and so belong to a second or later generation of the
heavenly bodies ?
During the short historic period, indeed, there is no record of such an
event ; still it would seem to be only through the collision of dark suns,
of which the number must be increasing, that a temporary rejuvenescence
of the heavens is possible, and by such ebbings and flowings of stellar life
that the inevitable end to which evolution in its apparently uncompen-
sated progress is carrying us can, even for a little, be delayed.
"We cannot refuse to admit as possible such an origin for nebulae.
In considering, however, the formation of the existing nebulaa we
must bear in mind that, in the part of the heavens within our ken, the
stars still in the early and middle stages of evolution exceed greatly in
number those which appear to be in an advanced condition of condensa-
tion. Indeed, we find some stars which may be regarded as not far
advanced beyond the nebular condition.
It may be that the cosmical bodies which are still nebulous owe the
lateness of their development to some conditions of the part of space
where they occur, such as conceivably a greater original homogeneity, in
consequence of which condensation began less early. In other parts of
space condensation may have been still further delayed, or even have not
yet begun. It is worthy of remark that these nebulae group themselves
about the Milky Way, where we find a preponderance of the white- star
type of stars, and almost exclusively the bright-line stars which Pickering
associates with the planetary nebulas. Further, Dr. Grill concludes, from
the rapidity with which they impress themselves ujDon the plate, that the
fainter stars of the Milky "Way also, to a large extent, belong to this early
type of stars. At the same time other types of stars occur also over this
region, and the red hydrocarbon stars are found in certain parts ; but
possibly these stars may be before or behind the Milky Way, and not
physically connected with it.
If light matter be suggested by the spectrum of these nebulae, it may
be asked further, as a pure speculation, whether in them we are witness-
ing possibly a later condensation of the light matter which had been left
behind, at least in a relatively greater proportion, after the first growth
of worlds into which the heavier matter condensed, though not without
some entanglement of the lighter substances. The wide extent and great
diflfuseness of this bright-line nebulosity over a large part of the con-
stellation of Orion may be regarded perhaps as pointing in this direction.
The diffuse nebulous matter streaming round the Pleiades may possibly
be another instance, though the character of its spectrum has not yet
been ascertained.
In the planetary nebulae, as a rule, there is a sensible increase of the
faint continuous spectrum, as well as a shght thickening of the bright
lines towards the centre of the nebula, appearances which are in favour
of the view that these bodies are condensing gaseous masses.
ADDBESS. 25>
Professor G. Darwin, in his investigation of the equiHbrium of a rotat-
ing mass of fluid, found, in accordance with the independent researches
of Poincare, that when a portion of the central body becomes detached
through increasing angular velocity, the portion should bear a far larger
ratio to the remainder than is observed in the planets and satellites of the
solar system, even taking into account heterogeneity from the condensa-
tion of the parent mass.
Now this state of things, in which the masses though not equal are of
the same order, does seem to prevail in many nebute, and to have given
birth to a large class of binary stars. Mr. See has recently investigated
the evolution of bodies of this class, and points out their radical difiierences
from the solar system in the relatively large mass-ratios of the component
bodies, as well as in the high eccentricities of their orbits brought about
by tidal friction, which would play a more important part in the evolution
of such systems.
Considering the large number of these bodies, he suggests that the solar
system should perhaps no longer be regarded as representing celestial
evolution in its normal form —
' A goodly Paterne to whose perfect mould
He fashioned them . . .'
but rather as modified by conditions which are exceptional.
It may well be that in the very early stages condensing masses are
subject to very different conditions, and that condensation may not always
begin at one or two centres, but sometimes set in at a large number of
points, and proceed in the different cases along very different lines of
evolution.
Besides its more direct use in the chemical analysis of the heavenly
bodies, the spectroscope has given to us a great and unexpected power of
advance along the lines of the older astronomy. In the future a higher
value may, indeed, be placed upon this indirect use of the spectroscope
than upon its chemical revelations.
By no direct astronomical methods could motions of approach or of
recession of the stars be even detected, much less could they be measured.
A body coming directly towards us or going directly from us appears to
stand still. In the case of the stars we can receive no assistance from
change of size or of brightness. The stars show no true discs in our
instruments, and the nearest of them is so far off that if it were approach-
ing us at the rate of a hundred miles in a second of time, a whole
century of such rapid approach would not do more than increase its
brightness by the one-fortieth part.
Still it was only too clear that, so long as we were unable to ascertain
directly those components of the stars' motions which lie in the line of
sight, the speed and direction of the solar motion in space, and many of
•26 REPORT — 1891.
the great problems of the constitution of the heavens, must remain more
or less imperfectly known. Now the spectroscope has placed in our
hands this power, which, though so essential, appeared almost in the
nature of things to lie for ever beyond our grasp ; it enables us to measure
directly, and under favourable circumstances to within a mile per second,
or even less, the speed of approach or of recession of a heavenly body.
This method of observation has the great advantage for the astronomer
of being independent of the distance of the moving body, and is
therefore as applicable and as certain in the case of a body on the
extreme confines of the visible universe, so long as it is bright enough,
as in the case of a neighbouring planet.
Doppler had suggested as far back as 1841 that the same principle, on
■which he had shown that a sound should become sharper or flatter if
there were an approach or a recession between the ear and the source
of the sound, would apjjly equally to light; and he went on to say that
the difference of colour of some of the binary stars might be produced in
this way by their motions. Doppler was right in that the principle is
true in the case of light, but he was wrong in the particular conclusion
which he drew from it. Even if we suppose a star to be moving with a
sufficiently enormous velocity to alter sensibly its colour to the eye, no
such change would actually be seen, for the reason that the store of
invisible light beyond both limits of the visible spectrum, the blue and
the red, would be drawn upon, and light- waves invisible to us would be
exalted or degraded so as to take the place of those raised or lowered in
the visible region, and the colour of the star would remain unchanged.
About eight years later Fizeau pointed out the importance of considering
the individual wave-lengths of which white light is composed. It is,
indeed, Doppler's principle which underlies the early determination of
the velocity of light by Roemer; but this method, in its converse form,
can scarcely be regarded as of practical value for the motions in the line
of sight of binary stars. As soon, however, as we had learned to
recognise the lines of known substances in the spectra of the heavenly
bodies, Doppler's principle became applicable as the basis of a new
and most fruitful method of investigation. The measurement of the
small shift of the celestial lines from their true positions, as shown
by the same lines in the spectrum of a terrestrial substance, gives to
us the means of ascertaining directly in miles per second the speed
of approach or of recession of the heavenly body from which the light
has come.
An account of the first application of this method of research to
the stars, which was made in my observatory in 1868, was given by Sir
Gabriel Stokes from this chair at the meeting at Exeter in 1869. The
stellar motions determined by me were shortly after confirmed by Pro-
fessor Vogel in the case of Sirius, and in the case of other stars by Mr.
•Christie, now Astronomer Royal, at Greenwich ; but, necessarily, in con-
ADDEESS.
27
sequence of the inadequacy of the insti-nments then in use for so delicate
an inquiry, the amounts of these motions were but approximate.
The method was shortly afterwards taken up systematically at Green-
wich and at the Rugby Observatory. It is to be greatly regretted that,
for some reasons, the results have not been sufficiently accordant and
accurate for a research of such exceptional delicacy. On this account
probably, as well as that the spectroscope at that early time had scarcely
become a familiar instrument in the observatory, astronomers were slow
in availing themselves of this new and remarkable power of investigation.
That this comparative neglect of so truly wonderful a method of ascertain-
ing what was otherwise outside our powers of observation has greatly
retarded the progress of astronomy during the last fifteen years, is but
too clearly shown by the brilliant results which within the last couple of
years have followed fast upon the recent masterly application of this
method by photography at Potsdam, and by eye with the needful accuracy
at the Lick Observatory. At last this use of the spectroscope has taken
its true place as one of the most potent methods of astronomical research.
It gives us the motions of approach and of recession, not in angular
measures, which depend for their translation into actual velocities upon
separate determinations of parallactic displacements, but at once in
terrestrial units of distance.
This method of work will doubtless be very prominent in the astro-
nomy of the near future, and to it probably we shall have to look for the
more important discoveries in sidereal astronomy which will be made
during the coming century.
In his recent application of photography to this method of determining
celestial motions, Professor Vogel, assisted by Dr. Scheiner, considering
the importance of obtaining the spectrum of as many stars as possible on
an extended scale without an exposure inconveniently long, wisely
determined to limit the part of the spectrum on the plate to the region
for which the ordinary silver-bromide gelatine plates are most sensitive,
namely, to a small distance on each side of G, and to employ as the line
ot comparison the hydrogen line near G, and recently also certain lines
of iron. The most minute and complete mechanical arrangements were
provided for the purpose of securing the absolute rigidity of the com-
parison spectrum relatively to that of the star, and for permitting tem-
perature adjustments and other necessary ones to be made, .
The perfection of these spectra is shown by the large number of
lines, no fewer than 250 in the case of Capella, within the small region
of the spectrum on the plate. Already the motions of about fifty stars
have been measured with an accuracy, in the case of the larger number
of them, of about an English mile per second.
At the Lick Observatory it has been shown that observations can be
made directly by eye with an accuracy equally great. Mr. Keeler's
brilliant success has followed in great measure from the use of the third
28 KEPORT 1891.
and fourth spectra of a grating with 14,438 lines to the inch. The mar-
Tellous accuracy attainable in his hands on a suitable star is shown by
observations on three nights of the star Arcturus, the largest divergence
of his measures being not greater than six-tenths of a mile per second,
while the mean of the three nights' work agreed with the mean of five
photographic determinations of the same star at Potsdam to within one-
tenth of an English mile. These are determinations of the motions of a
sun so stupendously remote that even the method of parallax practically
fails to fathom the depth of intervening space, and by means of light-
waves which have been, according to Elkin's nominal parallax, nearly
200 years upon their journey.
Mr. Keeler with his magnificent means has accomplished a task
which I attempted in vain in 1874, with the comparatively poor appli-
ances at my disposal, of measuring the motions in the line of sight of
some of the planetary nebulas. As the stars have considerable motions
in space it was to be expected that nebulae should possess similar motions,
for tbe stellar motions must have belonged to the nebnlse out of which
they have been evolved. My instrumental means, limiting my power of
detection to motions greater than twenty-five miles per second, were in-
sufficient. Mr. Keeler has found in the examination of ten nebulae
motions varying from two miles to twenty-seven miles, with one excep-
tional motion of nearly forty miles.
For the nebula of Orion, Mr. Keeler finds a motion of recession of
about ten miles a second. Now this motion agrees closely with what it
should appear to have from the drift of the solar system itself, so far as
it has been possible at present to ascertain the probable velocity of the
sun in space. This grand nebula, of vast extent and of extreme tenuity,
is probably more nearly at rest relatively to the stars of our system
than any other celestial object we know ; still it would seem more likely
that even here we have some motion, small though it may be, than that
the motions of the matter of which it is formed were so absolutely
balanced as to leave this nebula in the unique position of absolute immo-
bility in the midst of whirling and drifting suns and systems of suns.
The spectroscopic method of determining celestial motions in the
line of sight has recently become fruitful in a new but not altogether un-
foreseen direction, for it has, so to speak, given us a separating power
far beyond that of any telescope the glass-maker and the optician could
construct, and so enabled us to penetrate into mysteries hidden in
stars apparently single, and altogether unsuspected of being binary
systems. The spectroscope has not simply added to the list of the
known binary stars, but has given to us for the first time a knowledge
of a new class of stellar systems, in which the components are in some
cases of nearly equal magnitude, and in close proximity, and are re-
volving with velocities greatly exceeding the planetary velocities of our
system.
ADDRESS. 29
The K line in the photographs of Mizar, taken at the Harvard Col-
lege Observatory, was found to be double at intervals of fifty-two days.
The spectrum was therefore not due to a single source of light, but to
the combined effect of two stars moving periodically in opposite direc-
tions in the line of sight. It is obvious that if two stars revolve round
their common centre of gravity in a plane not perpendicular to the line
of si^ht, all the lines in a spectrum common to the two stars will appear
alternately single or double.
In the case of Mizar and the other stars to be mentioned, the spec-
troscopic observations are not as yet extended enough to furnish more
than an approximate determination of the elements of tbeir orbits.
Mizar especially, on account of its relatively long period, about 105
days, needs further observations. The two stars are moving each, with a
velocity of about fifty miles a second, probably in elliptical orbits, and
are about 143 millions of miles apart. The stars of about equal bright-
ness have together a mass about forty times as great as that of our sun.
A similar doubling of the lines showed itself in the Harvard pboto-
graphs of yS Aurigse at the remarkably close interval of almost exactly
two days, indicating a period of revolution of about four days. Accord-
ing to Vogel's later observations, eacb star has a velocity of nearly seventy
miles a second, the distance between the stars being little more than
seven and a half millions of miles, and the mass of the system 4' 7 times
that of the sun. The system is approaching us at the speed of about
sixteen miles a second.
The telescope could never have revealed to us double stars of this
order. In the case of /3 Auriga3, combining Vogel's distance with
Pritchard's recent determination of the star's parallax, the greatest
angular separation of the stars as seen from the earth would be l-200th
part of a second of arc, and therefore very far too small for detection
by the largest telescopes. If we take the relation of aperture to sepa-
rating power usually accepted, an object glass of about eighty feet in
diameter would be needed to resolve this binary star. The spectroscope,
which takes no note of distance, magnifies, so to speak, this minute
angular separation 4,000 times ; in other words, the doubling of the
lines, which is the phenomenon that we have to observe, amounts to the
easily measurable quantity of twenty seconds of arc.
There were known, indeed, variable stars of short period, which it
had been suggested might be explained on the hypothesis of a dark
body revolving about a bright sun in a few days, but this theory was
met by the objection that no sacli systems of closely revolving suns were
known to exist.
The Harvard photographs of which we have been speaking were
taken with a slitless form of spectroscope, the prisms being placed, as
originally by Fraunhofer, before the object glass of the telescope. This
method, though it possesses some advantages, has the serious drawback
30 REPOET— 1891.
of not permitting a direct comparison of the star's spectrum with ter-
restrial spectra. It is obviously unsuited to a variable star like Algol,
where one star only is bright, for in such a case there would be no
doubling of the Hnes, but only a small shift to and fro in the spectrum
of the lines of the bright star as it moved in its orbit alternately towards
and from our system, which would need for its detection the fiducial
positions of terrestrial lines compared directly with them.
For such observations the Potsdam spectrograph was well adapted.
Professor Vogel found that the bright star of Algol did pulsate back-
wards and forwards in the visual direction in a period corresponding to
the known variation of its light. The explanation which had been
suggested for the star's variability, that it was partially eclipsed at
regular intervals of 68'8 hours by a dark companion large enough to cut
off nearly five-sixths of its light, was therefore the true one. The dark
companion, no longer able to hide itself by its obscureness, was brought
out into the light of direct observation by means of its gravitational
effects.
Seventeen hours before minimum Algol is receding at the rate of
about 24^ miles a second, while seventeen hours after minimum it is
found to be approaching with a speed of about 28^^ miles. Prom these
data, together with those of the variation of its light, Vogel found, on
the assumption that both stars have the same density, that the companion,
nearly as large as the sun, but with about one-fourth his mass, revolves
with a velocity of about fifty-five miles a second. The bright star of
about twice the size and mass moves about the common centre of gravity
with the speed of about twenty-six miles a second. The system of the two
stars, which are about 3;^ millions of miles apart, considered as a whole,
is approaching us with a velocity of 2-4 miles a second. The great
difference in luminosity of the two stars, not less than fifty times, suggests
rather that they are in different stages of condensation, and dissimilar in
density.
It is obvious that if the orbit of a star with an obscure companion is
sufficiently inclined to the line of sight, the companion will pass above or
below the bright star and produce no variation of its light. Such systems
may be numerous in the heavens. In Vogel's photographs, Spica, which is
not variable, by a small shifting of its lines reveals a backward and forward
periodical pulsation due to orbital motion. As the pair whirl round
their common centre of gravity, the bright star is sometimes advancing,
at others receding. They revolve in about four days, each star moving
with a velocity of about fifty-six miles a second in an orbit probably
nearly circular, and possess a combined mass of rather more than 2^
times that of the sun. Taking the most probable value for the star's
parallax, the greatest angular separation of the stars would be far too
small to be detected with the most powerful telescopes.
If in a close double star the fainter companion is of the white-star
ADDRESS. 31
type, while the bright star is solar in character, the composite spectrum
would be solar with the hydrogen lines unusually strong. Such a spec-
trum would in itself afford some probability of a double origin, and
suggest the existence of a companion star.
In the case of a true binary star the orbital motions of the pair would
reveal themselves in a small periodical swaying of the hydrogen lines
relatively to the solar ones.
Professor Pickering considers that his photographs show ten stars
with composite spectra ; of these, five are known to be double. The
others are : t Persei, I AurigiB, 8 Sagittarii, 31 Ceti, and /3 Capricorni.
Perhaps ^ Ljrae should be added to this list.
In his recent classical work on the rotation of the sun, Duner has
not only determined the solar rotation for the equator but for different
parallels of latitude up to 75°. The close accordance of his results shows
that these observations are suflBciently accurate to be discussed with the
variation of the solar rotation for different latitudes, which had been
determined by the older astronomical methods from the observations of
the solar spots.
Though I have already spoken incidentally of the invaluable aid
which is furnished by photography in some of the applications of the
spectroscope to the heavenly bodies, the new power which modern
photography has put into the hands of the astronomer is so great, and
has led already, within the last few years, to new acquisitions of know-
ledge of such vast importance, that it is fitting that a few sentences
should be specially devoted to this subject.
Photography is no new discovery, being about half a century old ;
it may excite surprise, and indeed possibly suggest some apathy on the
part of astronomers, that though the suggestion of the application of
photography to the heavenly bodies dates from the memorable occasion
when, in 1839, Arago, announcing to the Academie des Sciences the great
discovery of Niepce and Daguerre, spoke of the possibility of taking
pictures of the sun and moon by the new process, jet that it is only
within a few years that notable advances in astronomical methods and
discovery have been made by its aid.
The explanation is to be found in the comparative unsuitability of
the earlier photographic methods for use in the observatory. Injustice
to the early workers in astronomical photography, among whom Bond,
De la Rue, J. W. Draper, Rutherfurd, Gould, hold a foremost place, it is
needful to state clearly that the recent great successes in astronomical
photography are not due to greater skill, nor, to any great extent, to
superior instruments, but to the very great advantages which the modern
gelatine dry plate possesses for use in the observatory over the methods
of Dnguerre, and even over the wet collodion film on glass which, though
a fr eat advance on the silver plate, went but a little way towards putting-
32 BEPORT— 1891.
into the hands of the astronomer a photographic surface adapted fully to
his wants.
The modern silver-bromide gelatine plate, except for its grained
texture, meets the needs of the astronomer at all points. It possesses
extreme sensitiveness ; it is always ready for use ; it can be placed in any
position ; it can be exposed for hours ; lastly, it does not need immediate
development, and for this reason can be exposed again to the same
object on succeeding nights, so as to make up by several instalments, as the
weather may permit, the total time of exposure which is deemed necessary.
Without the assistance of photography, however greatly the resources
of genius might overcome the optical and mechanical diflBculties of con-
structing large telescopes, the astronomer would have to depend in the
last resource upon his eye. Now we cannot by the force of continued
looking bring into view an object too feebly luminous to be seen at the
first and keenest moment of vision. But the feeblest light which falls
upon the plate is not lost, but is taken in and stored up continuously.
Bach hour the plate gathers up 3,600 times the light-energy which
it received during the first second. It is by this power of accumu-
lation that the photographic plate may be said to increase, almost
without limit, though not in separating power, the optical means at the
disposal of the astronomer for the discovery or the observation of faint
objects.
Two principal directions may be pointed out in which photography is
of great service to the astronomer. It enables him within the compara-
tively short time of a single exposure to secure permanently with great
exactness the relative positions of hundreds or even of thousands of stars,
or the minute features of nebulas or other objects, or the phenomena
of a passing eclipse, tasks which by means of the eye and hand could
only be accomplished, if at all, after a very great expenditure of time
and labour. Photography puts it in the power of the astronomer to
accomplish in the short span of his own life, and so enter into their
fruition, great works which otherwise must have been passed on by him
as an heritage of labour to succeeding generations.
The second great service which photography renders is not simply an
aid to the powers the astronomer already possesses. On the contrary,
the plate, by recording light-waves which are both too small and too
large to excite vision in the eye, brings him into new regions of know-
ledge, such as the infra-red and the ultra-violet parts of the spectrum,
which must have remained for ever unknown but for artificial help.
The present year will be memorable in astronomical history for the
practical beginning of the Photographic Chart and Catalogue of the
Heavens, which took their origin in an International Conference which
met in Paris in 1887, by the invitation of M. I'Amiral Mouchez, Director
of the Paris Observatory.
The richness in stars down to the ninth magnitude of the photographs
ADDRESS. 33
of the comet of 1882 taken at the Cape Observatory under the superin-
tendence of Dr. Gill, and the remarkable star charts of the Brothers
Henry which followed two years later, astonished the astronomical world.
The great excellence of these photographs, which was due mainly to the
superiority of the gelatine plate, suggested to these astronomers a complete
map of the sky, and a little later gave birth in the minds of the Paris
astronomers to the grand enterprise of an International Chart of the
Heavens. The actual beginning of tlTe work this year is in no small
degree due to the great energy and tact with which the Director of the
Paris Observatory has conducted the initial steps, through the many
delicate and difficult questions which have unavoidably presented them-
selves in an undertaking which depends upon the harmonious working in
common of many nationalities, and of no fewer than eighteen observa-
tories in all parts of the world. The three years since 1887 have not
been too long for the detailed organisation of this work, which has
called for several elaborate preliminary investigations on special points
in which our knowledge was insufficient, and which have been ably
carried out by Professors Vogel and Bakhuyzen, Dr. Trepied, Dr. Scheiner,
Dr. Gill, the Astronomer Royal, and others. Time also was required for
the construction of the new and special instruments.
The decisions of the Conference in their final form provide for the
construction of a great photographic chart of the heavens with exposures
corresponding to forty minutes' exposure at Paris, which it is expected
win reach down to stars of about the fourteenth magnitude. As each
plate is to be limited to four square degrees, and as each star, to
avoid possible errors, is to appear on two plates, over 22,000 photographs
will be required. For the more accurate determination of the positions
of the stars, a reseau with lines at distances of 5 mm. apart is to be
previously impressed by a faint light upon the plate, so that the image
of the reseau will appear together with the images of the stars when the
plate is developed. This great work will be divided, according to their
latitudes, among eighteen observatories provided with similar instru-
ments, though not necessarily constructed by the same maker. Those
in the British dominions and at Tacubaya have been constructed by Sir
Howard Grubb.
Besides the plates to form the great chart, a second set of plates for a
catalogue is to be taken, with a shorter exposure, which will give stars to
the eleventh magnitude only. These plates, by a recent decision of the
Permanent Committee, are to be pushed on as actively as possible, though
as far as may be practicable plates for the chart are to be taken concur-
rently. Photographing the plates for the catalogue is but the first step
in this work, and only supplies the data for the elaborate measurements
which have to be made, which are, however, less laborious than would
be required for a similar catalogue without the aid of photography.
Already Dr. Gill has nearly brought to conclusion, with the assistance
1891. D
34 REPORT — 1891.
of Professor Kapteyn, a preliminary photograpliic survey of the Southern
VipOTTOTlg
With an exposure sufficiently long for the faintest stars to impress
themselves upon the plate, the accumulating action still goes on for the
brighter stars, producing a great enlargement of their images from opti-
cal and photographic causes. The question has occupied the attention of
many astronomers whether it is possible to find a law connecting the
diameters of these more or less over-exposed images with the relative
brightness of the stars themselves. The answer will come out undoubt-
edly in the afiarmative, though at present the empirical formulae which
have been suggested for this purpose differ from each other. Captain
Abney proposes to measure the total photographic action, including
density as well as size, by the obstruction which the stellar image offers
to light.
A further question follows as to the relation which the photographic
magnitudes of stars bear to those determined by eye. Visual magnitudes
are the physiological expression of the eye's integration of that part of
the star's light which extends from the red to the blue. Photographic
magnitudes represent the plate's integration of another part of the star's
light — namely, from a little below where the power of the eye leaves off
in the blue, to where the light is cut off by the glass, or is greatly re-
duced by want of proper corrections when a refracting telescope is used.
It is obvious that the two records are taken by different methods in
dissimilar units of different parts of the star's light. In the case of cer-
tain coloured stars the photographic brightness is very different from the
visual brightness ; but in all stars changes, especially of a temporary cha-
racter, may occur in the photographic or the visual region, unaccompanied
by similar changes in the other part of the spectrum. For these reasons
it would seem desirable that the two sets of magnitudes should be tabu-
lated independently, and be regarded as supplementary of each other.
The determination of the distances of the fixed stars from the small
apparent shift of their positions when viewed from widely separated posi-
tions of the earth in its orbit is one of the most refined operations of the
observatory. The great precision with which this minute angulai
quantity, a fraction of a second of arc only, has to be measured, is so deli-
cate an operation with the ordinary micrometer, though, indeed, it was with
this instrument that the classical observations of Sir Robert Ball were
made, that a special instrument, in which the measures are made by
moving the two halves of a divided object glass, known as a heliometer,
has been pressed into this service, and quite recently, in the skilful hands
of Dr. Gill and Dr. Elkin, has largely increased our knowledge in this
direction.
It is obvious that photography might be here of great service, if we
could rely upon measurements of photographs of the same stars taken at
suitable intervals of time. Professor Pritchard, to whom is due the
ADDRESS. 35
honour of having opened this new path, aided by his assistants, has
proved by elaborate investigations that measures for parallax may be
safely made upon photographic plates, with, of course, the advantages of
leisure and repetition ; and he has already by this method determined the
parallax for twenty-one stars with an accuracy not inferior to that of
values previously obtained by purely astronomical methods.
The remarkable successes of astronomical photography, which depend
upon the plate's power of accumulation of a very feeble light acting
continuously through an exposure of several hours, are worthy to be re-
garded as a new revelation. The first chapter opened when, in 1880, Dr.
Henry Draper obtained a picture of the nebula of Orion ; but a more im-
portant advance was made in 1883, when Dr. Common, by his photographs,
brought to our knowledge details and extensions of this nebula hitherto
unknown. A further disclosure took place in 1885, when the Brothers
Henry showed for the first time in great detail the spiral nebulosity issu-
ing from the bright star Maia of the Pleiades, and shortly afterwards
nebulous streams about the other stars of this group. In 1886 Mr.
Roberts, by means of a photograph to which three hours' exposure had
been given, showed the whole background of this group to be nebulous.
In the following year Mr. Roberts more than doubled for us the great
extension of the nebular region which surrounds the trapezium in the
constellation of Orion. By his photographs of the great nebula in An-
dromeda, he has shown the true significance of the dark canals which
had been seen by the eye. They are in reality spaces between successive
rings of bright matter, which appeared nearly straight owing to the in-
clination in which they lie relatively to us. These bright rings surround
an undefined central luminous mass. I have already spoken of this
photograph.
Some recent photographs by Mr. Russell show that the great rift in
the Milky Way in Argus, which to the eye is void of stars, is in reality
uniformly covered with them. Also quite recently Mr. George Hale has
photographed the solar prominences by means of a grating, making use
of the lines H and K.
The heavens are richly but very irregularly inwrought with stars.
The brighter stars cluster into well-known groups upon a background
formed of an enlacement of streams and convoluted windings and inter-
twined spirals of fainter stars, which becomes richer and more intricate in
the irregularly rifted zone of the Milky Way.
We, who form part of the emblazonry, can only see the design dis-
torted and confused ; here crowded, there scattered, at another place
superposed. The groupings due to our position are mixed up with those
which are real.
Can we suppose that each luminous point has no other relation to
those near it than the accidental neighbourship of grains of sand upon
B 2
36 REPORT — 1891.
the shore, or of particles of the wind-blown dust of the desert ? Surely
every star from Sirius and Vega down to each grain of the light-dust of
the Milky Way has its present place in the heavenly pattern from the
slow evolving of its past. We see a system of systems, for the broad
features of clusters and streams and spiral windings which mark the
general design are reproduced in every part. The whole is in motion,
each point shifting its position by miles every second, though from the
august magnitude of their distances from us and from each other, it is
only by the accumulated movements of years or of generations that some
small changes of relative position reveal themselves.
The deciphering of this wonderfully intricate constitution of the
heavens will be undoubtedly one of the chief astronomical works of the
coming century. The primary task of the sun's motion in space together
with the motions of the brighter stars has been already put well within
our reach by the spectroscopic method of the measurement of star-motions
in the line of sight.
From other directions information is accumnlating : from photographs
of clusters and parts of the Milky Way, by Roberts in this country,
Barnard at the Lick Observatory, and Russell at Sydney ; from the count-
ing of stars, and the detection of their configurations, by Holden and by
Backhouse ; from the mapping of the Milky Way by eye, at Parsonstown ;
from photographs of the spectra of stars, by Pickering at Harvard and in
Peru ; and from the exact portraiture of the heavens in the great interna-
tional star chart which begins this year.
I have but touched some only of the problems of the newer side of
astronomy. Of the many others which would claim our attention if
time permitted I may name the following. The researches of the Earl of
Rosse on lunar radiation, and the work on the same subject and on the
sun, by Langley. Observations of lunar heat with an instrument of his
own invention by Mr. Boys ; and observations of the variation of the-
moon's heat with its phase by Mr. Frank Very. The discovery of the
nltra- violet part of the hydrogen spectrum, not in the laboratory, but from,
the stars. The confirmation of this spectrum by terrestrial hydrogen in
part by H. W. Vogel, and in its all but complete form by Cornu, who
found similar series in the ultra-violet spectra of aluminium and thallium.
The discovery of a simple formula for the hydrogen series by Balmer. The
important question as to the numerical spectral relationship of difierent-
substances, especially in connection with their chemical properties ; and
the further question as to the origin of the harmonic and other relation*
between the lines and the groupings of lines of spectra ; on these points
contributions during the past year have been made by Rudolf v. Kove-
sligethy, Ames, Hartley, Deslandres, Rydberg, Griinwald, Kayser and
Runge, Johnstone Stoney, and others. The remarkable employment of
interference phenomena by Professor Michelson for the determination of
the size, and distribution of light within them, of the images of objects
ADDRESS. 37
•whicli when viewed in a telescope subtend an angle less than that sub-
tended by the light- wave at a distance equal to the diameter of the
objective. A method applicable not alone to celestial objects, but also to
spectral lines, and other questions of molecular physics.
Along the older lines there has not been less activity ; by newer
methods, by the aid of larger or more accurately constructed instruments,
by greater refinement of analysis, knowledge has been increased, especially
in precision and minute exactness.
Astronomy, the oldest of the sciences, has more than renewed her
youth. At no time in the past has she been so bright with unbounded
aspirations and hopes. Never were her temples so numerous, nor the
crowd of her votaries so great. The British Astronomical Association
formed within the year numbers already about 600 members. Happy is
the lot of those who are still on the eastern side of life's meridian !
Already, alas ! the original founders of the newer methods are falling
out — Kirchhoff, Angstrom, D 'Arrest, Secchi, Draper, Becquerel ; but
their places are more than filled ; the pace of the race is gaining, but the
goal is not and never will be in sight.
Since the time of Newton our knowledge of the phenomena of Nature
has wonderfully increased, but man asks, perhaps more earnestly now
than then, what is the ultimate reality behind the reality of the per-
ceptions ? Are they only the pebbles of the beach with which we have
been playing ? Does not the ocean of ultimate reality and truth lie beyond ?
EEPOHTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE,
I
EEPOETS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE,
Report of the Corresponding Societies Comniittee, consisting of Mr.
Francis Galton (Chairman), Professor A. W. Williamson, Sir
Douglas G-alton, Professor Boyd Dawkins, Sir Eawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr. John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor
E. Meldola (Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. "W.
Whitaker, Mr. G. J. Symons, General Pitt-Eivers, and Mr. "W.
Topley.
The Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association begs
to submit to the General Committee the following Eeport of the pro-
ceedings of the Conference held at Leeds.
The Council nominated Mr. G. J. Sjmons, F.R.S., Chairman, Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., Vice- Chairman, and Professor R. Meldola,
F.R.S., Secretary to the Conference. The meetings were held on
Thursday, September 4, and Tuesday, September 9, at 3.30 p.m., in the
Philosophical Hall. The Delegates (numbering 36) nominated by the
Corresponding Societies to attend the Leeds Meeting were : —
Mr. A. Tate, C.E Belfast Natural History and Philosophi-
cal Society.
Mr. Wm. Gray, M.R.I.A. . . Belfast Natui-alists' Field Club.
Mr. Charles Pumphrey . . . Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society.
Mr. J. Kenward, F.S.A. . . . Birmingham Philosophical Society.
Mr. R. W. Atkinson, F.C.S. . . Cardiff Naturalists' Society.
Mr. M. H. Mills .... Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti-
tution of Engineers.
Mr. T. Gushing, F.R.A.S. . . Croydon Microscopical and Natural His-
tory Club.
Mr. W. Healey .... Cumberland and Westmorland Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Literature
and Science.
Mr. A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S. . . East Kent Natural History Society.
TEast of Scotland Union of Naturalists'
Mr. Robert Brown, R.N. . . <| Societies.
L Perthshire Society of Natural Science.
Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. . . Essex Field Club.
42
EEPORT 1891.
Mr. D. Corse Glen, F.G.S. .
Mr. J. Hopkinson, F.L.S.
Provost Ross ....
His Honour Deemster Gill
Mr. J. E. Bedford, F.G.S.
Mr. J. Stubbins, F.G.S. .
Mr. F. T. Mott, F.R.G.S.
Mr. G. H. Morton, F.G.S.
Mr. M. B. Slater, F.L.S. .
Mr. Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S. .
Mr. W. Watts, F.G.S. .
Prof. J. E. C. Miinro, LL.D. .
Prof. W. Hillhouse, F.L.S. .
Dr. J. T. Arlidge, M.A. .
Mr. C. A. Markham, F.S.A. .
Mr. C. Hawley Torr
Prof. G. A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S.
Mr. J. Reginald Ashworth
Mr. A. Silva White, F.R.S.E. .
Mr. W. Andrews, F.G.S.
Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A. .
Mr. J. W. Davis, F.G.S. .
Mr. W. Cash, F.L.S.
Mr. C. P. Hobkirk, F.L.S. .
Rev. E. P. Knubley, M.A. .
{Geological Society of Glasgow.
Natural History Society of Glasgow.
. Hertfordshire Natural History Society
and Field Club.
. Inverness Scientific Society and Field
Club.
. Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.
. Leeds Geological Association.
. Leeds Naturalists' Club and Scientific
Association.
. Leicester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
. Liverpool Geological Society.
. Malton Field Naturalists' and Scientific
Society.
Manchester Geographical Society.
Manchester Geological Society.
Manchester Statistical Society.
Midland Union of Natural History Socie-
ties.
North Staffordshire Naturalists' Field
Club and Archfeological Society.
Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety and Field Club.
. Nottingham Naturalists' Society.
. North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers.
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society.
Royal Scottish Geographical Society.
Warwickshire Naturalists' and Archaeolo-
gists' Field Club.
, Woolhope Naturalists' Field Club.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society.
:
Yorkshire Naturalists' Union.'
First Conference, Septembee 4.
The chair was taken by Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., the Corresponding
Societies Committee being also represented by Professor T. G. Bonney,
F.R.S., Mr. W. Topley, F.R.S., Mr. J. Hopkinson, F.L.S., and Professor
R. Meldola, F.R.S. (Secretary).
The Chairman proposed that the report of the Corresponding Societies
Committee to the General Committee, printed copies of which had been
distributed among the Delegates, should be taken as read. This was put
to the meeting and carried unanimously. The subjects dealt with in the
report were then taken in order.
Section A.
Temperature Variation in Lakes, Bivers, and Estitaries.— The Chair-
man stated that in connection with the work of this Committee, of which
Dr. H. R. Mill was the Secretary, a large number of thermometers had
» Three Delegates appointed under the rule which empowers a Society having its
head-quarters in the place of meeting to send up this number of representatives.
COREESPONDING SOCIETIES. 43
been distributed throughout the country, and a good deal of information
had been collected during the year. It was proposed to ask for the
reappointment of the Committee with a grant to enable the observations
to be tabulated.
Mr. William Watts stated that he had been conducting temperature
observations in two large reservoirs belonging to the Oldham Corporation
during the last eighteen months. These results were included in the
report of the Committee. Mr. Watts added that there was some pro-
bability of the observations having to be discontinued for want of funds,
although on his own part he was perfectly willing to carry on the work
for another year.
Mr. Cushing presented a record of weekly temperature observations
taken in the River Wandle in Surrey. The temperatures were taken
between 3 and 3.30 p.m. on Sunday afternoons, and extended from
October 1888 to February 1890. The observations were taken at ten
different stations, five of which are on the Carshalton and five on the
Croydon branch of the river. The tabulated records were accompanied
by a statement of the mean weekly shade temperature and the rainfall for
the previous week, both being made up to 9 p.m. on the Saturday. The
tables were also accompanied by a sketch of the district traced from the
25-inch Ordnance map, showing the positions of all the stations, which
were numbered from 1 to 10, and which corresponded with the positions
in the temperature tables as read from left to right. The river is very
shallow, but the tables showed some rather large mean differences ot
temperature. While stations 1, 8, and 9 showed respectively the mean
differences of 15-8, 16-2, and 177° F. ; station No. 5, where the water
is only 18 inches deep, shows a mean yearly variation of only 0'7° F.,
while the mean variation of shade temperature during the same period
was 38"7° F. These tempei'atures were taken at from 12 to 18 inches
below the surface with a thermometer graduated on the stem and verified
at Kew. The observations had been taken by Mr. F. C. Bayard, an active
Fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society and Secretary to the Croydon
Microscopical and Natural History Club, which Society was represented
by Mr. Cushing at the Conference. Mr. Bayard had expressed his
willingness to continue the observations.
The Secretary suggested that the results presented by Mr. Cushing
should be handed to Dr. Mill, the Secretary of the Committee.
The Chairman, having commented on the value of Mr. Bayard's
observations, proceeded to state that he had recently been reducing
experiments with respect to evaporation, which had been made during
several years at Strathfield Turgiss in Hampshire, in which the ordinary
small evaporators had been compared with a galvanised iron tank 6 feet
square and 2 feet deep. The rough result was that the evaporation from
the tank averaged about 15 inches per anniim, while the smaller ones
(owing to the high temperature of the water) indicated an evapoi'ation
considerably in excess of the truth.
Meteorological Photography — Mr. Hopkinson alluded to the success
which had been achieved by the Committee on Geological Photography,
of which Mr. Jeffs was Secretary, and pointed out the growing import-
ance of photography as an aid in other branches of scientific research.
He suggested that the idea might be extended to meteorological photo-
graphy, and that a Committee should be formed for carrying out this
object. Photography could be advantageously applied to the investiga-
44 REPORT 1891.
tion of meteorological plaeuomena such as the forms of clouds, lightning
flashes, the effects of storms, &c. It would be the function of such a
Committee to collect the photographs and keep a register of them, which
would be added to from year to year. The study of the forms of clouds
would be more satisfactory if undertaken by a comparison of photographs
than by di-awings. Mr. Hopkinson referred to the practical difficulty of
photographing light clouds in a blue sky, and suggested that it might
form part of the work of the Committee to investigate methods for
eflecting this object. With respect to lightning flashes he stated that
numerous photographs had been taken, some of which were very valuable,
but others were useless owing to the failure on the part of the photographer
to indicate the position of the plate in the camera. The advisabiHty of
interesting the Corresponding Societies in the work was pointed out to
the Delegates by Mr. Hopkinson, who also urged the special necessity of
securing as soon as possible photographs showing the after-efi'ects of
storms. It was proposed that a Committee of the Association with a
small grant should be formed through Section A. If this Committee were
sanctioned Mr. Symons and Professor Meldola would consent to serve on
it, and Mr. A. W. Clayden, who had made a special study of the
photography of clouds and lightning flashes, would be willing to act as
Secretary.
After some discussion as to the mode of procedure it was decided that
application should be made through the Committee of Section A for the
formation of a Committee on Meteorological Photography, and that
the application should be also supported by a recommendation from the
Conference of Delegates to the Committee of Recommendations.
Section C.
Sea Coast Erosion. — Mr. Topley stated that the Committee appointed
for this purpose would be glad to receive any as.sistance. Some of the
■Corresponding Societies had applied for forms, but nothing had as yet
been done. Three years ago the Isle of Man Society had proposed to
take the matter in hand and form a Committee. He believed some of the
Yorkshire Societies were doing good work, but they had not yet received
the results.
Erratic Blocks. — The Rev. B. P. Knubley stated, with reference to
the work of this Committee, that the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union had
been caiTying on the records satisfactorily, and that about twenty-five
reports had been presented during the year. These had been sent to Dr.
Crosskey, the Secretary of the Committee.
Oeological Photography. — Mr. O. W. Jeff's stated that, through the
action of the Conference of Delegates at previous meetings of the British
Association, a Committee had been appointed for collecting and reporting
on geological photographs. Very material assistance had been rendered
to the work of this Committee by various Delegates from the several
Corresponding Societies, many of which had sent photographs or lists of
those that had been taken. All that had been done thus far was of a
preliminary character, and had consisted in arranging the photographs
which had been taken in order to select those which illustrated well-
defined strata or sections. The work was by no means complete, and the
report, which would shortly be presented, showed that a very large
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIEji. 45'
proportion of the counties of England and Wales were as yet un-
represented. Mr. JeS's asked those Delegates who had not yet done so to
brino- the matter before their Societies, and to interest their photographic
members in the work. The object of the Committee was to secure "hj
systematic action in the various districts a series of photographs illustra-
■tino- the features which geologists thought most worthy of being recorded
in their respective localities. The only portion of England where the
scheme had been .carried out to any extent was Yorkshire. The York-
shire Naturalists' Union had adopted the photographic method, and had
taken over 100 negatives. Mr. Hopkinson had brought the subject before
the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, and he hoped to receive
photographs from them shortly. A large number of the photographs
which had been I'eceived would be exhibited in the room of Section C,
and Mr. Jeffs invited the Delegates to inspect them. He added that the
Committee would be glad to receive any suggestions from the Delegates.
The counties from which photographs had been received were : — Dorset-
shire, Cornwall (very few), Devonshire (very few), Isle of Man (several),
Kent, Lancashire, Montgomeryshire, Nottmgham, a few from North
Wales, Suffolk, and Shropshire, a large number from Yorkshire, and
some from Scotland and Ireland. The list was manifestly very incom-
plete, and he hoped that by next year's Report it would be considerably
extended. Copies of the circular of instructions issued by the Committee
were circulated among the Delegates.
Professor Lebour asked if any steps had been taken with respect to
the keeping of the photographs.
Mr. Jeffs said that this matter had not yet been discussed by their
Committee. They intended to keep the photographs until the collection
had assumed a more complete form. A suggestion had been made to
render some of the best examples more available to the Delegates and to
the public, and more especially to those requiring them for educational
purposes, by issuing them in the form of a publication, but the matter
had not yet been properly discussed.
Professor Bonney said that, as a member of the Committee on geo-
logical photography, he was enabled to state that the work had hitherto
been necessarily of a preliminary nature, and had been carried out by the
zeal and energy of Mr. Jeffs. The question of publication would come
before the Committee later on, and, speaking on his own behalf, he con-
sidered it of great importance that some step in this direction should be
taken. He expressed the opinion that the best destination of the photo-
graphs would be to lodge them with the Geulogical Society if they would
receive them. If an enlarged photograph were required for educational
purposes, the negative could then be borrowed for the purpose. It would,
of course, be a year or two before the photographs would be accessible.
When a large collection had been accumulated, it would be most useful
to select some thirty or forty of the more typical examples of geological
phenomena and to have them enlarged for publica'ion. Professor Bonney
expressed the opinion that, for the purposes of teaching, enlarged photo-
graphs would be better than photographs taken on a large scale.
The discussion was continued by Mr. W. Watts and Mr. Eli Sower-
butts. The suggestions put forward by Professor Bonney were approved
of, and it was pointed out that it would be desirable that the Correspond-
ing Societies should have a list of the photographs already sent in to the
Committee, in order to know which were wanted and which were not..
46 REPORT — 1891.
Many members of the Mancliester Geographical Society had been taking
photographs, and in time a large number of negatives would be collected,
which the owners would, no doubt, be willing to place at the disposal of
the Committee if it were known that they would be safely deposited in
some accessible place, and a record giving the source and locality of each
negative also kept.
Mr. Jeffs stated in reply that a list of the views which had been
received would be kept, and also a register for entering the name of the
person responsible for borrowing a negative. He suggested that the
Committee might make arrangements with some photographer for pre-
paring lantern slides from the photographs at a fixed charge, for the
purpose of lecture illustration. With respect to the photographs taken
by the members of the Manchester Geographical Society, Mr. Jeffs said
that their Committee would be very pleased to receive them whenever
they were sent.
Mr. William Gray stated that he was interested in the subject of
geological photography in the North of Ireland, and he approved of the
scheme put forward by the Committee, of which Mr. Jeffs was the Secre-
tary. He had succeeded in securing a few photographs, which were
sufficient to show the value of the method both as applied to this subject
and to the erosion of the sea-coast. He expressed the opinion that it
would be an advantage if each Delegate were appointed as the local repre-
sentative of the Committee in his own district, and authorised to collect
the photographs. There were many members of his society (Belfast
Naturalists' Field Club) who had done a great deal of photographic work,
but there was some amount of hesitation in forwarding negatives to the
British Association Committee, which he thought would be got over if there
were some person in the society directly authorised to collect the photo-
graphs. Mr. Gray expressed his willingness to act in this capacity for
the North of Ireland. He alluded also to the advantage of being able to
get the photographs reproduced in the form of lantern slides, and stated
that, if such slides were required for illustrating the physical features of
the North of Ireland, he would be able to see that they were supplied at
a reasonable price. Mr. A. Tate, on behalf of the Belfast Natural History
and Philosophical Society, expressed similar views.
Professor Meldola pointed out that, in taking photographs of geological
sections, in which differences in the strata were often indicated only by
small differences in colour, it would be an advantage to use orthochro-
naatic plates. The colour differences were sometimes so slight, that the
differentiation of strata would be imperceptible in an ordinary photo-
graph, and he therefore expressed the hope that the Committee in their
schedule of instructions would see their way to recommend the adoption
of these plates, which, although somewhat more costly than ordinary
plates, would give such superior results as to warrant their use.
A further discussion took place respecting the desirability of adopting
some means by which members of the British Association, and those who
assisted in the work, would be enabled to procure copies of the photo-
graphs either as lantern slides, prints, or enlargements. Mr. Symons
suggested that the best plan would be for those members requiring copies
to be allowed the temporary loan of the negative itself, while lantern
slides should be prepared by some recognised person under the immediate
direction of the Secretary of the Committee. In reply to a question by
Mr. M. H. Mills as to whether any underground photographs had been
COEEESPONDING SOCIETIES. 47
taken, and if so, whethei- they bad proved to be of any value, Mr. Jeffs
stated that no photographs of underground sections had yet been received.
Section D.
Disappearance of Native Plants. — Professor Hillhouse distributed
among the Delegates copies of the third report of the Committee on
this subject. He stated that the report had this year been confined to
the North of England, the Isle of Man, and to a few records from the
southern counties of Wales. The bulk of the material had been obtained
directly by correspondence with the loCal Natural History Societies.
The Committee were especially indebted to the Yorkshire Naturalists'
Union, which had formed a committee of their own, the labours of this
committee having largely contributed to the satisfactory results which
had been obtained. There was still a certain amount of difficulty in
inducing the representatives of the societies, to which circu^lars had been
sent, to take steps in the matter, and he expressed a hope that the Dele-
gates would do their best to promote the objects of the Committee.
Although the Committee had not yet come to any definite decision, he
thought that next year's report would probably deal with the whole of
Wales, and possibly adjoining counties, and with the south-western
counties of England, and Delegates from these districts were asked to
bear this in mind.
Professor Hillhouse then gave a resume of the report which had been
presented, stating that it contained an account of the more or less com-
plete disappearance from the localities mentioned therein of about seventy
species. In some cases the disappearance had been due to natural causes —
e.g., the encroachments of the sea on the Cumberland coast and elsewhere
had brought about the disappearance of several littoral plants ; but in
the great majority the handiwork of man had been recognisable. Dis-
appearance through human agency he classified under two heads — per-
sonal and impersonal. Impersonal action he illustrated by the results of
building works, agricultural operations, drainage, &c., which cause con-
stant changes in local floras. Thus the Isle of Man Brassica (B. monensis),
first found by the famous botanist John Ray at the Moiragh, Ramsey, in
1670, is in danger of extirpation there, and has already been extirpated
at Douglas by building operations ; and the commonest of the scarlet
poppies (Papaver rliceas) is greatly diminishing in the county of Cumber-
land through the gradual abandonment of cereal tillage. It is only
incidentally, however, that these impersonal changes affect plants of
special interest, while the personal actions of man — that is, his actions
directed intentionally at some particular plant — have naturally their chief
influence upon plants of peculiar interest or beauty. Here again, as in
previous reports, it is the ' collecting dealer ' whose ravages form the
main burden of complaint. The Ladies' Slipper orchid (Oypripedium
Calceolus), once not uncommon in Yorkshire, Durham, and Westmoreland,
has well-nigh succumbed, and the hillsides, banks, and hedgerows are
being rapidly stripped of their once abundant fei'ns. As an example of
the systematic way in which this is done. Professor Hillhouse instanced
the case of the Maiden Hair (Adiantum Capillus-veneris), which in the Isle
of Man is regularly hunted for by men with boats and ladders, and sold
to ' trippers ' in the Douglas market. He thought that the local Natural
48 REPORT 1891.
History Societies might do a great deal towards persuading holiday
makers and tourists that it is far better, far safer, and, in the long run,
far cheaper, to buy these plants from nurserymen who grow them, than
to incur the trouble, expense, and risk of removing tbem at a time when
the conditions are so unfavourable as they are during practically tbe
holiday season, and that they might do something towards restraining
the robbers themselves.
Mr. Hopkinson stated that nearly the whole of the ferns in his dis-
trict (St. Albans) had disappeared within the last twenty years. He
attributed the extermination to the London collectors and dealers, and
added that there was a danger of such a common plant as the prim-
rose becoming exterminated in time from the London district, as they
were taken to the metropolis by cartloads every year.
Mr. Sowerbutts called attention to the inefficacy of the law of trespass
in such cases, as no penalty can be inflicted unless damage is proved.
He considered the worst depredator to be the botanical fanatic.
Mr. Gray did not think that the true botanist would be guilty of such
wilful destruction. Tbey had a special rule among their Society that no
rare plant should be damaged or removed. One class of offenders to be
dealt with were the persons who, without any knowledge of the habits of
a rare species, liked to see it growing about their premises, and for this
reason had it removed. If these persons were taught that it is often
impossible for such plants to live away from their natural conditions their
depredations might perhaps be checked.
Mr. M. B. Slater said that he had known many lovers of plants in his
district (Malton) who would tramp many miles in search of a rare species.
Although in a sense these men were botanical fanatics he did not think
that they were the depredators. It was the young beginner in the study
of botany who, in his opinion, should be cautioned against exterminating
any rare plant in his anxiety to procure specimens. He suggested that
the best plan would be to endeavour to procure at the proper time a little
ripe seed from the plant in its native habitat, and then to try and raise
it. This would be the means of saving from destruction some of our
greatest rarities. Mr. Slater had adopted this plan himself, and had
growing under cultivation some of the rarer and most interesting of
British plants. He believed the extension of agriculture to have been
one great cause of the disappearance of local species, and by obtaining
seeds, or even in extreme cases the plants themselves, some species might
be saved from destruction. Although some practical difficulties might be
encountered, he thought that with perseverance these would be overcome,
and the student would certainly derive great advantage from trying to
cultivate his plants. If successful he would thus attain a far better
knowledge of their life histories, as he would be enabled to watch the
plants through their various stages of growth.
Investigation of the Invert ehr ate Fauna and Cryptogamic Flora of the
British Isles.^The Rev. E. P. Knubley stated that no formal report of the
work of this Committee had been presented to the Section, but that the
Yorkshire Naturalists' Union had been steadily carrying on the work
during the past year.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4?
Section E.
Mr. Sowerbutts made some remarks with respect to the scope of
Geography, and suggested that detached papers on the geology, zoology,
meteorology, botany, &c., of some particular region could be regarded ns
coming under this science, and might with advantage be read together in
a common Section-room. The discussion was continued by Professor
Bonney, who considered the suggestion worthy of consideration, bub
likely to meet with great practical difi&culties.
Section G.
Flameless Explosives for use in Goal Mines. — Professor Leoour stated
that the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers
were about to make experiments on this subject. They had recently
obtained a grant of 300Z. for the experiments, but more would be re-
quired. He appealed to other engineering societies represented at the
Conference to co-operate in the investigation, which was of such general
importance in mining districts.
Mr. Mills said that the Chesterfield and Midland Counties Institute
had not taken the matter up through their Council, but several indi-
vidual members had been working at it, and the results would shortly be
published.
Section H.
Catalogue of Prehistoric Remains. — Mr. Kenward said that the Bir-
mingham Philosophical Society was fully alive to the importance of
recording the few ancient remains in their district. He had done a great
deal of work in this direction himself, and had induced others to promote
the suggestions discussed at the Conferences at Bath and Newcastle, as
well as to assist in carrying out the Archseological survey proposed by
the Society of Antiquaries.'
Mr. Gray stated that the Belfast Naturalists' Field Club had takeu
the matter up in a systematic way, and would continue their co-opera-
tion.
At the conclusion of the Conference the Chairman remarked upon the
advantage of being able to have at hand for reference the publications of
the local Societies as collected by the Corresponding Societies Committee
for the purpose of preparing the catalogue of papers which formed part
of their annual report. He also called attention to the fact that a few of
the older and well-known local Societies had not yet become enrolled as
Corresponding Societies.
Professor Meldola pointed out that this matter had already been dis-
cussed at a previous conference (Bath, 1888) as well as by their Com-
mittee in London. He thought that the work of the Conference of
' The objects and mode of carrying out this survey were explained by Dr. John
Evans, President of the Society of Antiquaries, at the Bath Conference in 1888.
Rsport Brit. Assoc. 1889, p. 188. (Secretary Corresponding Societies Committee.)
1891. E
'50 BEPORT 1891.
Delegates was row sufficiently well known, and that, althougli there were
a few societies whose co-operation it would be extremely desirable to
secure, no further approach could be made on the part of the Committee.
It rested rather with the Delegates themselves to assist in securing the
Societies in their own districts.
Second Conference, September 9.
The chair was taken by Mr. G, J. Symons, F.R.S., the Corresponding
Societies Committee being also represented by Sir Rawson Raw son,
Dr. Garson, Mr. Hopkinson, and Professor R. Meldola,F.R.S. (Secretary).
Section A.
Phenological Observations. — Mr. Symons made the following com-
munication : —
' Phenological observations, which may perhaps be said to have origi-
nated with Gilbert White, although studied with care in Austria, received
little attention in England until 1874, when the Royal Meteorological
Society invited and obtained the assistance of Delegates from the Royal
Agricultural Society, Royal Horticultural Society, Royal Botanic Society,
Royal Dublin Society, and Marlborough College Natural History Society,
who held several meetings, and eventually drew up an elaborate report,
which, curiously enough, upon re-examining after the lapse of sixteen
years, seems to show that practically few of the Delegates approved of
it, although from motives of politeness they allowed it to pass. Flowering
plants, insects, and birds were referred respectively to the Rev. T. A.
Preston, Mr. McLachlan, and Professor Newton. Of plants the large
number of seventy-one were recommended for observation, of insects only
eight, and of birds seventeen. Mr. McLachlan, Professor Newton, Mr. Bell
of Selborne, and Professor Thiselton Dyer all expressed the opinion that
the list should be kept as short as possible, and although Mr. Preston's
long list of plants was retained, it was resolved that special attention
should be called to fifteen out of the seventy-one, by printing their names
in capitals.
' The Royal Meteorological Society undertook the cost and trouble of
preparing and issuing the necessary forms, and from 1875 to 1888, both
inclusive, the Rev. T. A. Preston prepared and the Society printed
annual reports embodying the results obtained. Mr. Preston found it
impossible to continue the work, and Mr. E. Mawley took it up and
prepared the report for 1889. He has, however, arrived at the same
conclusion as the authorities already quoted, and his recommendation to
reduce and simplify the observations has been accepted by the Council of
the Royal Meteorological Society, which now desires to enlist as many
observers as possible, all of whom are to work according to the form, of
which copies are submitted for consideration.
' With this view the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society
has endeavoured to obtain the assistance of the Corresponding Socie-
ties on the British Association list, and it is with the same object that
I have asked permission to bring these few words before this Con-
ference.'
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 51
Mr. Gushing said that the British Association had reported on this
•subject at the Cambridge Meeting in 1845, and it was then abandoned
until the Royal Meteorological Society took it up. As Mr. Symons
had said, the list in 1874 comprised seventy-one plants, eight insects,
•and seventeen birds. In 1883 the Society published a new schedule,
which included seventy-nine plants, eleven insects, and twenty-one
birds. After some years the list was reduced to thirteen plants, five
insects, and five birds, and he asked why this reduction had been
sanctioned.
Professor Lebour raised the question why, among the plants, two
species had been included which were among the most variable of British
species ?
The Rev. E. P. Knubley, with reference to the list of birds, said that
the swallow had been included, but a large number of persons did not
know the difference between a swallow, a swift, and a martin. It
■occurred to him that it would be better to insert the sand-m;irtin in its
place, because it was likely to arrive the first of the three. The nightin-
gale, also included in the list, for all practical purposes ceased in the
south of Yorkshire. The only places it had appeared so far north were
in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, Leeds, and Harrogate. It had oc-
curred at Scarborough once, and it might perhaps be heard near Harro-
gate every three or four years. He suggested whether for this bird it
would not be better to substitute the chifF-chaflr, the willow wren, or the
redstart, which arrive about the same time and are of the same class.
This remark applied also to the West of England, where the nightingale
is unknown, and he thought that it would be better to have a bird which
extended all over the country.
Mr. Symons said that the nightingale was not included in the first
schedule, but there was a strong feeling that the list of British birds
would be incomplete without it, and it was therefore eventually inserted.
He saw no reason why it should not stand, because he understood that
the list represented only the minimum, and not the maximum, of species
which might be recorded.
After some remarks by Sir Rawson Rawson and Mr. Corse Glen,
Professor Hillhouse called attention to the list of plants. He said
there was a manifest objection to the free use of hedge plants, because
the body of the hedge was often so protective that there might be two
observers in close proximity watching the same species and yet quite
diiferent dates might be entered, because of the prevailing direction of
the wind at the season. In the next place, with regard to Cratoegus
oxyacantha, they would not unfrequently find those plants which grew
near or in the hedge flowering ten days before the normal period. He
knew of two plants which were two forms of this species which grew
side by side with interlacing branches, the periods of flowering differing
by from seven to fourteen days. These were growing at the back of
Trinity College, Cambridge. With respect to Bosa canina, he was not
sure which of the eighteen to fifty forms could be identified with this
name, but their flowering period extended over something like seven
weeks. The records for this plant would, therefore, be very conflicting.
Professor Hillhouse further suggested the advisability of omitting from
the schedule the words : ' If, unfortunately, the first flowering be missed
for a day or two, the observer is requested to give the estimated date of
first flowering and to place an asterisk against the entry.' He was of
B 2
52 BEPOET— 1891.
opinion that botanists would like to see this clause omitted, and thai; only-
actual observations should be recorded.
Mr. Symons, in concluding the discussion, stated that he had brought
the matter forward on behalf of the Royal Meteorological Society, and
as a meteorologist rather than as a naturalist. At the same time, the
subject was one of equal importance to naturalists and meteorologists,
and he expressed his thanks to those who had given hints and made
remarks with the object of getting the observations made in the best
possible way. He expressed a hope that the Societies represented at the
Conference would be induced to assist in carrying on the work.'
Temperature Variation in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries. — Professor
Meldola read the following communication from Dr. H. R. Mill, the
Secretary of the above Committee : —
'The Committee has to thank the following local Societies for their
assistance in obtaining observations, and to state that the work of Society
observers is, as a rule, more regular and more accurate than that of
isolated volunteers : —
' Manchester Geological Society, Grantham Scientific Society, Roch-
dale Literary and Scientific Society, Bristol Naturalists' Society, Cardiff
Naturalists' Society, Burton-on-Trent Natural History Society, Bast
Kent Natural History Society, Marlborough College Natural History
Society, Northampton Natural History Society, Dumfries and Galloway-
Natural History Society.
' Several other Societies applied for information, and would have
taken part in the work had there been a suitable river or lake in their
neighbourhood.
' It is desirable that the Societies already engaged in observations
should continue to make them for another year with as much regularity
as possible. Those which have not already taken it up will not be urged
to do so, as a sufficiency of data for the purposes of the Committee is-
now in course of being secured.'
Meteorological Photography. — Mr. Hopkinson reported that the forma-
tion of a Committee for this purpose had been sanctioned by the Com-
mittee of Section A, and the form had been forwarded to the Committee
of Recommendations.^
Section C.
Professor Lebour stated that he had been asked to represent the
Committee of this Section and to bring under the notice of the Delegates
the following list of Committees recommended for appointment : —
1. Erratic Blocks. — The work of this Committee had been explained
at former Conferences, and the co-operation of those Corresponding-
Societies which had not yet taken part in the observations was invited.
2. The ' Geological Record.' — The continuation of this work had been
recommended and a grant had been asked for to assist in carrying on its
publication.
' Mr. Symons distributer! copies of the schedule at the meetiDg. They can be
had on application to Edward Mawley, Esq., Rosebank, Berkhampstead, Herts.
= The Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Mr. A. W. Clayden
(Secretary), Professor Meldola, and Mr. J. Hopkinson, has been appointed with a
grant of 51. for preliminary expenses. (Secretary Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee.)
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 53
3. Underground Waters. — -The work of this Committee had also been .
several times brought before the Delegates, and the Secretary, Mr. De
Ranee, was present to give any further explanations.
4. Exploration of Oldburj/ Hill. — The exploration of this ancient
earthwork, near Ightham, in Kent, had been recommended, with the
special object of examining the supposed ' rock-shelters.' A committee
had been formed for the purpose of carrying on excavations.
5. Geological Photography. — This Committee, of which Mr. Jeffs was
secretary, and the work of which had been discussed at the last meeting,
had been recommended for reappointment with the addition of two
•names.
6. Northamptonshire Lias. — A committee for collecting and registering
the fossils of this formation had been recommended for appointment, and
excavations had already been commenced.
7. Sea-coast Erosion. — This Committee, the objects of which had been
■explained to the Delegates on former occasions, and of which Mr. Topley
was Secretary, had been recommended for reappointment.
8. Registration of Type Specimens. — A recommendation had also been
sent in for the appointment of a committee for reporting on type speci-
mens in museums, an important subject, in which great assistance might
be rendered by the local Societies.
9. Earth -Tremors. — This Committee, which had been referred to at
former Conferences, had been recommended for reappointment, with
Mr. Davison as Secretary. Professor Lebour explained that his occupa-
tions left him no leisure for acting any longer as Secretary to this Com-
mittee.
10. Exploration of Elbolton Gave. — A committee had been formed for
the excavation of this cave, which was near Skipton, and in which relics
of human occupation had already been found. Some of the local Societies
in Yorkshire might assist in the investigation.
11. Source of the River Aire. — The object of the Committee appointed
for the purpose of investigating this subject was to ascertain, if possible,
by means of the coal-tar colouring matter, fluorescein, whether the water
which flows out of Mai ham Tarn and disappears down a ' water sink ' to
the south of the Tarn is the stream which emerges at Malham Cove or
Aire Head, or at both these places. The use of the dye for this purpose
had been suggested by Professor Meldola to Professor S. P. Thompson,
and the latter had brought the subject before Section C in the form of a
paper with the object of having a committee appointed for the purpose of
carrying out the experiments. It had been suggested that the method
might be found generally useful for investigating the course of under-
ground waters, as a very small trace of the dye produced an intense
green fluorescence, and had not the slightest injurious effect upon the
water.
Mr. C. B. De Ranee, who had also been requested to act as a represen-
tative of Section C, made some remarks with respect to the work of the
Underground Water Committee. The latter had been appointed in 1874
and had just presented their sixteenth report. The objects of the Com-
mittee were to inquire into the subject of underground water with a view
to supply from wells or springs. A form of inquiry had been prepared
in which questions were asked respecting the quality, quantity, and level
of the water. They were particularly anxious to secure records of the
water level extending over long periods of time ; they had reason
54 REPORT — 1891.
to' believe that many sets of observations of the level in welTs andl
springs had been made daily or weekly during past times, and the-
Committee thonght it highly important to secure these old records if
possible.
The work of the Coast Erosion Committee, which was appointed in 1882,
had been carried on with important results, and much information had
been derived from a study of old charts to which the Committee had been
enabled to get access. The Committee on Erratic Blocks, of which Dr.
Crosskey, of Birmingham, was the Secretary, was appointed in 1871 with
the object of recording the exact positions of the more important boulders
and, if possible, of entering these positions on the Ordnance map. Copies
of these maps should be kept by the Societies taking part in the work, and
copies should also be "sent to the British Association Committee. It was-
important also to have a microscopical examination of sections of chips
from the boulders made by competent geologists, so that the probable
sources of the boulders might be ascertained. Another point in connec-
tion with thi? subject, in which the Corresponding Societies might exert
their local influence, was that the boulders where they occurred should
not be left to the mercy of the stone-breaker, but should be preserved.
This applied especially to public parks or gardens, where the local Socie-
ties might well use their influence with the Corporations to induce them
to have the boulders preserved and even placed in prominent positions,,
where they might be readily accessible and at the same time secure from
danger of demolition.
With reference to the publication of the ' Geological Record,' Mr. De
Ranee had been requested by Mr. Topley to bring the subject prominently
before the Delegates. The woi'k was instituted, as was well known, by
Mr. Whitaker in 1874, and entailed a large amount of unremunerated
labour. The number of copies sold was insuSicient to meet the cost of
publication, notwithstanding the grant made by the British Association,
and unless more subscribers could be secured the publication would have
to cease. The ' Geological Record ' Committee took the opportunity of
appealing to the Delegates, and Mr. De Ranee on behalf of the Committee
asked them to make known the character and scope of the work in order
to increase the list of subscribers. Circulars for this purpose were dis-
tributed among the Delegates.
Professor Meldola made some remarks with reference to the proposed
method for investigating the source of the Aire, after which he stated
that he had been requested by Dr. Crosskey to render the thanks of the
Erratic Blocks Committee to the Corresponding Societies for the aid
which they had already given, and to express a hope that their assistance
would be continued. Dr. Crosskey had forwarded for inspection a copy
of a paper on the boulders of the Midland district, by Mr. F. "W. Martin,
F.G.S., read before and published by the Birmingham Philosophical
Society. This paper was accompanied by a map of the Midland District
on the scale of two miles to the inch, and was considered by the Erratic
Blocks Committee to be an example of the method of investigation which
would yield the best results in this inquiry. In this paper attention had
been paid to distribution of the erratics, tlieir grouping and various levels,
their mixture with or freedom from local blocks, as well as to the import-
ance of discriniinatiug between erratics distributed without regard to
local hills and those that are gathered together in the valleys at present
existing. A copy of the last report of the Committee will be forwarded!
COREESPONDINa SOCIETIES. 55
on application to any address sent to Dr. Crosskey, and a few copies
of the map are also to be had by those Societies taking part in the
work. '
Mr. J. W. Davis stated, with respect to the work of the Committee
for investigating the source of the Aire, that some five or six years ago
Mr. Walter Morrison, M.P., and several members of the Yorkshire
Naturalists' Union, tried a number of experiments with aniline dyes,
similar to that proposed by Professor S. P. Thompson, but they had
all failed.
Mr. Gray made some remarks with reference to the method of induc-
ing the Corresponding Societies to take up the work of the various
Committees. He thought that much force would be given to the represen-
tations made by the Delegates to their Societies if the Committees which
required the co-operation of the local Societies would send copies of their
reports to and communicate directly with those Societies, pointing out
that the work suggested by the Delegate was of real use and likely to be
valuable to the Committee in carrying out the objects of the British
Association. The Belfast Naturalists' Field Club, for example, had no
Committees on Erratic Blocks or on Coast Erosion, but if these Association
Committees sent their reports and a request for assistance he felt sure
that many members of their Society would be glad to take these
matters up.
The Chairman, Mr. De Ranee, Mr. Hopkinson, and Mr. Corse Glen
spoke in favour of Mr. Gray's suggestion.
Section D.
Professor Hillhouse stated that no new committees had been appointed
this year by their Section which had any bearing on the work of the
Corresponding Societies.
Section E.
Teaching of Geography in Frimary Schools. — Mr. Sowerbutts said that
the Committee of this Section had had under consideration the teaching
of geography in primary schools. He had undertaken to draw up a
report on this subject with reference to the action of the local authorities,
and especially so far as concerned his own district in Lancashire. The
object of the report would be to make known how far the Government
grant apportioned for technical education or allied purposes was made
use of for the teaching of geography. His own experience went to show
that the subject was much neglected, and he invited Delegates from other
parts of the country to give information by sending in School Board
reports or reports of municipal authorities dealing with educational
matters, so that he might be able to present a fairly complete report to
the Committee next year. He hoped by this means that pressure might
be brought to bear upon the Government in order to have justice done
to a subject of such importance.
' The paper referred to appears in the Proceedings of the Birmingham Philoso-
phical Society, vol. vii., Part 1., 1890. Dr. Crosskey 's address is 117 Gough Eoad,
Birmingham.
66 EEPOET— 1891.
Section H.
Committee of Aid for Anthropological Excavations. — Dr. Garson called
attention to the existence of a Committee of Aid formed by the Anthro-
pological Institute, and the purpose of which had been explained at last
year's Conference of Delegates. He stated that every year there were
many people who were desirous of carrying on, and who did sometimes
carry on, investigations of this kind, but unfortunately discretion was not
sufficiently mingled with the zeal displayed. This was, no doubt, due to
an imperfect knowledge of the method of conducting such investigations.
Owing to this want of knowledge a large amount of valuable material was
often destroyed. Tor the purpose of aiding by direction or otherwise the
exploration of ancient remains, a committee had been appointed in 1888
by the Anthropological Institute, the chairman of this committee being
General Pitt-Rivers, the Inspector of Ancient Monuments. Local Societies
would find it to their advantage if they would report to the committee ot
the Anthropological Institute when they were desirous of undertaking
explorations. Due attention would be given to their applications, and, if
thought desirable, the matter would be placed in the hands of some
expert member of the Committee, every member of the latter being in
some way a specialist; so that local exploring committees could have any
assistance they required in the way of skilled advice in opening up
barrows, earthworks, camps, &c.
PreJiistoric Bemains Oommittee. — Mr. J. W. Davis said that this Com.
mittee, of which he was the Secretai-y, was appointed in 1887. Since
then four reports had been presented, which varied much in length, but
of which the interest and importance had been well kept up. He expressed
his conviction that if the various Corresponding Societies would take up
the work the subject would become of the very greatest importance to the
country generally. What was wanted was a record of everything that
Lad reference to prehistoric man, his dwellings, implements, pottery, &c.
A goodly number of reports had been promised, but it appeared that in
many instances their compilation took a considerable amount of time.
He hoped that next year they would present a much longer list than that
which had been presented to the Section this year. Dr. Munro bad pro-
mised a list of the lake dwellings of the British Isles ; and, amongst others,
Mr. Gray, who represented the Belfast Society, had promised to send a
one-inch map with the ancient remains in Ireland marked upon it. If
they could get a complete map of the whole country similarly marked,
this map, which would be the property of the British Association, would
be of the very highest value, and the Committee would have accomplished
most important work. He trusted the Delegates would inform their
Societies what had already been done and what still remained to be done,
so that they might be able to enlist the services of others who were
interested in Archaeological research.
At the conclusion of the business a discussion took place with reference
to the best method for imparting to the Corresponding Societies through
the respective Delegates a knowledge of what had taken place at the
Conferences. Mr. Hopkinson suggested that each Delegate should read
a'paper before his Society, giving an account of the line of work taken
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 57
up by the various Committees, and that this paper should be published in
the Society's Transactions or Reports as soon as possible. He distributed
among the Delegates a paper of this kind which he had brought before
the Hertfordshire Natural History Society.^
Another question raised was the advisability of in some way bringing
into relationship with the British Association those Societies which did
not come up to the standard of excellence for enrolment as Corresponding
Societies. It was stated that there were a large number of smaller
Societies doing good work, but which were not in a position to publish the
results of original investigations or to issue a publication. It was felt
that much good would be done to these Societies if they could be afi&liated
by some means, and allowed to take part in the meetings of the Con-
ference, perhaps without having the privilege of sending a Delegate to the
General Committee or of receiving gratuitously a copy of the annual
■ volume of Reports. The matter was referred to the Corresponding
Societies Committee for their consideration.
On the motion of Professor Lebour, seconded by Mr. J. W. Davis, a
vote of thanks was passed to the Chairman, Mr. Symons, and to Professor
Meldola, the Secretary of the Conference.
V^ With reference to the last point raised at the Leeds Conference, the
Corresponding Societies Committee has to report that, after considering
the question referred to, it is recommended that the attendance at the
Conferences of representatives of local Societies which are not Corre-
sponding Societies should be sanctioned on the understanding that these
representatives are not actually enrolled among, and do not receive the
privileges of, authorised Delegates. The Committee has also authorised
its Secretary to supply any local Society which may apply for them
with copies of the reports of the Conferences, the lists of Committees, and
other information likely to be of use in furthering local scientific investi-
gation.
The Committee has received application from all the Societies now
enrolled, and recommends their retention. It is further recommended
to the General Committee that : — ..j
1. The Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society,
2. The South London Microscopical and Natural History Society,
3. The Tyneside Geographical Society,
4. The Yorkshire Philosophical Society,
should be enrolled as Corresponding Societies of the British Association.
' This plan has been adopted in former years by the Delegates of the Manchester
Geographical Society, the Isle of Man Natural History Society, the Essex Field Club,
and the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union (Secretary Corresponding Societies Committee).
58
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Bristol Nat. Soc.
Manch. Geog. Soc
Yorks. Phil. Soc.
Liv'pool Mic. Soc
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Casartelli, Rev.
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Crosfleld, J. B.
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ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THEEMODTNAMICS. 85
Report of a Committee, consisting of Messrs. J. Larmor aoid
Gr. H. Bryan, 07i the present state of our knotdedge of Thermo-
dynam,ics, specially with regard to the Second Laiv.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed among the Reports.]
Paet I. — Researches relating to the connection of the Second Law
WITH Dynamical Principles. Drawn up by G. H. Bryan.
Introdiidion.
1. The present report treats exclusively of the attempts that have
been made to deduce the Second Law of Thermodynamics from, purely
mechanical principles.
Before considering the several methods in detail it may be well to sum-
marise the meaning of the various terms which enter into the mathe-
matical expressions of the laws of thermodynamics, with a view of showing
more fully what conditions must be kept in view in establishing the
dynamical analogues. This has been done more or less fully by several
authors of papers on the subject, but more especially by von Helmholtz
in his paper on the ' Statics of Monocyclic Systems.' ' The substance of
this paper will be dealt with more fully later on in the present Eeport,
but we will now mention the principal points touched on in the introduc-
tion.
2. Meaning cf the Second Laiv. — Let a quantity c?Q of work in the
form of heat be communicated to a body whose absolute temperature is 6.
Let E be the internal energy of the body, dW the work done against
external forces by the change in the configuration of the body which
takes place during the addition of dQ. It is not assumed that the
external forces are conservative.
Then the First and Second Laws are expressed by the equations
dQ=d^ + dW (1)
dq=edS (2)
where dS is a perfect differential of a quantity S, called the entropy, whose
value depends only on the state of the body at the instant considered.
The essential principle involved in the Second Law does not lie solely
in the fact that dQ, has an integrating divisor 0. In fact, if we assume
that the state of a body is completely defined by tivo variables x and y, it
must always be jDOSsible to put dQ in the form
dQ='M.dx + 'Ndy,
where M, N are functions of x and y only. And it is always possible to
find an integrating factor for an expression of this form.
Moreover, if one integrating factor can be found for dQ, an infinite
number of such factors can be found. For in equation (2) let .s be any
arbitrary function of S ; then we may write the equation in the form
dQ=e'^ds.
ds
' Crelle, Jmirnal, vol. scviii.
86 KEPORT 1891.
Hence if
V=6^ (3)
as
we have
dQ=r,ds (4)
BO that 7j as well as 6 is the reciprocal of an integrating factor of clQ, or,
as we may call it, an ' integrating divisor ' of clQ,. Since dS/ds may be
regarded as a function of S, we see that the product of the temperature
into any arbitrary function of the entropy of a body is an integrating
divisor of (?Q, and therefore possesses properties analogous to 6 in equa-
tion (2).
Hence the absolute temperature $ is not fully defined by equation (2),
and the Second Law of Thermodynamics is not, therefore, completely
proved by the establishment of an equation of this form.
3. It is, therefore, necessary to take into account the other property by
which temperature is characterised, namely, that heat always tends to pass
from a body of higher to one of lower tem-perature, and in particular that
if two bodies in contact have the same temperature there ivill be no transfer-
ence of heat between them.
The Second Law of Thermodynamics consists in the fact that among
the integrating factors of dQ there is one whose reciprocal, 6, possesses
the properties of temperature just mentioned.
4. But, nevertheless, without considering the properties of thermal
equilibrium between difierent bodies we derive one very important infer-
ence from equation (2) — namely, that the thermal condition of a system
whose parts are in thermal equilibrium can be completely defined by a
single coordinate, or, in other words, that the consideration of thermal
phenomena only adds one to the total number of coordinates otherwise
required to fix the state of a dynamical system.
5. Impossibility of a Perfectly General Mechanical Proof. — To reduce
the First Law of Thermodynamics to the principle of Conservation of
Energy it is only necessary to assume that heat is some form of energy ;
no hypothesis is required as to what particular form this energy takes.
It was natural, therefore, that physicists should at a very early date
endeavour to reduce the Second Law in like manner to a purely dynami-
cal principle, and the jirinciple of Least Action naturally suggested itself
as the pi'obable analogue of Carnot's principle. But here a limitation at
once arises f.om the necessity of giving a dynamical meaning to dQ, the
energy communicated to the system in the form of heat, and of separating
dQ, fi'om — dW, the energy communicated in the form of mechanical
work.
6. This limitation requires that some special assumption shall be made
regarding the nature of heat, and the natural and almost inevitable
assumption is that every finite portion of matter is built up of a very
large number of elementary portions, called molecules, and that the form
of energy known as Heat is due to the relative motion of the molecules
among themselves.
But, fui'ther, these molecules must be characterised by some peculiar
property, such as their (practically) infinitely large number whereby
their dynamical properties differ in some manner from those of a finite
number of particles or rigid bodies. For without such a distinction it
would be impossible to deduce any dynamical equations involving dQ,
ON OUR KNOWLliDGK OV THERMODYNAMICS. 87
the work performed on the system through the coordinates defining the
positions of the molecules and not involving —dW, the work performed
through the coordinates determining the external configuration of the
system. The two portions of the work could only enter together into the
equations in the form fZE.
In other words, it is impossible to deduce the Second Law of Thermo-
dynamics from purely mechanical principles without making some
axiomatic assumption regarding the nature of the molecules whose motion
produces the phenomenon of heat.
7. The question now arises as to what dynamical quantity represents
temperature. We have good reasons for believing that, in gases at least,
the absolute temperature is proportional, either to the total mean kinetic
energy, or to the mean kinetic energy of translation of the molecules.
But if this or indeed any other hypothesis be adopted it will be necessary,
before the mechanical theory of heat is complete, to prove that (1) the
molecular kinetic energy is an integrating divisor of clQ, ; (2) it deter-
mines the thermal state of a body in relation to other bodies.
Most of the earlier writings are concerned only with the first property.
But a complete mechanical proof of the Second Law would involve a
mechanical definition of temperature applicable to all kinds and states
of matter, together with an explanation on dynamical or statistical laws
of the principle of degradation of energy in non-reversible processes; and
we are still far from arriving at a satisfactory solution of either of these
problems.
8. It will be convenient to classify the methods by which the problem
has been attacked as follows, under three headings corresponding to the
three different fundamental hypotheses which underlie them : —
I. The Hypothesis of ' Stationary ' or ' Quasi-Periodic ' Motions as
adopted by Clausius and Szily.
II. The Hypothesis of ' Monocyclic Systems ' of von Helmholtz, and
similar hypotheses.
III. The Statistical Hypothesis of Boltzmann, Clerk Maxwell, and
other writers on the Kinetic Theory of Gases.
9. Rankine seems to have been the first who attempted to deduce the
Second Law from dynamical principles. As early as 1855 he published
a paper ' On the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices,' ' in which he obtained
•equations analogous to those of thermodynamics; and in a paper read at
the British Association in 1865 - he explained the Second Law on the
hypothesis that ' heat consists in any kind of steady molecular motion
within limited space.' such as that due to circulating streams. Both of
Rankine's hypotheses are special cases of Helmholtz's ' Monocyclic
Systems.'
Boltzmann seems to have been the next to take up the subject, but his
•claim to priority has been disputed by Clausius, whose investigations
appeared about five years later. Boltzmann was undoubtedly the first to
regard the subject from a statistical point of view.
Szily laid claim to the discovery of the connection of the Second
Law with Hamilton's Principle of Least Action, and he may fairly be
entitled to the credit of having propounded this connection. But most
of his early investigations are not only wanting in rigour, but in many
oases so inaccurate that they do not prove the connection at all.
' Phil. Mac/. 1855, pp. 354, 411. " Ibid. 1865, p. 241.
88 REPORT— 1891.
Clerk Maxwell's theorem, named after its discoverer, was tlie first
attempt at a kinetic analogue of thermic equilibrium. It was generalised
by Boltzmann, and afterwards further generalised by Maxwell himself ;
but the latter extensions are probably incorrect, as we shall see here-
after.
Having thus briefly mentioned the earliest researches on the present
subject, let us turn to a consideration of the papers themselves, beginning
with the writings of Clausius and Szily.
Section I. — The Hypothesis of Stationary or Quasi-Feriodic Motions.
10. Clausius and Szily. — In 1870 Clausius showed that when a sys-
tem of particles is in stationary motion, the mean vis viva of the system
is equal to its virial.' About a year later he gave a proof of the Second
Law, based on the laws of motion, in a paper entitled ' On the Second
Axiom in the Mechanical Theory of Heat.' - The methods of proof
employed by Clausius in this paper are very laborious and complicated,
while his arguments are artificial and, in places, not very intelligible.
Soon after Clausius' paper had appeared, Szily endeavoured to show
that ' what in the mechanical theory of heat is called the Second Law is
nothing other than Hamilton's Principle of Least Action.' ' The proofs
which Szily gave are, in many places, quite at variance, not only with
the principles of dynamics, but also even with the laws of Thermo-
dynamics themselves. Thus he repeatedly mistook f?E for cZQ, and tried
to show that fZE/T is a complete difierential (a result not in general
true) ; moreover, in endeavouring to account for the principle of degra-
dation of energy in a non-reversible cycle, he altogether ignored the First
Law, and supposed some of the molecular energy of the system to be
actually lost or annihilated by friction, viscosity, or imperfect elasticity
of the molecules, or by other similar resistances. In consequence he had
to employ methods of proof that were far from rigorous, and even, in
many instances, illogical.
Szily's papers seem, however, to have had one good eSect — namely,
that of stimulating Clausius to remodel his investigations in a simpler
and more intelligible form. Those who care to examine the original
papers of these writers will find them translated in the volumes of the
' Philosophical Magazine ' from 1871 to about 1876. Among them is a
paper by Szily,^ in which he claimed to have deduced the Second Law
from the First ' without any further hypothesis whatever.' Yet Szily
based this investigation on two hypotheses which are hardly more
axiomatic than Carnot's principle.
11. Clausius' Methods. — It would be useless to enter into further criti-
cism. We now proceed to give a proof of the Second Law based on
the methods of Clausius, with the object of bringing into prominence the
more salient features of his investigations, and of presenting them in a
concise form.
The assumptions which form the basis of Clausius' proof may be stated
as follows : —
(i.) In the steady or undisturbed state of the system the motion of
the molecules shall be stationary or quasi-jjeriodic ; in other words, the
potential and kinetic energies of the molecules shall fluctuate rapidly
' Phil. 3Iag. vol. xl. (1870), p. 122. - Ihid. vol. xlii. (1871) (September).
» Hid. vol. xliii. (1872), p. 339. * Ihid. V. series, vol. i. (1876), p. 22.
ON ODR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 89'
about their mean values, and there shall be one or more ' quasi-periods,'
i, satisfying the definition which will be given in the course of the proof
(equation 13, infra).
(ii.) When the state of the system is changed (as by the communica-
tion of heat or by changes in the volume or external configuration of a
body), such changes shall be capable of being treated as small variations
of the motion from the state of steady motion.
Helmholtz, in his paper on Monocyclic Systems, makes a similar as-
sumption — namely, that the changes in the state of the system shall take
place so very slowly that the motion of the system at any instant differs
infinitesimally little from a possible state of steady motion. Tliis is the
exact equivalent of the assumption always made in treating the Second
Law from a physical point of view — namely, that heat is communicated
to or taken from the working substance so slowly that at every instant
of the process the temperature of the body is sensibly uniform through-
out.
12. With these assumptions, let the positions of the molecules be
determined in the first instance by the Cartesian coordinates (*, y, z) of
the particles (iii) forming them.
Suppose that the state of the system also depends on the values of
certain other coordinates, p^, p.2, &c., which, as suggested by J. J. Thom-
son,' we shall call the 'controllable coordinates' of the system; to this
class belong the volume of the body, the charge of electricity present
on it, or any coordinates which can be acted on directly from without.
The values of these latter coordinates will enter into the expression for
the potential energy of the system.
Let T=kinetic energy of sjstem=^^^in{x'^ + y- 4- P) .
V=potential energy.
E=total energy=T-FV.
In Thomson and Tait's ' Natural Philosophy,' part i. § 327, it is
shown that
8 {''2Tdt=^^m{iSx + y8y + ^Sz)T+ NsT-^mixBx + ySy + zsAdt (5)
But by D'Alembert's Principle we always have for the motion of the
system
whence
^m(x8x + y8y + zSz)=-'^(^^^8x + ^l8y+'^^^8z^ . . (6)
Now, V is a function not only of the molecular coordinates {x, y, z)
but also of the controllable coordinates 2h> P-2i ■ • • ^^^ these latter are
also liable to variation. Hence for the complete variation of V we have
' Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry, p. 94.
90 REPORT 1891.
Here the terms
represent the woi-k done on the system by variation of the controllable
coordinates — i.e., the external work performed on the system. Hence, if
8W denote the external ivorlc performed by the system, as in § 2, we have
^l^Bp=-8W (8)
Substituting in equation (5) from (6), (7), (8), in succession, we have
8\l'2T:dt=[^m(x8x + ySy + iSz)T+(\8T + SY + 8W)dt . (9)
But if 8Q represents the variation of energy communicated through the
molecular or uncontrollahle coordinates, we have, by the Principle of Con-
servation of Energy' (equation 1),
8Q=SE + SW = ST + 8Y + SW.
Therefore (9) gives
z['2Tdt=\^m{x8x-Vy8y + ~h)T+[^8qdt . . (10)
Let t2 — ti=i, and let mean values with respect to the time be indi-
cated in the usual way by a vinculum drawn over them, then the last
equation (10) may be written
8(2iT) = [^m(x8x + ySy + i8z)T '+i.Jq -. . (11)
whence
8Q 8(2iT)_ [^^"^"^^-'' + ^^^ + ~'^^U' ■ . . (12)
T~ iT ~ /T
Hence, if we assume the quasi-period i to be defined, as postulated
(assumption 1), by the relation
[^i«0tS.« + 7/S2/-H~S.)]''=O. . . . (13)
=S21og (iT) = Slog(iT)2 . . (14)
we shall have
8Q_ S(2iT )
T~ tT
13. Equation (14) is analogous to the thermodynamical equation (2)
when written in the form
o
the mean kinetic energy of the molecules T taking the place of the
absolute temperature 6.
Thus Carnot's principle is proved for reversible transformations, pro-
' This step was omitted by Szily, who fell into several errors in consequence, and
it is not explicitly mentioned in Clausius' writings.
ON ODK KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 91
vided that the absolute temperature of a body is proportional to the mean
kinetic energy of its molecules taken over a quasi-period of their motion.
But to complete the proof it would still be necessary to show that a
quantity proportional to the mean kinetic energy of the molecules fulfils
the properties of temperature stated in § 3. The investigations on this
point will be considered in Section III.
The hypothesis that the quasi-period i is very short compared with,
the time required to communicate a finite quantity of energy through the
molecules is tacitly involved in our regarding 8Q as a small variation.
On this hypothesis the value of T will vary very slowly, and T may
therefore be regarded as a continuously varying function. Hence, in
considering what takes place over a considerable number of quasi-periods,
we may replace the sign of summation by that of integration, and thus
obtain
J;t"^t~ °^,T,
the suffixes 1, 2 referring to the initial and final state of the body.
14. The hypotheses involved in the definition of the quasi-period i by
means of equation (13) call for some comment. In his paper ' On a New
Mechanical Theorem relating to Stationary Motions,' ' CJausius gives a
rather more general form of the theorem, in which he supposes that there
may be different quantities i corresponding to different molecular co-
ordinates ; but in this case it seems to be necessary, according to him,
that in the varied motion all the i's shall be altered in the same ratio. If
such is assumed to be the case, S log i will be the same for all. Hence
we shall obtain for the portion whose quasi-period is i
8Q=2T8 1ogi-|-28T,
and, therefore, for the whole body
28Q=22T . S log i-|-282T ;
or, if we remove the signs of summation and let the quantities refer to
the entire system,
8Q=2T81ogi + 28T,
whence
^^=28(logiT) (14)
as before.
If we assume that each molecular coordinate {x, for example) always
fluctuates in the same periodic time i, so that the corresponding velocity
X vanishes at the times i,, ^j+i, <i+2i, &c., then the relation defining
the corresponding t,
r -]'='>+'
mxhx =0,
will be satisfied identically, and there will be no difficulty about the
matter. When, however, the molecular motions do not possess even this
amount of periodicity, Clausius gets over the difficulty by arguments of
the following general nature : — If we are dealing with a body of finite
' Phil. Mag. vol. xlvi. (1873), p. 236.
92 BEPOKT 1891.
dimensions, the molecalar coordinates (.r, y, z) mnst fluctuate between
certain finite limits, and hence 8a;, 8y, Sz, cannot increase indefinitely with
the time. Hence by taking the time i sufficiently large we must have
ultimately
^ Vm(rcSa! + i/S(/ + 3Sz)
£..} 1 — ^=« ■ • (i^>
since the numerator does not increase indefinitely with i.
Now, it appears to me that the statements printed in italics are open
to objection. There is no reason why 8,v, 8y, Sz should not increase con-
tinually with the time until they can no longer be regarded as small'
variations, and it seems highly probable that this ivill happen under
certain circumstances. Take, for example, the case of a gas formed of a
number of hard spherical molecules colliding with one another, the
lengths of the mean free paths being great compared with the radius of
each sphere. If the direction of motion of one of these spheres be varied
very slightly, then at the next impact there will be a considerable altera-
tion in the direction of the line of centres.* After the impact, therefore,
the variation in the direction of motion will be very greatly increased,
and a similar increase will take place at each impact, until at last the
molecule will no longer collide with the same molecules as in the original
motion, but will come into collision with quite a different set. By this
time there will not be the slightest connection between the original and
the varied motion.
15. I would therefore suggest that the existence of a ' quasi-period '
i, as defined by (13), can be better explained by arguments of a statistical
nature based on the immensely large number of the molecules present in
a body of finite dimensions. In the steady or stationary motion of such
a body, it is reasonable to assume (as in the kinetic theory of gases) that
the velocities of the molecules are on the whole equably distributed as
regards direction. Thus, for example, the average number of molecules
for which x is positive and lies between ?t and u-^du is equal to the
average number for which x is negative and lies between —u and
— {u + dii) .
Moreover, in the disturbed motion the displacements (Ss, hj, 82) of
any molecule cannot depend in any manner on its velocity components
(x, y, z). It is of course quite possible to conceive a disturbance of the
motion in which some fixed relation exists between the displacements and
the velocity components of the molecules — indeed, we might choose the
relation to be any we please — but a disturbance of this kind would only
be possible if the molecules were individually controllable ; in other words,
the displacements could only be brought about by means of Clerk Max-
well's ' demons,' and it would then be reasonable to suppose that the
Second Law would fail altogether.
Hence in any physically possible variation of the motion the terms
involving positive and negative velocity components in the expression
'^miiSx + yhj H- z8z)
■will on the whole cancel one another, and therefore the average value of
the expression will be zero. This proves Clausius' Theorem.
' This is easily exemplified by means of billiard-balls.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THEBMODTNAMICS. 93
It should be noted tbat Clausius introduces the conception of a
* phase ' in dealing with stationary motions, but this is not an essential
feature of the proof, and it only modifies the form of the equations. I
have therefore dispensed with it.
16. Connection with Hamilton's Principle. — Although Thomson and
Tait have based their proof of the Principle of Least Action on equa-
tion (5), the above investigations do not show more than a very indirect
connection between that principle and the equation (14) which corre-
sponds to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Had we used general-
ised coordiuates to represent the positions of the molecules, equation (6)
would have been replaced by Lagrange's generalised equations of motion,
and the connection would hardly have been any closer, depending only,
as it would have done, on the fact that Lagrange's equations could be de-
duced from the Principle of Least Action, and that equation (14) would
have been deduced from Lagrange's equations.
Clausius recognised at the very outset of his researches the fact that
Hamilton's principle could not be applied directly to the case of a
system of molecules in which the variation of the motion was accom-
panied by the performance of external work through the controllable
coordinates of the system. For, as he puts it, Hamilton's principle only
holds good when, in the varied motion, the Ergal has the same form as a
function of the coordinates as in the original motion.' By the co-
ordinates Clausius here means the molecular coordinates only, for he
considers the controllable coordinates as variable parameters which enter
into and affect the form of the potential energy or ' Ergal.' In consequence
of this fact Clausius claimed that his equations involved a new principle
which was of more general application than Hamilton's principle. We
shall, however, show (i.) that, by means of a certain assumption as to
the form taken by the external work, a system can be formed to which
Hamilton's principle is directly applicable ; (ii.) that the principle leads
immediately to the analogue of the Second Law in the form of equation
(14) ; and (iii.) that the assumption made does not really interfere with
the generality of the proof.
17. Our assumption is that the external forces, acting on the control-
lable coordinates of the body, belong to a conservative system. This
system we may, for convenience, call the ' external system.' When the
body performs external work 8W, the potential energy of the external
system increases by 8W. Hence we may denote this potential energy by
W. The external system and the original body, when taken together,
form a complete dynamical system, to which Hamilton's principle can be
applied ; for the potential energy of the complete system is a function
only of the generalised coordinates of the system.
Moreover, in the complete system the increment of the total energy is
=SE + 8W=8Q by (1). Hence the total energy may be denoted by Q
where
Q=E-|-W=T-fY + W,
the total potential energy being U where
U=V + W=Q-T.
Let P\, Pi . . . denote the generalised coordinates of the complete
system, q^, q2 . ■ . the corresponding velocities, so that <7„=p„ ; and let
» Fhil. Mag. vol. xliv. (1872), p. 365.
94 EEPOET 1891.
«i, s^, .... he tlie corresponding generalised momenta. Let p^ be taken
as a type of the controllable coordinates which define the configuration of
the external system, ^j^ as a type of the uncontrollable coordinates which
define the positions of the molecules in the body. Since the energy of the
external system is assumed to be wholly potential,
.: s„=^ =0 (16)
O'la
With the present notation the two general forms of the equation
expressing Hamilton's principle are
Sr(T-U)tZ^=r2s8pT-Q8t . . . (17a)
and
sr2T(^^=r^s8p r+*sQ . . . (in)
Of these the latter form must be used. Assume i to be so chosen as to
satisfy the relation
which, since s„=0, may also be written
[SVpJ=0; .... (18)
a relation identical with that assumed in equation (13) and justifiable in
a similar manner.
Equation (17b} now becomes, on introducing mean values,
8(2iT)=t-8Q,
giving, as before, equation (14),
8Q _
-^=S2log(iT).
It might at first sight appear as if the assumption as to the conserva-
tive nature of the external forces imposed a serious limitation on the
generality of the theorem, and, in fact, prevented its application to cyclical
processes. But this is really not the case. To remove the limitation it is
only necessary to suppose that the external system contains certain connec-
tions by which periodic motion of the body is converted into progressive
motion of some of the external coordinates, as exemplified in the crank
of a steam-engine. In other words, the external energy W must be a
multiple valued function of the controllable coordinates of the body.
From equation (18), i depends only on_the state of the bodv, not on that
of the external system, and evidently T depends only on the state of the
body. Hence, if the initial and final states of the body be the same,
although the initial and final states of the external system may be different,
we must have
f|=0 ..... (19)
ON OCR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 95
Since the external system of conservative forces may be chosen to be
any we please, equation (19) mast be true for any cyclical process what-
ever, whether or not accompanied by the production or absorption of
external work.
This, then, is the closest connection which exists between Hamilton's
principle and the kinetic analogue of the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
VV"e might avoid the necessity of constructing a different multiply
connected field of external force to suit each cyclic process by adopting a
generalisation of the principle of Least Action, but this generalisation
would no longer belong to the forms given by Hamilton. Thus we might
suppose W, and therefore Q, to be a function of the time. This would
not affect the form of (17a), but in (176) iBQ, would be replaced by
SQdt—i.e., iSQ.
A slightly different method adopted by Helmholtz in his papers on
' Least Action ' (Crelle, 'Journal,' vol. c.) leads to the same result. He
supposed the generalised external force components P^ to be functions of
the time only; in this case we must write 2(PaPn) instead of W, and,
therefore, B + 2(P„F„)=Q.
18. Under the present section of this Report must be mentioned
Prof. J. J. Thomson's theorem that 'when a system consisting of a very
great number of molecules is in a steady state, the mean value of the
Lagrangian function has a stationary value so long as the velocities of
the controllable coordinates are not altered.' '
This ' theorem ' is nothing more or less than Hamilton's Principle of
Least Action, which is enunciated in a form identical with the above
by von Helmholtz in his paper on Least Action.^ In fact, if in equation
(18) we write
H=U-T,
and assume the variation to be so chosen that
8;=0, [2s,Sp,]^=0 .... (19)
we have at once
8{'B.dt=0,
whence
8(iH)=0,
or by (19) _
SH = 0;
so that H has a stationary value.
The function H, which is merely the Lagrangian function with its
sign changed, has been termed by Helmholtz the Kinetic Potential.
The mean value of this function is the dynamical analogue of the
quantity in the theory of heat which is called the Thermodijnamical Poten-
tial by Duhem and Massieu, the Force Function of Constant Temperature by
J. Willard Gibbs, and the Free Energy by Helmholtz himself.
The fact that, for a system which undergoes reversible transformations
' Apjdloatums of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry, p. Ii2.
^ Crelle, Journal, vol. c. p. 139.
56 REPORT 1891.
only, the tliermodynamic potential is a minimum, is thus identical with
the principle of minimum action. For non-reversible processes the
thermodynamic potential tends to a minimum, and this fact expresses the
principle of degradation of energy involved in the Second Law, though as
yet the corresponding dynamical property has not been worked out.
J. J. Thomson's applications of his ' theorem ' have no bearing on the
subject of this Report, as they do not depend to any extent on the
dynamical aspect of the question.
Section II. — Hypotheses based on the Properties of Monocyclic Systejas.
19. The peculiarity of the theories to be discussed in this section is
that they are not in themselves statistical. They do not therefore postu-
late the existence of an infinitely large number of molecules the motion
of which, taken individually, is uncontrollable. Instead of this, the funda-
mental hypotheses on which they are based have reference to the forms
of the kinetic and potential energy as functions of the coordinates of the
system. Thus the equations of motion of any finite system of rigid bodies
fulfilling the necessary qualifications will give rise to equations analogous
in form to those which represent the laws of Thermodynamics.
Under the present category may be classed Rankine's very early
theories, already mentioned, Helmholtz's papers on the statics of Monocyclic
Systems,^ and the proof of the Second Law given by J. J. Thomson in
his ' Applications of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistiy.' Boltzmann has
endeavoured to show how a system satisfying the properties of a mono-
cyclic system may be derived from statistical considerations, but this
investigation naturally falls under Section III. of this Report.
Rankine's hypotheses call for no comment, being only very special
cases of those of Helmholtz.
20. H. L. F. von Helmholtz on the Principles of Statics of Monocyclic
Systems. — As no account of these papers has hitherto been given in Eng-
lish, we shall now consider them somewhat fully. The introductory por-
tion has already been noticed in §§ 2, 3.
Helmholtz defines a polycyclic system as a dynamical system containing
one or more periodic or circulating motions. If there is only one such
motion, or if, owing to the existence of certain relations between the
velocities of the diflFerent parts of the system, the circulating motions can
all be defined by a single coordinate, the system is called monocyclic.
As in other investigations the coordinates of the system fall under
two classes — those which, following the suggestion of J. J. Thomson,
we have called ' controUahle ' coordinates, and those defining the in-
ternal or circulating motions within the system, which that writer calls
' unconstrainahle ' coordinates. In applying the results to Thermody-
namics, the latter coordinates are those which fix the positions of the
molecules, and thus define the thermal state of the body; they may,
therefore, be called ' molecular ' coordinates.
A polycyclic or monocyclic system is assumed to possess the following
properties : —
(i.) The kinetic and potential energies of the system do not involve
the actual values of the molecular coordinates which define the circulating
motions, but only depend on their generalised velocities or rates ol
change.
' ' Principien der Statik monocyclischer Systeme,' Crelle, Journal, xcvii. pp. Ill, .S17.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 97
These coordinates are therefore r/i/rosfatic or, as J. J. Thomson calls
them, ' speed ' coordinates. The present hypothesis seems to assume that
the molecules exert no mutual forces except those due to impact or un-
yielding constraints. At any rate, if there be any other molecular forces
they can only depend on the controllable coordinates of the system.
(ii.) When the state of the system is changed the changes take place
very slowly, so that the velocities of the controllable coordinates are small,
and so also are the acceleratious of the molecular or gj-rostatic coordiuates.
(This corresponds to the second assumption in § 11 )
21. Let the generalised coordinates of a polycyclic system be denoted
by ^, the generalised velocities by (7, the generalised momenta by s, and
the generalised force components exerted by the system, in the direction
of jj increasing, by P ; also, let the suffix a refer in each case to the con-
trollable coordinates, and b to the molecular coordinates of the system.
Let T=kinetic energ}-, V= potential encrgj-, H=V— T, so that H is the
Lagrangian function with its sign changed.
The general equations of motion give
'^ dt' ^ a^ c)(/
dt \ dq J dp
(20)
la consequence, however, of the assumptions (i.) and (ii.) we have
= 0, qa=0, S„ = r~=0 . . (21)
"whence the generalised equations for the polycyclic system become
" ^^« I . . . . (22)
^ dt dt LBt'i, J
Hence if (ZQ is the total energy communicated through the gyrostatic
coordinates j,, in time dt, we have
A^=-^V,q,dt=+^q^:^\lt=^q,d^, . . . (23)
Also, if the Lagrangian function has not been modified, or if, in other
words, no gyrostatic coordinates have been ignored, T is a homogeneous
quadratic function of the quantities q,^, and hence in this case
2T=^q,/, (24)
22. The simplest form of monocyclic syatem is that containing only
one gyrostatic coordinate 5,, ; here
dq=q,ds, (25)
Thus q,, is an integrating divisor of dQ, and by § 2 the product of q^
with any function of s,, is also an integrating divisor of dQ. In par-
ticular
2T=g,.., (20)
.-. '^=2di\ogs,) (27)
1891. K
98 KEPORT — 1891.
Moreover, if E=T + V is the total energy of tbe system,
dq=dE + ^{FJp,:) .... (28)
so that clQ, is the analogue of the quantity of heat communicated to a
body.
Hence equation ('27) is analogous to the Second Law of Thermodynamics
as given by equation (2), on the assumption that the kinetic energy T takes
the place of the temperature.
If S is the quantity corresponding to entropy in (27), we have on
integration
S=2(log S(,— log A), where A is a constant.
This may also be put in the form
S=logT + log(^j .... (29)
Here s,,/qi, is of no dimensions in time ; hence Si,lqi, is a function of length
only, and the expression for S is exactly analogous to the corresponding
formula for a perfect gas —
S=cJoge + {c,-c,)]ogv + G . . . (30)
If (ji, is of the nature of angular velocity, so that qj. is of no dimensions
in length, s,,t will be of dimensions [L]'^, and therefore Sjjq,, will be of
dimensions [L]'^. But v is of dimensions [L]^, hence by comparing the
dimensions of the quantities in (29), (30), we must have (c^j — Cj,)/c^=§,
.•. c^,^=^Ci„ and this is the relation between the specific heats of a mon-
atomic gas.
23. Helmholtz next considers the more general case in which there
are several velocity coordinates q^,, and he investigates the relations con-
necting them on the assumption that dQ has an integrating divisor.
Writing
dQ='^qi,dsi^=\d(T .... (81)
it is evident that the required conditions will be satisfied by assuming
that the equation
dq=0 (.32)
has an integral of the form
F(s^)=o-=constant .... (33)
and that
8F
2^=^97, (^'i>
The conditions that the kinetic energy should be an integrating divi-
sor are also found. If the Lagrangian function has not been modified,
Helmholtz finds that the kinetic energy is in every case an integrating
divisor of dQ, provided that the geometrical relations between the motions
of the various coordinates are ■purely kinematical, or such as could exist
in nature.
24. It has, however, been pointed out by Boltzmann, in his remarks on
Helmholtz's paper,i that Helmholtz's proof of this theorem is based on
1 Boltzuiann, 'Ueberclie Eigenscliaften monocyclischer Systeme,' Crelle, Journal,
xcviii. p. 86 ct seq.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 99
the assumption that dQ, has an integrating divisor ; or, in other words,
that the solution of the equation
dQ=0
can be expressed in the form of a single primitive. Under such circum-
stances, the proof shows that the kinetic energy of the system must
necessarily be one of the integrating divisors of dQ. But, on the other
hand, there may be cases in which the equation cZQ.=0 does not possess
a solution in the form of a single primitive, and Helmholtz's investiga-
tions are not applicable to such cases.
In fact the theory of differential equations shows that the equation
dQ='Sq,,ds^=0
does not in general lead to a single primitive of the form (33)
r(S(,)= constant.
In order to obtain an integral of (32) it is therefore in general necessary
to assume certain functional relations between the variables. In other
words, we must assume the existence of certain geometrical equations
connecting the different parts of the system, and this is equivalent to
imposing certain constraints whereby the number of degrees of freedom
of the system is reduced. Helmholtz finds that the kinetic energy T
will be an integrating divisor of dQ, provided that the assumed geometri-
cal equations are purely kinematical, and in this category are included all
forms of constraint which are possible in a perfectly conservative dyna-
mical system.
There are, however, as Helmholtz has shown, certain cases in which
(32) has for its integral a single primitive of the form (33), and in these
cases it is not necessary to assume the existence of geometrical equations
representing constraints on the system. Such a polycyclic system possesses
properties identical with those of a monocyclic system, and, although the
gyrostatic coordinates are independent, the kinetic energy is always an
integrating divisor of dQ.
It is probable that Helmholtz's geometrical equations can be interpreted
thermodynamically as the conditions that the different parts of the body
may be all at the same temperature. Unless this condition is satisfied we
know from purely physical considerations that dQ has not in general an
integrating divisor.
25. The limitations, as well as the meaiaing of ' purely kinematical '
geometrical conditions, are, however, more clearly shown in Helm-
holtz's second paper,' in which he deduces the analogue of the Second
Law by means of an application of the principle of similitude, as follows :
The geometrical conditions are considered purely kinematical when they
allow the rate at which the system is moving to be varied without vary-
ing the relations between the coordinates of tlie various parts. Thus
corresponding to any state of motion of the system we may obtain another
possible state of motion of the system by supposing all the velocities of
the system increased n fold, provided that proportional alterations be
made in the external forces (P) of the system. In the new motion the
' Crellf, Journal, vol. scvii. pp. 317-322.
H 2
100 REPORT — 1891.
same changes will take place in a less time ; hence, if we use accented
letters for the original motion, we shall have generally
q—aq
s-=.ns'
(35)
The effect of communicating a quantity of energy dQ, through the
speed coordinates of such a system will be to increase the rate of working
of the system, and therefore to increase n.
Now we have
= u'^{ruds\) + ndn^{ri,^^) . . . (36)
But when the rate is constant, c7h=0 ; cZQ=0 ;
.-. ;^(2V7s',)=0 .... (37)
which defines the monocycle.
/. dq = ndn^{q',/,) .... (38)
But
.-. ^^Q=^^=2J(log«) . . . (39)
T n
The quantity corresponding to entropy — viz., 2 'log h — log (constant) }
differs from that given by the method of Ciausius, but the two investiga-
tions are easily reconciled. For writing (36) in the form
dCl^ndn^{q\s\)+n''-\d^{(^,s\)-'^{s\dq:,)]=0 . (40)
the assumption made in Clausius' method is that
5(-s'„%'0-0 (41)
and under such circumstances
dq,=ndn-2T +ri?d2T .... (42)
cZQ^rfQ^2dri 2rZT'
•• T n'T T T'"
=2'i(lognT')=2(ilog(T/») . . (43)
which agrees with (14).
26. By far the most interesting part of Helmholtz's papers is
ihat in which he has investigated the dynamical analogue of thermal
equilibrium between two or more bodies of equal temperature. Of this
portion we will now give a brief sketch.
If two bodies of equal temperature are placed in contact, the state
of either body will be unafiected, and the system, taken as a whole, will
be subject to the two laws of thermodynamics.
The dj'-namical analogue to be investigated is that of two monocyclic
systems coupled together by means of geometrical connections between
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 101
their molecular coordinates only (not between their controllable co-
ordinates) in such a manner that the motions of the two systems are
individually unaffected by the coupling, but that the coupled system
forms a single monocyclic system. Corresponding to equality of
temperature we must have equality between two integrating divisors of
(7Q for the two monocyclic sj'stems, and tliese integrating divisors must
always remain equal so long as the two systems are coupled together.
Such being the conditions imposed upon the problem from thermal
considerations, Helmholtz investigates the general form of the integrating
•divisors for two monocyclic systems in order that this condition may be
fulfilled — i.e., that equality of these divisors may bo the criterion of
the possibility of coupling the systems. This kind of coupling he calls
' isoniorous.' As simple instances of such coupled dynamical systems
the following are mentioned : —
(i.) Two revolving wheels may be coupled together by joining their
axles if their angular velocities are equal. If either wheel carries a
Watt's governor or centrifugal regulator in which the distance of the
revolving balls from the axis is controllable, the angular velocities of the
two wheels can thus be equalised just as two bodies may be brought to
the same temperature by applying suitable pressures.
(ii.) Two circulating streams of liquid in annular vessels can be com-
bined into a single stream wherever their linear velocities are identical,
and the necessary conditions may be secured by suitably varying the
form and dimensions of the containing vessels.
The principle of limited availability when heat is converted into
work by reversible processes depends on the impossibility of controlling
the individual molecules of a body : all that we can do is to commu-
nicate heat to the body by placing it in contact with another body, which
must be at the same temperature if the process is to be reversible. Cor-
responding to this property we must make the hypothesis that in a
monocyclic system it is impossible to operate directly on the gyrostatic
coordinates by means of external forces, but that work can only be
communicated through these coordinates by coupling the system with
another monocyclic system, and that the coupling must be ' isomorous.'
If this assumption be made, the monocyclic system will evidently possess
properties corresponding to the principle of limited availability.
27. Let T/i and 172 be the required integrating divisors for tlie two
systems, so that whenever rji^r] and ^2='7 tlie systems can be coupled
together. Let the corresponding entropies be a-, and cto ; then for such a
coupled system we must have
(ZQ,=7yr7o-i "1
dq,=y,da., } . . . (44)
.-. dq =dq^+dq.2=7]:i(<7i+<T.:^ J
therefore 77 is an integrating divisor of (?Q for the entire coupled system.
Any other integrating divisor will be the product of t; with an arbi-
trary function of the corresponding entropy (§ 2). But the kinetic
energies Ti, T2, Ti+Tg are integrating divisors of cZQ,, r7Q,, and (?Q
(since the coupled system is supposed to be monocyclic). Therefore
T,-=»7,</.(^,) )
T,=r,,ilf(a,) I . . . . (45)
102 KEPOET 1891.
■whence
x(<T,+cT,)=<l.(<T,)+iI;(cro) . . . (46)
giving, on differentiating first with regard to cr^ and then with regard
to 0-2,
x"=o.
Therefore on integration
<f,=a + cai I . . . (47)
ij/=h + C(r2 J
But if s,, S.2 be the generalised momenta corresponding to the gyro-
static coordinates of the two systems, we have
dQ2=2T,d\ogs,=-r}da.2} • • • • K'*°-^
From (45), (47), and (48)
2rZ log .,= >'-)
'^ + ''*^'L .... (49)
2dlogs,= /pJ
.*. by integration, ^(a-i)=a + co-, = (si/a)^'^[ /'t;n\
where a, /3 are constants. Substituting in (45) we find
.... (51)
V-2
These, then, are the most general forms of 17,, tj., possessing the two
qualifications by which temperature is characterised — namely, (i.) Carnot's
principle and (ii.) the property of defining the state of a body in relation
to its thermal equilibrium with another body.
28. There is still another condition to be satisfied in finding a kinetic
analogue of temperature — namely, the property that if two bodies, A and
B, are in thermal equilibrium, and if A and C are also in thermal equi-
librium, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium.
This imposes on our monocyclic systems the condition that whenever
a system (1) can be coupled with either of two systems (2) and (3), the
systems (2) and (3) can also be coupled together. The examples already
given of wheels revolving with equal angular velocity and of circulating
streams are instances of the fulfilment of this condition.
In all such cases the ge(<metrical equations connecting the coordinates
of the coupled bodies must be of the form
^i='A2=X3 • • • • • (52)
where <^i only involves the coordinates of the first body, i/^o those of the
second, and xs those of the third.
Applying § 23, we see that if F (si, Sj) denote the entropy of the
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 103
system formed by coupling (1) and (2), the geometrical equation (34)
gives
iL= 2a (53)
5s7
8P
9^2
\ — /
and this must be
form (52)
Therefore
reducible,
after dividing out
by a
common
factor,
to the
12
•
•
•
(54)
where *'(si) is a function of s, alone and ^'(sj) is a function of Sg alone
Therefore, comparing (53) and (54), we must have
dF dF
Putting
(55) gives
. (55)
Hs,)=.\^'(s,)ds„ n^o)=\^'(s,)ds, . . (56)
(57)
The integral of this can be written in the form
X(F(s,S2))=X(o-)=$(si)+*(«2) + . . (58)
where X denotes any arbitrary function of F or cr.
Equation (58) determines the general form of the quantity correspond-
ing to entropy in the system formed by coupling the two monocyclic
systems (1) and (2) in a manner satisfying the conditions of the present
problem.
Moreover, in the individual systems we have by (56)
t ... (59)
so that the quantities q\/^'(^i) ^^^ 22/^(^2)) which are equated when
the systems are coupled, are integrating divisors of dQ^ and tZQ,. This
kind of coupling is therefore 'isomorous,' and is analogous to the thermal
contact of bodies at the same temperature.
29. Thus Helmholtz has shown that all the thermodynamical pro-
perties of matter can be represented dynamically by means of monocyclic
systems which are capable of being coupled together. In coupling such
systems it has been assumed that —
(i.) The forces acting on the controllable coordinates are unaffected,
so that only the motions of the molecular or gyrostatic coordinates are
connected together, and the coupled system is monocyclic.
(ii.) The geometrical equations connecting the two systems can be put
in the form ^i=i/'2, so that </>, and 1/^2 possess the same properties which
104 EEPOET 1891.
cliaractorise temperature as the criterion of tbermal equilibrium between
two or more bodies.
It has also been deduced that </>! and ij/^ are integi-ating divisors for
the two respective systems, so that tliey satisfy the definition given by
Carnot's laws.
The only other property of heat — namely, the principle of limited
availability — follows at once on the hj^pothesis of § 26 as to the uncon-
strainable nature of the gyrostatic coordinates of the system, and the
analogue is therefore complete.
30. Helmholtz is almost the only writer who has made any attempt
at a complete mechanical theory of heat. The other writers have simply
endeavoured to show that an equation of the form (2) can be deduced
from dynamical considerations by assuming that the kinetic energy due
to the uncontrollable motion of the system takes the place of temperature.
This assumption is not necessary in Helmholtz's investigations — a great
advantage considering our uncertainty as to the nature of temperature.
Although the properties of temperature are explained by means of
monocyclic systems, it cannot be said that they are ])roved. on these
hypotheses. Thus, it would be very easy to couple a monocyclic system
with two other systems in such a manner that the two latter could not
also be coupled together — as, for example, in the case of revolving wheels
connected together by cogs. What Helmholtz has done is to show the
possibility of dynamical analogues and the conditions they must satisfy,
rather than to establish an analogy between all dynamical systems and
heated bodies.
The omission of the work done by intermolecular forces also intro-
duces certain restrictions on the generality of the proof. In the vortex
atom theory of matter no difficulty of any kind presents itself, because
the vortex atoms are essentially monocyclic in character ; but on Bosco-
vich's hypotheses there will be difficulties, although these difficulties do
not appear insuperable. There seems, for example, no reason why the
molecular potential energy should not be controllable, in which case the
work done by the intermolecular forces would be of the nature of
available energy — available, that is, through the controllable coordinates
of the body. Thus, for example, if we suppose a number of molecules
enclosed in an envelope at rest under their mutual repulsions, and if we
imagine the envelope to expand so that the distances between the mole-
cules are increased, the intermolecular forces do work in expanding the
envelope, and the whole of this work will be available. Thus there is
nothing impossible in such an hypothesis. But it cannot be regarded as
axiomatic, and can only be justified if it is found to accord with observed
phenomena, among which must be included the Second Law itself. In
fact, it must not be forgotten that the object of all such investigations is
to discover theories which will account for facts, and not to prove facts
by means of theories.
31. Professor J. J. Thomson's Proof of the Second Law. — The investi-
gation now to be considered is one which in its principle and fundamental
hypotheses is intimately related to Helmholtz's researches, although the
method of proof is somewhat different. I refer to the proof of the Second
Law given by Prof. J. J. Thomson in his ' Applications of Dynamics to
Physics and Chemistry,' chap. vi. §§ 46-49. It is in connection with
this investigation that the author introduces the terms ttnconstrainahle
and controllahle, which he uses to distinguish coordinates defining the
ON OUIl KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 105
states of the molecules of a body individually from those which define the
state of the molecules in the aggregate.
It was stated in § 24 that, under certain circumstances, a polycyclic
system may possess exactly the same properties as a monocyclic system,
even though the coordinates defining the circulating motions of the
system are all independent. The system considered by J. J. Thomson
belongs to this class, for the necessary conditions are secured by the
assumption which the author makes in the following statement concerning
the kinetic energy due to the molecular or ' unconstrainable ' coordinates
«i of the system : ' — If the term
^[(uti,)u-+ . . . }
involves any ' controllable ' coordinate <f), then it is evident that this co-
ordinate <f> must enter as a factor into all the terms in the form expressed
by the equation
i{(«w)"'^+ . . . ]=yW{(uicyn^-+ . . . } . . (60)
where the coefficients (iiuy do not involve ^, otherwise the phenomenon
would be influenced more by the motion of some particular molecule than
by that of others.'^ In other words, the investigation is limited in its
application to the thermal properties of a single body, for in the case of a
system of more than one body it is. evident that the phenomena would
be difi'erently influenced by the motion of the molecules in diff'erent
bodies. In such a case the molecular kinetic energy of each individual
body would contain a common factor f(<j>), which might be different for
difi'erent bodies. Even in the case of a single body the assumption,
thoiTgh plausible, can hardly be regarded as axiomatic.
The other assumptions involved in J. J. Thomson's work are similar
to those of Helmholtz, but they impose fewer restrictions on the gene-
rality of the proof. While Helmholtz assumes that the changes in the
state of the system take place so slowly that the velocities of the con-
trollable coordinates (q„ or ^) do not enter into the energy of the system,
Thomson merely assumes that the portions of the kinetic energy due to
the controllable and molecular coordinates are distinct, so that the whole
kinetic energy is of the form
T=T, + T„ (61)
where the part T„ alone is to be taken as the dynamical analogue of
temperature, the part T^^^ denoting the kinetic energy due to motions of
the body as a whole and other controllable motions.
Moreover, Thomson only assumes that the potential energy of the
system is a function of the controllable and not of the molecular coordi-
nates, so that
^^=^%^^ (62)
and
2^.> = (63)
' Applications of Dynamics, pp. 94, 95.
'' In comparing J. J. Thomson's proof with that of Helmholtz we must write
106 REPORT— 1891.
while Helmholtz's inYestigations involve the assumptions of (21), namely,
that
opi, ou oil on
assumptions which characterise the molecular coordinates as gyrostatic
or speed coordinates.
With the above assumptions it is shown that
^^=;^8 1og/(<^) + 81ogT„ . . . (65)
an equation analogous to the Second Law (2). Also
/^9Q^ =-T,/.^^) . . . (66)
V Vf^J T„ constant VO i „/ * constant
where <& is the generalised component of external force corresponding to
the coordinate ^. This relation is analogous to the well-known thermo-
dynamical relation
(r) =^(l) • • • (^^)
\0V J B constmit \UV J v constant
32. J. J. Thomson also mentions the case in which V, the potential
energy of the system, is a function of the molecular as well as of the
controllable coordinates. But here he tacitly assumes that the molecular
coordinates only enter into V in the form of the temperature, an assump-
tion quite unjustifiable from dynamical considerations, for no dynamical
meaning can be attached to temperature until the Second Law has been
completely (vide §§ 2, 3) established by dynamical principles.
On the hypothesis that T„ is the quantity which is analogous to tem-
perature in the dynamical system, the assumption takes the form
^'Z''=tTf- ■ ■ ■ ■ («8)
and unless this condition is satisfied the relation (66) will not be true, as
J. J. Thomson asserts, when the potential energy is a function of the
molecular as well as of the controllable coordinates.
Concerning the physical aspect of equation (68) Mr. C. V. Burton has
suggested to me the following argument : — If we consider a vessel of
unalterable volume containing ice, water, and steam at tlie triple point
it is evident that heat may be communicated to the system isothermally,
the effect being to decrease the quantity of ice and to increase the quantity
of water and of steam without altering the pressure or volume. In this
case the molecular potential energy would in all probability be increased
without any concomitant change in the temperature or in the potential
energy of the controllable coordinates.
33. H. FoincarS on the Applicability of Monocyclic Systems to Irreversible
Processes. — The question whether Helmholtz's monocyclic systems can
be employed to illustrate irreversible processes has been considered by
Mons. H. Poincare,' and answered by him in the negative ; but his inves-
tigation is far from satisfactory.
In the first place, he points out that an irreversible process is only
' Comptes Rendus, cviii. (1889), p. 550.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 107
dynamically possible when the Lagrantrian function contains odd powers
of tha generalised velocities, and that this is the case when it has been
modified so that some of the velocities have been ignored owing to the
corresponding generalised momenta being constant. But this simply
means that the ignored velocities are not to be reversed when the motion
of the system is reversed. It is easy to see that in a dynamical
system it is not in general possible to reverse some of the motions
without reversing them all.
Poincare now considers, as a test case, that in which the system is
acted on by no external forces, and he considers, more particularly, what
happens when the entropy is approaching its maximum, his object being
to discover whether there is any dynamical way of proving the funda-
mental thermodynamic property that the entropy of a system is con-
tinually increasing. If such is the case, then, taking S as the entropy,
dS/dt must always be positive. Now, taking E as the energy and adopt-
ing the notation of Helmholtz, the Hamiltonian equations give
dp_dB d.s_ _8E_
di~ ds' dt dp'
whence
dS ^fdSdE_dSdE\ ^ggv
df-^\dp ds ds'dpj ' ' ' * ^ '
In the subsequent investigation Poincare assumes that when the entropy
is a maximum the system must he in stable equilibrium, so that in this
condition of the system we have not only
-9S=o and f=0,
dp OS
but also
1^45=0 and ^=^=0.
dt dp dt ab
Such a step appears to me to be quite unjustifiable, for it amounts to
nothing less than assuming that the system under investigation is at the
absolute zero of temperature, and the entropy in such a case will of
course be infinite.
If we have any number of bodies enclosed in an adiathermanous
envelope it is known from physical, not dynamical, considerations that
the entropy of the system will tend to a maximufii as the temperatures
of the various bodies become equalised, and yet when all the bodies are
at the same temperature the molecules are still in a lively state of motion,
not at rest, as in Poincare's investigation.
It is also to be noted that Poincare nowhere makes use of the fact
that S is the entropy of the system.
Hence it is difficult to see how Poincare's result can have any direct
bearing on the principle of degradation of energy or even how it can have
a thermodynamical interpretation at all.
34. At the same time, there are many considerations which render it
prima facie unlikely that the monocyclic method should be capable of
accounting for the principle of degradation of energy.
A system which is irreversible will certainly not be monocyclic
according to the definition of Helmholtz, and hence we cannot assume
108 RKPORT— 1891.
that tbe geometrical equations which that author has investigated
will any longer hold good ; the same may also be said with regard to the
alternative hypothesis underlying J. J. Thomson's investigation. More-
over, even if the latter hypothesis be assumed to hold good for an
unequally heated body, the function which plays the part of tempera-
ture will be the whole molecular kinetic energy, so that instead of the
entropy we shall obtain an expi'ession which does not alter in value as
the temperatures of the various parts become equalised. Another
hypothesis, which does not seem to me to be unreasonable, is that
possibly irreversible changes may take place when any portion of the
potential energy of the system depends partly on the molecular as well
as on the controllable coordinates of the system, so that this portion of
potential energy, as well as the kinetic, is uncontrollable. But then
thei'e appear to be no grounds, except from statistical considerations, for
supposing that this enei'gy will all be rendered kinetic by the action of
the intermolecular forces. Such would certainly not be the case in a
system possessing only one or two degrees of freedom.
The consideration of dissipative forces, such as friction, is of course
precluded by the conditions of the problem, for their presence would be
a violation of the principle of Conservation of Energy. And as we are
thus left with a dynamical system which is pei'fectly reversible (provided
that the system is complete and all the velocities are reversed), it seems
necessary to accept the principle of degradation of energy as a statistical
property and not as a dynamical principle. We shall consider the matter
more fully in the third section of this Report.
35. Dr. Ludwig BoUzmann on the MecJianical Representation of Mono -
cycles. — In his paper on the properties of monocyclic systems, already
referred to,^ Dr. Boltzmann discussed at great length a mechanical model
illustrative of a system in which it appeared not only that dQ/T was not
a perfect diflerential, but that clQ did not possess any integrating factor
whatever.
In a volume only just published ^ Boltzmann has again taken up the
representation of monocyclic systems by means of mechanical models, and
has slightly elaborated ideas suggested in Helmholtz's papers. On
account of their greater simplicity we will consider the latter represen-
tations before the former. ■
As a simple example of a monocyclic system Boltzmann takes a
vertical revolving shaft having attached to it a horizontal spoke along
which a bead can slide without friction. A string, which is attached to
the bead, passes over a small pulley close to the shaft, and hangs freely,
•can-ying a scale-pan, on which varying weights can be placed. The
arrangement may be illusti-ated by the shaft C D and the spoke carrying
the mass E in the figure of § 38.
If we suppose the shaft and spoke to be without mass, and if m be
the mass of the bead, r its distance from the shaft, w the angular velocity,
T the kinetic energy of the system, and clQ the amount of work performed
by turning a handle attached to the shaft, we have
'^^=dlog(r*u.^-) .... (70)
' Crelle, Journal, xcviii. p. 88.
= Vorlcsungen ilher Maxirell's Thcorie der Electricitdt und des Lichtes, I. Theil
^Leipzig: Johaun Ambrosius Barth, 1891), pp. 8-23.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 109
The right-hand side is equal to d log (s-), where 5 is the angular
momentum, thus agreeing with Helmholtz's result (§ 21, equation 27).
Boltzmann shows how such a machine may be made to undergo a
series of transformations analogous to Carnot's cycle. In an isothermal
transformation the angular velocity and the distance of the bead from
the shaft are varied in such a manner that the kinetic energy of rotation
remains constant ; in an adiabatic transformation no work is performed
on the shaft, and thei-efoi'e the angular momentum, mr'-u), as also the
corresponding entropy, remains constant.
The author gives other models of monocyclesin which several movable
rods and beads are attached to the same shaft. A Watt's governor is
another simple example of a monocycle. Other examples of 'kinetic
engines ' were given by Professor Osborne Reynolds in a lecture delivered
on November 15, 1883.'
36. An attempt is also made by Boltzmann to extend the dynamical
analogy to irreversible processes, by showing that for a cycle of changes
which do not take place infinitely slowly we must have fclQ/T <0. Un-
fortunately, however, this generalisation does not hold good if the system
is frictiouless, and, as already remarked, the introduction of friction is
not allowable in forming a purely dynamic analogue of the pi'operties
of heat. Boltzmann assumes that ichen the head is sliding outwards along
the spoke, the tension in the string is always slightly less than the centrifugal
force, and that when the head is sliding inwards the tension is alivavs sliglithj
greater than the centrifugal force ; for otherwise (he says) the bead and
suspended weights would never start moving. Thus if p denote the ten-
sion in the string, we may put
p ^ mrtji^ — e,
where e always has the same sign as dr.
But the statements in italics are not true if the spoke is frictiouless,
for the equation of motion of the bead is
so that
d^r
e=m — ,.
dt-
If the bead be allowed to slide outwards, starting at distance r^ and
stopping at distance r^, then d'^r/dt^ must be at first positive and afterwards
negative, for otherwise the outward velocity dr/dt would continually
increase. Hence e cannot always bave the same sign as dr, and Boltz-
mann's argument fails.
37. Boltzmann's mechanical representation of a system in whicb dQ
has no integrating divisor consists of two parallel revolving vertical
shafts, which we will call A, B, each similar to that described in § 35 and
figured in § 38, each provided with a horizontal revolving spoke, along
which a bead is capable of being made to slide. The motions of the
two shafts are connected together through the following mechanism .- —
The motion of A is transmitted by means of bevelled cog-wheels to a
horizontal shaft C, carrying at its other end a i-ough disc Gr, which of
course revolves in a vertical plane. Attached to the vertical shaft B is a
' JVature, vol. sxix. p. 113,
110 KEPOKT 1891.
horizontal disc H, the edge of which is in contact with the /ace of the disc
G. The motion of the horizontal shaft is transmitted to the vertical
shaft B by means of the friction at the point of contact of the two discs
G, H. The disc H is capable of being- raised or lowered on the shaft B,
and in this way the ratio of the angular velocities of the two shafts A and
B can be varied. Lastly, the system is set in motion by turning a handle
attached to the shaft A.
Let m, jn be the masses of the beads on the spokes attached to the
shafts A, B ; let r, p be their distances from the axes, iv, u the angular
velocities of the shafts, a the adjustable height of the horizontal disc H
above the axis of the horizontal shaft C. Boltzmann assumes the disc H
to be of unit radius, and the radii of the bevelled cog-wheels connecting
A, C to be equal, so that the angular velocities of the shafts A, B are
connected by the relation
oj = aio.
If, with Boltzmann, we neglect the inertia of everything except the
sliding beads, and supposing that r, p, a only vary very slowly, the
kinetic energy is evidently
T = -^ (^mr^iv'^ + /Ao-o)-) = ^ (inr- + /ip-a"^) w^.
The system has four generalised coordinates, namely, r, p, a, and the
angular coordinate corresponding to the angular velocity w. The latter
is the only speed coordinate of the system, for the kinetic energy does
not involve the rates of change of the other coordinates.
Hence if we follow Helmholtz's assumptions (i.), (ii.) of § 20, the
coordinates r, p, a must be regarded as controllable, and the system is
monocyclic. We have, in fact,
3T
s = ■■>— = (?)i9-'^ + ii.p-a^)w, T ^ ^ifs,
and
dq=^wds = 'Ylcl (2 logs),
so that T is an integrating divisor of cZQ.
This result is quite at variance with that found by Boltzmann. The
reason is that he has not regarded r, p, a as controllable, but has included
in dQ the woi'k brought into the system through these coordinates.
This work properly belongs to —dW of equation (i.), § 2, and not to cZQ.
In varying the height a there would, in the natural course of events,
be a loss of energy through friction, as the edge of the horizontal disc
H would have to slip up or down in contact with the face of the vertical
disc G. This slipping may be avoided by shifting the vertical shaft B
slightly to one side or the other of the vertical plane through the
horizontal shaft C. The friction between the rotating discs will then
cause H slowly to rise or fall (as the case may be) automatically and
without slipping.
This simple device obviates a difficulty which in Boltzmann's original
paper requires several pages of explanation.
38. Simple Mechanical Model of Garnofs Beversihle Heat-Enr/ine. — The
following model appears to be new. It may be of interest as furnishing
a mechanical representation of the properties of the source and
refrigerator of a perfect heat engine, although to do this it is necessary
ON OUH KNOWLEDGE OF THEBMODYNAMICS,
111
to take the angular velocity instead of the kinetic energy to represent
temperature. In this respect the model resembles the example (i.) given
in § 27, and the angular momentum takes the place of entropy.
As in Boltzmann's models, I suppose the working substance repre-
sented by a hollow vertical revolving shaft C D, carrying a spoke on
which the mass E is free to slide. This shaft is terminated by circular
discs C, D ; while the source and refrigerator of the engine are repre-
sented by discs A, B, made to revolve with constant but unequal angular
velocities, to,, o).,. The discs C and A or D and B may be rigidly con-
nected together only when their angular velocities are equal, just as, in
Carnot's engine, the working substance and the source or refrigerator
are only placed in contact when their temperatures are equal.
The string S passes down the interior of the shaft, and, instead of
hanging down freely, it may be passed over a fixed pulley R, its pull
being adjusted in any convenient manner. A frictionless swivel I
prevents torsion accumulating in the string.
The four operations of Carnot's cycle will now be represented as
follows : —
(i.) The angular velocity of the shaft C D being initially wj, work is
done on the system by pulling out the string S (and thus bringing the
mass E nearer to the axis of rotation) until the angular velocity has been
increased to w,. Since the angular momentum meanwhile remains con-
stant, this operation is isentropic.
(ii.) The discs C and A may now be rigidly connected together, so
that during this operation the angular velocity must remain equal to wi,
^
A
C
1
C
i- E •■-
e
s«.
D
D_
B
b"
...^.
(^
R
Ang. Vel. = w,
An?. Vel. Variable
Ang. Vel. = (
Fixed
the change being isothermal. The mass E is then allowed to slide
further out, doing work on whatever contrivance maintains the pull in
the string.
(iii.) The discs C and A are disconnected, and, the angular momentum
remaining constant, the mass E is allowed to slide still further out, again
doing work by means of the string. This operation must continue until
the angular velocity is reduced to wj.
(iv.) The discs D and B are now rigidly connected, and work is done
on the system by pulling out the string until the mass E has regained its
original distance from the axis of rotation.
The cycle is now complete, and is obviously reversible. If Q, is the
112 EEPOKT — 1891.
energy acquired by the system from A, and Q2 the energy given out to B,
it is easy enough to show that
^=^2 ("71)
0)1 0)2
corresponding to the well-known thermodynamic equation. At the
same time the external work performed by the string is Qj — Q2.
If ,Si and ^2 be the angular momenta of the shaft and spoke during
the operations (i.) and (iii.) respectively, either member of (71) is equal
to §2 — ^1-
If two discs were brought into contact when their angular velocities
were unequal, there would be a loss of energy by friction, so that the
analogy with an irreversible cycle would not be complete.
Section III. Statistical Hypotheses.
39. The investigations now to be considered depend on the existence
of a certain law of average distribution of speed, which holds whenever
an enormously large number of molecules is in a state of steady or
stationary motion. This remark applies to the Kinetic Theory of Gases,
and the methods are only applicable when the nature of the molecules is
such that the law of distribution in question is capable of investigation.
Among the more recent researches bearing on the subject may be
particularly mentioned Professor Tait's papers ' On the Foundations of
the Kinetic Theory of Gases,' ' Dr. Boltzmann's papers on the ' Analogies
of the Second Law ' '^ and on the ' Properties of Monocyclic and other
Belated Systems,' ^ and Sir William Thomson's recent communication to
the Boyal Society ' On some Test Cases for the Maxwell-Boltzmann Doc-
trine regarding Distribution of Energy.' ■*
40. The BoUzmann,-3Iaxivell Bodr-ine. — The law of distribution of speed
is variously known as Boltzmann's Theorem and Clerk Maxwell's Theorem,
being due in part to one writer and in part to the other. It seems to
have been first discovered by Clerk Maxwell for the case of a number of
perfectly elastic smooth colliding spheres of two or more different
magnitudes, or, if preferred, a number of simple particles which repel
one another when at a certain distance apart, after the manner of
perfectly elastic spheres.^ The theorem was subsequently generalised
by Boltzmann ^ for the case of a system of pai'ticles repelling one another
according to any law, and was finally generalised still further by Max-
well ^ for a number of molecules, each consisting of a dynamical system
' Trans. M.S. Edinburgh, 188G-91.
- ' Analogien des zweiten Hauptsatzes der Thermodynamik,' Crelle, Journal, c.
p. 213.
' 'Ueber die Eigenschaften monocyclischer und anderer damit verwandter
Systeme,' Crelle, Journal, xcviii. p. 68.
* Nature, August 13, 1891.
'' 'On the Collisions of Elastic Spheres,' Pldl. Mag. 18G0; 'On the Dynamical
Theory of Gases,' PMl. Trans. R.S. May 1866.
« 'Ueber die mech. Bedeut. des 2"^° Haupts d. mech. Wilrmelehre,' Wiener
Sitzb. Bd. 53, pp. 195-220. ' Studien iiber das Gleichgew. d. leb. Kraft zwischen
beweg. mater. Punkten,' ibidem, Bd. .58 (1868). ' Ueber das Gleichgew. zwischen
mehratom. Gasmolekiilen ' ; ' Analyt. Beweis des 2"" Haupts d. mech. Warmetheorie
aus d. Siitzen fiir den Gleichgew. d. leb. Kraft'; ' Einige allgem. Satze iiber
Warmegleichgewicbt,' ]Viener Sitzb. Mathem. Naturw. Klasse, Band 63.
' ' On Boltzmann's Theorem,' &c., Trans. Camb. Pldl. Soc. 1878.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 113
defined by means of any generalised coordinates whatever. The case
when the molecules are iu a field of l^rce due to external influence while
the only intermolecnlar forces are those due to impact is considered by
Dr. Watson in his ' Kinetic Theory of Gases.'
Clerk Maxwell's theorem in its most general form states that when
a system of molecules has attained the ' special ' or stationary state the
time-average of the kinetic energy is equally distributed over the different
degrees of freedom of the system.
It now remains to examine how far the successive generalisations
have since been proved or disproved ; accordingly we shall consider them
in the following order : —
(i.) Colliding elastic spheres under no forces,
(ii.) Colliding elastic spheres in a field of force,
(iii.) Simple particles or smooth spheres under molecular forces,
(iv.) Molecules of a perfectly general character.
41. The fii'st case, that of colliding spheres under no forces, has
been considered by Tait in his important papers ' On the Foundations of
the Kinetic Theory of Gases.' ' Tait finds that the theorem does hold
good provided that the following assumptions be made: —
(a) That the particles of the two gases are thoroughly mixed.
(b) That the particles of each gas acquire the error-law of speed.
(c) That there are free collisions between particles of the same
as well as of different kinds, and that one kind does not preponderate
overwhelmingly over the other.
42. The second case also ha-s been verified by Tait in the same con-
tribution. He considers the case in which the field of force is uniform,
like that due to gravity. A limitation is thus imposed on the generality
of the proof, for the investigation does not hold good when the external
force varies so rapidly from point to point that the change from molecule
to molecule is appreciable. On the contrary, it must be possible to
divide up the mass of gas into elements which are so small that the
force over any such element may be considered uniform, and never-
theless each element must contain such a large number of molecules that
the distribution of energy in it can be investigated by Tait's method.
This limitation is not assumed in the pi'oof given by Watson,'-^ but it
seems doubtful whether the theorem is valid except under some such
restriction. One of the ' test cases' considered by Sir William Thomson
in his recent paper ^ may possibly throw some light on this question ;
I refer to the case of a system of particles moving in two dimensions in a
field of force whose potential is of the form
Thomson concludes that the portions of average kinetic energy due
to the two velocity components x and j/ are probably not in general equal
to one another. The author considers a system in which no collisions
occnr. The existence of collisions would, of course, materially affect the
' Trafis. R.S.E., vol. xxxiii. part 1 (188G), p. 77.
' Kinetic Theory of Gases, Prop. IV.
' Read to the Royal Societv, June 11, 1891, Mature, August i:?, 1891, S 1.3.
1891. 1
114 BEPOET— 1891.
distribution of energy between the two velocity components of the par-
ticles, and it seems reasonable to draw the following inferences regarding
the more general case : —
(i.) If the molecules are very few and far between, impacts will
seldom occur, and the distribution will approximate to what it would be
if there were no impacts, as in the case considered by Thomson.
(ii.) If the molecules are densely distributed, impacts will be nume-
rous, so that the distribution of speed will depend mainly on these impacts,
and will approximate to that investigated by Tait for a uniform field.
(iii.) In intermediate cases the distribution of speed_ will be deter-
mined partly by the impacts and partly by the variations in the field. lb
-will, therefore, be intermediate between those investigated by the method
of Thomson and that of Tait. A complete investigation of such a case
would probably be one of great difiBculty.
43. The third case — namely, that in which the intermolecular forces
are other than those due to impacis — presents a new feature of difficulty :
it now becomes necessary to take account of the possibility that three
or more particles may be simultaneously within mutual influence of one
another ; for the probability of this is no longer infinitely small, as it is in
the case of simple impacts.
In his recent paper already alluded to, Thomson considers this point,
more especially with reference to a system composed of double molecules
or ' doublets.' ' A compound gas is an example of such a system. Here a
complete collision may consist of a large number of impacts, and the
author reoiarks that ' it seems exceedingly difficult to find how to cal-
culate true statistics of these chattei'ing collisions and arrive at sound
conclusions as to the iiltimate distribution of enei'gy in any of the very
simplest cases other than Maxwell's original case of I860.' '
It seems, however, unnecessary to consider multiple collisions if either
of the following conditions is satisfied: —
(a) If the I'ange of molecular action lies between narrow limits, so
that the collision is approximately of the nature of a simple impact.
(b) If the intermolecular force only acts when the particles are at a
considerable distance apart. The 'radius of encounter,' as it maybe
called, being thus very great, we may safely assume that the aggregate
effect on any molecule of such a system of distant molecules is constant,
and therefore equivalent to that of a field of external force. Unfor-
tunately, hoAvever, this case is of little interest.
A difficulty of a different kind has been indicated by Tait - — ■
namely, that of giving a satisfactory answer to the question, ' What is to
be taken as the measure of the temperature ? ' According to the views
of Clausius, Van der Waals, and others, the whole average kinetic energy
per molecule measures the temperature ; but Tait gives reasons for be-
lieving that the temperature depends on the mean squai*e speed of the
free paths of the molecules, and is therefore measured by the value of
the average kinetic energy when (with the same mean square speed of
free path) the volume is infinite. In other words, Tait supposes the
temperature measured by the average kinetic energy per free molecule.
If the mean square speed be kept constant, the whole kinetic energy will
vary with the volume of the gas, and thus on the hypothesis of Clausius
> Nature, August 13, 1891, § 8.
- ' On the Virial Equation for Molecular Forces, being Part IV. of a paper on the
Foundations of the Kinetic Theory of Qasep,' Froc. H.S.E. 1890.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 115
the temperature would vary instead of, as it should, remaining constant.
Moreover, in the case of a liquid in contact with its vapour at the same
temperature, the whole kinetic energy per molecule should be equal in
the two portions, and this again appears improbable.
44. The last and most general case of all is that investigated by
Maxwell in 1878,' where the molecules consist of dynamical systems
determined by means of generalised coordinates. It has now been
proved beyond doubt tliat the theorem is not valid in this general form.
As a test case, Burnside - has considered a system of collidino- elastic
spheres, in which the centre of mass does not coincide with the centre
of figure, but is at a small distance, c, from it. He finds that the average
energies of rotation of any sphere about each of the three principal axes
through the centre of inertia are equal, and that the whole averao-e
energy of rotation is twice the whole average energy of translation. Had
Maxwell's theorem been true, the whole average energies of rotation and
translation would have been equal.
Maxwell's proof is defective in several respects. One of the chief
fallacies lies in his assumption that the kinetic energy of a dynamical
system can always be expressed as a sum of squares of generalised
velocity components. At the same time, he assumes that the Lao-rancrian
or Hamiltonian equations of motion can be applied to the correspondino-
generalised coordinates of the system. This is not in o-eneral true ;
thus, for example, it is not true in the simple case of a single rigid
body. Here the kinetic energy due to rotation can be expressed as
a sum of squares of the angular velocities about the three principal axes
but these angular velocities are not the rates of ch.ano-e of o-eueralised
coordinates which determine the position of the body at any instant.^
Thus the want of agreement between Maxwell's theorem and Barnside's
result is only what might have been expected.
In the paper already referred to Thomson says, 'But, conceding
Maxwell's fundamental assumption, I do not see in the mathematical
workings of his paper any proof of his conclusion "that the average
kinetic energy corresponding to any one of the variables is the same for
every one of the variables of the system." Indeed, as a general pro-
position, its meaning is not explained, and seems to me inexplicable.
The reduction of the kinetic energy to a sum of squares leaves the
several parts of the whole with no correspondence to any defined or
definable set of independent variables. What, for example, can the
meaning of the conclusion be for the case of a jointed pendulum (a
system of two rigid bodies, one supported on a fixed horizontal axis, and
the other on a parallel axis fixed relatively to the first body, and both
acted on only by gravity) ? The conclusion is quite intelligible, however
(but is it true ?), when the kinetic energy is expressible as a sum of
squares of rates of change of single coordinates each multiplied by a
function of all, or of some, of the coordinates.' '
45. Many physicists have objected to the Boltzmann-Maxwell
theorem on account of ' the supposition that the mean enero-y of any
kind of vibration in any atom must be equal to that of translation in any
' Trans. Camh. PhU. Soc. 1878.
' ' On the Partition of Energy between the Translatcry and Rotatory Motions of a
Set o! non-liomogeneous Elastic Spheres,' Tians. R.S E. vol. xxviii. Part II.
' Compare Routh, Etgid Dynamics, vol. i. § lOB, Ex. 1,
* Nature, August 13,'l891, § 10.
I 2
11(> BEPORT— 1891,
direction, and therefore capable of unlimited increase.' ' According to
Thomson, however,^ ' what has hitherto by Maxwell, and CJausius, and
others after them, been called an "elastic sphere " is not an clastic solid
capable of rotation and of elastic deformation, and therefore capable of an
infinite number of modes of steady vibration, of finer and finer degrees of
nodal subdivision, and shorter and shorter periods, into which all trans-
lational energy would, if the Boltzmann-Maxwell generalised proposition
were true, be ultimately transformed. The smooth "elastic spheres"
are really Boscovich point-atoms with their translational inertia, and witb
for law of foi'ce zero force at every distance between two points exceeding
the sum of the radii of the two balls, and infinite repulsion at exactly
this distance.'
It may also be observed that a sphere in which vibratory energy is
set up on impact cannot be regarded as a 'perfectly elastic sphere ' witb
coefficient of restitution equal to unity. The necessity of adopting Thom-
son's representation by Boscovich point-atoms is otherwise apparent
when we remember that as long as the portions of matter with which we
are dealing are capable of subdivision, so long will the energy contained
in them be capable of subdivision. Un]es5, therefore, we suppose each
molecule to consist of one or a finite number of indivisible atoms, it
would be unreasonable to expect that heat would entirely take the form
of atomic motion.
46. Applications to the Second Law. — The simplest proof of the Second
Law of Thermodynamics based on the hypothesis of the Boltzmann-
Maxwell law of distribution of speed is that due to Mr. S. H. Barbury.^
The proof is too well known to need description here. It leads to the
same form for the entropy as Boltzmann's original investigation for
the case of a system of point-atoms.^ Although Watson and Burbnry
take the temperature as represented by the average kinetic energy of
translation of the molecules, the fact that the average energy is assumed
to be distributed equally among the coordinates shows that the proof
would be equally valid if the whole average kinetic energy were taken to
represent the temperature. Hence the proposition (when valid) does not
afford any evidence as to what part of the molecular energy plays the
part of temperature.
Another proof has been given by R. C. Nichols,-^ and is based on the
virial equation of Clausius,
Here T is the total mean ris viva of the system, so that if Nichols' proof
be valid, it does not seem possible to reconcile the views of Tait (§ 43)
regarding the nature of temperature with the definition afforded by the
Second Law.
A general proof of the Second Law, based on Maxwell's generalisation
of Boltzmann's theorem, has been given by Boltzmann in 1885.'' The
' Prof. W. M. Hicks, B.A. I.'i'port, ISS.'S.
^ A'ature, August 13, 1891, § 3. I have slightly rearranged the original wording,
.so as to make the sentence more intelligible.
3 Phil. Mag. January 187G, p. (Jl ; Watson's Kinetic Theory of Gases, Trop. XIII.
* ' Analyt. Beweis des 2"" Haupts,' Wicn. Sitzh. Bd. 63, 11. Abth.
^ 'On the Proof of the Second Law of Thermodynamics,' Phil. Mag. 187G (1),
p. 3G9.
" Crelle, Journal, c. p. 213.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS!. 117
author employs the method of redaction to sums of squares and subse-
quent use of Lagrange's equations — in short, most of the steps that are
erroneous in Maxwell's work ; the proof is therefore invalid except in
certain special cases. One result is, however, interesting; for the case of
a system whose configuration is determined by a single coordinate, and
■whose period of oscillation is t, Boltzmann finds
SQ=2T8 log, (TO .... (72)
thus giving for the entropy the expression found by Clausius, and
described in the first section of this Report (§ 12, equation (14) ).
47. Statistical Construction of Monocyclic Systems. — A very interest-
ing and suggestive paper has been published by Boltzmann,' who has
shown how systems possessing monocyclic properties can be built up by
combining a large number of systems which are similar to one another,
but not individually monocyclic. This is the paper to which reference
has been made in § .37.
A single particle moving in an elliptic orbit about a centre of foi'ce in
the focus is not monocyclic in itself, but a monocyclic system may be
built up by taking a very large number of such particles, thus forming a
stream or a kind of Saturn's ring, whose density at any point of the
orbit is independent of the time. Here, if the attraction at distance r be
fl/r'^, Boltzmann finds
■where 2Ts a
'^=T' '=T-i-
Moreover, if jx is the total flux across any section up to the time t, and
ni the mass of the ring, ■we have
27r dfL
and, therefore, fqdt may be taken as a generalised coordinate of the
system.
Another example is afforded by a stream of particles of total mass m
performing rectilinear oscillations under a conservative system of forces.
In this case Boltzmann finds
dQ=2Td]o^,iT (73)
■which agrees with Clausius' result (equations 14, 72). Here we may
take for the generalised velocity and momentum of the system respec-
tively,
q = mji, s = 2Tlq=2iT/ui . . . (74)
A particular case is that of a stream of particles reflected backwards
and forwards between two fixed perfectly elastic parallel walls at a dis-
tance a apart. If ^m is the mass of the stream going in either direction,
V the velocity, and H the kinetic potential, we have
dQ=mvdv + viv-— =qds .... (75)
' Crelle, Journal, xcviii. p. 68.
118 EEPORT — 1891.
where
,=^, H=-T=-2'^, s=J^=-^=2av . (76)
^ 2a on ' clq m
and — 9H/3a is the pressni'e on either wall.
This system is strictly monocyclic.
Boltzmann modifies this example slightly by considering the case of a
mass m formed of minute particles contained in a rectangular box, whose
sides are a, h, c, the directions of motion being parallel to the face (ah)
and inclined to the edges a at an angle=D. Taking a, h, and v as
variable, we have
mv^ /" (In db\
-H=T=-2-, dQ=7nvdv + mv' I sm-B -^+ cos- D~^ J (77)
and to put the last equation into Helmholtz's form we must assume
But the kinetic energy is no longer an integrating divisor of (ZQ if we
suppose the angle T> variable. It is not hard to explain why this case
differs from the others considered by Boltzmann. The angle D cannot
be considered as a controllable coordinate of the system, for it can only
be varied by acting on all the molecules individually. Moreover, it is
not a speed-coordinate, so that Helmholtz's methods are no longer applic-
able. The effect of slightly rotating the box would be not merely to
l^roduce an alteration in the angle of incidence D, but to alter the charac-
ter of the motion entirely, for the particles which are about to impinge
on the face ac would be differently affected from those about to impinge
on the face be.
Boltzmann follows up these simple examples by a perfectly general
investigation based on Maxwell's theorem, from which it appears that
any system which conforms to the Boltzmann-Maxwell doctrine possesses
monocyclic properties analogous to those found by Helmholtz. The
results obtained by Boltzmann do not hold good, except in the particular
cases when Maxwell's theorem is valid. Two cases are considered —
that in which all coordinates of the system are independent, and that
in which certain coordinates are connected by invariable relations. The
arguments employed by Boltzmann in discussing the latter case appear
wanting in rigour, thus rendering the result liable to further objections.
The remainder of the paper is chiefly taken up with a discussion of the
models referred to in our second section.
48. Application of Statistical Methods to Irreversible Plienoviena. — In a
recent note ' Mr. E. P. CulverAvell has called attention to the principal
difficulties attending the explanation of irreversibility on the hypotheses
of the kinetic theory of gases. The general purport of his remarks may
be summarised as follows : —
(i.) Although the distribution of energy when a gas has assumed the
Boltzmann configuration (or, as Tait calls it, the ' special state ') has
been investigated, it has never been proved that a gas does actually tend
towards this ' special state.'
• 'Note on Boltzmann's Kinetic Theory of Gases, and on Sir W. Thom.son's
Address to Section A (1884),' Fkil. Mag. 1890, vol. xxx. p. 95.
ON OUK KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 119
(ii.) Sacli a tendency cannot be independent of the law of force
between the molecules, for if we take the case of a system of particles
attracting one another with forces varying directly as the distance, the
motion will be strictly periodic, and there will be no tendency towards
equalisation of energy.
(iii.) The tendency cannot be independent of initial circumstances, for
if the motion of every point were I'eversed we should have a configura-
tion which would tend further and further away from the ' special state.'
(iv.) It therefore appears probable that in estimating the tendency to
equalisation of energy among the molecules, account must be taken of
the effects of the luminiferous a3ther. The molecules cannot be considered
as forming a complete dynamical system in themselves. It seems, then,
impossible to overcome the difficulties of the kinetic theory ; all that can
be done is to shift these difficulties from the molecules on to the aether,
and they then reappear in another form.
We will now examine how far these difficulties have been met by the
researches of those who take a less gloomy view of the question.
It is no doubt impossible, from the inherent difficulty of the problem,
to investigate any general property of non-reversible processes in a body
composed of an infinitely large number of molecules ; for, when even the
' Problem of Three Bodies ' has not been fully solved, how can we expect
to fully solve the problem of an infinite number of bodies ?
But without doing this it is jjossible to investigate certain irreversible
phenomena by the methods of the kinetic theory, and thus to account
for the degradation of available energy under circumstances in which the
problem is soluble.
49. Thus Tait ' has worked out the rate of equalisation of average
energy in a mixture of two kinds of spheres. He has, moreover, applied
his formula to the case of a mixture of equal parts of oxygen and nitrogen
on the supposition that the aggregate masses are equal, that the number
of molecules per cubic inch^o xlO-", and that the sum of the radii of
the molecules=3 xlO"* of an inch. He finds that the dificrence of the
average energies of the two systems of molecules will fall to '01 of its
original value in ^ X lO"'-* of a second. This result surely affords very
strong evidence in favour of a gener.al tendency towards the ' special
state.'
Moreover, the kinetic theory has been applied to explain the phe-
nomena of heat-conduction, viscosity, diffusion of a mixture of gases,
and other irreversible processes. These have all been worked out by
Tait in the same series of papei's. One very great merit of his work is
that he has in every instance clearly set forth the assumptions on which
his proofs are based. The investigations are, therefore, not liable to
objection, as is so often the case with the work of writers who have
implicitly made similar assumptions without explicitly stating them.
With regard to the second 'point, Sir W. Thomson has pointed out ^
that the law of the direct distance possesses unique properties distinct
from those of any other law. It is, in fact, the only law of force under
which the whole motion is strictly periodic and the equations of motion
are completely integrable — a fact sufficiently vvell known to manufac-
turers of Senate House problems. But as there is still some uncertainty
' ' On the Foundations of the Kinetic Tbeoiy of Gases,' Trans. R.S.E. 1886,
Section V.
» On Some Test Cases, Sec. § 10.
120 KEPORT — 1891.
respecting the permanent distribution of energy in a system of material
points under intermolecular forces, it would be premature to form con-
clusions regarding the tendency towards the equalisation of energy, except
in those cases where the only reactions between the points are those due
to impact.
50. If we regard the whole matter as one of probabilities, the argu-
ment derived from reversing the system may be met without an appeal
to tiie luminiferous sether. Although a conservative dynamical system
is always reversible, the reversed motion may not unfrequently be
dynamically unstable in the highest degree. One of the best illustrations
in point is afforded by the impossibility of riding a bicycle backwards
(i.e. with the steering wheel behind) ; here the forward motion is stable,
but the reversed motion is highly unstable.
Take, then, a system of material points or colliding spheres all tend-
ing towards the ' special state.' If the motion is slightly disturbed they
will still tend towards the ' special state,' and the effect of the disturb-
ance in modifying the character of the motion will diminish without
limit. But if we suppose at any stage of the process that the motion
of every point is exactly reversed, then the difference between the dis-
turbed and undisturbed reversed motions will increase without limit, and
the disturbed reversed motion will tend towards a very different state from
that from which we started. In a very short time we shall have entirely
different series of collisions taking place in the disturbed and undisturbed
reversed motions. When, therefore, we consider the immense number of
molecules present in any body of finite size, it is not hard to understand
that the probability of the energy tending towards an unequal distribu-
tion is infinitesimally small, for just the same reason that if any two
different substances in a minute state of subdivision have become
thoroughly mixed it is impossible to separate them again by simply
stirring them up. There is nothing inconceivable about such a separa-
tion, but the chances are so overwhelmingly against it that we may with
absolute certainty declare the separation impossible. In this manner
there is no difhculty in understanding how on statistical grounds alone
we may be able to state with absolute certainty that ' heat cannot pass of
itself from a cold body to a hot body.'
Of course evidence of this kind is speculative, and, moreover, only
affords a possible explanation, and not a proof, of the principle of
degradation of energy.
But, as it has been necessary to suppose space furnished throughout
with an aether in order to account for electrical and optical phenomena,
allowance must be made for the fact that this iether will in all probability
play a pi-omiuent part in thermal phenomena, more especially as it is the
medium by which radiant heat is propagated. The great velocity of
light shows that the ajther can have but a very small capacity for radiant
energy, and, therefore, that its presence will not materially affect the
results of investigations relating to reversible thermodynamic processes,
while it will certainly facilitate the dissipation of energy. It must not,
however, be thought that researches relating to heat are worthless be-
cause they do not take account of the aether ; for do not such researches
fulfil what should be the highest object of scientific enquiry — namely, of
helping us to 'judge the unknown from the known ' ?
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THERMODYNAMICS. 121
Conclusion.
51. Although many of the researches mentioned in this report are not
unfrequently called dynamical proofs of the Second Law, yet to prove
the Second Law, about which we know something, by means of mole-
cules, about which we know much less, would not be in consonance with
the sentiments expressed at the end of the last paragraph. The most
conclusive evidence for regarding Carnot's principle as a theorem in mole-
cular dynamics lies in the remarkable agreement between the results
obtained by the methods described in the three different sections of this
report, all of which are based on different fundamental hypotheses. It
is worthy of note that the method of Clausius alone is independent of
any assumptions regarding the nature of the intermolecular forces.
It has been proved, on each of the various hypotheses, that when a
system of molecules undergoes transformations analogous to reversible
processes in thermodynamics the molecular kinetic energy T is an inte-
grating divisor of the work c^Q communicated to the system through the
molecular coordinates. Thus any quantity proportioned to T satisfies
the definition of temperature afforded by (2), § 2. The evidence that
such a quantity possesses the properties mentioned in § 3 is far less
conclusive. These properties have never been investigated by the
methods of the first section, while, if the statistical method be adopted,
the evidence is confined to the very limited cases in which Maxwell's
theorem is valid. The methods of the kinetic theory of gases do not
afford a direct proof of any relation between the molecular kinetic
energies of two substances which are in thermal contact, but which do
not mingle.
In the volume already alluded to in this Report, Prof. J. J. Thomson
claims to have deduced certain thermal properties of matter from the
generalised equations of dynamics without the use of the Second Law of
Thermodynamics, and he further claims that the results thus obtained
afford evidence of the connection between the Second Law and the
Hamiltonian principle. It would seem, however, that the novelty of this
point of view is not fundamentally very great, for the molecular assump-
tions involved in the proofs are identical with those required in order ta
deduce the Second Law from dynamical principles. And, moreover,
properties of temperature are assumed which, as we have just seen,
have not hitherto been satisfactorily deduced from dynamical principles.
If, on the other hand, we decide, for the present at any rate, to regard
Carnot's Principle (like Newton's Laws of Motion) as an axiom based
on experience, the researches which we have considered show how this
principle may be reduced to a theorem in molecular dynamics by making
suitable assumptions as to the nature and motion of molecules. In this
way the reversible thermal properties of matter may be represented by
means of monocyclic or other dynamical systems, and the fundamental
equations of thermodynamics may be replaced by particular cases of the
ordinary dynamical equations. This is the point of view adopted by
Helmholtz in his valuable paper on the physical meaning of the Principle
of Least Action.'
In conclusion we may reasonably hope that future researches in the
domain of molecular science will still further strengthen the bond of
' Crelle, Journal, c.
122 EEPOET — 1891.
connection which we suppose to exist between the Second Law of Thermo-
dynamics and Newton's Laws of Motion.
My thanks are due to Mr. Larmor for references to many important
papers on the present subject and to Mr. C. V. Burton for his most
invaluable assistance in revising both the manuscript and proofs and in
furnishing many useful suggestions.
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Fitzgerald
(Chairman), Armstrong, and 0. J. Lodge (Secretaries), Sir
William Thomson, Lord Kayleigh, J. J. Thomson, Schuster,
PoYNTiNG, Crum Brown, Eamsay, Frankland, Tilden, Hartley,
S. P, Thompson, McLeod, Roberts-Austen, Eucker, Eeinold,
Carey Foster, and H. B. Dixon, Captain Abney, Drs. Glad-
stone, HoPKiNSON, and Fleming, and Messrs. Crookes, Shelford
BiDWELL, W. N. Shaw, J. Larmor, J. T. Bottomley, E. T.
GrLAZEBROOK, J. Brown, and John M. Thomson, appointed for
the purpose of considering the subject of Electrolysis in its
Physical and Chemical Bearings.
During the past year the completed portion of Mr. Shaw's report on our
knowledge of electrolysis has been printed and circulated among the
members, and has appeared in the annual volume of the Association. So
also has the report of the discussion with Professors van t'Hoff and
Ostwald and others at Leeds, which was edited by Professor Thorpe.
Papers received from Mr. J. Brown on the subject of the electrification
of the spray thrown up from a vessel in which chemical reaction with
efiTervescence was occurring, to which attention has been directed by Mr.
Enright, and on the electrolysis of solutions of the chlorides of iodine
and bromine, were communicated to the 'Philosophical Magazine.'
The valuable theoretical and experimental work of Professor J. J.
Thomson, which has been described in the ' Philosophical Magazine ' and
in the 'Proceedings of the Royal Society,' on the discharge of electricity
through vacuum tubes, has a distinct electrolytic significance ; and some
researches of Mr. A. P. Chattock on the discharge of electi'icity from
points, which are to be described at the present meeting, are tending
in very much the same direction ; and showing that all convective
passage of electricity, whether in liquids or gases or in partial vacua, are
essentially electrolytic, taking place pi'obably by means of a series of
Grotthuss chains, and with atomic charges of the same order of magnitude
as those concerned in electrolysis proper.
Other interesting work is going on, and a document entailing a great
amount of labour which has been drawn up by the Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick,
one of the members of the Committee on Electrical Standards, is nearly
complete ; it will be published next year.
The Committee suggest that they should be reappointed, and with a
grant of 51. to cover printing and postage.
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAX. 123
Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir William
Thomson, Mr. R. Etheridge, Professor John Perry, Dr. Henry
Woodward, Professor Thomas Gray, and Professor John Milne
(Secretary), apjjoiiited for the piirpose of investigating the
Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan. [Drawn up
hy the Secretary.)
The Gray-Milne Seismograph.
The first of tlie above seismographs, constructed in 1883, partly at
the expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the
standard instrument. The earthquakes which it has recorded since
April 27 of last year are given in the following list.
Catalogue of Eartliqualies recorded at the Meteorological Ohservatory, Tohio, between
Mag 1, 1890, a^id Ajml 30, 1891, hy the Gray-Milne Seismograph.
Horizontal
Vertical
motion
motion
No.
Month
Date
Time
Duration
Direction
sees.
mm.
sees.
mm.
1890.
H. M. S.
M. S.
1,026
V.
1
3 56 25 A.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,027
„
„
8 38 50 A.Ji.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,028
„
J,
7 40 10 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
l,02y
„
J,
9 59 21 P.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,030
„
4
2 29 17 P.M.
1 45
S.-N.
1-4 0-2
—
—
1,031
„
7
10 4 38 A.M.
20
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,032
„
8
8 35 56 A.M.
1
S.W.-N.E.
0-8 0-3
—
—
1,033
,,
10
6 49 23 A.M.
10
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,034
J,
15
2 36 9 P.M.
6 30
N.W.-S.E.
2-2 0-9
—
—
1,035
,j
21
9 54 P.M.
35
E.-W.
0-4 0-2
—
—
1,036
„
24
1 39 33 P.M.
1 30
N.W.-S.E.
0-5 0-3
—
—
1,037
„
25
8 54 45 A.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,038
,,
27
6 49 40 P.JI.
—
—
slight
—
— .
1,039
,,
31
8 42 25 P.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,040
VI.
7
11 29 53 A.M.
—
—
slight
—
_
1,041
„
15
4 30 15 P.M.
12
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,042
„
18
1 45 22 P.M.
3
N.W.-S.E.
1-3 0-6
sU
ght
1,043
„
26
9 3 13 a.m.
—
— .
slight
—
—
1,044
„
28
5 10 40 A.M.
50
S.E.-N.W.
0-7 0-7
—
—
1,045
VII.
2
2 15 9 A.M.
—
—
Blight
—
—
1,046
,.
3
11 5 55 P.M.
—
very slight
—
—
1,047
8
2 60 30 P.M.
20
N.E.-S.W.
0-9 0'3
—
—
1,048
„
9
9 S3 1 P.M.
1
W.N.W.-E.S.E.
1-5 0-3
—
_
1,049
„
11
9 51 5 a.m.
—
very slight
—
—
1,050
,,
14
4 10 49 P.M.
50
S.-N.
slight
—
—
1,051
„
16
8 15 51 P.M.
20
E.-W.
0-3 0-3
—
—
1,052
„
18
35 46 A.M.
10
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,053
„
19
4 18 50 P.M.
50
W.N.W.-E.S.E.
0-4 0-2
sli
ght
1,054
„
20
9 15 45 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
1,055
„
26
3 61 13 A.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,056
„
28
2 57 25 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1,057
VIII.
2
11 6 35 P.M.
1 8
S.-X.
1-2 0-2
1,058
,,
4
9 38 14 A.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
■ 1,059
5
1 46 21 P.M.
2 14
S.E.-N.W.
1-5 0-3
1,060
„
7
7 27 13 A.M.
—
—
very slight
_
—
1,061
,,
11
1 43 45 P.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,062
„
21
6 5 16 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1,063
,,
29
11 34 31 A.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1,064
IX.
5
7 57 19 P.M.
3
S.-N.
2-4 0-8
1,065
„
6
11 55 a.m.
1 40
S.S.W.-N.N.E.
1-0 0-6
1,066
J,
17
G 20 57 P.M.
55
S.W.-N.E.
0-6 0-2
1,067
..
30
V 24 64 P.M.
3
S.-N.
1-0
0-2 1
—
—
124
BEPORT — 1891.
Catalogue of Earthquakes — continned.
Horizontal
Vertical
motion
motion
Ko.
Month
Date
Time
Duration
Direction
sees.
mm.
sees.
mm.
H. M. s.
M. s.
1,068
X.
6
4 3G 50 r.M.
2 45
E.N.E.-W.S.W.
1-4 0-7
_
—
1,069
„
10
9 33 30 A.M.
—
S.-N.
very sliglit
—
—
1,070
„
12
9 45 30 A.M.
—
S.-N.
very sliglit
—
—
1,071
16
4 5 47 A.M.
30
slight
—
—
1,072
„
17
8 38 18 P.M.
36
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,073
„
19
2 33 45 P.M.
30
E.-W.
0-2 0-3
—
—
1,074
,,
19
8 34 14 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1,075
„
29
10 36 61 P.M.
15
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,C76
XL
2
9 30 30 A.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,077
^^
5
44 29 A.M.
30
E.-W.
sUglit
—
—
1,078
",
14
2 21 17 A.M.
1 6
S.E.-N.W.
0-6 0-3
—
—
1,079
„
16
3 8 6 P.M.
30
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,080
„
17
9 31 38 a.m.
50
B.-W.
slight
—
1,081
„
22
10 50 31 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1,082
,,
25
7 1 P.M.
1
P.W.-N.E.
0-2 0-2
—
—
1,083
,,
27
24 39 A.M.
15
S.B.-N.W.
slight
—
—
1,084
„
27
7 33 48 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1,085
29
7 30 40 P.M.
—
—
feeble
—
—
1,086
XIL
11
5 34 53 P.M.
30
S.E.-N.W.
03 0-2
—
1,087
"
24
7 22 27 A.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1891.
1,088
I.
29
6 20 30 P.M.
_
_
very slight
_
—
1,089
XL
13
6 30 A.M.
2 50
S.S.E.-N.N.W.
1-4 0-5
sli
ght
1,090
,,
13
6 56 20 A.M.
2
S.S.E.-N.N.W.
1-1 0-5
_
1,091
14
10 10 34 A.M.
1 15
E.S.E.-W.N.W.
0-2 0-4
—
-^
1,092
,,
20
2 17 16 P.M.
—
—
slight
—
1,093
III.
1
4 17 43 P.M.
2 20
S.W.-N.E.
0-3 0-5
03
0-3
1,094
,,
2
7 17 40 A.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,095
„
20
8 39 38 A.M.
—
E.-W.
slight
—
—
1,096
,,
24
10 22 31 P.JI.
—
slight
—
1,097
,,
25
5 11 Oa.m.
1
E.-W.
O'G 0-3
—
1,098
28
3 28 7 P.M.
—
—
very slight
_
—
1,099
IV.
6
4 8 10 r.M.
—
—
slight
—
—
1,100
„
7
9 49 46 A.M.
6
S.S.W.-N.N.E.
1-5 0-8
sli
ght
1,101
,,
15
2 59 16 P.M.
10
E.-W.
slight
—
1,102
„
18
5 6 P.M.
—
—
very slight
—
—
1,103
„
21
10 49 7 A.M.
3
W.N.W.-E.S.E.
1-1 1-9
sli
ght
1,104
28
10 24 23 P.M.
—
—
slight
1,105
"
30
11 54 3 A.M.
—
—
very slight
—
In the above list eighty earthquakes are recorded, a number com-
parable with the number of disturbances recorded in previous years.
The intensity of these disturbances has, however, been unusually feeble,
and without the aid of instruments it is likely that not more than thirty
of them would have been noted. Although one earthquake lasted six
minutes, the duration has generally been small, whilst only on one occa-
sion did the full range of motion exceed one millimetre.
Notwithstanding the fact that the list of records is as extensive as in
previous years, the opportunities for many kinds of observation have
been unusually small — so small, in fact, that it is thought better to with-
hold the results of a certain class of experiments until they have been
amplified by the observations of another year.
Observations in a Pit,
In the ' Transactions of the Seismological Society,' Vol. X., the present
•writer, in a paper entitled ' On a Seismic Survey,' gave examples of
observations made in a pit 10 feet in depth. For certain large earth-
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC THENOMENA OF JAPAN. 125
quakes it appearocl that the motion at the bottom of the pit was very
much less than that observed on the surface, while for small disturbances
the difference between the surface and pit records was too small to be
measurable. In 1886 a pit 18 feet in depth was sunk through dry
compact earth at the Imperial University in Tokio, at the bottom of
which seismometers were established on a brick pavement. These
seismometers and others in the Seismological Laboratory a few yards
distant when placed side by side gave records which were identical.
The work was commenced by Professor S. Sekiya, and continued by myself,
and the records obtained have now been subjected to a careful analysis
by Mr. F. Omori, a graduate of the University, who has taken from ten
to thirty waves in thirty different earthquakes and for each of these
waves calculated its amplitude, period, maximum velocity, and maximum
acceleration. Of these thirty disturbances, for each of which diagrams
were obtained on the sui'face and in the pit, three were strong and
twenty-seven were feeble. For each set of calculations referring to
a particular earthquake average values were obtained, and the average
for these average values was as follows : —
1. Ratio of Quantities Observed on the Surface to tJiose Observed in the Pit.
(rt) Feeble Disturbances.
fE.W. component
■ \N.S. component
r E.W. component
1 N.S. component
/E.W. component
LN.S. component
4. Ratios of maximum accelerations < xt'c ' t
l_N.S. component
Average
1. Ratio of amplitudes
2. Eatio of Periods .
3. Ratios of maximum velocities
l-0\
1-3J
0-9 \
1-1 /■
l-2\
13j
1-4 t
20/
1-2.
10.
1-3.
1-7.
From the above it appears that for small disturbances the motion on
the surface is slightly greater than it is in the pit ; further, from an
inspection of the diagrams, it is seen that those from the pit are always
smoother than those from the surface. In severe earthquakes Mr. Omori
points out that this latter character is strongly marked.
(Jj) Steong Distuebances
1. Ratio of amplitudes
2. Ratio of periods . . . ,
3. Ratio of maximum velocities
4. Ratio of maximum accelerations
/E.W. component
\^N.S. component
/E.W. component
J^N.S. component
/E.W. component
\N.S. component
{E.W. component
N.iS. component
1}
1}
1}
Average
1-4.
11.
1-3.
l-S.
(c) Ripples Supeeimposed on
1. Ratio of amplitudes .
2. Ratio of periods .
3. Ratio of maximum velocities
■4. Ratio of maximum accelerations
AVaves of Strong Distuebances.
Average
fE.W. component . . 2-0"\ ^y.c,
■ 1 N.S. component . . 2-3/ " '''
/E.W. component . - 08 1 „ „
\ N.S. component . . 0-8/ "'**•
fE.W. component . . 3-0 "1 „„
• t N.S. component . . 2-6/ **■
J E.W. component . .5-81 . _
(^N.S. component . . 3-5/
1J« REPORT— 1891.
The ripples referred to appear amongst the waves in the early part of
a disturbance, and, as Mr. Omori suggests, may be the continuation of
the minute motions which are sometimes recorded in diagrams before the
true earthquake itself has commenced.
A conclusion of some importance, which is confirmed by the above
observations, is that buildings which rise from a basement or which are
surrounded by an open area receive less motion than those which rise
from the surface.
Obsei'vations on the vertical component of motion are now being
made in the pit.
The Overturning and FRACTaRiNG of Brick and other Columns.
During the past year a long series of experiments was carried out to
determine the accelerations necessary to overturn or fracture columns of
T«rk)tis diescriptions. The columns were placed or fixed upon a truck
which could be moved back and forth through a range and with a period
comparable with what might occur in a severe earthquake. Each back
and forth motion was recorded on a band of paper running at a uniform
speed in a direction at right angles to the direction of motion of the
truck. At the instant the column overturned or was fractured a mark
was made on the paper, so that the particular wave which was being
drawn when overthrow or fracture occuri'ed could be identified.
On the assumption of simple harmonic motion, calling the period of
this wave T and its amjalitude a, which were quantities measurable on
the diagram, the maximum velocity V, or —^~ , and the maximum ac-
celeration, or — , could be calculated. These quantities were compared
with quantities dependent on the dimensions, density, and strength of
the columns experimented upon. The object of the experiments was to
furnish those who have to build in earthquake countries with data
respecting the quantity of motion which certain forms of structure
might be expected to withstand.
On October 15, 1884, we recorded in Tokio a maximum acceleration
of 210 mm. per sec. per sec, whilst on February 22, 1880, when Yoko-
hama was considerably damaged, such records as were obtained apparently
indicated 360 mm. per sec. per sec. A maximum range of motion of
100 mm. and a period of 2 seconds implies a maximum acceleration of
450 mm. per sec. per sec. As it is possible that this quantity might be
exceeded, structures in earthquake countries ought at least to be able to
withstand three times as much.
For various reasons, of which the following are important, it seems
impossible to absolutely determine the quantity of motion necessary to
overturn a body of given dimensions.
1. The body may be set in motion and be rocking with a definite
period and amplitude when it receives the final impulse which
determines its overthrow.
2. Bodies, like columns, standing on end have a period of oscillation
varying with the arc through which they rock.
3. An earthquake seldom, if ever, consists of a single sudden move-
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 127
ment, but of a series of movements, which continually vary in
amplitude and period.
4. A series of earthquake waves is often accompanied by a series
of superimposed waves.
OVEKTDRNING.
The theoretical investigation of the OK^erturning of a body like a
column, which, although incomplete, has yielded results comparable with
those obtained from experiment, is due to my colleague, Professor C. D.
West. The result may be expressed as follows : —
Let /= the acceleration in feet per sec. per sec. which may cause
overturning,
y=the height of the centre of gravity of the column,
a;=:the horizontal distance of the centre of gravity of the column
from the edge about which it may turn,
(7=:the acceleration due to gi'avity.
Then f=n"^.
y
Experiments showed that the quantity /, which may be calculated
from the dimensions of a body, is closely related to the maximum
acceleration, or — , which the body experienced at the time of over-
turning.
When the period of motion is short / and — closely approximate,
but when the period is great (say two seconds) / may be 30 per cent.
greater than — .
a
Fracturing.
A theoretically- derived formula, which showed a close relationship
with the results of experiment, was
^^ gF°A^
where a=the acceleration necessary to produce fracture ;
F°=the force of cohesion, or force per unit surface, which, when
gradually applied, is sufficient to produce fracture ;
A=area of base fractured ;
y3=thickness of the column ;
/=height of centre of gravity above the fractured base ;
W= weight of the portion broken off.
Values for F° varying between 41 and 14-8 lbs. per square inch were
determined by pulling portions of the brick and mortar columns asunder
in a testing machine.
Corresponding to these different values of F° different values of a were
obtained.
Out of fourteen columns which were broken, in twelve cases the values
obtained for a, when F°=14-8 lbs., were fairly comparable with the quan-
128 KEPOiiT— 1891.
tity V^/a. In two cases where fracture may have occurred at a bad
joiat the quantity V^/a Avas more near to a when F=4'l lbs.
As an illustration of the practical ajDplication of the above investiga-
tion, let us assume that the greatest maximum acceleration to be expected
is 1,000 mm. per sec. per sec, which is a quantity four times greater
than anything yet recorded in Tokio, and then determine the height to
which a brick column 2 feet square may be built above its foundations
and be able to withstand this motion.
If X is the height required and iv the weight of one cubic inch of
l)rickwork=:'0608 lbs., then by substitution we derive from the above
formula
When F=5 lbs. then .'c=6ft. Sin.
When F=151bs. then a^=llft. 7 in.
A detailed account of the relationship of this formula to the formula
previously emjaloyed, together with a^n account of the experiments, is
being offered by myself and Mr. F. Omori, a graduate of the Imperial
University, to the Institution of Civil Engineers.
For assistance in carrying out the experiments my thanks are due
to Mr. D. Larrien, who provided the truck and rails on which the
experiments were made ; Mr. K. Tatsuno, Professor of Architectui'e, who
designed and built the walls and columns ; the authorities of the Univer-
sity, who provided the workshop and workmen, to Mr. Y. Yaniagawa,
who superintended the electrical appliances ; and, finally, to my colleagues,
who from time to time rendered valuable assistance.
Earthquakes in Connection with Electric and Magnetic Phenomena.
1. Magnetic Phenomena.
The conclusion to be derived from the notes relating to magnetic
phenomena and earthquakes published in the Report for last year was
that, for Tokio at least, the records of the Magnetic Observatory, which
is continually being shaken by earthquakes, only show disturbances
which may be the result of mechanically-produced movements. Since
then I have read an account of the experiment of M. Mourreaux, chief of
the Magnetic Observatory of Pare Saint-Maur, near Paris. Having had
his instruments disturbed at the time of earthquakes, M. Mourreaux
suspended on the same stand as the magnetograph a copper bar having
the same foi-m as the magnetic one. The bifilar suspension for the copper
bar was made identical with that used for the magnet, and the movements
of each were recorded photographically.
With three earthquakes the records for the magnet were disturbed,
whilst the records for the copper bar were not disturbed. This experi-
ment has been discussed by G. Agamemnone (' Atti dellaKeale Accademia
dei Lincei,' vol. vi., January 5, 1890), who points out that for various
reasons the period of the copper bar and the magnet must be different,
and, therefore, by a given movement one might be caused to move whilst
the other remained at rest— -a conclusion with which the present writer
concurs.
Near an active volcano, where masses of magnetic matter may be
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 129
shifted or altered in temperature, changes in magnetic elements may
possibly be observed, but, so far as observation and experiment have
hitherto gone, we are inclined to the opinion that ordinary earthquakes
are in no way connected with magnetic phenomena.
2. Electric Phenomena.
In the Report for last year I gave the results of a comparison of the
records of several hundreds of earthquakes, and the photographic records
of atmospheric electricity from a Mascart electrometer. The observations
were made at the Meteorological Observatory in Tokio. A result arrived
at was that at the time of many earthquakes, especially when Tokio was
rear the epicentrum, the air often became electro-negative. In a detailed
paper on this same subject (' Trans. Seis. Soc.,' vol. xv. p. 160) it is
stated that these results ' must only be regarded as tentative,' and as
during the past year I have discovered a source of error in Mascart's
instrument, this remark must not be overlooked. Sometimes, even in
exceedingly dry weather, the instrument rapidly loses its sensitiveness,
and, if the mirror be displaced, it does not quickly return to zero. The
reason does not appear to reside in the fibre nor always in the acid, for,
if the wire dipping in the acid and attached to the needle and mirror be
taken out and washed, the sensitiveness is regained. Now the acid is
being changed weekly and the wire washed. The results which have
already been recorded having an explanation in mechanical movements
must still be regarded as tentative.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord Rayleigh,
Sir William Thomson, Professor Cayley, Professor B. Price,
Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A. Gr. GtREENHILL, Professor
W. M. Hicks, and Professor A. Lodge (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of calcidating Tables of certain Mathematical
Functions, and, if necessary, of taking steps to carry out the
Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form.
The first Report was in 1889. Since then values of 1q{x) have been
■calculated from a'=0 to a;=6'10 at intervals of 'Ol, and considerable pro-
gress has been made in still further expanding this table, making the
interval -001. This will enable values of Io(a;) for intermediate values
of X to be read off by the help of first differences only.
Progress has been made towards the calculations cf Ii(aO for values
of X differing by the interval -01, or, if desired, -001. The method
adopted is that of calculating the successive differential coefficients of
I) (a;) for the values of x given in the 1889 Report by means of the
formula
and its derivatives, and interpolating by means of Taylor's Theorem.
The Committee have asked for a grant of 15L, to enable them to
employ a professional calculator to help in the continuation of the work.
1891. K
130 REPORT — 1891,
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G-. J. Stmons
(Chairman), Professor K. Meldola, Mr. J, Hopkinson, and Mr.
A. W. Clatden {Secretary), appointed to consider the applica-
tion of Photography to the Ehicidation of Meteorological
Phenomena. [Drawn up by the Secretary.)
In commencing operations in the autumn of last year your Committee
considered that the first step was to make their existence and aim as
■widely known as possible. Hence the chief work of the year has been
the issue of circulars inviting the co-operation of others, and the taking
of such other steps as seemed likely to help in that main object.
The following circular was first drawn up and issued to the secre-
taries of a large number of photographic societies, field clubs, and other
associations throughout the world. Letters to a similar effect were
widely distributed through the medium of the press, and personal efforts
were made to solicit aid wherever it seemed obtainable.
ClECULAK A.]
'Waeleigh,' Palace Road, Tulse Hill Park,
London, S.W. : Novemher, 1890.
SiK, — At the Leeds Meeting of the British Association in September last the
above-named committee was formed in order to ' report upon the application of
photography to the elucidation of meteorological phenomena, and to collect and
register photographs of such phenomena.'
The success with which these instructions can be carried out necessarily depends
in a gi'eat measure upon the voluntary co-operation of others.
Will you therefore lend us your valuable aid by making the matter known
among the members of the society you represent, and by giving us the names of any
persons resident in your neighbourhood who might be willing to further the work in
hand ?
We shall be glad to receive copies of any photographs illustrating meteoro-
logical phenomena, or their eifects, but we should especially welcome offers of future
assistance in the shape of photographs taken in accordance with simple instructions
which will be supplied on application.
Photographs received will be numbered and registered and exliibited at the nest
meeting of the British Association.
The Committee wish it to be understood that, hi tlte absence of any intimation to
the contraT]!, contributions to their collection will be regarded as their own propertjv
with liberty of reproduction at their discretion.
Hoping that you will co-operate in the work,
I am, your obedient Servant,
Aethur W. Clayden, Secretary.
It was, however, felt that a photograph of a meteorological pheno-
menon possessed comparatively little value for scientific purposes unless
some infoi'mation could be gained as to the circumstances under which it
was taken. Again, photographers generally, and amateurs in particular,
seem to find great difficulty in securing good photographs of such things
as clouds ; therefore it seemed desirable to endeavour to ascertain whether
any brand of plate, make of lens, or special device deserved particular
recommendation. The following form was therefore printed and issued,
with a modified version of Circular A, and distributed wherever there
seemed any probability of active co-operation.
ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA.
FOEM.]
Name of Observer
Address
131
Focal length
Place of Observation '
Description of Lens ^^
Make of Plate employed '
Please state also whether the Picture was taken by direct exposure, through yellow
glass, by reflection from black glass, or by any other special device
Any other information.
No. of Print ....
1 i
Date
Time of Day ....
1
Direction'' ....
j
Stop'
Exposure' ....
j
Developer ' . . . .
1 1
1 1
1
' If more than one place is used, take a separate Fcnn for each.
° Name of maker and his description, such as ' rapid rectilinear.'
" Maker's description, unless a special emulsion is used, in which case the Committee would be glad of
the full formula.
* Insert point of compass towards which the camera was pointed. State wliether true or magnetic.
' f.JL f_. or whatever the ratio may be.
r'h l.l' *'
' Great exactness is not required.
' Insert P. for Pyro, P.S. for Pyro and Sulphite, E. for Eikonogen, P.O. for Ferrous Oxalate, Q. for
Hydroquinone. The Committee will be obliged for the full formula.
N.B. — It is highly desirable that all prints should show some fixed obicet, such as a tree or chimney^
In the absence of any such point of reference the print should be marked to show the north and the
zenith.
At the same time, siDce effective help might be looked foi' among the
great mass of enthusiastic amateurs who possess little or no knowledge
of meteorology, and from meteorologists who know little of photography,
a short paper of elementary instructions was also distributed.
Insteuctions.]
Photographs are desired of clouds, lightning, hoar-frost, remarkable hailstones,
snow-wreaths, avalanches, glaciers, storm-waves, waterspouts, tornadoes, dust-
whirls, halos, parhelia, or any other meteorological phenomena or their consequences.
General Instructions.
1. As soon as possible after exposing a plate, number it and fill in the' details
relative to it on one of the forms supplied. The more completely these are filled in
the more valuable will the photogi-aph be.
K 2
132 REPORT — 1891.
2. The size of the plate is immaterial provided that the focos is sharp. Use a
magnifier when focussing, and for objects like clouds focus upon a distant tree or
building.
■ 3. Use a lens which does not distort the image.
4. Do not touch up either negative or print.
5. When photographing any object which is moving or changing, a series of
views taken at short intervals, so as to show the progress of the phenomenon, will
be of especial value.
6. Whenever possible, a figure or other object of known dimensions should be
introduced, in order to serve as an approximate scale.
Cloud Plwtographj .
For heavy clouds no special apparatus is required, but exposure must be shorter
than for ordinary landscape work. For very thin clouds exposure must be extremely
short and development very cautious. Fair results may then be occasionally
obtained without special means.
In order to obtain better and more certain results three methods have been
adopted : —
(a) Using a slow plate and rapid lens, with short exposure.
(J) Using an ordinary plate and lens, but with a sheet of pale yellow glass in
front of the lens,
(c) Using an ordinary plate and lens, but placing a plane mirror of black
glass in front of the lens, so that its surface makes an angle of about
: 33° with the axis of the lens. The image reflected in the mirror is fairly
easy to photograph.
The Committee hope to receive examples of each of these processes, as well as
examples and descriptions of any other special devices which may be adopted by
observers.
Lightning Phntograpluj .
When a thunderstcrm occurs at night it is very easy to photograph the flashes of
lightning.
Fix the camera rigidly (do not hold it in the hand) and expose it to a part of the
sky where flashes are frequent.
As soon as one flash has crossed the field of view change the plate.
Whenever possible, count the number of seconds between seeing the flash and
hearing the beginning of the thunder. Note this time on the print or form.
If you have two cameras some useful results may be attained by using one as
described above and holding another in the hand, pointing in about the same
direction, but kept in constant oscillation. It is hoped that two photographs of the
same flash may be thus secured.
Another desirable experiment is to fix both cameras in the same direction, change
the plates in one after each flash, but leave the plate exposed in the second until six
or eight flashes have crossed the field of view.
If the camera is placed in a window this must be open, as the interposition of a
window pane may give rise to multiple images.
Be particularly careful to note the exact time and direction of each flash photo-
graphed.
A rapid lens, with a stop ■£ or thereabouts, should be used for lightning.
Prints, which may be mounted or unmounted, should be sent as early as possible
to the Secretary at
'Waeleigh,' Tulse Hill Pakk, London, S.W.
This work of distribution has been greatly aided by the courtesy of
the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society. But in spite of their
assistance the time available for the purposes of the Committee has besn
mainly devoted to carrying out this introductory labour and conducting
the correspondence it has involved.
The secretary to your committee has also personally appealed to
various societies on behalf of the work in hand by the exhibition of
lantern slides in explanation of the Committee's object.
ON PlIOTOGRAPHr OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 133
In all cases promises of future help (in the shape of photographs taken
under recorded circumstances) have been solicited, rather than the gift of
prints from old negatives.
The result is that some progress has been made in the organisation
of a system of observers who will be on the look-out for interesting
phenomena. Such offers already number between forty and fifty, and
new names are slowly coming in. Indeed, many of the circulars inviting
such aid have been sent to such distant places that replies could hardly be
expected yet. However, as it is, the promises in hand include some from
Tasmania, Mauritius, Java, Sweden, America, and the Continent, while
those from the United Kingdom come from all parts of the country.
Tour committee view this result with some satisfaction, because a
wide distribution and large number of observers multiply the chances of
securing records of rare phenomena. It is a case of sowing seed over a
large area, and it is only the earlier parts which have yet had time to
yield much harvest.
Photographs Collected.
The number of prints actually received up to the time of closing this
report (July 20, 1891) is not large. The total number, 153, includes 96
of clouds, 11 of lightning, 6 of damage by lightning, 2 damage by hail, 3
of the positions of meteorological instruments, G of glacier structure, 3 of
fog shadows, 8 of hoar-frost, 2 of snow-crystals, and some others. But
these can only be regarded as a first instalment of the results of the
year's work, and your committee look forward with confidence to a con-
siderable increase in their collection during the next few months.
The details of the collection already made can be best judged by
reference to the appended list : — ■
First List of Fliotograplis.
Class A. — Clouds.
Nos. 1-6. From the Kew Committee of the Koyal Society.
,, 7-23. From Eear-Aclmiral Maclear.
„ 24-26. From Mr. A. E. Western.
„ 27-32. From Mr. Arthur Nicols.
„ 33-100. From Mr. A. W. Clayden (secretary).
A considerable number of negatives are also available from which
prints have not yet been taken.
Class B. — Lightning.
No. 1. Taken on moving plate, from Dr. H. H. HofEert.
2. Keversed flash, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
3. Branched ,, „ ,,
4. Multiple „ „ „
p.
^' >» j» J) )»
6. Reversed ,, „ „
7. Simple and multiple flashes, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
8. Narrow ribbon, from Mr. J. H. Bateman.
9. from Mr. Ernest Brown.
10.
11. „ Mr. Avery.
134 REPORT — 1891.
Class C— Damage by Lightning.
Nos. 1-4. Rear-Admiral Maclear.
„ 5-6. Seuor Don Augusto Arcimis.
„ 7-10. Mr. J. Hopkinson.
Class D.— Damage by Stoems.
Nos. 1 and 2. EflEect of hailstorms of August' 2 and 3, 1879, from Mr. G.
W. Whipple.
Class E.— Electric Spaeks.
Nos. 1-10. lUustrating forms of discharge, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
„ 11-18. Explaining dark flashes, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
Class F. — Snowfall, &c.
Nos. 1 and 2. Snow-crystals, from Mr. A.. W. Clayden.
„ 3 and 4. Drifts, March 11, 1891, from Mr. R. G. Dnrrant.
Class G. — Glaciers.
No. 1. Ice-cliffs of the empty Meerjelensee, 1889, from Mr. Greenwood Pim,
Nos. 2-7. Various glaciers from Mr. Greenwood Pim.
Class H.— Hoae-feost.
Nos. 1-8. From Mr. A. W. Clayden.
Class M. — Mi.scellaneous.
Nos. 1-3. Shadows of a camera on fog, from Mr. A. W. Clayden.
Registration of Photographs in other Collections.
This section of tbe work has hardly been commenced. Several pro-
minent firms of professional photographers have been approached with a
view to tabulating the pictures they possess, but they have not offered
any special facilities. This is to be regretted in some ways, but there
seems x-eason to hope that another year something of the kind might
be done.
The fine collection in the possession of the Royal Meteorological
Society has been examined. It contains a large number of very beautiful
cloud studies by Dr. Riggenbach and M. Paul Garnier, but information
as to the methods adopted by these observers and as to the conditions
under which the pictures were taken is at present wanting. Neverthe-
less the work of registering these photographs would have been taken
in hand had it not been all but impossible to' describe them properly.
The chaotic condition of cloud nomenclature seems to render it impossible
to describe the minute diSerences of structure so admirably shown in the
pictures in terms which would be generally intelligible. Many cloud
forms, especiallj' among the thinner types, are intimately related to one
another, some being only transitional phenomena during the passage of
one stable form into another. Tour committee have therefore laid special
stress in their instructions to observers upon the importance of securing
series of cloud jjictures at short intervals delineating cloud changes and
showing, as far as possible, the relations between various forms. Until
some satisfactory system of nomenclature has been devised, or until your
ON PHOTOGKAPHT OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 135
committee can form a compreliensive collection, it seems tlaat the accurate
registration of cloud photographs must be left in abeyance. Perhaps by
this time next year, if they are permitted to continue their work, some-
thing of the kind may be found practicable by referring other photo-
graphs to types in their own collection.
Another important collection is in the possession of the chairman of
your committee. An early opportunity will be taken for the tabulation
and registration of its contents.
Methods of Cloud Photography.
Specimens of cloud photographs have been received illustrating
several methods.
1. By the courtesy of the Kew Committee of the Royal Society six
specimens of the photographs taken under their direction have been
placed at the disposal of your committee. These have been taken in a
special form of camera provided with a rotating shutter, the opening of
which can be varied at pleasure. The exposure given is a fraction of a
second, and the plates ai-e of the rapid gelatine bromide type. So far as
definition is concerned, these pictures leave little to be desii-ed.
2. Mr. A. E. Western sends one printfrora a negative taken on Edwards'
medium isochromatic plate, and two taken with Carbutt's orthochro-
matic celluloid films, in all cases after placing a sheet of pale yellow glass
in front of the lens. The definition in all three is good, but the type of
cloud is one which is easy to photograph, and it does not yet appear
whether the method is of very much value for thin cirrus clouds.
3. The secretary to your committee has made a careful trial of two
other methods.
The first consists in placing a plane mirror of black glass in front
of the lens, so that the plane of its surface makes an angle of about
33° with the axis of the lens. This method has been theoretically
described by Dr. Riggenbach in a paper read before the Royal Meteoro-
logical Society on November 21, 1888. It is supposed to depend on the
extinction of the polarised component of the light from the blue sky. But
in practice it is found that the mirror is of great advantage, altogether apart
from any polarisation. It diminishes the brilliancy of the whole illumi-
nation, so that it becomes easy to time the exposure correctly. By this
means it is found perfectly simple to get good negatives of even very
delicate cirrus clouds on any of the ordinary brands of dry plates. The
negatives frequently require intensification in order to bring out all possi-
ble detail, and it seems that transparencies on glass or prints on bromide
paper are to be preferred to ordinary silver prints.
The second device which has been tested is the employment of slow
plates. Very satisfactory results have been obtained by exposing in the
camera some of the plates prepared for transparency work by Mawson
and Swan. This method has not been tried so thoroughly as the other,
but enough has been done to show that it may be recommended.
The lens used in both cases was an Optimus rapid i-ectilinear with a
stop Z With ordinary plates and the black mirror the exposure varied
from about a tenth to half of a second, and with the transpai-ency plate
about twice or three times as long.
The experiments wiU be continued throughout the summer, and your
136 EEPOET— 1891.
committee hope that they will soon be in a position to decide which
method is on the whole most suitable for the purpose. The black glass
method has the one great advantage that it works well with the ordinary
plates, and as the mirror may be easily removed and replaced a few cloud
pictures may be taken during any photographic excursion without the
necessity of carrying slides charged Avith plates of little use for other
purposes.
Photographs of Lightxixg.
The registration of photographs of lightning is beset with difficulty,
just such as interfered with the description of clouds. A provisional
classification has been issued under the authority of the Thunderstorm
Committee of the Royal ]\Ieteorological Society. Thi.s, however, was
premature, and cannot be regarded as satisfactory. Hence your com-
mittee have turned their attention rather to the study of lightning than to
recording pictures of it.
The phenomena accompanying electric discharges do not seem to have
been very perfectly studied, but certain facts are known, and photographs
of lightning and of electric sparks point to others. It seems, therefore,
that no classification can be generally accepted which ignores existing
knowledge of the connection between the electrical conditions and the
character of the discharge.
The so-called black flashes have of course been disposed of. The experi=
ments described two years ago by the Secretary to your committee showed
that the appearance is due to reversal produced by some form of diffused
light having fallen upon the plate. This conclusion has been subsequently
confirmed by ^Ir. Shelford Bidwell, F.R.S., and again by Mr. Clayden in
the photograph numbered 2B. This was taken at Bath in the early
morning hours of June 25. After the flash had passed, the plate was
left exposed for a few minutes in the hojje that a second flash might
illuminate the same part of the sky. This happened, the lower part of
the field of view being brightly lit up by a flash which was itself hidden
in the clouds. Where the consequent glare crossed the undeveloped
image of the flash reversal has occurred, while no reversal can be detected
in the other portion.
It will be noticed that this flash, like many others, shows a distinct
ribbon-like structure. The repeated occurrence of this phenomenon has
already given rise to considerable discussion, and Mr. W. Marriott and
Mr. Cowper Ranyard have attributed it to a movement of the camera
during the existence of the flash. Certainly many such photographs
have been taken in cameras held in the hand or on no very firm base.
Moreover, Dr. Hofl'ert's photograiDh, No. 1 B, shows this structure well in
the successive bright flashes. Nevertheless, it must be noted that in this
last case the camera was in rapid motion, and yet the ribbon-like struc-
ture is hardly more pronounced than it is in other pictures where any
accidental movement was presumably much less. Moreoverj the photo-
graphs Nos. 2 B and 3 B show this structure very plainly, though the
camera was standing on a steady support, and movement during the flaeh
was quite out of the question.
Alternative hypotheses are that the aj^pearance is due to reflection
from the back of the plate or in the lens. If either view were true the
brighter parts of the flash should show the ribbon form the best, whereas
ON PH0T05EAPHT OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 137
the contrary seems often to be the case. Again, if the former hypothesis
were true, the position occupied by the reflected light could be ascer-
tained by considering the direction of the incident light. Fact here
disagrees with theory.
The evidence at present obtainable therefore points to the conclusion
that a bright lightning flash may often take the form of a long sinuous
ribbon, whose sectional thickness is very different in two directions
normal to each other. Some of the appearances noticed also indicate that
the greater thickness throughout all the parts of a given flash lies in one
and the same direction, and the variations in its apparent direction are-
mei'ely an effect of perspective.
This structure must be carefully distinguished from another, in which
several distinct flashes follow precisely similar paths side by side. Some-
times the bright flashes (which may or may not show the ribbon shape
proper) are connected by a less brilliant luminosity, which converts the
whole phenomenon into a very broad ribbon. Photographs of this class
are exemplified by Nos. 4B, 5 B. The flash represented in Dr. Hoffert's
photograph is evidently one of the same order, and the curious smudges
which cross the plate must doubtless be due to the above-mentioned
fainter light. Clearly we have here to deal with intermittent dischai'ges,.
a number of discharges following each other along the same or closely
contiguous paths. In some cases photographs of this kind show redupli-
cated images of buildings corresponding fairly well with the images of
the component parts of the dischai-ge. In such a case there seems little
room for doubt that the flashes followed the same path or paths only a
very short distance apart.
The secretary to your committee, however, secured the photograph
No. 4 B on June 25. In this case the camera was certainly not moved.
The flash, like many others, appeared multiple to the naked eye, but as
the motion of the eyeball might have produced tliat eff'ect, although the
flashes formed the same path, little weight can be laid on that argu-
ment. Indeed, the fact that the camera was standing still and quite un-
touched is sufficient to prove that flashes of such a nature do occur. It
is really a rapid and almost simultaneous volley of flashes connected
partly hy a less vivid discharge which obliquely links the brighter lines.
There is also evident a sort of half-twist of one part of the flash around
another part.
In order to elucidate the unexpected facts brought to light in the
numerous photographs belonging to the Royal Meteorological Society a
number of experiments have been made by your secretary upon electric
sparks obtained from an induction machine. As these tend to throw
some light upon the questions in hand, a brief account of them may not
be out of place.
First remove the small Leyden jars from a Voss or Wimshurst
machine. The discharge is then pink in colour, of slight brilliancy, and
strongly resembles the brush discharge. If the knobs are brought
near each other the dischai'ge passes along several lines, which arrange
themselves side by side in a plane at right angles to the direction of
discharge.
If now the condensers are introduced in the ordinary position, the
spark at once becomes more brilliant, and the pink tinge disappears.
This spark obtained from the ordinary size of condenser appears to b&
precisely the same as the commoner varieties of lightning. If larger
138 REPORT — 1891.
condensers are substitated the spark becomes thicker and brighter, and
its minor irregularities frequently disappear.
Next remove the condensers from the machine, and connect their
inner coatings with the prime conductors, while the outer coatings are
imperfectly insulated, as, for instance, by placing them on a wooden
table. If the jars are near each other, as each spark passes between
the discharging knobs another will pass between the outer coatings.
Gradually increase the distance between the jars. The spark be-
tween the outer coatings will become more irregular as it grows longer,
and at a certain distance it will suddenly cease. At this moment the
discharge between the knobs entirely alters its character. If the strik-
ing distance is short, the form assumed is that of a bright pink band,
generally brighter at its margins than elsewhere, and showing a beauti-
ful fluted structure. Its duration is short, but it is nevertheless easy to
see that it is a really intermittent.
Again increase the striking distance step by step. The discharge is
still intermittent, but thin, brilliant white sparks make their appearance.
At first the pink discharge can be recognised passing obliquely between
these bright sparks, but as the distance increases the pink light disap-
pears, and. the discharge becomes a rapid volley of bright sparks.
The photographs from No. 1 E to No. 9 E show these phenomena.
Again, if the discharging knobs are placed some distance from the
machiue, so that the field due to their charge is but little afiected by the
movements of the machine or operator, it may often be noticed that with
ordinary bright sparks their form is repeatedly the same. No. 10 E shows
a series of sparks taken under such conditions at intervals of about one
second.
Now, it is probable that all these forms of discharge have their
analogues in lightning. The bright sparks with small condensers are
the counterpart of the commoner type of lightning. Those from the
large Leyden jars and between the outer coatings correspond to more
powerful flashes, the latter being the 'impulsive discharge' described by
Professor O. Lodge. The volleys of bright sparks are also the type of many
observed multiple flashes. Thei'e remain only the pink discharges, and
surely these are the counterpart of the flashes which yield photographs
like No. 4 B.
Moreover there seems to be no prima, facie absurdity in supposing
that a short series of flashes may occur during a brief time along parallel
paths. Such a phenomenon is conceivably explicable —
(a) by an identity of conditions over the whole area traversed by the
flashes ;
(b) by the movemeut of the chai'ged cloud causing the conditions
which held in one place at a given moment to hold a short distance
away at another ;
(c) by the movement of the air sweeping along the disturbance
caused by the first spark, so that a path of least resistance resulting
from that disturbance occupies difl"ereut positions. Your committee
would draw attention to the similarity between the appeai'ance of the
bright pink discharge and that through rarefied air. Some of the dis-
charges, Nos. 3 E to 7 E, look as if the passage of the bright sparks caused
a partial vacuum between them, and the pink sparks then struck through
this lessened resistance along the paths of the bright sparks and across
the low resisting interval between them, the slope of these transverse
ON PHOTOGRAPHY OF METEOROLOaiCAL PHENOMENA. 139
sparks being jjossibly determined by the difference of potential required
to break through what resistance there was.
Possibly it may be found that the ribbon structure is also due
to some such phenomenon. The passage of the first flash will produce
for a short time a Lighly rarefied column of air, through which a stream
of less luminous sparks may pass until the displaced air surges back.
Resistance will then be abnormally high exactly along the track of the
first spark, and this column of extra dense air will be surrounded by a
tube (so to say) of lower resistance. Indeed, the paths of subsequent
discharges in a series may conceivably be determined either by the
outward movement of the wave of rarefaction or by the alternate com-
pression and rarefaction along the original path. In either case the
movement of the air may easily sufiBce to carry the position of least
resistance along with it. That subsequent discharges do sometimes
follow what may be called the trough of the atmospheric wave is indi-
cated by the tendency sometimes exhibited for one spark or flash to
twist partly round another.
Howevei', your committee do not wish it to be understood that they
put forward these suggestions as definite hypotheses. They merely state
them in order to indicate various lines along which further research is
desirable. They hope, if they are permitted to continue their task for
another je&v, to add considerably to the experimental and observational
facts at present available, and possibly to reach more definite conclusions
than existing material allows.
Before ending their report your committee feel that a passing
reference is due to the important paper read before the Royal Society in
which the Kev/ Committee described some of their results, and also to
the work which has been carried on at Berlin and elsewhere in the
photography of the so-called luminous night-clouds and of clouds in-
visible to the naked eye.
They wish to express their thanks to the Kew Committee, to the
numerous i^ersons who have volunteered their assistance, and especially
to the Council of the Royal Meteorological Society,
In conclusion they ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 15^., in
order that they may have an opportunity of following up the beginning
that has been made.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor 0. J. Lodge,
Professor Carey Fosteh, and Mr. A. P. Chattock (Secretary),
appointed to investigate the Discharge of Electricity from
Points.
Measueejiekts have been made of the strength of field necessary to start
discharge at jjoints of radius of curvature varying from 0'7xlO"^ to
58 xlO"^ cm. The I'esults show that the field strength inci'eases rapidly
as the radius of curvature diminishes. They also point to the gas sur-
rounding the point as the seat of resistance to discharge, rather than to
the surface of the metal ; and, upon the assumption that discharge means
the breaking down of Grotthuss chains in the gas, extrapolation indicates
an atomic charge of dimensions approximating to those of the ionic
charge of electrolytic ions.
140 REPOET — 1891.
The variations of the field strength with pressure of the gas seem to
agree ■with the Grotthuss chain hypothesis as far as the measurements go.
Upon the assumption that the passage of electricity from a point to a
plate is a one-way flow, it is possible to obtain a value of the ratio of
mass moving to electricity carried by it (i.e., the electro-chemical equiva-
lent of the discharged matter) in terms of the slopes of potential and
pressure brought about by the discharge, and the density of the current
passing. Experiments are now in j^rogress to determine this ratio, rf
possible. So far they point to a number far in excess of the electrolytic
value. This may be due to error in the measurements, or, possibly, to
the presence of metal dust in the discharge.
Measurements, also still in progress, have been made on the mechan-
ical forces which act on a point during dischai'ge. They point to interest-
ing difiTerences between + and — electricity, and it is hoped that useful
information may be obtained as to the manner in which the two electri-
cities leave the point by further work in this direction.
Tour Committee asks for reappointment with a grant of 50Z.
Report of the Committee, consisting o/Lord McLaren (Chairman'},
Professor Crum Brown {Secretary), Mr. Milne Home, Dr. John
Murray, Dr. Buchan, and the Hon. Ealph Abercromby, ap-
pointed for the purpose of co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in inahing Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis.
Ddeing 1890 the hourly observations by night and by day at the Ben
Nevis Observatory have been carried on uninterruptedly by Mr. Omond
and the assistants, and as heretofore the five daily observations at Fort
William have been made with great regularity by Mr. Livingston. As
intimated in last report, a vitally important advance was made in the
system of observations on Ben Nevis by the opening of the low-level ob-
servatory in Fort William on July 14, 1890, for regular continuous obser-
vations. This observatory has been equipped by the Meteorological
Council Avith a complete set of self-recording instruments, such as are in
use at the first-class observatories of the Council. The directors have
thus now at their disposal the best information available for extending the
scientific and practical inquiries they have undertaken through the
unique facilities offered by these well-equipped observatories. A begin,
ning has also been made with an elaborate discussion of this double series
of hom-ly observations of which some account will be given in this
report.
The directors were again able to give relief to the various members
of the observing staff by the courtesy of the following gentlemen, who
have given their services as observers for periods varying from four to
eight weeks: — Messrs. R. C. Mossman, James McDonald, M.A., and
Alexander Drysdale, M.A., B.Sc. ; and Messrs. P. Gillies and C. Stewart,
from Professor Tait's Laboratory, are now (August, 1891) assisting in
the work of observing.
For the year 1890 the following were the monthly mean pressures and
temperatures, hours of sunshine, amounts of rainfall, and number of fair
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.
141
days, or days of less than 001 inch of rain, at the observatory, the mean
pressures at the Ben Nevis Observatory being reduced to 32° only, while
those at Fort William are reduced to 32° and sea-level : —
1890
Jan. 1 Feb. Marchj April i May j June 1 July ) Aug. Sept. Oct. ] Nov. Dec. Year
Mean Pressure in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort WiUiam
Difference .
24'983 25-543
29-548 30-221
4-565| 4-G78
25-079
29-674
4-595
25-226
29-820
4-594
25-316
29-845
4-529
25-349 25-297
29-878 29-802
4-529 4-505
25-312 25-482
29-799 29-964
4-487 4-482
25-395
29-955
4-560
25-147
29-732
4-585
25-409 25-295
30-084 29-860
4-675 4-565
Mean Temperattires.
BenNevis Ob-
servatory-
Fort ■William
Difference
26-9 24-8 25-4 26-4
35-3
30-4
37-1
38-6
41-9
33-6
2?-4
22-2
31-3
42-1 39-6 42-3 44-4
15-2 14-8 16-9 18-0
53-2
17-9
54-2
17-8
55-0
17-9
17-3
58-6
14-7
49-6
16-0
42-0
14-6
37-2
15-0
47-7
16-4
Extremes of Temjyerature.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory :
Maxima
Minima .
Difference .
27-3
16-8
20-5
o ' O
46-1 36-8 37-1
12-7 lO-l 1 16-9
33-4 20-7 20-2
5i-4
22-1
30-3
o 1 o o o ' o
45-6 51-7 53 7 58-9 44-9 41-0 i 39-0 58-9
27-1 28-8 27-7 | 27-5 16-0 13-2 1 9-0 9-0
18-5 22-9 1 26-0 31-4 28-9 27-8 ! 30-0 49-9
Rainfall in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
No. of Days of
no Rain
No. of days 1
in. or rnore
fell
Fort William
29-42
11
19-07
4-57 27-31
17 ! 5
2 8
1-66 11-13
8-09
15
2
3-10
6-01
10
2
2-67
14-67
3
3
7-68
13-22
4
4
7-69
14-33
4
6
6-22
20-71
6
6
7-85
37-30
2
15
13-85
18-96
6
10-31
3-75
15
1
1-29
198-34
83
66
93-12
Hours of Sunshine.
Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
4 68 3S 78 126
24 42
46 : 83
35 27 22
591
- - - - -
- -
117 102
52 34 26
-
At Fort William the mean temperature of the year was 47°'7, being 0°'5
above the mean. The exceptional departures from the monthlymeans were :
January 2°-8, May 3°-2, September 3°-l, and October 2°-0 above, and
July 2°'3, August 3°*1, and December 2°"4 under, the means. The mean
annual temperature at the top of the Ben was 31°'3, or 0°'4 above the
mean, and as contrasted with Fort William the departures from the means
were in July 2°'8 and in August 1°'0 under and in September 4°'0 above
it. In anticyclonic weather, such as largely prevailed in September, the
excess of temperature at the top of the Ben is always relatively higher
than at sea-level adjoining.
The minimum temperature for the year was 9°'0 on December 19, being
about the point to which the temperature has fallen each year since the
observatory was opened. The maximum was 58°'9 on September 7. This
is about the lowest annual maximum temperature hitherto observed, and
it is otherwise remarkable as having occurred so late in the season.
Indeed, low temperatures ruled during the summer in an unusual degree,
the highest in June being 45°-6, July 51°-7, and August 53°7. Thus
the extreme range of temperature for the year was 49°'9 ; in the previous
year it was 55°'4.
The registration of the sunshine-recorder showed only 591 hours out
of a possible 4,470 hours. Excepting 1886, when the number was 570,
142 KEPOET — 1891.
this is the lowest since the observations began. In January only 4 hours
were registered, being the lowest monthly amount yet observed, but in
December the number of hours was 22, being considerably in excess of
the hours registered at stations generally over the United Kingdom
during this exceptional month.
The rainfall was the heaviest yet recorded in any year, being 198'34
inches, and if the amount were calculated for the meteorological year
beginning with December, 1889, the annual amount would be 213-63
inches. The rainfall for October, 37'30 inches, is the highest yet recorded
in any month ; and 29'42 inches were recorded in January and 27'31
inches in March. On October 3 the rainfall was 7'29 inches, but for the
24 hours from 9 p.m. of the 2nd to 9 p.m. of the ord the extraordinary
quantity of 8'07 inches was collected. In four months the rainfall was
the highest yet recorded for these months.
The number of days on which the rainfall was nil, or less than the
hundredth of an inch, was 83, being the fewest number of fair days of
any year since the observatory was opened. There were 17 fair days in
February, 15 in April and December, but none in January. There were
Q& days on which one inch or upwards fell. In October there were 15
such days and 1 1 in January.
The rainfall of 1890 in the eastern part of Scotland to the south of
the Grampians was nearly everywhere iinder the average, the deficiency
being a sixth in the Border Counties. On the other hand, in north-western
districts it was about a fifth above the average. The annual average at
the observatory since 1885 is 134"50 inches, and hence the rainfall of 1890
was 63'84 inches, or 48 per cent., above the average — an excess nowhere
approached at any observing station in Scotland.
Atmospheric pressure at Fort William was 29-860 inches, or 0-032
inch above the mean pressure. The monthly extremes were the minimum
in January and the maximum in February, these being respectively 0-229
inch below and 0-295 inch above the means of these months.
The following shows the departures from the means of the pressure
and rainfall of the four months of heaviest rainfall at the Ben Nevis
Observatory : —
Differences from fJie ]\Jeavs.
January
March .
September
October
Pressure
P.-iinihll
Inch
Inclifs
-t)-]94
+ 12-55
-0-143
+ 15-39
+ 0-088
+ 8-!)t;
+ 0086
+ 22-44
It will be observed that during the two last months, when the rainfall
was greatly above the average, pressure also was above the average. On
the top of the Ben it repeatedly occurs tliat high pressures are accom-
panied with very heavy and long-continued ivains.
Considerable progress has been made during the year with the dis-
cussion of the Ben Nevis obsei'vations.
An exhaustive examination of the 'Winds of Ben Nevis,' bv Messrs.
Omond and Rankin, has been recently completed and the results com-
municated in a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The
authors show that while the sea-level winds in this part of Scotland are,
with respect to the distribution of pressure, in accordance with Buys
Ballot's Law of the Winds, the Ben Nevis winds do not at all fit in with
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS, 143
sncli a distribution of pressure, but that on the contrary they point to a
widely different distribution of pressure at the height of the observatory,
4,407 feet above the sea. In large storms, with a deep barometric depres-
sion in the centre, the Ben Nevis winds are practically the same as at lower
levels ; but with smaller storms great differences are presented. In these
cases it is remarkable that with a cyclone covering Scotland, the North
Sea, and Southern Norway the winds frequently blow, not in accordance
with the sea-level isobars, but in an entirely opposite direction, suggest-
ing an outflow from the cyclone towards the anticyclone near at the
time on the other side. It is further remarkable that this outflowing
seldom or never occurs when the centre of the stoi'm is to the south or
west, but only when it lies to the north or east. If the wind on the hill-
top is not at a right, or greater, angle from the sea-level wind, it is
usually nearly the same as it ; the supposed veering of the wind at great
heights required by the theory that a cyclone is a whirling column,
drawing the air in spirally below and pouring it out spirally above, is
so seldom observed as to be the exception, and not the rule. This
important result and the analogous observation that frequently in great
storms of winds prostrated trees lie practically in one direction over wide
regions show impressively how much observation has yet to contribute
before any satisfactory theory of storms can be propounded.
The winds of other high-level European observatories, which may all
be regarded as situated in anticyclonic regions, have been examined,
and it is found that they show the closest agreement with the winds at
low levels in the same regions. This result separates the Ben Nevis
Observatory from other observatories, so as to form a class by itself, the
differentiating cause being the circumstance that Ben Nevis alone lies in
the central track of the European cyclones. This consideration emphasises
the value of the Ben Nevis observations in all discussions of weather. It
may be added that, with respect to the relation of the winds to the low-
level isobars, Ben Nevis Observatory is more pronouncedly a high-level
observatory in winter than in summer, or, more generally, in cold than
in warm weather.
Mr. Rankin has communicated to the directors a paper on the results
of the dust-counting observations of the past year. The highest number
observed was 14,400 per cubic centimetre in- April last, whilst the lowest,
0, was observed in July, 1890, and again in March, 1891 ; and here it must
be noted that ea.cli observation is really the mean of ten observations taken
at the time. The greatest amount of dust is observed when the wind is
E., S.E., or S., both at sea-level and the top of the Ben ; but when the
winds at the top diverge most from those at sea-level then the lowest
dust values are obtained. We have here, broadly indicated, another con-
tribution to weather prognosis afforded by the dust observations, since
they point to quite different phases of weather.
True fogs and wet mists exhibit marked differences. In fog there
is usually a considerable amount of dust ; in mist, or wet mist, usually
very little. It is observed when the number of dust particles noted is
extremely small, or even 0, thattheair is surcharged with aqueous vapour,
if such a condition be suppcsed possible, and that then, there being no
dust particles to serve as nuclei on which the vapour might condense, it
simply condenses en all exposed objects direct from the air. This has
been found to be the most wetting condition of the air, a few minutes
only being sufficient to give the observer a thorough soaking. Every
144: EEPOET — 1891.
post and rope seem running over -with water, though, looking out at the
weather, one has no idea it is nearly so wet.
Snfi&cient observations have been made to show a well-marked diurnal
variation in the numbers of dust particles. The following are the tri-
honrly results for March, April, and May, 1891 : —
1 A.M.
4 „
7 „
10 „
Mean .
Means
. 736
. 526
. 570
. 526
1 P.M. .
4 „ .
7 „ .
10 „ .
. 854
Means
950
1,438
1,035
1,029
The daily minimum thus occurs when the daily strength of the wind is
greatest, and also the descending current, down the mountain, and the
maximum when the wind is least strong and the ascending current up the
mountain strongest.
Mr. R. C. Mossman has communicated a paper to the Scottish
Meteorological Society on the cases of silver thaw at the Observatory,
which will appear in next issue of the Society's Journal. From 1885 to
1890 there occurred 198 cases, lasting in all 873 hours — that is, cases in
which rain froze as it fell. The maximum frequency is from November
to March. It occasions, as may well be supposed, much inconvenience
-and discomfort to the observers.
The chief point established by Mr. Mossman is that the distribution
of pressure over Western Europe is at the time always substantially the
same. The daily weather charts show that on these 198 days the distri-
bution of pressure was for the Ben cyclonic on 137 and anticyclonic on
■61 days. In anticylonic cases a cyclone is off the north--«'est coast of
Norway, while the anticyclone stretches away over the south of England
^nd Ireland. In cyclonic cases Ben Nevis is clearly within the area of
low pressure, the centre of which again is off the north-west coast of
Norway, while the anticyclone is removed farther to southward over the
Peninsula. Hence the value of this phenomenon in forecasting weather.
The average duration is 6 hours in winter and 3 in summer. The longest
continued was 41 hours on January 3-4, 1889. The lowest temperature
.at which it has occurred was 18°'0, but nearly in all cases the occurrence
takes place shortly before a thaw.
During the past year the uni-emitting attention of Dr. Buchan has
been given to the examination and discussion of the hourly observations
•of the two observatories. The discussion includes the ten months ending
May, 1891.
In entering on the discussion it quickly became apparent that the
influence of high winds on the barometer was the first inquiry calling for
serious attention. The depression of the barometer during high winds
was plainly so serious as to render the examination of many questions all
but a hopeless task until some approximation was made to the values of
these depressions for different wind velocities.
Fortunately the two observatories present the conditions favourable
for this investigation. They are so near to each other as to form vir-
tually but one observatory, the barometer at the top being in a building
exposed to winds of all velocities up to at least 150 miles an hour, whereas
the other barometer is in a sheltered building, where light winds prevail
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 145
generally, so that this barometer may be regarded as recording the
true pressure of the atmosphere. This was more exactly secured
in making comparisons of the two barometers by selecting only those
cases when winds at the Fort William Observatory were light. As
stated by the Committee in previous reports, the observations of the force
of the wind are estimations on a scale of to 12, the equivalent of each
figure of the scale in miles per hour having been carefully determined
by Mr. Omond by means of Chrystal's anemometer. The barometric
observations at the two observatories were reduced to sea-level hour by
hour, and the differences plus or minus were entered in columns repre-
senting the different wind forces at the higher observatory. The following
is the result of the comparison : —
Wind force
Eq.
miles per
liour
Bar. Depression
Inch
2
-0-001
1
7
-0004
2
13
-0005
3
21
-0010
4
29
-0-014
5
38
-002G
6
47
-0035
7
57
-0-050
8
67
-0-070
9
77
-0-104
10
88
-0-122
11
99
-0-150
Thus in calm weather the two reduced barometers are practically the
same, but with every increase of wind which sweeps past the hio-her
observatory, the depression of the barometer inside steadily augments.
It is not till a velocity of more than 20 miles an hour is reached that
the depression amounts to one-hundredth of an inch. At 57 miles it is
0-050 inch, at 11 miles 0-104 inch, and at 99 miles 0-150 inch. In
forecasting weather it will be necessary to keep this effect of high winds
on the barometer constantly in mind, with the view of arriving at a
better approximation to the geographical distribution of pressure at the
time the forecasts are being framed.
These results are for all winds grouped together irrespective of their
direction. The next inquiry grouped the winds according to their direc-
tion to sixteen points of the compass. During the time under examination,
all the very high winds were from E.S.E. or S.E., these being the direc-
tions in which the wind blows freely along the slopes of the mountain to
the observatory. In 11 cases the wind from these directions attained a
Telocity of 100 miles an hour or more, and the reduced barometer of the
high-level station read about one-sixth of an inch lower than the baro-
meter of the low-level observatory. In no other of the 16 directions was
there, during the ten months, a higher velocity than 62 miles an hour
observed, and indeed in the directions E., E.N.B., KE., K, N.W., and
W. the observed velocity was never greater than 29 miles an hour.
With these northerly winds the observations at the top of the mountain
indicate a much lower speed than that which, from the drift of the clouds,
IS seen to be reached at a comparatively small height above the top of the
J3en The cause of this comparatively calm state of the air immediately
on the top is the impact of the air on the face of the tremendous cliff,
close to the top of which the observatory is built, by which the stream
1891. .7 ' J
146 REPORT 1891.
lines are suddenly deflected upwards. Now in such cases the de-
pression of the barometer is about three times as great as that which occurs
with an equally strong wind from other directions, and indicates clearly
the formation of a restricted region of low pressure around and outside
the observatory. Another curious and highly intei-esting result observed
with other directions of the wind is that the reduced high-level baro-
meter exceeds the I'ednced low-level barometer when the wind blows at
the rate of about ^j miles an hour. This increased pressure accompanying
wind rising up the slope of the hill may perhaps explain the small clear
space immediately on the top of a hill, otherwise cloud-topped, and the
very different force of wind on the two sides of a ridge lying about a
right angle to the direction of the wind.
An examination has also been made of the relations of differences of
temperature at the two observatories to differences of the sea-level pressures
at the same hours. During the ten months examined the temperature
differences have ranged from the high-level observatory showing a tem-
perature 26° lower to a temperature 6° higher than the temperature at
Fort William at the time. A comparison has been made by sorting the
differences into two-degrees amounts, and instituting a comparison only
on those cases when the strength of the wind at either of the observatories
did not exceed 2G miles an hour.
The following show for each two-degi'ees difference of temperature
the difference between the reduced barometer of the top and the barometer
at Fort William, the plus sign indicating that the top barometer was the
higher, and the minus sign that it was the lower of the two : —
Difference of
Difference of
Difference of
Difference of
Temperature
Pressure
Temperature
Pressure
Inch
Inch
+ 6° to + 4°
-f 0-047
-10° to -12°
+ 0-006
+ 4 „ +2
-f- 0-044
-12 „ -14
+ 0-001
+ 2 ., -HO
4-0-041
-14 „ -16
-0-005
-0 „ -2
+ 0031
-16 „ -18
-0-010
-2 „ -4
+ 0-020
-18 „ -20
-0018
-4 „ -(3
+ 0-008
-20 „ -22
-0-023
-6 „ -8
+ 0-009
-22 „ -24
-0-029
-8 „ -10
+ 0-007
-24 ., -26
-0033
The broad result is this, and it is clear and explicit, when the higher
observatory has the higher temperature, and when the differences of
temperature are sm.^11, then the reduced pressure at the top of the moun-
tain is the greater of the two ; but when the differences of temperature
are large then the reduced pressure at the top is the less of the two.
The regular progression of these figures show that what is substantially
a true average has been obtained. The result, which is altogether unex-
pected, raises questions of the greatest importance, affecting the theory
of storms, the effect of vertical movements of great masses of air on the
barometric pressure which accompanies cyclones and anticyclones, and
the necessity there is for some accurate knowledge of the absolute
amounts of aqueous vapour at different heights in the atmosphere under
different weather conditions. Ben Nevis, with its two observatories, one
at the top, the other at the foot of the mountain, would, with a third
halfway up the hill, afford unique facilities for the prosecution of this
all-important hygrometric inquiry, which would, however, require 'con-
siderable additions, for the time it is carried on, to the observatories'
present appliances and staff.
ON RECALESCKNT POINTS IN IRON AND OTHER METALS. 147
Third (Interim) Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
Fitzgerald, Dr. John Hopkinson, Mr. E. A. Hadfield, Mr.
Trouton, Professor Roberts-Austen, Mr. H. F. Newall, and
Professor Barrett (Secretary), on the various Phenomena con-
nected tuith the Recalescent Points in Iron and other Metals.
The Committee reported at some length, last year, and wisli to j^ostpone
a further report till next year. They desire, therefore, to be i-eappointed
without a jcrant.
Second (Interim) Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. John"
Kerr, Sir William Thomson, Professor RiJCKER, and Mr. R. T.
Glazebrook (Secretary), appointed to co-operate with Dr. Kerr
in his researches on Electro-optics.
The Committee report that Dr. Kerr is continuing his experiments on
Electro-optics, and hopes to be able to get some definite results for the
meeting next year. They wish to be reappointed.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Liveing, Dr, C.
PiAZZi Smyth (Secretary), and Professors Dewae and Schuster,
appointed to co-operate ivith Dr. C. Piazzi Smyth in his researches
on the Ultra-violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum.
The first proceeding of this committee after authorisation was to inquire
into all that their Secretary was proposing to do in the way of observa-
tion and record in the ultra-violet of the solar spectrum and the suf-
ficiency or otherwise of the apparatus he had already collected for the
purpose. Much correspondence followed through the autumn and in the
winter of 1890-91, and it soon became evident that only a small part of
what was scientifically necessary could be procured with the amount
voted.
In February, 1891, however, a most agreeable surprise occurred, in
the shape of a resuscitation of a still earlier application on the same
general lines, but on a wider basis, by Dr. C. Piazzi Smyth to the Royal
Society's Government Grant Committee in July, 1890, and which he
erroneously imagined, from their silence after receiving it, had not been
approved by that body. But it had been simply kept in abeyance, and
was finally pronounced favourably upon and granted in 1891. This
measure happily relieved the British Association Committee from attempt-
ing to do altogether too ranch for its small means, though still requiring the
utmost economy in their t.isposition, as well as their limitation to the exact
line pointed out in the resolution passed by the General Committee at
Leeds, viz., ' to co-operate with their Secretaiy in his researches on the
Ultra-violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum.'
Now this part of the spectrum being absolutely invisible to the eye,
though otherwise known fo be in the field of the Secretary's Grating
spectroscope at the time, while the /oc2(s of the inspecting or photograpb-
L 2
148 REPORT — 1891.
ing telescope thereof varied rapidly with the smallest angular change of
its direction in spectrum place, there arose a necessity for a considerable
improvement of the focussing arrangement over and above what is usually
supplied for the visible parts of the spectrum, or had been furnished in the
present instance for all parts. But this improvement has now been accom-
plished by Messrs. T. Cooke & Sons, of York, according to a design by
the Secretary, enabling the focus to be set distinctly and solidly to the
thousandth of an inch without reference to anything but numerical tables
prepared beforehand and tested by photographic record.
Again, however, in some of the most interesting of those ultra-violet
regions of solar spectrum light a further and more intricate difficulty of
a physical nature was found when photographing in the second order
of the Grating's spectra. For, though that operation was performed under
double shields of the darkest blue glass procurable, yet the red region of
the first order of spectrum would insist on breaking in through all ob-
stacles, and showing itself even brilliantly by means of the anomalous ultra-
red ray transmitted by the supposed most pure and densely blue, or violet,
glass known ! One possible method of getting rid of this difficulty imme-
diately seemed to be by photographing only in the first order of the
Grating's spectrums, throughout whose violet fields there is no red band
of any other order to come in — blue glass in place or not. But could
sufficient spectrum separation of lines be thereby obtained, and without
any other drawback ?
To meet this essential problem Messrs. T. Cooke & Sons, of York,
were again applied to, and they constructed within the grant made to
the Committee an extra-large Barlow photo-achrom-concave lens, which
magnified the previous image of the inspecting telescope's object-glass
by 2*3 times, or rather more than the first order of the Grating's spec-
trums is magnified, in separation only, by the second order. And if by
the Barlow concave the magnifying is both in separation and in height
of lines (and therefore weakening to the intensity of the image), it was
hoped that longer exposures could be freely given. So that then, with
them, would come the final trial, which has still to be made — whether the
exquisite definition of the first order of spectrum cannot be lenticularly
magnified to the required degree, with less loss of that still more valuable
feature, definition, than what takes place when it is diffractionally magni-
fied (at least in the Secretary's Grating spectroscope) by resorting to ita
second order of spectrum ?
This is the main point, then, up to which the Secretary's research has
just arrived by aid of the British Association's grant of 1890. For while
the whole of that sum has now been expended on the above-mentioned
major subjects and a number of minor improvements and working particu-
lars bearing on the same ends, and nothing further in the way of grant
is now being asked for, it leaves sufficient material in Dr. C. Piazzi
Smyth's hands for much work in the months to come. In earnest whereof
he begs to send some of his accomplished work during the last nine
months, in the shape of two album cases, each containing twenty-six of
his separately mounted and scaled but continuous solar spectrum mag-
nified photographs of lines in the violet and ultra-violet, besides a third
and thinner album case of previously taken eye-and-hand-made drawings
at the same instrument, but of the easier half only of the same subjects,
for inter-comparison of the two methods which are past, and in prepara-
tion for the third, which is to come.
ON MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS.
149
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Grylls Adams
{Chairman and Secretary), Sir William Thomson, Professor
Gr. H. Darwin, Professor Gr. Chrystal, Professor A. Schuster,
Professor KiJCKER, Mr. C. H. Carpmael, Commander Creak, the
Astronomer Eotal, Mr. William Ellis, and Mr. Gr. M. W^hipple,
appointed for the purpose of considering the best means of
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations.
In accordance witli the arrangements made last year for determining the
mean diurnal range from the observations taken on five days in each
month, the following list of quiet days during the year 1890 has been
selected by the Astronomer Royal as suitable for the determination of the
magnetic diurnal variations : —
Quiet Days in 1890.
January
5, 7,12,30,31
February
2, 7, 10, 23, 25
March
2, 3, 9, 29, 30
April .
3, 9, 18, 25, 28
May .
1,13,16,22,29
June .
6, 10, 15, 24, 30
July .
3, 9, 14, 28, 29.
August
4, 12, 13, 28, 30.
September
8, 9, 23, 27, 28
October
4, 7, 21, 28, 29.
November
3, 6, 11, 24, 29.
December
3, 7, 12, 14, 26.
During the past year the magnetic survey of the United Kingdom,
now in progress under the supei'intendence of Professors Riicker and
Thorpe, has advanced rapidly. Messrs. Gray, A.R.C.Sc, and Watson,
B.Sc, A.R.C.Sc, are at present working in Ireland and Scotland respec-
tively. A body of computers has been organised at South Kensington,
so that the reductions are pi'oceeding j^ari passu, with the observations,
and by the end of this summer complete observations will have been made
at more than 600 stations in the British Isles.
On June 18 last, in a paper read before the Royal Society on the
* Comparison of SimuUaneons Magnetic Disturbances at several Observa-
tories, and Determination of the Value of the Gaussian Coefficients for
those Observatories,' the Chairman pointed out the importance of adopt-
ing the same scale- values for similar instruments at different observatories,
«specially at new observatories which have been recently established, and
discussed special magnetic disturbances, especially the disturbances of a
great magnetic storm which occurred on June 24 and 25, 1885, for which
photographic records have been obtained from seventeen different obser-
vatories : eleven in Europe, one in Canada, one in India, one in China,
one in Java, one at Mauritius, and one at Melbourne.
In this paper the records are discussed and compared, tables are
formed of the simultaneous disturbances, and the traces are reduced to
Greenwich mean time and brought together on the same plates arranged
on the same time-scale. Plates I. and II. show the remarkable agreement
between the disturbances at the different observatories, and the tables
show that the amount of disturbance, especially of horizontal magnetic
force, is nearly the same at widely distant stations.
150 REPORT — 1891.
An attempt has also been made to apply the Gaussian analysis to
sudden magnetic disturbances, and, with a view to their application in
fature work, the Talues of the Gaussian coeflBcients have been obtained
for twenty different observatories, and the numerical equations formed
for the elements of magnetic force in three directions mutually at right
angles, and also the equation for the magnetic potential in terms of the
Gaussian constants to the fourth order. The observatories of Washing-
ton and Los Angeles in the United States of America are included in
this list.
During the past year a very interesting volume has been published,
giving the magnetic observations at the United States Naval Observa-
tory at "Washington for 1888 and 1889. In accordance with the recom-
mendatioi^ made at the International Conference held at Washington in
1884 the hours adopted in these American tables are for the seventy-fifth
meridian (west of Greenwich), mean time.
The results of the Washington observations are contained in ten
tables, as follows : —
Table I. — Mean hourly values of declination for 1888-89.
Table II. — Mean hourly declination for each month of 1888-89, taken from monthly
composite curves.
Table III. — Mean hourly values of horizont.il force for each month of 1889 in c.g.s.
■units (dynes).
Table IV. — Mean hourly values of vertical force for each month of 1889 in c.g..s.
units (dynes).
Tables V., VI., and VII. — Hourly values of declination, horizontal force, and vertical
force respectively.
Table VIII. — Summary of disturbances in declination during 1888-89, determined
from the composite curve.
Tables IX. and X.— Observations for 1888-89 for horizontal force and dip respec-
tively.
In addition to the tables there are fourteen plates as follows : —
Plate I. — Examples of the daily photographic traces of declination, horizontal
and vertical force.
Plate II.— Mean diurnal variation of the magnetic elements for 1889.
Plates III., IV., V., VI. — Monthly composite curves of declination for 1888 and
1889, each plate for six months.
Plates VII. to XIV. — Comparisons of disturbed days of declination at Washing-
ton, Los Angeles, Toronto (Canada), and Pawlowsk (St. Petersburg).
The traces are all placed for the same time, and are reduced to the
same length of base line. In the horizontal-force trace increase of ordi-
nate denotes increase of force, and in the vertical-force trace increase of
ordinate denotes decreasing force, and the scale-value adopted for both
horizontal and vertical force instruments is very nearly the scale-value
recommended in the third report of this committee to the British Asso-
ciation (1887), viz., 1 centimetre of ordinate='0005 c.g.s. units.
The Committee entertain hopes that another of their recommendations,
to which attention was first drawn in their third report (1887), and to
which attention was again drawn in their fifth and sixth reports, viz.,
the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope, is
about to be carried out. At a meeting of the Committee held on June 2,
1891, at which the Chairman, Sir William Thomson, Professor Riicker,
Commander Creak, Mr. Ellis, and Mr. Whipple were present, and at which
Mr. Gill also attended at the request of the Committee, a statement was
drawn up with regard to the requirements for a Magnetic Observatory
at the Cape of Good Hope, and a rough estimate of cost and maintenance
ON MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 151
was supplied by Mr. Whipple at the request of the Committee. It was
resolved to ask the First Lord of the Admiralty to consider a statement
of these requirements and to receive a deputation of the Committee and
other scientific men interested in the progress of terrestrial magnetism to
urge the establishment of a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape of Good
Hope, to be placed under the direction of Mr. Gill, the Director of the
Cape Royal Astronomical Observatory. In answer to Sir William
Thomson's application to the first Lord of the Admiralty, asking him to
receive a deputation on the subject, the First Lord requested that before
receiving a deputation he might have a statement of the requirements
with regard to the proposed magnetic observatory at the Cape to be asked
for by the deputation.
At the request of Sir William Thomson a statement was laid by the
Chairman of the Committee before the first Lord of the Admiralty,
pointing out the importance of establishing a magnetic observatory at the
Cape of Good Hope and submitting a rough estimate of the cost of
observatory and apparatus and the necessary requirements.
In a circular issued by the International Meteorological Committee,
which will meet in Munich in September next, the following questions
bearing on terrestrial magnetism are proposed for consideration : —
Question 8.— Is it not necessary in the introduction to the publication of mag-
netic observations to give the absolute values of the normal readings of diti'erential
instruments ?
Question 31. — Would it not be useful to come to an agreement as to the values
of the coordinates of magnetic curves registered by magnetographs ?
To these questions, according to the opinion of this Committee, as
expressed in their reports, especially in their third report (1887), there
can be but one answer. The absolute values of the normal readings of
all magnetic instruments and their scale-values should be given in the
publication of magnetic records, and it would be convenient that the same
scale-values should be adopted at all Observatories for similar instruments.
The value recommended by this Committee for changes of horizontal and
vertical force is '0005 c.g.s. units for 1 centimetre of the scale.
The Committee recommend that for self-registering magnetographs
the scale values for declination, horizontal force, and vertical force should
be arranged so that equal changes of ordinate correspond to equal in-
crements of absolute force in three directions at right angles to one
another, Sx, 8i/, and Sz being the changes in the horizontal force iii the
magnetic meridian, the horizontal force perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian and the vertical force respectively.
The Committee also recommend that as far as possible the same time-
scale should be adopted for the registering magnetographs at different
Observatories, and that this scale should be 15 millimetres to the hour.
Professor Lemstrom, of Helsingfors, also suggests the following ques-
tions for consideration : —
Question 29. — What loethod should be employed for the study of earth-currents ?
Question 30. — What is the extent of our knowledge of atmospheric electricity,
and how should we measure it quantitatively so as to get better results '
Question 32. — What instrument is best for studying the variations of vertical
intensity of terrestrial magnetism ?
With regard to Question 32 the Committee are of opinion that Lloyd's
vertical-force magnetometer is a very satisfactory instrument for studying
the changes in the vertical magnetic force.
152
REPORT — 1891.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Gr. Carey Foster,
Sir William Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Professor J. Perry,
Professor W. Gr. Adams, Lord Eayleigh, Dr. 0. J. Lodge, Dr.
John Hopkinson, Dr. A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr.
Herbert Taylor, Professor Everett, Professor Schuster, Dr.
J. A. Fleming, Professor Gr. F. Fitzgerald, Mr. E. T. GtLAZE-
BROOK (Secretary), Professor Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlinson, Pro-
fessor W. GrARNETT, Professor J. J. Thomson, Mr. W. N. Shaw,
Mr. J. T. BoTTOMLEY, and Mr. T. GtRAY, appointed for the
purpose of constructing and issuing Practical Standards for
use in Electrical Measurements.
The work of testing resistance coils at the Cavendisli Laboratory has been
continued. A table of values found for the coils is appended : —
B.A. Units.
No. of Coil
Resistance in B.A. Units
Temperature
Elliott, 245 .
• ^ No. 74
•99954
n°d
Elliott, 2ifi .
• ^ No. 75
•99949
12°^15
EUiott, 248 .
• ^ No. 76
•09988
I3°-9
B.A., No. 38
• ^ No. 77
1-00023
I5°-7
Elliott, 257 .
• ^ No. 78
1-00046
15° 6
Legal Ohms.
No. of Coil
Resistance in Legal Ohms
Temperature
McWhirter, L.O. . . ^ No. 200
■99836
13°-9
Elliott, 244
^ No. 202
•99871
11°^75
Elliott, 250
^ No. 203
•99924
13°-9
Nalder, 3081
^ No. 204
•998G8
15°^2
Elliott, 258
:^ No. 205
•99985
15°-4
Elliott, 259
^ No. 206
•99975
15°-5
ElUott, 260
•^ No. 207
^ No. 208
^ No. 209
100019
15°-6
Nalder, 2018
10-0066
17°-8
Nalder, 2020
100056
]7°-7
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 153
Ohm Coils.
No. of Coil
Resistance in Ohms
Temperature
Elliott, 213 . . . ^ No. 201
Elliott, 267 . . . *^ No. 325
Nalder, 3059 . . ■ I^ No. 326
•99918
1-00010
1-00005
ll°-85
16°-0
16°-8
Among these the coil B.A. No. 38 ^ No, 77 has a special interest ;
it is an original platinum silver coil -which formei-ly belonged to Professor
Balfour Ste-wart, and is no-w in the possession of Professor Schuster at
the 0-wens College. According to the label on it, it -was right at 16°'5.
According to the Secretary's observations, its value is one mean B.A.
Unit at 14'9. This coil, therefore, -would appear to have risen in value
since about 1867 by -0006 B.A.TJ., and this result is not in accordance -with
the conclusions deduced in 1888 from the observations on the other plati-
num silver coils then examined.
Some further experiments have been made with satisfactory results
on the air-condensers of the Association. A megohm resistance box has
been purchased for use in comparisons of capacity.
With a vie-w to testing the permanence of the resistance standards it
was thought desirable to compare them again with the mercury standards.
This was done in December and January by the Secretary. The coil
riat was compared with two mercury tubes constructed in 1884 by Mr.
J. R. Benoit, which had been filled at Cambridge early in the year 1885,
and had remained full since. An account of the comparison was read
before the Physical Society May 9, 1891, and appears in the ' Philoso-
phical Magazine,' July, 1891.
The tubes were compared with the B.A. standards. If we take, as was
done in 1885, for the resistance in B.A. units of a column of mercury
100 cm. long 1 sq.-mm. in section, the value -95412 B.A.U., we have the
following results for the resistance of the tubes in Legal Ohms.
No.
Value in 1885
found bv KTG
Value in 1S91
found by RTG
37
39
•99990
•99917
•99986
•99913
The differences are only '00004 Legal Ohms, which is too small to feel
really certain about. If we accept for the resistance of mercury the value
•95352 B.A.U., which (B.A. Report, 1890) appears the best value, then
we have :
No.
Value given bv
Benoit 1885 "
Value found by
RTG in 1891
37
39
1-00045
-99951
1-00033
-99959
154 REPOET 1891.
These comparisons were made with Flat, and lead to the conclusion
that it has remained unchanged.
In November, 1890, the Association was invited by the President ot
the Board of Trade to nominate two members to reiDresent the Associa-
tion on a Committee ' On Standards for the Measurement of Electricity
for use in Trade.' A meeting of the Electrical Standards Committee was
held on December 2, and it was agreed to suggest to the Council of the
Association tlie names of Professor Carey Foster and j\lr. R. T. Glaze-
brook as representatives. These gentlemen were ajDpointed by the Board
of Trade together with Mr. Courteuay Boyle, C.B., Major Carden, Mr. E.
Graves, Mr. W. H. Preece, Sir Wm. Thomson, Lord Rayleigh, Dr. Jno.
Hopkinson, and Professor Ayrton.
This Committee after various meetings drew up a report, a copy of
which is printed as Appendix I. to this report.
The standards of resistance constructed in accordance with Resolution
6 of the report are now in the hands of the Secretary, and are being
compared with the standards of the Association.
Numerous experiments on the methods of constructing Clark's cells,
and on the electromotive force of such cells, have been made at the
Cavendish Laboratory by Mr. Wilberforce, Mr. Skinner, and the Secre-
tarj'. These are still incomplete, but the experiments so far as they have
been finished lead to the value 1-434 volts at 15^ for the E.M.F. of the cell.
The value found by Lord Rayleigh was 1'435 at the same temperature.
Mr. I'itzpatrick has continued his experiments on the resistance of
silver, and an account of these will be given in a future Report.
The Committee ask for reappointment with omission of the names of
Principal Garnett and Mr. H. Tomlinson, and addition of those of Dr. G.
Johnstone Stoney and Professor S. P. Thompson. They recommend that
Professor Carey Foster be Chairman, and Mr, R. T. Glazebrook Secre-
tary. They further ask to be allowed to retain an unexpended balance of last
year's grant, amounting to 171. 4s. 6d., as well as for a new grant of 10/.
APPENDIX I.
Repokt of the Electrical Standards Committee appC'Ixted by the
Board op Trade.
To the Eiglit Honourable Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, Bart., 3LP., President
of the Board of Trade.
In compliance with the instructions contained in your Minute of the
16th December last, that we should consider and report whether any, and,
if so, what action should be taken by the Board of Trade under section 6
of the Weights and Measures Act, 1889, with a view to causing new
denominations of standards for the measurement of electricity for use for
trade to be made and duly verified, we have the honour to submit the
following report :
1. Before coming to a decision as to the points referred to us, we
were anxious to obtain evidence as to the wishes and views of those
practically interested in the question, as well as of Local Authorities
who are concerned in the administration of the Weights and Measures
Acts.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 155
2. With this view we prepared draft resolutions embodying the pro-
posals which, subject to further consideration, appeared to us desirable,
and forwarded copies to the representatives of various interests for criti-
cism. Copies were also forwarded to the Press. We also invited the
following bodies to nominate witnesses to give evidence before us :
The Association of Chambei's of Commerce of the United King-
dom.
The Association of Municipal Corporations.
The London County Council.
The Loudon Chamlaer of Commerce.
3. In response to this invitation the following gentlemen attended and
gave evidence :
On behalf of the Association of Chambers of Commerce, Mr.
Thomas Parker and Mr. Hugh Erat Harrison.
On behalf of the London Council, Professor Silvanus Thompson.
On behalf of the London Chamber of Commerce, Mr. R. E.
Orompton.
The Association of Municipal Corporations did not consider it
necessary to offer any oral evidence, but the following resolu-
tion passed by the Law Committee of that body, was adopted
by the Council of the Association :
' The Committee are of opinion that, assuming that the
science of electricity has advanced so far that it is now
possible properly to define the three units referred to
in the Board of Trade letter,' (i.e., the ohm, ampere,
and volt) ' and to construct an instrument for the
purpose of standard measurement, the time has
arrived for the Board of Trade to take action thereon.'
4. In addition to the witnesses above referred to the following gentle-
men were invited to give evidence, and we are indebted to them for
valuable information and assistance.
Dr. J. A. Fleming.
Dr. Alexander Muirhead.
5. We also had the advantage of the experience and advice of Mr.
H. J. Chaney, Superintendent of Weights and Measures, who, at the
request of our Chairman, was present at our meetings.
6. After a careful consideration of the questions submitted to ns, and
the evidence given by the various witnesses, we have agreed to the follow-
ing resolutions :
Resolutions.
1. That it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the
measurement of electricity should be made and approved by
Her Majesty in Council as Board of Trade standards.
2. That the magnitudes of these standards should be determined
on the electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference
to the centimetre as unit of length, the gramme as unit of
mass, and the second as unit of time, and that by the terms
centimetre and gramme are meant the standards of those
denominations deposited with the Board of Trade,
156 REPORT— 1891.
3. That the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated
the ohm, and should have the value 1,000,000,000 in terms of
the centimetre and second.
4. That the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by
a column of mercury of a constant cross sectional area of one
square millimetre, and of a length of 106'3 centimetres at the
temperature of melting ice may be adopted as one ohm.
5. That the value of the standard of resistance constructed by a
committee of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science in the years 1863 and 1864, and known as the British
Association unit, may be taken as "9866 of the ohm.
6. That a material standard, constructed in solid metal, and veri-
fied by comparison with the British Association unit, should
be adopted as the standard ohm.
7. That for the purpose of replacing the standard, if lost, destroyed,
or damaged, and for ordinary use, a limited number of copies
should be constructed, which should be periodically com-
pared with the standard ohm and with the British Associa-
tion unit.
8. That resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted
as Board of Trade standards for multiples and submultiples of
the ohm.
9. That the standard of electrical current should be denominated
the ampere, and should have the value one- tenth (O'l) in
terms of the centimetre, gramme, and second.
10. That an unvarying current which, when passed through a
solution of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with the
specification attached to this report, deposits silver at the
rate of 0001118 of a gramme per second, may be taken as a
current of one ampere.
11. That an alternating current of one ampere shall mean a cur-
rent such that the square root of the time average of the
square of its strength at each instant in amperes is unity.
12. That instruments constructed on the principle of the balance,
in which by the proper disposition of the conductors, forces
of attraction and repulsion are produced, which depend upon
the amount of current passing, and are balanced by known
weights, should be adopted as the Board of Trade standards
for the measurement of current whether unvarying or alter-
nating.
13. That the standard of electrical pressnre should be denomi-
nated the volt, being the pressure which, if steadily applied to
a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a cur-
rent of one ampere.
14. That the electrical pressure at a temperature of 62° F. between
the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark's
cell, may be taken as not differing from 1-433 volts by more
than an amount which will be determined by a sub-com-
mittee appointed to investigate the question, who will prepare
a specification for the construction and use of the cell.
15. That an alternating pressure of one volt shall mean a pressure
such that the square root of the time-average of the square of
its value at each instant in volts is nnity.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 157
16. That instrnments constructed on the principle of Sir W. Thom-
son's Quadrant Electrometer used idiostaticallj, and for high
pressures instruments on the principle of the balance, electro-
static forces being balanced against a known weight, should
be adopted as Board of Trade standards for the measurement
of pressure, whether unvarying or alternating.
7. We have adopted the system of electrical units originally defined
by the British Association for the Advancement of Science ; and we have
found in its recent researches, as well as in the deliberations of the Inter-
national Congress on Electrical Units, held in Paris, valuable guidance
for determining the exact magnitude of the several units of electrical
measurement, as well as for the verification of the material standards.
8. We have stated the relation between the proposed standard ohm.
and the unit of resistance originally determined by the British Associa-
tion, and have also stated its relation to the mercurial standard adopted
by the International Conference.
9. We find that considerations of practical importance make it un-
desirable to adopt a mercurial standard, we have, therefore, preferred to
adopt a material standard constructed in solid metal.
10. It appears to us to be necessary that in transactions between
buyer and seller a legal character should henceforth be assigned to the
units of electrical measurement now suggested, and with this view, that
the issue of an Order in Council should be recommended, under the
Weights and Measures Act, in the form annexed to this report.
Specification kefeeked to in Resolution 10.
In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the
arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is passed
through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver voltameter-
measures the total electrical quantity which has passed during the time
of the experiment, and by noting this time the time-average of the
current, or, if the current has remained constant, the current itself can
be deduced.
In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about
1 ampere the following arrangements should be adopted. The kathode
on which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum
bowl not less than 10 cm. in diameter, and from 4 to 6 cm. in depth.
The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square cm. in area
and 2 or 3 millimetres in thickness.
This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the solu-
tion by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at opposite
corners. To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed on the
anode from falling on to the kathode, the anode should be wrapped round
with pure filter paper, secured at the back with sealing wax.
The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate,
containing about 15 parts by weight of salt to 85 parts of water.
The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current
passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the-
current, some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be inserted
in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit should not be
less than 10 ohms.
158 REPORT — 1891.
Method of Mold-)} g a Measurement,
The platinum bowl is washed with nitric acid and distilled water,
dried by heat, and then left to cool in a desiccator. When thoroughly
dry it is weighed carefully.
It is nearly filled with the solution, and connected to the rest of the
circuit by being placed on a clean copper support, to which a binding
screw is attached. This copper support must be insulated.
The anode is then immersed in the solution so as to be well covered
by it and supported in that position ; the connexions to the rest of the
circuit are made.
Contact is made at the key noting the time of contact. The current
is allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and the time at which
contact is broken is observed. Care must be taken that the clock used
is keeping correct time during this interval.
The solution is now removed from the bowl and the deposit is washed
with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours. It is then
rinsed successively with distilled water and alcohol and dried in a hot-air
bath at a temperature of about 160'' C. After cooling in a desiccator it
is weighed again. The gain in weight gives the silver deposited.
To find the current in amperes this weight, expressed in grammes,
must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has
been passed, and by •001118.
The result will be the time average of the current, if during the
interval the current has varied.
In determining by this method the constant of an instrament, the
current should be kept as nearly constant as possible, and the readings
of the instrument taken at frequent observed intervals of time. These
observations give a curve from which the reading corresponding to the
mean current (time average of the current) can be found. The current,
as calculated by the voltameter, corresponds to this reading.
Pkovisioxal Memorandum on the Preparation op the Clark's
Standard Cell.
Definition of the Cell.
The cell consists of zinc and mercury in a saturated solution of zinc
sulphate and mercurous sulphate in water, jJi^epai'ed with mercurous
sulphate in excess, and is conveniently contained in a cylindrical glass
vessel.
Preparation of the Materials.
1. The Mercurij. — To secure purity it should be first treated with acid
in the usual manner, and subsequently distilled in vacuo.
2. The Zinc. — Take a portion of a rod of pure zinc, solder to one end
a piece of copper wire, clean the whole with glass paper, carefully remov-
ing any loose pieces of the zinc. Just before making up the cell dip the
zinc into dilute sulphuric acid, wash with distilled water, and dry with a
clean cloth or filter paper.
3. Tlie Zinc Sul})hate Solution. — Prepare a saturated solution of pure
(' pure re-crystallised ') zinc sulphate by mixing in a flask distilled water
with nearly twice its weight of crystals of pure zinc sulphate, and adding
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTBICAL MEASUREMENTS. 159
a little zinc carbonate to neatralise any free acid. The whole of the
crystals should bo dissolved with the aid of gentle heat, i.e. not exceeding
a temperature of 30° C, and the solution filtered, while still warm, into
a stock bottle. Crystals should form as it cools.
4. The Mercuro'U'i Sulphate. — Take mercurous sulphate, purchased as
pure, and wash it thoi'oughly with cold distilled water by agitation in a
bottle ; drain olF the water, and repeat the process at least twice. After
the last washing drain off as much of the water as possible.
Mix the washed mercurous sulphate with the zinc sulphate solution,
adding sufficient crystals of zinc sulphate from the stock bottle to ensure
saturation, and a small quantity of pure mercury. Shake these up well
together to form a paste of the consistence of cream. Heat the paste
sufficiently to dissolve the crystals, but not above a temperature of 30°.
Keep the paste for an hour at this temperature, agitating it from time to
time, then allow it to cool. Crystals of zinc sulphate should then be
distinctly visible throughout the mass ; if this is not the case, add more
crystals from the stock Ijottle, and repeat the jarocess.
This method insures the formation of a saturated solution of zinc and
mercurous sulphates in water.
The presence of the free mercury throughout the paste preserves the
basicity of the salt, and is of the utmost imjaortance.
Contact is made with the mercury by means of a platinum wire about
No. 22 gauge. This is protected from contact with the other materials of
the cell by being sealed into a glass tube. The ends of the wire project
from the euds of the tube ; one end forms the terminal, the other end
and a portion of the glass tube dip into the mercury.
To set up the Cell.
The cell may conveniently be set up in a small test tube of about
2 cm. diameter, and 6 or 7 cm. deep. Place the mercury in the bottom
of this tube, filling it to a depth of, say, 1'5 cm. Cut a cork about
•5 cm. thick to fit the tube ; at one side of the cork bore a hole through
which the zinc rod can pass tightly ; at the other side bore another hole
for the glass tube which covers the platinum wire ; at the edge of the
cork cut a nick through which the air can pass when the cork is pushed
into the tube. Pass the zinc rod about 1 cm. through the cork.
Clean the glass tube and platinum wii^e carefully, then heat the
exposed end of the platinum red hot, and insert it in the mercurv in
the test tube, taking care that the whole of the exposed platinum is
covered.
Shake up the paste and introduce it without contact with the upper
part of the walls of the test tube, filling the tube above the mercury to a
depth of rather more than 2 cm.
Then insert the cork and zinc rod, passing the glass tube through the
hole prepared for it. Push the cork gently down until its lower surface
is nearly in contact with the liquid. The air will thus be nearly all
expelled, and the cell should be left in this condition for at least twenty-
four hours before sealing, which should be done as follows : —
Melt some marine glue until it is fluid enough to pour by its own
weight, and pour it into the test tube above the cork, using sufficient to
cover completely the zinc and soldering. The glass tube should project
above the top of the marine glue.
160 EEPORT — 1891.
The cell thus set up may be mounted in any desirable manner. It is
convenient to arrange the mounting so that the cell may be immersed in
a water bath up to the level of, say, the upper surface of the cork. Its
temperature can then be determined more accurately than is possible
■when the cell is in air.
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley,
Professor Sylvester, Mr. A. K. Forsyth, and Professor A. Lodge
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of carrying on the
Tables connected ivith the Pellian Equation from the point
where the ivork ivas left by Degen in 1817.
A LASGE part but not the whole of the work has been completed, but the
Committee hope to have it completed in time for next year's meeting of
the Association.
lOL of the grant of 15L has been expended.
Seventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. Gr. Stokes
(Chairman), JProfessor Schuster, Mr. Gr. Johnstone Stonet, Sir
H. E. Koscoe, Captain Abney, Mr. Whipple, Professor McLeod,
and Mr. Gr. J. Symons (Secretary), appointed for the purpose
of considering the best methods of recording the direct Intensity
of Solar Radiation.
Your Committee have to report that, after considerable search, Professor
Schuster found the thermometers constructed for Professor Balfour
Stewart for use with the apparatus designed by and constructed for
him, and that the apparatus and a mass of correspondence relating thereto
had been placed in Professor McLeod's hands. He reports that he has
tested all the thermometers, and made observations with the instrument
when opportunity has offered. He has found it desirable to provide a
screen to prevent the action of the sun on the outside of the instrument
affecting too much, or too unequally, the reading of the internal thermo-
meters. It was always contemplated that the action of the sun on the
case of the instrument would affect the embedded thermometers ; but as
care was taken that the central thermometer should be prompt in respond-
ing to changes of temperature, while the embedded thermometers, in
consequence of the way in which they were protected, should change but
elowly, it was expected that the difference between the temperatures
marked by the central thermometer and by the embedded thermometer
respectively would be sensibly proportional to the intensity of solar
radiation, notwithstanding the changes of temperature of the outer case.
This anticipation, the correctness of which is of vital importance to the
success of the instrument, has not, however, as yet been tested experi-
mentally, and the trials would require to be made under specially favour-
able atmospheric conditions. The Committee hope to report definitely
in the course of another year as to the utility of the apparatus and
desire reappointment without any grant.
ON WAYE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 16l
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. EoscoE, INIr. J. N.
LocKYER, Professors Dewar, Wolcott Gibbs, Liveing, Schuster,
aoul W. N. Hartley, Captain Abney, and Dr. Marshall Watts
(Secretary), appointed to prepare a neio series of Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.
Iron (Arc Spectrum).^
(•f- denotes one of Rowland's ' normal ' lines, or one of MuUer and Kempf ' 300 '
lines, as the case may be).
f.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
Mliller and
Kempf
c a >3
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
A +
1
6750-36
480
2
1-76
1-97
43
14809-7
6708-04
2
1-96
4-4
14903-1
t6678-14
76-9
8
16678-36
1-24
14969-8
6668-18
6G-6
1
1-58
14992-2
6665-58
1
14998-0
t6663-G0
62-3
6
t6663-74
l-3d
1-96
15002-5
6654-30
52-8
1
1-50
1-95
15023-5
6647-69
45-7
1
1-99
15038-4
6644-85
1
15044-8
6640-13
38-4
4
1-73
15055-5
t6633-90
32-7
6n
t6634-14
1-20
15069-7
6627-77
26-5
4
1-27
1-95
15083-6
6614-05
In
1-94
15114-9
6611-94
1
16119-8
t6609-25
08-7
6
t6609-5O
0-55
15125-9
6608-00
1
4-4
15128-6
6606-34
04-2
1
1-14
4-5
15134-8
6597-93
96-8
4n
113
15151-8
6594-00
94-3
6
-0-3
15160-8
t6593-07
92-2
10
t6593-61
0-87
15162-9
6591-79
1
1-94
15165-9
6586-14
1
1-93
151789
6584-80
2
151820
6581-45
80-3
2
1-16
15189-7
6577-83
1
15198-1
6575-19
74-0
6
t6575-27
119
15204-2
6572-87
1
15209-5
6571-33
1
15213-1
6569-36
68-2
8n
1-16
15217-7
6556-92
55-6
1
1-32
1-93
15246-6
t6546-40
46-1
10
16546-66
1-30
1-92
15271-1
6544-14
1
15276-3
6538-77
1
15288-9
6534-07
33-0
2n
t6534-30
1-07
15299-9
6528-81
27-7
1
1-11
15312-2
6523-59
1
1-92
15324-5
6618-51
17-3
6
1-21
1-91
15336-4
6515-95
1
15342-4
6510-15
08-3
1
1-85
15356-1
6507-43
1
15363-4
' Kayser and Kunge (Berlin, 1888) ; Thal6n (Upsala, 1884) ; Milller and Kempf
(Potsdam, 1886).
1891. H
162
REPOUT — 1891.
Ikon (Arc Spbctuv])!)— continued.
g Reduction 1
Kayser and
Kiinge
Thale'n
Intensitj'
and
MUUei- and
Kempf.
to Vacuum
Oscillation
Freiiueuoy
(Rowland)
Ingstrom
Fievez
^haractev
a^ 1
A +
1
A.
in Vacuo
6501-;-i8
03-3
2
1-08
153119-7
6501-77
00-7
2
1-07
15375-9
6-199-13
98-3
2
0-83
15382-2
6496-68
96-1
2
0-58
15388-0
6495-13
94-2
10
0-93
15391-6
6494-09
1
15394-1
6492-81
1
15397-1
6490-60
1
15402-4
6488-39
2
15407-6
648608
2
1-91
15413 1
6483-93
1
1-90
15418-2
6481-97
81-0
4
0-97
15422-9
6475-73
74-8
4
16175-91
0-93
15437-8
6471-58
1
15447-7
6469 40
68-5
4
0-90
15452-9
t6462-76
61-7
4
t0462-95
1-06
15468-8
6457-19
1
15482-1
6456-51
55-2
1
1-31
15483-7
6450-08
I
16450-18
1-90
15499-2
6439-24
1
{6439-38
1-89
15525-3
6436-79
1
15531-2
6433-42
1
15539-3
6432-85
1
15540-7
t6430-99
30-1
8
f6431-12
0-89
15545-2
6426-75
I
15555-5
6421-52
20-6
8
t6421-72
0-92
15568-1
6420-23
19-2
6ii
1-03
15571-3
6417-24
1
15578-5
6414-23
1
1-89
15585-8
6411-83
10-9
8
t6411-98
0-93
1-88
15591-7
6411-18
1
4-5
15593-2
6408-25
07-1
6
16408-35
1-15
4-6
15600-3
6404-98
1
15608-2
6402-74
1
15613-7
6400-13
99-1
10
t6400-35
1-03
15620-1
6399-68
1
15621-2
6398-30
1
15624-5
6396-22
1
15629-6
6393-83
1
t0393-92
15035-5
6393-63
92-6
s
1-03
15636-0
6392-96
1
15637-6
6391-50
1
15641-2
6389-51
1
15646-0
6387-44
I
15051-1
6386-28
In
15654-0
6385-00
2
15657-1.
6383-57
1
15660-6
6382-37
1
15663-6
t6380-89
79-7
79-5
6
t6381-13
1-19
15667-2
6379-32
1
1-88
15671-1
6378-16
1
1-87
15673-9
637609
75-0
735
1
1-09
15679-0
G373 89
1
15684-4
6371-60
i 1
15690-0
6369-79
! 1
15694-5
ox WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 163
lEON (Arc SPECTRTjyi')—co7itinued.
Kavser and
Kunge
(Ro-wlaud)
Thale'n
Intensitj'
Miiller and
a Ci
Keduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Angstrom
Fievez
and
Character
Keuipf
A +
1_
A.
Fre<|iiency
in Vacuo
6367-53
1
15700-1
6364-69
63-5
62-7
2ii
1-19
15707-1
6363-01
61-2
60-6
2
1-81
15711-2
6361-90
1
15714-0
6361-01
1
15716-2
6360-20
1
15718-2
t6358-83
57-7
57-3
4
16358-99
1-13
15721-6
6357-61
1
15724-C
6356-39
1
15727-6
6355-16
63#-S6
54-0
54-0
4
t6355-46
1-16
1-87
15730-6
1
1-86
15743-7
6344-28
43-2
44-0
4
t6344-50
1-08
15747-6
6341-73
410
1
0-73
15764-0
6339-17
38-0
38-0
2u
16339-33
117
15770-3
t6336-97
35-9
36-0
10
1-07
15775-8
6335-43
34-3
34-3
8
t6335-72
1-13
15779-6
6334-62
1
15781-7
6333-49
1
15784-5
6331-04
30-5
29-0
2n
0-54
15790-6
6328-93
2ii
15795-8
6326-84
2n
15801-1
6324-60
1
15806-7
f6322-83
21-6
21-6
6
16323-06
1-23
1581 11
6321-78
1
15813-7
6320-42
1
15817-1
■f6318-16
169
17-4
10
6318-41
1-26
16822-8
6317-27
1
15825
6315-92
2
15828-4
6315-42
13-9
13-4
4
t6315-46
1-52
15829-7
6311-62
11-0
2
0-63
15839-2
6310-59
09-5
091
1
1-09
15841-8
6309-53
OG-0
05-7
1
1-80
1-85
15844-4
6302-65
01-6
020
6
t6302-84
1-05
I5S61-7
6301-61
00-7
00-5
10
0-91
15864-4
6300-60
1
15866-9
6299-31
1
15870-2
6297-90
96-9
97-0
6
t6298-24
1-00
15873-7
6296-67
1
15876-8
6293-94
930
2
0-94
15883-7
6292-88
920
1
0-88
15886-4
6291-10
90-2
6ii
t6291-33
0-90
15890-9
6288-67
88-0
1
0-67
15897-0
6285-23
84-5
2n
0-73
15905-7
6283-17
81-6
2u
1-57
159109
6280-74
79-6
4
1-14
159171
6280-06
1
15918-8
6277-61
76-6
In
t6277-95
1-01
15ii250
6274-10
In
1-85
15933-9
6271-49
69-9
2
1-59
1-84
15940-6
6270-39
69-1
69-2
6
1-29
15943-4
6269-26
1
4-6
15946-2 ,
6267-97
1
4-7
15949-4 !
t6265-27
64-1
64-0
8
16265-48
1-17
15956-3 j
6264-28
I
15958-8 <
n 2
164
REPORT — 1891.
iRon (Abc SPEC'rnxjM')—eonti7iued.
«_ £
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Miiller and
Kempf
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
(Rowland)
Angstrom
Fievez
Character
^ 1
A +
1
A
in Vacuo
62G3-31
In
15961-3
<!361-2r)
2n
15966-5
6258-87
2n
15972-6
6256-52
55-3
55-1
6
t6256-66
1-23
15978-6
6254-40
53-2
53-0
6
1-20
159840
t6252-71
51-5
51-2
10
t6253-0O
1-21
15988-4
G251 90
1
15990-4
6250 56
In
15993-9
6248-85
In
15998-2
(1247-68
1
16001-2
G24G-48
45-4
45-4
8
t6246-72
1-08
16004-3
6245-69
1
16006 3
6244-20
In
1G0102
6243-06
In
1G0131
6241-73
1
1601G-5
6240-77
39-2
390
4
16240-93
1-57
16019-0
6240-47
1
16019-7
6239-54
1
1-84
160221
6238 53
1
1-83
16024-7
6237-44
In
16027-5
6235-26
• 1
16033-1
6232-83
31-5
31-5
6
1-33
16039-4
6231-76
1
16042-1
t6230-88
29-7
29-5
10
t6231-U
1-18
16044-4
6230-16
1
16046-2
6229-34
1
16048-4
6228-72
1
16050-0
6227-78
1
16052-4
6226-95
25-4
25-3
2
1-55
1 6054 -5
6224-42
In
16061-1
6222-31
In
16066-5
6221-57
1
16068-4
622093
19-7
20-0
1
1-23
16070-1
t6219-42
18-3
18-2
8
t6219-61
112
16074-0
6218-51
1
16076-3
6217-81
1
16078-1
6216-49
In
16081-5
6215-29
14-1
15-0
G
1-19
16084-6
t6213-57
12-3
12-4
8
t6213-78
1-27
16089-1
6211-25
In
16095-1
6209-11
In
16100-7
6206-98
In
16106-2
6204-98
In
1-83
16111-4
6202-59
1
1-82
16117-G
t6200-46
99-6
99-2
6
16200-71
0-86
16123-1
6199-61
1
16125-:i
6196-24
1
16134-1
6193-89
1
161402
6191-70
90-5
90-7
10
t6191-84
1-20
16145-1)
6190-84
1
16148-2
6190-35
1
4-7
16149-5
6189'54
1
4-8
16151-6
6188-25
87-1
86-9
4
115
161550
6187-42
1
161571
6185-90
83 3
85-6
2
060
16161-1 1
ON WAVE-LENGTir TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF XUE ELEMENTS. 165
Ikon
(Arc Sfecthvh)— continued.
Knysorniul
(Kowlaiid)
Thaleu
Intensity
and
Character
Mullerand
Kempf
a a a
it's be
Reduction
to Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
- I-
6183-15
83-0
2
0-15
16168-3
t6180-:34
79-3
79-2
6
t6180-66
1-04
16175-6
6178-80
16179-7
(5173-48
72-3
72-3
1-18
16193-6
6172-60
16195-9
6170-62
69-4
69-8
6a
t6170-S5
1-22
162011
6169-77
1-82
16203-4
6168-18
1-81
16207-5
6166-80
16211-1
6165-51
63-8
G3-3
1-71
16214-5
6163-70
62-3
1-40
16219-2
6163-23
16220-4
6162-40
16162-53
16222-6
6160-'J5
16226-5
6159-47
In
l'6230-4
6157-87
56-7
56-7
1-17
16234-6
6157 29
M236-1
6154 86
l«242-5
6153-75
l«245-4
6151-78
50-5
50-5
1-28
l«250-7
6150-47
16254-1
6149-24
16257-4
6147 96
48-1
46-6
t6148-10
-0-14
16260-8
6147-43
16262-2
6146-46
16264-7
H145-38
16267-6
6 H 4-26
16270-5
614317
16273-4
t6141-S8
16142-04
■162769
614113
16278-8
6140-12
16281-5
6139-00
16284-5
6137 84
36-6
36-8
10
1-24
16287-6
6137-06
16289-6
6136-76
35-G
35-5
10
6137-03
1-16
16290-4
6135-89
16292-7
' 6134-73
1-81
16295-8
6133(;7
1-80
16298-6
, 6132-63
16301-4
6131-59
30-3
163042
- 613()-48
16307-1
6129-22
16310-5
612804
26-8
26-7
1-24
16313-6
j 6127-32
16315-5
6126-16
16318-6
6125-16
16321-3
' 6123-81
22-0
22-0
1-81
16324-9
6122-42
16328-6
6119-67
16335-9
6118-67
16338-6
6117-49
16341-8
t61 16-34
15-3
15-1
1-04
> 16344-8
6115-50
16347-1
6113-01
12-0
16353-7
Clll-82
, 16356-9
106
EEPORT 1891.
Iron
(Arc Spectrum)—
continued.
OJ S
Keduction to
Kayser and
Kunge
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Mttller and
Kempt'
a^2
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
1_
A.
(Itowland)
Angstrom
Fievez
Character
■ -: o i3
" 1
\ +
in Vacuu
0110-81
1
16359-6
6101)-44
07-0
2
16363-3
6107-22
1
16369-3 !
6105-51
1
16373-8
tG103-35
02-0
01-8
8n
1-35
16379-6
6102-30
01-2
00-8
8n
1-10
16382-5
6100-42
1
1-80
16387-5
6098-61
97-4
97-0
4
1-21
1-79
16392-4
6096-89
95-7
95-1
2n
1-19
16397-0
6095-88
1
16399-7
6094-50
93-3
92-8
1
1-20
16403-4
6093-84
92-7
92-1
4n
1-14
16405-2
6092-02
In
16410-1
6090-38
2
16414-5
6089-08
88-1
4
164164
6088-49
In
16419-6
608700
1
16423-6
6085-42
84-0
1
16427-9
6082-84
81-3
1
16434-9
6081-77
800
1
16437-8
6079-29
2
16444-5
t6078-64
77-G
77-2
6n
16078-83
1-04
1644(i-2
6070-66
In
4-8
16451-6
6074-21
2
4-9
16458-1
6072-12
2
4-U
16463-8
6070-10
2
16469-3
6067-88
2
16475-3
t6065-04
64-5
64-5
10
16065-81
1-14
16481-4
6064-92
1
1-79
16483-4
6063-54
1
1-78
16487-1
6062-98
61-4
2
16488-6
6061-41
1
1G492-9
6059-43
I
16498-3
6057-34
1
16504-0
t605G-15
55-1
55-0
6n
tG05G-35
1-05
1G507-2
6054-20
63-]
2
1-10
16512-6
6044-57
1
1G538-9
6043-86
1
16540-8
-[6042-24
41-2
41-1
6
16042-46
1-04
l(i545-2
6040-00
1
16551-4
6035-63
35-0
35-0
2
0-63
16563-4
6034-27
33-0
33
2
1-27
16567-1
6032-70
2
16571-4
6031-43
1
16574-9
6030-49
29
1
1-78
16577-5
6028-56
1
1-77
16582-8
6027-22
260
26-0
6 .
122
16586-5
6026-47
1
16588-6
16024-21
23-0
23-0
lOn
t6024-38
1-21
16594-8
6022-02
4
16600-8
t6020-28
19-1
19-2
6n
1-18
16605-6
6018-20
1
16611-4
6016-87
4
16615-0
6015-85
1
16617-8 I
t6013-68
4
t6013-83
16623-8 1
ON WAYE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 1G7
Iron (Arc Spectrum)— cow<m?«e<;.
Thale'n
S 1
Eeduction to
Kiij-ser and
Kunse
(Uowland)
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kenipf
Vacinini
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
- 1 X-
(;012-50
11-2
11-5
1
1-30
16628-1
(S008-80
075
07-3
8
1-30
1G637-3
6008-14
06-7
4n
16639-2
f>00(!-7-l
05-0
1
1-74
16'543-1
6005'70
03-9
2
16645-9 (
16003-17
02-1
C
t6003-33
1-07
16653 ;
6001 -3(i
98-6
1
166580 !
5!»99-45
1
16663-3
1 .V.iil8-05
96-9
97-0
4n
1-15
16667-2
.V,i97-04
1
16670-0
ry.i95-12
1
1-77
16675-3
5993-37
1
1-76
16680-2
5991-42
1
16685-6
5990 04
1
166896
5988-67
1
16693-3
5987-21
86-2
86-2
6n
t5987-40
1-01
16697-4
5984-98
84-2
84-2
8n
0-78
16703-6
5983-91
82-8
82-7
6n
l-U
16706-6
5978-97
1
16720-4
15976-93
76-0
76-0
8
t5977-n
0-93
107261
T5975-51
74-6
74-3
6
0-91
16730-1
5974-65
1
16732-5
5973-36
1
167361
5972-22
1
16739-3
5969-92
1
16745-7
5969-28
1
16747-5
5968-10
66-5
1
16750-8
5966-88
1
16754-3
5964-87
1
16759-9
5963-82
61-3
1
16762-9
5962-28
59-5
2
16767-2
5960-04
1
1-76
167735
t5958-38
57-1
57-4
4
■|-595S-55
1-28
1-75
16778-2
5956-85
55-0
56-0
6
1-85
16782-5
695586
1
16785-3
5954-65
1
16788-7
5952-94
51-6
51-0
8
1-34
16793-5
5949-55
48-5
48-7
4n
1-05
16803-1
5947-77
1
4-9
16808-1
5942-61
41-6
2
50
16822-6
5941-24
400
4
16826-5
5939-34
1
16831-9
5938-83
1
16833-3
t")9;U-81
33-9
33-0
8
t5934-99
0-91
10844-7
50)1-21
1
16846-4
593025
29-3
28-7
10
0-95
16857-7
5928-00
27-2
26-2
4
C-80
16864-1
5926-95
1
1-75
16867-1
5924-83
1
1-74
16873-1
5923-66
1
16876-5
5922-67
1
16879-3
5921-69
1
16882-1
5920-62
1
16885-1
5919-11
1
16889-4
5918-18
1
16892-1
168
REPORT — 1891.
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — contimeed.
Kayser and
Range
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Angstrom
5917-32
t5916'41
5915-65
+5914-32
5912-37
5910-16
5908-14
t5905-82
5905-13
5902-64
5901-87
5900-41
5839-40
t5898-33
5895-16
5894-49
5892-88
589204
5891-23
5889-22
5888-10
5884-03
5883-52
5881-60
5880-27
5879-80
5878-01
5876-71
5875-76
5874-82
5873-44
5871-72
5871-28
5864-38
t5S62-51
5859-83
5857-71
5856-24
5855-30
5854-01
5853-38
5852-35
5849-80
5849-07
5848-25
5845-93
5845-13
5838-64
6837-88
583600
6835-52
5834-22
5830-80
5827-83
t5816-50
15-7
13-2
09-4
04-4
01-3
97-0
92-0
90-6
83-0
77-0
74-0
61-5
58-4
55-5
51-3
48-5
47-4
37-0
32-5
27-5
15-5
Fievez
Intensity
and
Character
15-6
13-4
09-0
06-7
Ot-3
01-3
00-3
98-0
97-0
92-0
90-6
89-9
84-4
82-5
80-6
78-2
78-0
76-0
72-0
61-4
58-5
552
54-2
52-2
51-0
48-5
47-2
35-8
35-1
33-5
27-5
25-0
15-5
Miiller and
Kempf
1
6
1
lOn
2
4
1
6
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
10
8
1
2
1
1
1
2a
1
1
2n
1
1
2
2n
1
2
In
1
1
6
15914-47
0-71
1-12
0-76
1-42
1-34
1-33
0-88
1-44
Reduction to
Vacuum
15884-19
1-05
-0-29
-0-56
t5862-66
t5857-80
1-01
1-43
0-74
1-05
1-30
t5848-52
0-85
1-64
3-02
3-30
+5816-68
1-00
1-74
1-73
1-73
1-72
1-72
1-71
5-0
5-1
ON ■WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 169
Iron
(Arc Spectrum)—
continued.
Thalcn
Reduction to
Vacuum
Kayscr and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kenipf
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
\ +
1
5815-5i
1
17190-2
581502
14-0
13-6
2
1-02
17191-7
5811-99
11-0
10-5
1
0-99
17200-7
5809 39
08-3
08-0
2
1-09
17208 4
580810
06-7
1
17212-2
5806-83
05-8
05-8
2
t5807-05
1-03
17216-0
5805-83
1
17219-0
5801-63
03-5
03-2
1
M3
17222-5
5804-22
02-8
1
17223-7
5800-21
00-0
1
17235-7
5798-38
97-3
97-3
2
1-08
17241-1
5794-09
93-0
92-2
2
1-09
1725S-9
5791-82
1
172606
15791-14
90-2
90-1
4
t5791-30
0-94
17262 6
5790-55
89-8
1
17264-4
5788-45
I
17270-7
5785-50
84-5
I
17279-5
5784-78
84-2
1
17281-6
5784-00
83-4
1
1-71
17284-0
t5782-28
81-3
81-6
8
0-98
1-70
17289-1
578084
77-5
78-5
2
3-34
17293-4
5778-58
76-0
1
2-58
17300-2
t5775-24
74-1
74-0
6
t5775-3G
1-14
17310-2
5774-49
1
17312-4
5771-28
69-7
1
17322-1
5769-37
1
17327-8
5765-34
1
17339-9
t5763-15
61-9
02-0
10
t5763-23
1-25
17346-5
5762-58
1
17348-2
5761-70
In
17350-9
5761-39
59-9
1
17351-8
5760-51
2
17354-5
5759-73
la
17356-8
5759-37
58-2
1
17357-9
5756-85
56-0
m
17365-5
5755-24
1
17370-4
5754-44
53-9
In
17372-8
t5753 28
62-0
52-0
8
1-28
17376-3
5752-11
510
51-0
2n
1-11
17379-8
5748-01
46-7
46-5
2n
t5748-19
1-31
1-70
17392-2
5745-34
1
1-69
17400-3
574304
41-8
1
17407-3
574202
40-9
40-9
2
1-12
174104
5740 10
39-5
1
17416-2
5738-43
1
17421-3
5737 11
36-8
1
17425-3
573397
1
17434-8
t5731-91
30-5
30-5
6
t5732-0r
1-41
51
17441-1
5727-86
27-0
28-0
1
0-86
5-2
17453-3
5727.20
1
17455-3
5724-52
1
17463-5
5723-82
23-0
22-5
1
0-82
17465-6
5722-00
1
17471-2
5720-95
20-0
19-8
In
0-95
17474-4
5718-03
16-8
16-5
6
t5718-13
1-23
17483-3
170
EEPOET — 1891.
Ibon
(Aec Specteum)—
continued.
s
Reduction to
j
Kayser and
Kuna;e
Thalen
Intensitj'
and
Miiller and
Kempf
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
1
(Rowland)
Angstrom
Fievez
Character
A +
1
in Vacuo
5716-20
15-2
1
1-00
17488-9
15715-24
13-8
14-0
4
1-44
17491-9
5711-34
13-3
13-3
2
1-04
17494-6
5713-54
1
17497-1
5712-30
11-0
2
17500-9
5712-02
10-8
10-7
2
1-22
1-69
17501-7
+5709-56
08-3
08-5
8
15709-75
1-26
1-68
17509-3
5708-25
OM
07-1
2
1-15
17513-3
5707-15
06-0
OC-0
2
1-15
17516-7
5706-14
05-0
05-0
4
1-14
^
17519-8
5705-65
2
17521-3
5704-87
1
17523-7
5703-66
1
17527-4
5702-50
1
17531-0
+5701-71
00-4
00-5
6
1-31
17533-4
5700-37
4
17537-5
5699-62
1
5698-70
175398
5698-55
97-2
97-5
2
1-35
17543-1
5698-23
1
17544-1
6696-02
95-5
1
17550-9
6695-21
1
17553-4
5693-77
92-8
93-0
2
0-97
17557-9
5691-64
90-6
90-8
2
1.04
17564-4
5690-76
1
17567-1
6688-52
1
17574-1
5686-60
85-5
85-3
6
1-10
17580-0
5684-84
1
17585-4
5683-25
82-2
1
17590-4
5680-42
79-0
79-2
1
1-42
175991
t5679-18
77-9
■ 78-0
4
1-28
1-68
17603-0
5672-33
71-0
70-5
1
1-32
1-67
17624-3
5668-65
69-1
1
17635-7
5667-67
66-0
66-6
4
1-67
17638-7
5666-95
1
17641-0
5664-85
1
17647-5
5663-94
63-0
1
17650-4
t5662-68
61-6
61-5
8
1-08
17654-3
5661-50
60-3
1
17658-0
5660-95
69-7
1
17659-7
5658-93
57-6
57-9 i
10
1-33
17666-0
5657-90
1
17669-2
5656-84
1
17672-5
t5655-64
54-4
54-6
4
1-24
17676-3
5655-40
2
17677-0
5654-21
In
17680-7
5652-51
51-6
52-5
2
0-91
17686-0
5651-53
50-4
1
17089-1
5650-96
49-5
1
17690-9
6650-24
48-8
1
17693-2
5649-90
48-0
48-0
In
i-90
17694-3
6646-84
47-5
1
17703-8
5646-20
In
17705-8
5645-95
44-0
1
17706-6
5644-15
43-0
42-7
2
t5644-27
1-15
17712-3
5642-99
42-0
1
17715-9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SrECTKA OF THE ELEMENTS. 171
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — contimwd.
05 S
Reduction to
Knyser and
Uunge
(Kowland)
Tlia
en
Intensity
and
Character
Jl idler and
Kempf
c a is.
Vacuum
Oscillation
Fieqiiency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
A +
1^_
\
5G42-76
1
17716-6
t5641-60
6640-60
40-2
40-5
4
1-40
1-67
17720-3
39-5
In
1-66
17723-4
5638-45
37-2
37-3
6
to638-58
1-25
17730-2
5637-53
36-0
1
17733-1
5637-29
1
17733-8
5G36-84
35-2
1
17735-2
5636-08
340
1
17737-6
5634-16
327
32-5
4
1-46
17743-7
5632-54
310
1
17748-8
5631-84
2
17751-0
5630-70
1
17754-6
5629-33
1
17758-9
5628-68
1
17760-9
5627-72
2
17764-0
5626-87
1
17766-7
5625-95
24-4
241
1
1-55
17769-6
t5624-70
23-2
23-5
8
1-50
17773-5
5623-95
1
17775-9
5623-61
1
17777-0
5621-72
1
5-2
17782-9
5620-70
19-3
19-4
2
1-40
53
17786-1
5619-70
18-5
1
17789-2
5618-81
18-0
17-7
2
0-81
17792-1
5617-90
1
17794-9
5617-39
16-1
16-0
1
1-29
17796-6
t5615-81
14-5
14-6
10
5615-85
1-31
178016
5614-09
1
17807-0
5612-11
11-0
1
17813-3
561005
09-2
2
17819-8
5609-12
07-8
1
17822-8
5607-90
05-8
2
17826-7
5606-30
1
1-66
17831-8
5605-12
1
1-65
17835-5
5603-14
01-7
01-5
8
1-44
17841-8
5601-77
1
17846-2
5600-39
98-9
98-6
2
1-49
17850-6
5598-37
97-2
97-2
4
1-17
17857-0
5596-48
in
17863-1
5594-73
93-4
93-3
2
15594-82
1-33
17868-7 .
5592-64
90-8
1
17876-3
5591-16
1
1
17880-1
5590-30
88-7
1
17882-8
5588-92
1
17887-2
5586-93
85-6
85-4
10
t5587-04
1-32
17893-6
5585-00
83-3
2
17890-8
558313
m
17905-8
5580-99
In
17912-7
5579-21
78-0
In
17918-4
■f5576-22
74-9
74-4
8
1-32
179280
5574-99
2
17931-9
557305
71-7
71-3
10
1-35
17938-2
5571-51
1
1-65
17943 2
t5569-77
68-5
68-5
10
1-27
1-64
17948-8
5568-89
1
17951-6
172
EEPORT — 1891,
lEON
(Arc Spectrum)— coh«»?/c
■7.
,
g
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
Thalen
Intensitj'
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
ill
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
A.+
1_
6567-50
66-4
66-0
4
1-10
17956-1
5565-76
64-6
64-2
6a
15565-99
1-16
17961-7
6563-73
62-7
62-5
4
1-03
17968-2
5562-78
61-8
61-4
2n
0-98
17971-3
5560-36
69-3
59-0
2 11
1-06
17979-1
655800
67-1
56-7
2n
0-90
1T986-8
655'l:-96
53-9
54-0
6a
15555-17
1-06
17996-6
5553-70
52-7
62-4
1
1-00
18000-7
555000
49-0
49-0
2a
1-00
18012-7
5547-12
45-7
2
18022-1
55-1:6-60
45-5
45-3
2
110
18023-8
t5544-07
42-7
43-0
4
1-37
18032-0
5543-24
42-0
42-0
4
t5543-44
1-24
18034-7
6542-09
1
18038-4
5541-14
40-0
la
18041-5
6540-93
1
18042-2
5539-91
1
18045-5
6539-40
37-7
1
18047-2
5538-68
36-3
37-2
2
2-38
18049-5
5537-86
1
180523
6536-63
1
18056-2
.5535-52
4
1-64
18059-8
5534-87
1
1-63
18062-0
5533 10
31-5
31-8
2
1-60
18067-7
5532-87
1
18068-5
5532-13
1
18070-9
553116
1
18074-1
5530-71
29-7
1
18075-6
5529-26
28-4
2
18080-3
5525-70
24-7
24-4
4
1-00
18091-9
5524-40
230
la
18096-2
5522-60
21-5
21-5
2
1-10
18102-1
5521-26
20-0
20-2
1
1-26
6-3
18106-5
5519-69
2
5-4
18111-6
5517-25
la
18119-6
6516-80
15-6
16-5
1
1-20
18121-0
6514-71
1
18127-9
5512-47
11-4
11-2
2
1-07
18135-3
5510-70
09-5
09-2
la
1-20
18141-1
5508-53
07-6
07-2
la
0-93
18148-3
15506-92
05-9
05-9
8
1-02
18153-6
5506-06
1
18156-4
5504-51
03-3
1
18161-5
5503-32
01-9
02-0
2a
1-42
18165-4
-f 5501 -61
00-5
00-5
8
t5501-82
1-11
18171-1
5500-87
1
18173-5
5499-60
In
1-63
18177-7
5497-96
1
1-62
1S183-2
5497-73
1
t5497-83
18183-9
5497-52
96-6
96-4
6
0-92
18184-6
5496-92
1
18186-6
5495-75
1
18190-5
5494-62
93-5
93-7
2
1-12
18194-2
6493-70
925
93-0
92-5
4
1-20
15I97-3
ON "WAyE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTBA OF THE ELEMEI'.TS. 175
Ikon (Arc Specteum) — continued.
ThaHn
StjI
Reduction to
Vacuum
Kayser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
S"; ho
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
A +
1_
A.
5491-98
910
90-8
2
0-98
182030
549010
89-0
89-3
1
1-10
18209-2
548804
86-8
86-6
4a
1-24
18216
5486-00
850
84-0
1
100
18222-8
5483-28
82-4
81-8
4
0-88
182319
5481-62
80-2
80-2
4
1-42
18237-4
5481-06
79-9
79-6
4
1-16
18239-2
5478-60
77-4
78-0
2
1-20
18247-4
5476-82
75-9
75-8
8
to476-97
0-92
18253-4
5476-43
75-3
4
18254-7
5474-08
73-3
73-6
6
0-78
18262-5
5472-88
72-0
72-1
2
0-88
18266-5
5470-79
69-7
2
18273-5
5470-36
69-0
69-1
1
1-36
18274-9
5469-11
In
18278-1
5467-15
66-2
2
18285-7
5466-52
65-6
65-7
4
0-92
18287-8
5465-20
1
18292-2
5464-46
63-2
63-4
62-6
2
1-26
1-G2
18294-7
15463-41
62-3
62-3
8n
1-11
10]
18298-2
5463-19
1
18298-9
5461-68
In
183040
5459-69
In
18310-7
5457-72
2
18317-3
5455-80
54-7
54-7
10
1-10
18323-7
5454-53
1
18328-0
5452-96
51-5
1
18333-3
5452-10
1 •
18336-1
5451-00
1
18339-9
5449-95
1
18343-4
5449-16
1
183460
5448-52
47-3
1
18348-2
t5447-05
45-9
46-0
10
t5447-20
1-15
18353-2
5445-21
44-2
44-3
8n
1-01
18359-4
54i3-33
1
18365-7
5442-42
1
18368-8
5441-56
40-0
40-7
1
1-56
18371-7
5440-41
1
18375-6
5439-48
380
2
18378-7
5438-51
1
18382-0
5437-50
36-0
1
18385-4
5436-74
35-4
35-5
2
1-34
18388-0
t5434-66
33-0
330
8
t5434-81
1-66
18395-0
5433-15
2n
18400-1
5431-82
1
18404-6
6429-74
28-8
280
10
0-94
18411-7
5429-10
1
1-61
18413-9
5428-03
1
1-60
i, 18417-5
6427-13
1
18420-5
5426-14
1
18423-9
t5424-20
236
23-4
lOn
0-60
18430-5
5422-16
1
18437-4
5420-52
19-2
1
18443-0
5418-66
1
5-4
18449-3
174
EEPORT 1891.
Iron (Aec Spegtuum)— continued.
P Keduction to
1
Kavser and
Kunae
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Keinpf
§'2 -2
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Angstrom
Fievez
A +
1
A.
5417-15
16-0
16-2
1
1-15
5-5
18454-4
5415-43
14-5
14-6
10a
t5415-52
0-93
18460-2
5413-30
1
18467-5
5411-13
10-0
100
8n
1-13
18474-9
5409-75
08-5
08-2
1
1-25
18479-6
5409-30
1
18481-2
5407-73
06-5
1
18486-5
t5405-91
04-8
04-9
10
t5406-06
1-11
18492-8
5404-35
03-1
03-3
8n
1-25
18498-1
5402-91
1
18503-0
5401-97
Vogel
1
18506-3
5400-60
99-6
99-6
6n
15100-83
1-00
18511-0
5399-65
1
18514-2
5398-34
97-3
970
2n
5398-63
1-04
18518-7
t5397-27
96-2
960
10
t5397-45
1-07
1-60
18522-4
5395-42
In
159
18528-7
5394-74
1
18531-1
f5393-30
92-1
92-3
8
t5393-57
1-2
18536-0
5391-75
90-4
90-3
4
5391-73
1-35
18541-3
5389-71
88-4
88-8
4n
5389-76
1-31
18548-4
5387-80
86-6
86
In
5387-87
1-20
18554-9
5386-63
85-5
850
1
5386-76
1-13
18559-0
5385-63
1
18562-4
15383-50
82-5
82-4
lOii
■I-5383-68
1-00
18569-8
t5379-70
78-5
78-0
4
■i-5379S3
1-20
18583-9
537901
1
18585-3
5377-88
76-5
76-2
2
1-38
18589-2
5377-08
75-7
75-2
2
5377-75
1-38
18591-9
5375-57
1
5376-96
18597-2
5873-85
72-G
72-5
4
5373-85
1-25
18603-1
537201
1
18609-5
15371-63
70-5
70-6
10
t537I-74
1-12
186109
537009
690
69-0
8n
5370-24
1-09
18616-2
t5367-60
66-4
66-6
8n
15367-79
1-20
18C24-8
6365-62
64-4
64-3
4
5365-67
1-12
18631-7
6365-02
63-9
63-6
6n
5365-19
1-32
18633-8
5362-90
61-9
61-8
2
5363-21
1-00
18641-1
5361-80
60-8
60-6
1
5362-06
1-00
18645-0
5359-97
1
1-59
5-5
18651-3
5358-16
57-3
57-3
1
5358-65
0-86
1-58
5-6
18657-5
5356-28
550
1
186641
f5353-53
52-5
52-5
(i
5353-71
1-03
18673-7
5349-83
48-8
48-7
4n
5349-91
1-03
18686-6
5348-58
1
18690-9
5347-62
1
18694-3
5346 62
1
18697-8
5'!45-75
1
18700-8
5344-64
1
18704-7
5343-62
42-7
42-4
4n
5343-82
0-92
18708-3
5341-49
1
18715-8
5341-15
40-3
40-0
8
t5341-36
0-85
18717-0
5340-10
39-2
38-9
8
5340-34
0-90 (
18720-6
5337-37
In
1
1
18730-2
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTEA OF THE ELEMENTS. 175
Ikon (Aug Spectrum) — continued.
1
0. a
Eeduction to
Kiiyser and
Thalen
Intensity
and
Character
Midler and
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
liunge
(Kowlaud)
Vogel
Fievez
Kempf
G« 1
- i-
5335-47
1
18736-9
5335-25
1
18737-7
t5333-04
32-1
32-0
6
t5333-16
0-94
18745-4
5330-15
29-0
29-1
4
5330-07
1-15
18755-6
5328-94
1
18759-9
5328-50
27-3
27-6
8
"1-5328-51
1-20
18761-4
5328-15
27-0
27-0
10
5328-20
1-15
18762-6
5326-32
25-2
1
18769-1
5824-31
23-2
23-5
10
t5324-48
1-11
1-58
18776-2
5323-70
1
1-57
18778-3
5322-30
21-4
21-3
2
5322-45
0-90
18783-3
5321-36
20-4
20-3
1
5321-51
0-96
18786-6
5320-28
19-3
19-2
1
5320-39
0-98
18790-4
5319-24
18-5
18-0
1
0-74
18794-1
5316-85
161
16-0
2
f531701
0-75
18802-5
5315-19
14-6
14-5
1
5315-73
0-59
18808-4
5313-44
1
18814-6
5311-61
1
18821-1
5309-89
1
18S27-2
t5307-48
06-5
06-6
G
t5307-66
0-98
18835-7
530R'31
1
188399
5304-22
1
18847-3
5302-46
01-5
01-4
10
t5302-60
0-96
18853-6
5300-25
99-4
990
1
5300-51
0-85
18861-4
5298-91
98-1
98-2
2
5399-19
0-81
18866-2
5296-82
949
95-0
I
0-92
18873-6
5295-41
94-3
1
18878-7
5294-63
93-7
93-9
1
5294-70
0-93
18881-5
5294-03
92-7
2
1-55
18883-5
5292-78
92-0
2
188881
5291-07
1
18894-2
5289-22
1
18900-8
t5288-64
87-6
87-6
4
t5288-85
1-04
1-57
18902-8
5287-48
1
1-56
18907-0
5-'85-76
84-2
84-2
1
5285-33
1-56
18913-2
5284-63
83-4
83-8
1
6284-66
1-23
18917-2
5283-75
82-7
82-6
10
15283-93
1-05
18920-3
5281-91
80-9
80-8
8
■f5282-15
1-01
18926-9
5280-53
79-7
790
2
5280-68
0-83
18931-9
5278-95
1
18937-6
527 V -80
1
18941-7
5276-19
75-2
750
1
t5276-26
099
189475
5275-12
74-5
74-0
In
5275-68
0-73
18951-3
5273-55
72-5
72-3
6
5273-81
1-05
18957-0
5273-32
4
^
18957-8
5272-28
1
18961-3
5271-37
1
18964-8
15270 43
69-2
69-5
10
t5270-55
1-23
18968-2
t5269-65
68-5
68-6
lOn
{5279-90
1-15
18971-0
5268-73
1
18974-3
52t;6-72
65-3
65-5
10
5266-80
1-42
18981-5
5264-00
1
18991-4
5263-42
62-3
62-0
6
5263-67
1-12
18993-4
5257-77
56-8
56-6
1
5258-16
0-97
19013-9
5-'55-44
54-7
54-7
1
5256-03
0-74
19022-3
176
BEPORT — 1891.
Iron
(ABC Si
'ECTRUM)—
continued.
a g 1 Reduction to
Kayser and
Kunge
(Ro-yvland)
Thalen
Intensity
and
Character
Mliller and
Kempf
Vacuum
Oscillation
Freq uency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
.0) i- M
« o c
\ +
1
A."
6255-08
53-9
54-0
2
f5255-32
1-88
19023-6
•f5253-56
62-4
52-6
4
5253-68
1-16
1-56
19029-1
5252-08
50-8
51-0
2
525207
1-28
1-55
19034-5
t5250-76
49-4
49-8
6
15250-85
1-36
19038-3
-f5250-33
1
19040-8
5249-17
48-0
47-9
In
5249-33
1-17
19045-0
5247-20
46-2
44-7
45-7
44-0
2
5247-37
5245-98
1-00
19062-2
5243-95
43-0
42-8
2n
5244-24
0-95
190640
6242-58
41-8
41-1
6
t5242-75
0-78
190G9-0
6242-00
1
5-6
19071-1
6236-33
35-4
35-5
1
5236-46
0-93
5-7
19091-6
5235-50
34-4
34-7
4
5236-60
1-10
19094 7
5234-77
33-6
33-8
1
5234-77
1-17
19097-3
1523305
32-1
321
10
t5233-21
0-95
19103-6
6232-48
1
19105-7
6231-49
1
19109-3
5229-95
290
290
6
5230-28
0-93
19114-9
5228-53
27-4
27-6
1
5228-39
1-13
19121-1
5227-85
1
19122-6
5227-33
26-2
26-4
10
5227-47
113
19123-5
5227-00
26-1
10
19125-7
5226-63
1
19127-1
5226-25
1
19128-5
5225-60
24-5
24-8
2
5225-66
110
1 19130-9 1
5224-40
In
19135 3
5223-28
22-3
22-0
1
5223-44
1-18
19139-3
5222-63
21-5
21-4
1
5222-79
1-13
19141-7
6221-89
20-8
1
19144-4
5221-09
20-2
20-0
1
089
19147-4
5219-76
18-7
1
522007
106
19152-3
5218-28
177
2
19157-7
521803
2
1-55
19158-6
t5217-49
16-7
16-7
4
5217-93
0-79
1-54
19160-6
5216-37
15-6
15-5
6
5216-38
0-77
19164-7
t5215-28
14-5
14-5
4
t5215-56
0-78
19168-7
5212-85
09-5
11-0
09-5
1
5210-72
19177-7
6208-72
07-6
07-8
6
t5208-77
1-12
19192-9
5208-11
1
19195-1
6207-95
1
19195-7
5206-13
05-3
2
19202-4
5205-17
1
19206-0
15204-65
03-8
03-3
4
6204-85
0-85
19207-9
t6202-42
01-7
01-4
8
f5202-01
1-72
192161
5201-22
1
19220-6
5199-70
1
19226-2
t5198-82
98-2
98-2
4
519915
0-62
19229-4
5198-09
1
19232-1
5197-68
1
19233-6
6196-69
1
19237-3
5196-20
95-3
95-6
1
5196-46
090
19239-1
6195-69
94-6
94-7
4
5195-73
0-99
19241-4
6195-03
94-0
94-2
8
6195-15
1-03
19243-5
5194-20 1
1
19246-3
ON WAYE-LENGTU TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 177
lEON (Aec SPECTnvyi")—contimeed.
Kayser and
Uuncje
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
MUller and
g-al
Reduction
to Vacnum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
and
Character
Kempf
111
\ +
1_
5193-10
1
19250-6
5192-47
91-4
91-8
10
t5192-67
1-07
19253-0
5192-10
1
19254-3
5191-56
90-6
90-6
10
t5191-76
0-96
19256-3
6188-90
1
19266-2
618800
87-2
87-2
2
5188-16
0-80
19269-5
5186-65
1
19274-6
5184-42
83-3
83-8
4n
6184-46
1-12
1-54
19282-9
5181-90
1
1-63
19292-2
5181-40
80-8
80-7
1
5181-81
0-60
19294-1
5180-14
79-4
79-4
2
5180-29
0-74
19298-8
5178-89
77-8
78-2
In
5178-87
1-08
19303-5
5177-40
76-3
76-5
1
5177-23
1-10
19309-0
5173-85
1
19322-3
5171-71
71-1
70-9
8
5171-89
0-61
19330-3
5171 15
1
19332-4
6170-86
1
19333-4
517008
1
19336-4
5169-09
68-4
68-9
G
516983
0-69
19340-1
|f5ir.7-60
67-0
67-1
10
t5167-67
0-50
19346-0
5166-36
65-8
65-7
4
5166-70
0-58
19350-3
t5165-52
64-8
650
4a
0-72
19353-4
5164-65
63-8
64-2
1
5164-87
0-85
19356-7
tol62-49
61-6
61-5
6n
t5162-60
0-89
19364-8
5160-39
69-6
111
5160-57
0-79
19372-7
5159-09
68-3
4dl
15159-40
0-79
5-7
19377-6
5157-18
56-6
66-0
54-7
63-7
I
5157-69
5157-18
5155-87
5154-77
0-58
5-8
19384-6
5153-28
52-8
6
5154-04
0-48
19399-3
5152-00
51-5
4
6152-64
0-60
19404-1
15150-96
50-6
6
5151-66
0-36
19408-1
5149-43
1
1-53
19413-8
5148-36
47-8
6n
6148-84
0-56
1-52
19417-9
5148-15
46-4
2
5147-64
1-75
19418-6
5146-57
45-3
1
5146-56
1-27
19424-6
5145-17
44-3
1
5145-78
0-87
19429-9
5144-17
42-8
1
6143-98
1-37
19433-7
t5142-99
41-9
4
5143-09
1-09
19438-1
5142-63
41-6
4
6142-71
1-03
19439-5
t5141-85
40-8
4
5141-95
1-06
19442-5
5139-58
38-5
10
15139-72
1-08
19461-0
5139-34
10
19451-9
5138-12
1
19456-6
5137-50
36-3
6n
5137-46
1-20
19458-9
5136-12
35-4
1
5136-50
0-72
19464-1
5133-64
33-0
8
■f5134-00
0-64
19473-5
6131-01
30-8
4
5131-98
0-71
19481-6
5129-73
28-8
1
6129-92
0-93
19488-4
612815
1
19494-4
6127-44
26-4
4
5127-55
1-04
19497-1
6126-70
1
19499-9
6126-31
25-3
1
5126-42
1-01
19601-4
5125-27
24-4
8n
15125-48
0-87
18505-4
1891.
EErORT — 1891.
IBON (Aec Spectrum) — e(yntinued.
Kayser and
Kuuge
(RoAvland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
llowland
— Angstrom
Keduction
to Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogcl
Fievez
X.
1
5124-18
1
19509-5
5123-82
23-1
6
5124-31
0-71
1 9510-9
5121-71
20-9
2n
5121-93
0-81
19518-9
6120-32
1
19524-2
5119-77
1
19526-3
5117-98
1
195332
6115-87
14-6
1
t5115-79
1-27
1-52
19541-2
5114-45
13-6
1
5114-52
0-85
1-51
19546-6
5111-21
1
19559-0
15110 50
09-2
6
5110-03
1-30
19561-7
5109-75
1
19564-6
5107-76
07-2
6
t5107-85
0-56
19572-2
5107-53
4
19573-1
5106-57
1
19576-8
15105-66
05-2
8
5105-83
046
19580-3
5104-45
04-0
1
5104-75
0-45
19584-9
5104-25
03-7
1
5104-35
0-55
19585-7
5104-07
In
19586-4
5103-37
1
19689-1
5102-28
1
19593-3
5100-00
1
19602-0
5099-17
1
19605-2
5098-77
98-2
6
t5098-91
0-57
19606-8
t5097-07
96-6
4n
5097-36
0-47
19613-3
15090-90
90-3
4n
t5091-12
0-60
19637-1
5088-15
87-7
1
5088-48
0-45
19647-7
5087-16
85-7
1
5086-52
0-46
19651-5
5084-26
83-8
1
t5084-39
0-46
19662-7
t5083-46
82-8
6
5083-66
0-66
19665-8
5083-14
1
19667-1
5080^78
80-6
1
5081-74
0-18
19676-2
5080-37
80-2
1
5081-11
017
1-51
19677-8
5079-85
79-4
6
5080-41
0-45
1-50
19679-8
5079-36
78-8
6n
5079-77
0-56
19681-7
5079-00
1
19683-1
5076-43
75-7
2
15076-62
0-73
19693-1
5074-80
74-0
4
5075-03
0-80
19699-4
5072-82
72-0
1
5072-94
0-82
19707-1
5072-04
71-3
1
6072-34
0-74
19710-1
15068-88
68-2
8
5069-10
0-68
19722-4
,5067-22
66-6
1
5067-50
0-62
19728-9
: 5065-09
64-5
Gn
-f5065-21
0-59
5-8
19737-2
5060-11
59-2
57-5
56-5
55-S
55-3
1
5060-11
5057-44
5056-80
5056-11
0-91
5-9
19756-5
5054-71
53-9
1
5054-7G
0-81
19777-6
5053-65
52-8
52-2
1
6053-77
505307
0-85
19781-8
5051-72
51-0
6
t5051-85
0-62
19789-3
5050-98
1
19792-2
5050-58
1
19793-8
f5049-94
49-4
8
foOSO-Oo
6-54
19796-3
5048-57
48-1
2
5048-75
0-47.
19801-7
ON WATE-LENGTU TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF TilE ELEMENTS. 179
lEON (Arc SPECTRVM)—contimted.
Thalon
s-^ •?
[ Eeduction to '
Kavser anc
i; tinge
(Kowlaud)
Intensity
and
Charactei
Millie r and
Kempf
2 =5 -2
fc O P
1 Vacuum
i Oscillntion
Vogel
Fievez
1
X-r
1_
A
j Freqiieiicy
in Vacuo
5047-85
1
1-50
1
19804-5
5044-38
43-6
2
5044-50
0-78
1-49
19818-1
5041-85
41-0
8
f5041-9()
0-85
1982S-1
5041-17
40-3
4
t5041-24
0-87
19830-8
5039-:-!8
38-5
2
5039-51
0-88
19837-S
508f,-90
36-2
1
5037-25
0-70
19847-6
503(;-40
35-7
1
5036-75
0-70
1984'.i-5
5031-95
31-3
1
5032-39
0-65
198671
5030-99
30-4
30-3
1
5031-45
0-59
19870-9
5029-73
29-1
1
5030-16
0-82
19875-9
5028-25
27-4
4
5028-46
0-85
198S1-7
5027-28
26-4
4n
t5027-51
0-80
19885-6
5025-60
24-8
24-0
1
5025-77
5024-97
0-80
198:i2-2
5023-53
22-7
1
083
199(10-4
5022-35
21-5
4
5022-45
0-85
199().")-1
5021-61
20-8
1
5021-84
0-81
19908-0
5020-90
20-0
1
5021-03
0-90
19910-8
6019-89
19-4
1
5020-30
0-89
19914 9
5019-11
1
199J7 9
5018-53
17-7
4
t5018-65
0-83
199-'<»-:;
5017-81
1
19923 1
199l'()-2
6017-02
16-3
1
t5017-22
0-72
5016-40
1
1992S-:
199:!2-7
199;'>:;ii
6015-40
1
5015-09
14-4
6
5015-26
69
5014-42
1
l99:!t; 6
199:;7-;)
1991(V:!
5014-10
1
5013-48
1
5012-86
1
1991i'-s
5012-50
11-7
1
5012-72
0-80
199 ! 1 -2
5012-15
11-3
6
5012-19
0-85
199 l.".-i;
5011-42
1
1-49
190l:)-4
5007-50
06-6
2n
15007-58
0-90
1-48
19vii; 1 I
t5006-24
0-55
8
{5006-28
0-75
i99i;:i-2
t5005-84
05-0
6
5005-84
0-84
1997'! S
5004-92
04-0
1
0-92
1997 1 1
5004-14
03-2
1
5004-34
0-94
19977-.")
5002-95
02-2
2
5003-12
0-75
199.SL' :;
5002-02
01-1
8
6002-16
0-92
l99'--;(>
4999-23
98-3
1
4999-38
0-93
199'. •7-:.'
4997-00
95-6
1
0-40
20( •■■■ 1
4995-81
94-8
1
4995-89
1-01
2001(1 '.1
4994-63
1
'20(1 i .7 1;
t4994-25
93-6
4
4994-58
0-65
20(:; 7 1
4991-43
90-5
2ii
t4991-44
0-93
20( .-■ I
4990-56
89-9
1
4990-94
0-66
200.; 1 :i
4989-10
88-3
2n
4989-29
0-80
200:^7 ^
4986-37
85-9
1
4986-99
0-47
20(' ! s ,s
4985-68
85-3
4
4986-36
0-38
20(.v7 i-."
4985-35
84-7
4
t4985-74
0-65
2007 -.'■'.»
4983-97
84-4
4
4985-43
0-57
20 - 1
4983-41
83-0
2
4984-16
0-11
201 ' ■
4983-00
82-4
1
4983-45
0-60
20i ,.,..■ -3
180
EEPORT — 1891.
Iron
(ABC Spectrum)—
continued.
Kayser and
i-tunfje
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
MiUler and
Kempf
Difference
I^owlaud
— Angstrom
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
\ +
1
A."
4982-67
81-8
6
4982-81
0-87
20063-7
4981-73
79-7
2-03
20067-4
4979-G6
78-8
4979-69
0-86
20075-8
t4978-71
78-1
497909
0-61
20079-6
4977-79
77-0
4978-72
0-79
1-48
20083-3
497603
1-47
20090-4
4975-60
74-7
4975-81
0-97
20092-2
4974-40
20097-0
t4973-29
72-4
14973-40
0-89
20101-5
4972-36
5-9
20105-3
4970-58
69-5
1-OS
6-0
20112-4
4970-07
69-2
497006
0-87
20114-4
4968-79
67-7
4968-69
1-09
20119-6
4967-97
67-1
; 1
4968-05
0-87
20122-9
4966-96
1
20127-0
4966-23
65-3
6
14966-36
0-93
20130-0
49()4-65
63-4
4964-50
1-25
20136-4
4962-63
620
4963-02
0-63
20144-6
4962-03
61-3
4962-37
0-73
20147-0
4961-15
60-3
4961-46
0-85
20150-6
4959-61
20156-9
4957-80
56-8
4957-90
1-00
20164-2
4957-43
56-6
4957-63
0-83
20165-7
495611
20171-1
4955-73
20172-7
4954-90
20176-0
4954-60
53-7
4954-83
0-90
20177-3
4952-64
51-8
4952-81
0-84
20185-2
4950-25
49-4
14950-43
0-84
20195-0
4948-38
In
20202-6
4946-54
45-7
4946-74
0-84
20210-1
4945-80
44-9
4945-99
0-90
20213-2
4943-80
43-7
4944-70
0-10
20221-4
4942-51
41-7
4942-75
0-81
1-47
20226-6
4941-32
1-46
20231-5
4939-78
?8-8
38-3
4939-80
4939-43
0-98
20237-8
4938-93
37-8
4938-93
1-13
20241-3
4938-30
37-3
4938-31
1-00
20243-9
4937-44
36-3
4937-34
1-14
20247-4
4934 08
20261-2
49'i3-44
32-6
31-3
4933-67
4932-40
0-84
20263-8
4930-43
29-7
4930-76
0-73
20276-2
4927-93
27-3
4928-40
0-63
20286-7
4927-46
26-7
24-6
4927-93
0-76
20288-4
14924-89
24-1
4925-19
0-79
20299-0
4924-00
23-2
t4924-25
1-80
20302-7
4923-2G
20305-7
4921-11
20314-6
f4920-63
19-5
10
t4920-79
1-13
20316-6
{4919-11
18-1
-f4919-20
101
20322-9
4918-15
17-0
4918-27
115
20326-8
4917-41
16-4
4917-59
1-01
20329-9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTIiA OF THE ELEMENTS. 181
Ieon (Akc Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayscr and
Runge
(Rowland)
Thalen
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Vacuum
Oscillation
Vogel
Fievez
A +
1_
X
Frequency
in Vacuo
4913-76
1
20345-0
4911-93
11-2
1
4912-38
0-73
20352-6
4910-60
100
2
4911-15
0-60
20358-1
4910-15
09-5
4
4910-58
0-65
20360-0
4909-53
08-7
2
4909-81
0-83
20362-5
4907-86
06-8
1
4907-97
1-06
1-46
20369-5
4906-68
1
1-45
20374-4
4905-30
04-3
1
4905-33
1-00
20380-1
14903-41
02-4
00-1
97-8
96-8
-f4903-63
4901-30
4898-98
4897-91
1-01
203880
4896-56
95-9
1
4897-01
0-66
6-0
20416-5
4893-02
92-2
1
4893-12
1-02
6-1
20t31-2
4891-62
90-8
10
14891-78
0-82
20437-0
4890-89
90-2
8
t4891-]0
0-69
20440-1
4889-95
1
20444-0
4889-14
88-4
2
4889-32
0-74
20447-4
4888-71
87-9
1
4888-87
0-81
20449-2
4887-39
86-3
1
4887-36
1-09
20454-7
4886-43
85-6
1
4886-59
0-83
20458-7
4885-55
84-6
2
4885-63
0-95
20462-4
4882-27
81-4
1
4882-47
0-87
20476-2
4881-80
80-8
1
4881-95
1-00
20478-1
4878-33
77-4
6
4878-49
0-93
20492-7
4876-00
75-3
74-3
73-7
730
1
4876-67
4875-68
4875-15
4874-21
0-70
1-45
20502-5
4872-25
71-3
8
4872-45
0-95
1-44
20518-3
4871-43
70-6
8
14871-60
0-83
20521-7
4870-14
20527-2
4869-71
68-7
67-6
66-6
4869-87
4868-76
1-01
205290
4863-78
62-8
61-7
0-98
20554-0
4862-07
61-2
4862-17
0-87
20561-3
4860-92
60-3
In
0-72
20568-1
t4«59-86
58-8
486001
1-06
20570-6
4859-20
20573-4
4857-40
56-6
4857-64
0-80
20581-0
4855-80
54-7
t4855-89
1-10
20587-8
4855-00
54-1
485511
0-90
20591-2
4852-09
51-2
4852-39
0-89
20603-6
4849-02
48-8
t484905
0-22
20616-6
4848-57
48-1
4848-77
0-47
20618-5
4845-76
44-7
4845-67
1-06
20630-5
4844-13
43-3
4844-35
0-83
20637-4
4843-31
42-3
4843-48
1-01
20640-9
4841-92
411
4842-12
0-82
20646-9
4840-42
39-4
4840-62
1-02
20653-3
4839-66
38-8
4839-94
0-86
20656-5
4838-66
37-7
-f4838-90
0-96
20660-8
483604
350
1
4836-31
1-04
1-43
20672-0
182
KErORT — 1891.
Iron (Aec Spectrum) — continued.
S
Ecduction to
1
Thalen
§■2:0
Vacuum
Ka\ ser and
[
utensity
and
!;haracter
Miiller and 2 -| g, -
Kempf EC o c
DsciUation
?reqiiency
in Vacuo
Runi^e
(Eowland)
Vogel
Fievez
A +
1_
4834-64 ;
338
4834-96
0-84
20678-0
4832-84 1
31-8
4833-17
1-04
20685-7
4827-57
26-7
0-87
20708-2
4825-44
24-6
0-84
20717-4
4824-27
20722-4
t4823-63
23-3
14824-04
0-33
6-1
20725-2
4817-90
17-2
1 1
f4818-24
0-70
6-2
20749-7
4815-42
15-3
1-12
20760-4
4813-33
12-3
4813-68
1-03
20769-4
4811-22
10-3
4811-67
0-92
2077»-o
4810-06
09-3
t4810-81
0-76
20783-6
4809-65
20785-3
4809-36
08-6
0-76
20786-6
4808 87
08-0
1480905
0-87
20788-7
4808-25
07-5
0-75
20791-4
4807-86
07-1
0-76
20793-1
4804-71
03-8
4804-89
0-91
20806-7
4803-00
02-1
4803-12
-90
1-43
20814-1
4801-26
1-42
20821-7
4800-76
99-8
0-96
20823-8
4799-98
99-2
0-78
20827-2
4799-50
98-6
0-90
20829-3
4798-90
20831-9
4798-38
97-7
97-3
-|-4798-75
4798-58
0-58
20834-2
4794-15
93-5
4794-73
0-65
20852-6
4792-62
92-1
4793-21
0-52
20859-2
4791-33
90-3
4791-51
1-03
20864-8
4790-54
20868-3
4789-74
88-8
4790-02
0-94
20871-8
4788-86
87-8
4789-10
1-06
20875-6
4787-98
86-8
In
4788-18
1-18
20879-4
4786-91
85-9
1-01
20884-1
4786-04
84-9
4786-17
1-14
20887-9
4783-56
79-8
14783-73
3-76
20898-7
4779-55
78-5
4779-80
1-05
20916-3
4776-17
75-3
0-87
20931-1
4772-95
71-8
t4773-24
1-15
20945-2
4771-81
70-7
4771-95
1-11
20950-2
4768-46
67-3
4768-70
1-16
20964-9
4767-13
20970-8
4766-56
65-8
4767-18
0-76
1-42
20973-3
4765-98
65-3
64-4
4766-74
4765-82
0-68
1-41
20975-8
4762-48
t4762-83
20991-3
4761-66
58-8
4760-21
0-86
20994-9
4757-70
56-7
4757-91
1-00
21012-4
4756-20
55-3
4756-45
0-90
210190
t4754-16
54-7
f4754-40
0-46
21028-0
4752-50
51-6
50-2
4752-77
4751-47
0-90
21035-3
4750-13
49-2
4750-29
0-93
21045-8
4749-77
6-2
21047-4
4747-49
47-2
1 14748-40
0-29
6-3
21057-5
4745-92
450
2
1 4746-16
0-92
21064-4
ON -WAVE-LEMaTII TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OP TUB ELEMENTS. 183
Ikon (Aec SFECTmjn)— continued.
a. S
Reduction to
Kayser and
kun<;e
(Kowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempt
III
SI S) -
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
1
rie%'ez
A.+
1_
A.
43-6
-_-
4744-75
4741-65
40-7
2
4741-84
0-95
21083-4
1741-27
39-6
1
4740-69
1-67
21085-1
4740-48
1
21088-6
4739-26
1
21094-0
4737-75
37-1
1
4738-05
0-65
21100-8
4736-91
36-2
10
t4737-15
0^71
21104-5
4735-96
35-2
4
4736-16
0^76
21108^7
4734-25
33-3
1
4734-38
0^95
21116^4
4733-71
32-7
4
4733-90
1^01
21118-8
4731-60
30-7
1
4731-81
0^90
1-41
21128^2
4730-41
1
1-40
21133^5
4729-84
28-9
1
4730-02
094
21136^1
4729-13
28-3
1
4729-41
0-83
21139-2
4728-67
27-9
4
4728-90
0-77
21141^3
t4727-56
4726-38
4
t4727-72
21146-3
25-4
1
4726-45
0-98
21151-5
4722-27
1
21170-0
4721-11
20-3
1
0-81
21175-2
4714-31
13-7
1
t4714-75
0-61
21205-7
4712-21
11-4
1
4712-46
0-81
21215^2
4711-56
10-7
1
4711-83
0-86
21218-1
4710-37
09-5
4
4710-62
0-87
21223-4
4709-83
1
21225^9
4709-18
08-3
4
4709-41
0-88
2122S^8
4707-45
06-6
8
4707-69
0-85
21236^6
4705-53
04-7
1
4705-83
0-83
212453
470510
04-2
2
4705-30
090
21247^2
4701-10
In
21265^3
4700-49
99-4
lu
4700-48
1-09
21268-1
4698-50
97-7
1
4698-78
0-80
1-40
21277-1
4694-97
94-3
1
4695-41
0-67
1-39
21293-1
4691-52
90-6
6
|4691-78
0-92
21308-7
4690-26
89-3
2
4690-37
0-96
21314-5
4689-62
88-6
1
4689-64
1-02
21317-4
4688-39
87-3
In
4688-39
1-09
213230
4687-49
86-5
1
4687-56
0-99
21327-1
4685-27
83-7
1
4684-79
1-57
21337-2
14683-68
82-7
2
4683-76
0-98
21344-4
4682-74
1
21348-7
4682-18
81-3
1
4682-46
0-88
21351-3
4681-58
80-6
1
4681-60
0-98
21354-0
4680-49
79-7
1
46S0-63
0-79
21359-0
t4678-97
4675-23
77-9
8
•[•4679-23
1-07
21365-9
1
6-3
213830
4674-78
1
6-4
21385-0
4674-37
1
21386-8
4673-29
72-2
4
t4673^37
1-09
21391-8
4669-30
68-3
4
4679^28
1-00
21410-1
-14668-23
4667-56
67-2
6
4678^20
1-03
21415-0
65-5
6
14667-81
1-06
21418-1
4666-08
64-9
la
466608
1-18
21424-9
4664-46
1
21432-3
4663-25
62-3
1
4663-49
0-95
21437-9
4662-09
61-2
2
0-89
21443-2
184
EEroET — 1891.
Ikon
(Aec Spectrum)—
wtitinued.
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
Thal&
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
I"? Si
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
\ +
1
4661-61
60-7
1
4661-71
0-91
1-39
21445-4
4658-77
1
1-38
21458-5
4658-42
57-5
1
4658-52
0-92
21460-1
4657-71
56-7
1
4657-82
101
21463-4
4654-70
53-7
10
14654-89
1-00
21477-3
4652-21
1
21488-8
4651-27
50-4
4
4651-55
0-87
21493-1
4649-96
49-2
1
4650-37
0-75
21499-2
4647-54
46-7
8
4647-70
0-84
21510-4
4646-34
In
t4646-52
21515-9
4644-94
In
21522-4
t4643-58
42-7
4
4643-76
0-88
21528-7
4641-12
40-0
In
4641-21
1-12
21540-1
4640-45
1
21543-2
4638-13
37-3
6
4638-32
0-83
21554-0
4637-66
36-T
6
4637-83
0-96
21556-2
4635-95
350
2
4636-19
0-95
21564-1
4634-92
33-9
In
4635-04
1-02
21568-9
4633-87
33-0
1
4634-06
087
21573-8
4633-02
32-1
4
t4633-24
0-92
21577-8
4631-61
1
21584-4
4630-91
1
21587-6
4630-22
29-3
4
4630-45
0-92
21590^8
4629-44
1
21594-5
4627-65
26-6
1
4627-79
1-(D5
21602-8
4626-65
1
1-38
21607-5
4625-19
24-3
6
t4625-35
0-89
1-37
21614-3
4619-40
18-6
(->
461966
0-80
21641-4
4618-88
18-1
2
4619-14
0-78
21643-9
4615 73
14-8
1
4615-92
0-93
21658-6
461429
133
1
4614-53
0-99
21665-4
4613-35
12-5
4
t4613-59
0-85
21669-8
t4611-38
10-5
8
4611-60
0-88
6-4
21679-1
4607-79
07-0
6
14607-88
1-09
6-5
21695-9
4606-34
1
21702-7
4605-52
In
21706-6
4604-84
In
21709-8
4604-01
03-7
1
4604-90
0-41
21713-7
4603-03
02-3
8
4603-30
0-73
21718-3
t4602-ll
01 -3
4
4602-35
0-81
21722-7
4601-08
00-2
1
4601-35
0-88
21727-5
4600-09
In
21732-2
4598-26
97-4
6
4598-48
0-86
21740-9
4597-50
1
21744-4
4596-64
1
21748-5
4596-13
95-3
2n
4596-38
0-83
21750-9
4595-48
94-7
4
4595-71
0-78
21754-0
4594-25
1
21759-8
4593-64
1
21762-7
4592-75
91-J>
8
t4592-88
0-85
21766-9
4591-52
90-1
In
4591-10
1-42
1-37
21772-8
4587-23
86-4
4
4597-45
0-83
1-36
21793-1
4586-46
]
21796-8
4584-89
84-2
1
2
4595-11
0-69
21804-3
4583-93
83-3
2
4594-17
0-63
2180&-8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 185
Iron (Aec 8FBCTB,vi>i)— continued.
Kavser and
fiunge
(Rowland)
ThaWn
Intensity
and
Character
Muller and
ill
Eeduction to
Vacuum
Oscillatiora
Vogel
Fievex
Renipf
te o g
A +
1_
A
Frequercj-
in Vacuo
4583-04
1
21813-1
4582-51
1
21815-6
4581-66
80-8
4
t4581-72
0-86
21819-6
46&0-67
79-8
2
0-87
21824-4
458004
79-4
1
4580-38
0-64
21827-4
4579-&3
1
21827-9
4579-30
1
21830-9
4575-87
1
21847-3
4574-84
74-2
4
4575-07
0-64
21852-2
4574-34
1
21854-6
4573-05
72-2
1
4573-16
0-85
21860-7
4571-62
71-1
1
4572-00
0-52
21867-6
45fi8-&3
68-2
4
4569-10
0-73
21880-5
4567-10
66-3.
1
4567-20
0-80
21889-2
4566-62
65-8
2
4566-82
0-82
21891-5
4565-81
65-0
2
4565-87
0-81
21895-4
4565-44
1
21897-2
4564-87
64-2
2
456504
0-67
21899-9
4561-84
1
21914-5
4561-09
60-7
1
4561-71
0-39
21918-1
4560-26
59-4
2
4560-38
0-86
21922-1
4558-18
57-3.
1
4558-36
0-88
21932-1
4557-46
In
21935-5
4557-04
1
21937-6
4556-22
55-4^
8
4556-33
0-82
1-36
21941-5
4554-63
1
1-35
21949-2
4554-16
1
t4554-35
21951-4
4552-66
51-8-
4
4552-81
0-86
21958-7
4551-76
In
21963-0
4551-10
60-1
In
4551-07
1-00
21966-2
4549-57
48-9'
4
t4549-86
0-67
21973-2
4548-88
1
21976-9
4547-95
47-a
8
4548-16
0-65
21981-4
4547-14
46-3.
4
4547-28
0-84
21985-3
4546-61
1
21987-9
4546-13
44-0
1
4544-95
213
21990-2
4542-84
In
22006-2
454263
41-8
2
4542-80
0-73
22007-7
454207
1
22009-9
4541-43
1
220130
4540-77
1
6-5
22016-2
4539-87
1
6-6
22020-5
4538-96
38-0
2
453907
0-96
22024-9
4537-74
1
22030-8
4536-58
1
22036-4
4536-10
1
22038-8
4535-65
1
22041-0
4534-94
In
22043-4
4534-13
1
22048-3
4533-35
32-5
2
4533-47
0-85
22052-1
4532-47
1
22056-4
4531-73
30-8
4
4531-93
0-95
22059-9
4531-25
90-4
8
4531-40
0-85
22062-4
4530-51
1
22066-0
4529-75
28-&
4
4529-86
0-95
22069-7
186
BEPOKT 1891.
lEON
(Aec Specteum) — co)itimied.
■u S
Reduction to
Kaj'ser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
1 g-csti
\ p ^ i-*
Miiller and ?; ^ -S
Kempf ^ 1 c
A'acuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogcl
Fievez
\ +
1
A.
4528-78
28-0
10
14529-02 1 0-78
22074-4
4527-9',)
1
1
22078-3
4527-36
1
22081-3
452G-G6
25-7
4
4526-75 0-96
22084-7
4525-99
1
22088-0
4525-27
24-4
6
4525-42
0-87
22091-5
4524-91
2
22093-3
4523-47
22-6
1
4523-65
0-87
22100-3
4522-72
220
1
t4523-60
0-72
22104-0
4520-35
19-5
1
{4520-46
0-85 1-35
22115-6
4518-62
17-6
1
4518-67
1-02 1-34
22124-0
4517-(i4
16-8
4
4517-83
0-84
22130-8
4515-36
14-7
1
4515-63
0-G6
221400
4514-29
13-4
2
0-89
22144-3
4509-95
08-9
1
4509-98
1-05
22166-6
4509-41
I
221G9-2
4508-40
07-6
OG-5
1
t45C8-48
0-80
22174-2
4504-93
04-2
1
4505-07
0-73
22191-3
4502-70
01-8
1
4502-86
0-96
22202-0
4502-31
1
22204-2
4499-03
98-4
1
4499-35
0-63
22220-4
4497-86
96-2
1
4497-13
0-66
22226-2
4496-20
2
22234-4
4495-51
1
22237-8
t4494-67
93-8
8
14494-71
0-87
22242-0
4493-95
1
22245-5
4493-42
1
22248-2
4492-84
92-0
1
4492-90
0-84
22251-0
4491-53
1
22257-5
4490-88
90-2
2
4491-02
0-68
22260-7
4490-19
89-3
4
4490-35
0-89
22264-2
4489-84
88-8
4
1-04
22265-9
4489-08
88-3
1
4489-37
0-78
22269-7
4488-26
87-5
2
4488-47
0-76
22273-7
4485-77
84-8
4
t4485-98
0-97
22286-1
4484-36
83-5
6
4484-47
0-86
1-34
22293-1
4483-32
1
1-33
22298-3
4482-8G
82-0
1
4482-99
0-86
22300-6
4482-35
81-6
8
4482-37
0-75
22303-1
4481-72
81-0
1
4481-77
0-72
2230G-3
4481-03
1
22309-7
4480-26
79-4
2
4480-30
0-86
22313-5
4479-73
78-8
2
4479-81
0-93
22316-2
4478-18
1
22323-9
4477-71
1
22326-2
4477-37
1
22327-9
4476-98
1
22329-9
4476-20
1 75-4
10
t4476-29
0-80
22333-8
4475-41
i
1
22337-6
4474-87
1
22340-4
4474-13
1
22344-1
4472-84
2
t4473-10
6-6
22350-6
4471-94
1
6-7
22355-0
4471-31
I
22358-1
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 187
Ikon (Arc Specteum) — continued.
Kayser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Thal^n
Intensity
and
Character
Muller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrom
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
A +
1_
A
4470-23
1
22363-5
4469-53
68-7
8
4469-64
0-83
22367-0
4468-44
1
22372-5
4467-96
1
22375-9
4467-55
1
22376-9
4466-70
66-0
8
t4466-97
0-70
22381-2
4465-96
1
22384-9
4465-39
1
22387-8
4464-88
4
6-7
22390-3
4463-66
1
22396-4
4463-33
1
22398-1
4462-11
4
22404-2
4461-75
61-2
6
4461-98
0-55
22406-0
4461-40
I
22407-8
4460-48
1
22412-4
4459-88
1
22415-4
4459-24
58-6
8
t4459-44
0-64
22418-6
4458-35
2
22423-1
4457-68
1
22426-5
4457-18
1
22429-0
4456-46
55-7
2
4456-69
0-76
22432-6
4455-85
1
22435-7
4455-20
In
22439-0
4454-50
53-8
6
4454-76
0-70
22442-5
4453-53
52-8-
1
4453-71
0-73
22447-4
4453-16
1
22449-3
4452-22
1
22454-0
4451-71
2
22456-6
4450-44
49-8
2
4450-81
0-64
1
22463-0
4448-66
1
1-33
22472-0
4447-85
47-2
8
4448-12
0-65
1-32
22476-1
4447-23
2
22479-2
4446-95
46-3
2
4447-21
0-65
22480-6
4446-47
1
22483-0
444616
1
22484-6
4445-61
45-0
1
4445-85
0-61
22487-4
4445-15
1
22489-7
4444-79
1
22491-5
4444-15
1
22494-8
4443-30
42-7
8
4443-57
0-60
22499-1
4442-97
1
22500-8
4442-46
41-7
8
4442-70
0-76
22503-3
4441-80
1
22506-7
4441-10
40-3
1
4441-32
0-80
22510-2
4440-56
39-9
I
4440-76
0-66
22513-0
4439-96
39-3
2
4440-22
0-66
22516-0
4439-40
1
22518-9
4438-50
37-8
2
4438-69
0-70
22523-4
4437-88
1
22526-6
4437-04
36-3
2
4437-29
0-74
22530-8
4436-50
1
22533-6
4435-27
4
14435-42
22539-8
4433-98
33-2
2
4434-11
0-78
22546-4
4433-32
32-6
6
4433-53
0-62
22549-8
4432-68
32-0
2
4432-86
0-68
22553-0
188
BEPORT — 1891.
IBON (Aec SPECTB,vu)—coniinved.
Kayser and
Bunge
(Rowland)
Thal^n
Intensity
and
Character
Muller and
Kempf
p a S
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
A.+
1_
A.
44320f;
22556-2
4431-43
22559-4
4430-74
30-2
054
22563-9
4430-33
29-6
4430-89
0-72
22565-0
4429-44
4430-30
22569-5
4428-74
22573-1
4428-17
22576-0
4427-44
26-7
4427-46
0-74
22579-7
4426-74
22583-3
4426-08
22586-6
4425-79
t4425-77
22587-1
4424-26
22595-9
442401
23-3
0-71
22596-2
4423-29
22-5
4423-32
0-79
22600-9
4422-67
218
0-87
22604-1
4422-02
226074
4421-37
22610-7
4418-43
In
22625-8
4417-13
22632-4
4416-85
22633-9
4416-56
22635-4
441610
22637-7
4415-27
14-3
10
t4415-34
0-97
22642-0
4414-56
22645-6
4413-99
22648-5
4413-35
1-32
22651-8
4412-15
1-31
226580
441112
22663-3
4409-25
22672-9
4408-54
07-8
4408-37
0-74
22676-5
t4407-80
07-2
4407-85
0-60
22680-4
4406-74
22685-8
4406-07
6-7
22689-3
4404-88
04-3
10
t4405-00
0-58
6-8
22695-3
4403-60
22701-9
4402-95
22705-2
4401-46
00-7
0-76
22712-9
4400-72
22716-7
4400-02
22720-4
4398-84
22726-5
4396-76
22737-2
4395-39
94-5
t4395-45
0-89
22744-3
4392-66
92-2
4392-92
0-46
22758-4
4391-95
227621
4391-68
22763-5
t439109
90-5
6
4391-34
0-59
22766-6
4390-59
90-2
1
4390 88
0-39
22769-2
4390-10
2
22771-7
4389-35
88-8
2
4389-61
0-55
22775-6
4388-57
87-9
6
4388-80
0-67
22779-7
4388-01
87-4
4
4388-29
0-61
22782-6
4386-70
In
22789-4
4385-40
84-^
1
4385-76
0-50
22796-1
4384-82
84-3
2
4385-12
0-52 1
22799-2
4384-38
1
1
22801-4
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
189
Iron
(Arc Spectrum) —
oontintied.
Kavser and
it
Thale'a
Intensity
and
Character
Mailer and
^ ^ 00
Keduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Kunge
(Rowland)
Vogel
Fievez
Kempf
\ +
1_
4383-70
83-0
10
t4383-70
0-70
22805-0
4382-88
2
22809-2
4380-60
In
22821-1
4379-36
2
22827-6
4377-94
1-31
22835-0
4377-46
76-9
4377-69
0-56
1-30
22837-6
4376-89
76-4
4577-23
0-49
22840-6
t4376-04
75-6
4376-38
0-44
22844-9
4375-06
74-2
4374-92
0-86
22850-0
4374-59
22852-6
4373-67
73-3
4374-01
0-37
22857-3
4373-10
72-4
4373-23
0-80
22860-3
4371-51
22868-6
4371-09
22870-8
4370-59
22873-4
t4369-89
69-3
0-59
22877-1
4369-18
22880-8
4368-67
22883-6
4368-00
67-6
2
4368-36
0-40
228870
4367-68
67-2
t4368-07
0-48
22888-6
4366-89
22892-8
4366-02
65-5
4366-34
0-72
22897-3
4362-47
62-5
4363-21
22916-0
4360-91
60-5
4361-21
0-41
22924-2
4358-62
58-1
4358-91
0-52
22936-2
4356-94
fi-8
22945-1
4353-60
6-9
22962-6
t4352-86
52-3
435312
0-56
22966-5
4352-57
22968-0
4351-67
510
4351-66
0-67
22972-8
4351-11
22975-7
4350-43
lu
22979-3
4349-87
22982-3
4349-07
48-6
4349-30
0-47
22986-5
4348-57
la
22989-2
4347-99
47-4
434818
0-59
22992-2
4347-34
, 1
22995-7
4346-66
46-2
4346-88
0-46
22999-3
4345-17
44-2
4344-79
0-97
23007-2
4344-62
23010-1
4343-81
43-3
4343-96
0-51
23014-4
4343-39
42-7
4343-49
0-69
1-30
23016-6
4340-65
40-0
14340-71
0-65
1-29
230311
4340-21
23033-5
4338-38
37-8
4338-55
0-58
23043-2
4338-05
23044-9
4337-71
23046-7
4337-14
36-6
10
4337-35
0-54
23049-8
4335-96
23056-0
4333-88
32-0
4332-72
1-88
23067-1
4331-89
23077-7
4331-02
30-6
4331-44
0-42
23082-3
4328-91
23093-6
4328-02
27-3
2
5328-34
0-72
23098-3
4327-22
26-6
4
4327-51
0-62
23102-6
190
REPORT — 1891.
Ieon
(Aec Spectrum)—
contimied:
Kayser and
ilunge
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
MUller and
Kempf
ill
Keduction to
Vacuum
Oscillatinn
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
A +
1_
X
4326-86
26-3
1
4327-20
0-56
23104-5
t4325-92
25-3
10
t4325-98
0-62
23109-6
4325-19
1
23113-5
4324-66
1
23116-3
4322-93
1
23125-5 .
4331-90
21-4
2
4322-20
0-50
23131-1
4320-89
20-2
1
4321-23
0-69
23136-5
4319-88
1
23141-9
4318-78
1
23147-8
4318-22
1
23150-8
4317-10
1
23156-8
4316-21
In
23161-6
4315-83
1
23163-6
4315-21
14-6
10
4315-56
0-61
23166-9
4314-43
1
23171-1
4313-91
1
23173-9
4312-28
1
23182-7
4311-12
1
23188-9
4310-52
10-0
1
4310-98
0-52
23192-2
4309-50
09-2
6
4309-20
0-30
23197-6
4309-14
2
23199-6
G4307-96t
07-3
10
t4308-25
0-63
23205-9
4306-80
23212-2
4306-11
23215-9
4305-58
04-7
4305-71
0-88
23218-8
4305-32
1-29
23220-2
4304-66
040
430505
0-26
1-28
23223-7
4303-87
23226-0
4303-25
23231-3
4302-68
23234-4
4302-31
01-7
4302-75
0-61
23236-4
4301-16
23242-6
4300-86
23244-3
4300-29
23247-3
4299-42
98-8
10
4399-77
0-62
23252-0
4298-16
97-6
4398-58
0-56
23258-9
4297-46
.
23262-7
4296-56
23267-5
4296-13
23269-9
4295-83
23271-5
4295-45
23273-5
4295-08
23275-6
4294-26
93-7
10
4294-64
0-56
23280-0
4293-61
23283-5
4293-07
In
23286-4
4292-49
23289-6
4292-36
91-7
4292-61
0-66
23290-3
4291-69
91-2
4292-02
0-49
6-9
23293-9
4290-99
90-5
4291-45
0-49
7-0
23297-6
4290-50
89-9
2
4290-77
0-60
23300-3
4290-04
1
23302-8
4289-84
2
14289-87
23303-9
4289-08
88-7
2
4289-54
0-38
23308-0
4288-25
87-7
4
4288-63
0-55
23312-5
4287-05
86-7
2
4287-44
0-35
23319-2
ON -WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TUE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
191
Iron
(Arc Spectrum)—
aontinued.
Kavser and
liunge
(Kowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Kowlaud
— Angstrom
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogcl
Fievez
A +
1_
A
4286-58
86-2
1
4286-99
0-38
23321-6
428G-22
1
23323-6
428G-02
1
23324-7
4285-57
85-2
6
4285-92
0-37
23327-1
4285-20
1
'
23329-1
4284-90
1
23330-8
4284-55
In
23332-7
4284-20
In
23334-6
4283-73
1
23337-1
4283-35
1
23339-2
4283-20
1
23340-0
4282-58
82-1
10
4282-87
0-48
23343-4
4281-86
1
23347-3
4281-24
1
23350-7
4280-68
80-0
1
4280-87
0-68
23353-8
4279-99
79-4
1
4280-20
0-59
23357-5
4279-59
79-2
1
4279-94
0-39
23359-7
4279-01
1
23362-9
4278-35
77-9
2
4278-66
0-45
23366-5
4277-80
77-3
1
4278-02
0-50
23369-5
4277-34
1
23372-0
4276-80
76-4
2
4277-10
0-40
23375-0
4275-79
75-3
1
4275-91
0-49
23380-5
4275-27
1
23383-3
4274-87
73-7
2
4274-25
1-17
23385-5
4273-99
1
23390-3
427316
1
23394-9
4272-61
1
23397-9
4271-93
71-6
10
4272-17
0-33
23401-6
4271-30
71-0
10
4271-54
0-30
23405-1
4270-65
1
23408-6
4270-13
1
23411-5
4269-89
1
23412-8
4269-50
1
1-28
23414-9
4268-87
68-6
4
4269-12
0-27
1-27
23418-4
t4267-97
67-6
6
4268-14
0-17
23423-3
4267-08
66-7
4
4267-35
0-38
23428-2
4266-69
1
23430-4
4266-09
1
23433-7
4265-37
65-2
2
4265-C5
0-17
23437-6
4264-88
1
23440-3
426437
64-1
2
4264-63
0-27
23443-1
4261-48
2
23459-0
4260-64
60-2
10
t4260-73
0-44
23463-6
4260-21
1
23466-0
4259 63
1
23469-2
4259-39
1
23470-5
4259-06
2
23472-4
4258-75
58-4
2
4259-00
0-35
23474-1
1258-43
58-0
2
4258-60
0-43
23475-8
4257-80
In
23479-3
4257-18
In
23482-7
4256-82
1
23484-7
4256-32
1
23487-5
4256-00
1
23489-2
192
EEPORT — 1891.
Ikon
(Arc Spectrum)—
oontinu
ed.
Kayser ami
Runge
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensit}-
and
Character
MUller and
Keiiipf
a a i^
Reduction
to Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
A +
1
4255-64
55-3
2
4255-92
0-14
23491-2
4255-08
1
23494-3
t4254-45
54-6
2
4255-28
23497-8
4254-13
53-6
1
4254-22
0-53
23499-6
4253-89
1
23500-9
4253-25
1
23504-4
4252 27
1
23509-8
4250-93
50-5
10
4251-13
0-43
23517-3
4250-28
49-8
10
4250-45
0-48
23520-9
4249-07
1
23527-6
4248-77
1
23529-2
4248-35
47-9
4
4248-60
0-45
23531-5
4247-60
47-1
,S
4247-72
0-50
23535-7
4246-60
1
23541-2
4246-18
45-7
4
4246-36
0-48
23543-6
4245-39
44-9
6
4245-59
0-49
235480
4244-38
1
23553-6
4243-89
43-4
1
4244-13
0-49
23556-3
4243-44
43-0
2
4243-67
0-44
23558-8
4242-85
42-3
2
4242-98
0-55
23562-1
4242-44
1
23564-3
4241-90
1
23567-3
4241-20
40-7
1
4241-41
0-50
23571-2
4240-79
1
23573-5
4240-50
2
23575-1
4239-90
39-4
«
4240-11
0-50
23578-5
4238-98
38-5
8
4249-10
0-48
23583-6
4238-14
37-7
4
4248-32
0-44
23588-3
4237-26
36-8
2
4237-45
0-46
23593-1
4236-84
In
23595-5
4236-09
35-6
10
t4236-21
0-49
23599-7
4235-41
2
23603-5
4235-01
1
23605-7
4234-51
1
1-27
23608-5
4233-76
33-3
10
4233-87
0-46
1-26
23612-7
4233-25
1
23615-5
4232-93
1
23617-3
4232-57
1
23619-3
4231-32
1
23626-3
4230-75
1
23629-5
4230-36
In
23631-6
4229-86
1
23634-4
4229-61
29-0
2
4229-72
0-61
23635-8
4228-98
In
23639-4
4227-60
27-0
10
4227-67
0-60
7-0
236471
4226-84
4
7-1
23651-2
4226-52
25-9
4
4226-65
0-62
23653-0
4226-08
25-5
4
4226-25
0-58
23655-5
4225-61
250
6
4225-69
0-61
23658-1
4224-63
24-1
2
4224-76
0-53
23663-6
4224-27
23-7
6
4224-43
0-57
23665-6
4223-40
1
23670-5
4222-32
21-8
8
4222-45
0-52
23676-6
4221-36
1
23681-9
4220-44
19-8
4
4220-59
0-64
23687-1
ox WAVE-LEXGTJI TABLES OF THE SPECIlt.V OF TUE ELEMENTS. 193
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — continned.
Kaysor and
KutiRe
(Rowland)
Thalen
Intensitv
and '
CliaraUer
Jliiller and
rcnce
■land
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
Kenipf
-;:-
4219-99
1
1
23689-6
4219-47
is-s
8
4219 59
0-67
23092-6
4218-48
1
23098-1
4217-69
17-2
6
4217-80
0-49
23702-6
421(i-28
15-7
6
4216-45
0-58
23710-5
421G-08
1
23711-6
4215-52
4
23714-8
4213-75
13-2
4
4213-85
0-55
23724-7
4213-38
1
23726-8
4212-61
1
23731-2
4210-48
09 8
S
4310-59
0-08
23743-2
4208-71
08-2
4
4208-83
0-51
23753-1
4207-93
I
1
23757-5
4207-22
06-7
4
4207-38
0-52
23761-6
4206-78
06-3
2
4206-90
0-48
23764-0
1205-63
05-0
2
4205-73
0-63
23770-5
4205-12
1
23773-4
4204-07
03-5
(i
4204-21
0-57
23779-4
4203-63
la
23781-9
4203-27
1
23783-9
4202-85
2
23780-3
4202-15
01-6
10
t4202-33
0-55
i
23790-2
4201-31
1
t
23795-0
420101
00-3
4
4200-98
0-71
' 23796-7
4200-01
1
23802-4
-f4199-19
987
10
4199-33
0-49
' 23807-0
4198 75
2
23808-5
4198-42
97-7
10
4198-46
0-72
1-2G , 23811-4
4197-32
lu
1-25 1 23817-0
4196-66
2
' 23821-4
4196-31
95-7
r,
4196-46
0-61
! 23823-4
4195-71
95-3
2
0-41
i 23826-8
4195-46
1 238282
4194-56
2
23833-3
4193-70
1
i
23838-2
4193-35
1
23840-2
4192-62
1
23844-3
4192-22
1
2384C6
1191-72
1
23849-4
1191-57
90-9
10
4191G5
0-67
23850-3
j 4190-89
I
23854-2
4190-4 8
1
i : 23856-5 1
419007
1
1
23858-8
4189-67
2
1 -.
23861-1
4188-99
1
23805-0
4188-66
1
23866-9
4187-92
87-3
iO
4188-32
0-62
23871-1
4187-17
860
10
4187-31
0-57
23875-4
4186 20
1
23880-9
4185-72
1
23883-6
t4184-99
84-4
8
4185-12
0-59
23887-8
4184-31
1
23891-7
4183-11
1
23898-6
4182 85
1
23900-0
1 4182-46
81-8
(>
4182-58
0-66
23902-3
1891.
194
EEPORT — 1891.
IHON (Arc fiVECTRv^)— continued.
Kayser and
Ivunge
(Rowland)
Thalen
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
0) S
Reduction
to Vacuum
Oscillation
Froquency
in Vacuo
Yogel
Fievez
A.+
1
A
4181-85
81-3
8
4182-00
0-55
23905-8
4181-16
1
23909-7
4180-00
1
23912-9
4179-93
1
23916-7
4179-46
1
23919-4
4178-95
1
23922-4
4178-64
1
23924-1
4178-11
1
23927-2
4177-00
77-2
6
+4178-07
0-46
23929-7
4177-16
1
23932-6
4176-62
76-0
6
4176-80
0-62
23935-7
4175-71
75-2
8
4175-85
0-51
23940-9
4174-98
74-3
4175-10
0-68
23945-1
4174-47
1
23948-0
4174-00
73-4
4
4174-20
0-60
23950-7
4173-52
1
23953-5
4173-39
72 -S
4
4173-66
0-59
23954-2
4172-81
72-2
6
4172-88
0-61
23957-6
4172-66
1
23958-4
4172-20
71-5
8
4172-26
0-70
23961-1
4171-99
1
23962-3
4171-79
2
23963-4
4170-99
70-4
8
4171-21
0-59
23968-0
4170-42
1
23971-3
4169-90
1
23974-3
4169-03!
es-i
2
41GO-20
0-63
23979-3
4168-71
1
23981-1
4168-33
1
23983-3
4167-96
67-S
1
4168-16
0-6C
23985-4
4167-38
1
23987-8
' 4165-51
64-S
2
4165-71
0-71
239996
4164-89
1
7-1
24003-1
4163-74
63-0
2
4103-88
0-74
7-2
24009-7
4162C3
1
24016-1
4162-19
1
24018-6
4161-57
G0»
2
4101-75
0-G7
24022-2 1
4161-13
2
24024-7
4160-59
1
24027-8
4160-31
1
24029-5
4159-36
1
1-25
24035-0
-[4158-89
58-2
6
4159-04
069
1-24
24037-7
4157-91
57-2
6
4158-03
0-71
24043-3
4157-46
1
24045-9
4156-88
56-2
8
4157-02
0-68
24049-3
4156-13
1
24053-6
4154-95
54-2
6
415505
0-75
24060-5
4154-57
53-8
6
4154-74
0-77
24062-7
415404
53-2
6
4154-15
0-84
24065-7
4153-47
1
24069-0
4152-78
1
24073-1
4152-25
51-4
4
t4152-34
0-85
24076-1
4152-04
2
24077-3
4151-34
T
24081-4
4150-42
49-7
4
4150-56
0-72
24086-7
4149-44
48-6
6
4149-56
0-84
24092-4
ON WAVK-LliXGTlI TABLKS OF TIIK SPECTRA OF Til 10 ELEMENTS
19^
Iron (Akc Spectui'm) — continued.
o^ a
Reduction to
Thaicn
S'O :0
Vacuum
Kavser ami |
ItUDgC 1
(Rowland)
[iitcnsity
and 1
Character
Jl idler and
Kempf
Diffeteu
Rowlan
— Angstr
Oscillation
Vogfl
Ficvez
X-V
1_
A.
Frequency
in Vacuo
4147-74
47-0
8
4147-93
0-74
24102-3
4146-70
In
24108-4
414612
45-4
4
4146-32
0-72
24111-7
4145-29
1
24116-6
4144-72
1
24119-9
4143-90
43-2
10
4144-14
0-76
24124-3
4143-50
42-7
10
4143-71
0-80
24127-0
4142-74
2
24131-4
4142-31
1
1
24133-9
4141-94
41-2
2
414211
0-74
24136-1
4141-51
1
24138-6
4141-11
1
24140-9
4140-54
2
24144-2
4139-96
39-2
2
4140-20
0-76
24147-6
4138-99
1
24153-3
4138-15
1
24158-2
4137-66
,
1
24161-2
4137-OG
36-3
8
4137-25
0-76
24164-6
4136-58
1
24167-4
4135-98
In
24170-9
4135-43
1
24174-1
4134-77
34-0
10
4134-92
0-77
24177-9
4134-50
2
24179-5
4133-96
33-2
4
4134-12
0-7G
24182-7
4133-67
1
24184-4
4132-96
32-2
8
4133-17
0-76
24188-5
4132-15
31-3
10
t4132-43
0-85
24193-3
4131-14
1
24199-2
4130-58
I
24202-5
4130-08
r
24205-4
4129-71
I
24207-6
4129-28
1
24210-1
4128-91
I
24212-3
4127-86
2
24218-4
4127-68
26-9
r.
4127-95
0-78
24219-5
4126-95
1
1-24
24223-8
4126-25
23-5
4
4126-45
0-75
1-23
24227-9
4125-94
2
24228-7
4125-71
•>
24231-0
412517
1
24234-2
4124-76
1
24236-6
4124-35
1
24239-0
4123-81
23-2
4
4124-04
0-61
24242-2
4123-16
1
24246-0
4122-59
21-8
fi
4122-85
0-79
24249-4
4121-88
21-1
6
: 4122-07
0-78
24253-6
4121-48
1
24255-9
4120-59
1
1
24261-2
4120-28
19-5
6
. 4120-49
0-78
24263-0
4119-84
1
24265-6
4119-45
2
24267-9
4119-00
2
7-2
24270-5
4118-62
17-3
10
1411902
0-82
7-3
24272-7
4118-00
2
24276-:',
4117-75
'
1
1 24277-8
o2
196
REPORT — 1891.
Iron
(ABC Spectrum) —
wntinved.
a
lleduction 1
Kayser and
ilunge
(Rowland)
Thale'n
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempt'
Difterence
llowland
— Angst rijr
to Vacuum
Oscillation j
Vogel
Fievez
A.+
1
Frequency
in Vacuo
4117-41
1
24279-8
4116-86
1
24283-1
4116-22
1
1 24286-8
4115-78
1
24289-4
4115-34
2
24292-0
4114-98
2
24294-2
t4114-53
13-7
6
4114-74
0-83
24296-8
4113-89
1
24800-6
4113-52
1
24302-8
4113-08
12-3
4
4113-24
0-78
24305-4
4112-47
2
24309-0
4111-85
2
24312-7
4111-17
1
24316-7
4110-41
1
24321-2
4109-88
09-2
8
411009
0-68
24324-3
4109-23
4
. 24328-2 1
4108-23
1
,
24334-1
t4107-o8
06-8
8
4107-76
0-78
24337-9
4106-55
4
243440
4106-37
05-7
4
410i5-63
0-67
24345-1
4105-28
2
24351-6
4105-04
I
24353-0
4104-70
1
24355-0
4104-20
03-5
(>
4104-40
0-70
24858-0
4103-44
1
24362-5
4102-50
1
\ 24368-1
4101-76
2
t4101-98
\ 24372-5
4101-37
4
24374-8
4100-82
00-2
6
4101-00
0-62
24378-1
4100-26
4
24381-4
4099-87
2
24383-7
409904
1
24388-6
4098-26
97-6
8
4098-41
0-66
24393-3
4097-19
1
23399-7
4096-67
la
24402-8
4096-06
95-6
8
4096-29
0-46
24406-4
4095-35
1
24410-6
4094-57
1
24415-3
4093-28
1
24423-0
4092-60
4
4092-83
24427-0
4092-43
4
24428-1
4092-11
1
244300
4091-66
4
24432-7
4091-34
1
24434-6
4091-12
4
1-23
24436-1
4090-17
1
1-22
24441-6
4089-28
4
24446-9
4088-65
1
24450-6
408795
1
24454-8
4087-50
1
24457-5
4087-16
86-5
2
4087-35
0-66
24459-6
4086-54
1
24463-3
408606
1
24466-2
4085-38
84-7
6
4085-53
0-68
24470-2
4085-07
84-4
6
4085-27
0-67
24472-1
ON W.VVK-LKNGTII TABLB.S OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 197
Iron
(Arc Spectrum)—
•sontUiiicd.
1
i ^
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
Tli.iU'n
Intensity
and
Character
g-a :3
M tiller and S s "S
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
Kempf
A +
1
4084-59
83-9
1 8
4084-75
0-69
24475-0
4083-90
1 4
24479-1
4083-70
4
24480-3
408303
4
24484-3
4082-55
2
24487-2
4082-20
i 2
24489-3
4081-67
1 1
24492-5
4081 -35
1 1
24494-4
4080-9C
2
24496-7
4080-30
79-7
4
4080-47
0-00
24500-7
4079-91
79-^
4080-09
0-61
24503-0
4079-50
1 2
24505-5
4079-32
2
24506-6
4078-83
1
24509-5
4078-41
77-8
4078-65
0-01
245121
4077-74
1
24516-1
4077-30
1
14077-48
24518-4
407«-72
76-0
8
4070-93
0-72
24522-2
4076-32
1
24524-6
4076-05
1
24526-3
4074-87
74-2
6
4075-01
0-C7
24533-4
4074-49
1
7-3
24333-7
-f 4073-84
4073 35
73-2
4
4074-03
0-04
7-4
24539-5
1
24542-4
4072-62
2
24546-8
4071-79
71-0
10
t4071-86
0-79
24551-8
4070-85
69-7
4070-50
1-15
24557-5
406908
1
24568-2
4008-07
67-3
8
4068-21
0-77
24574-3
4067-30
66-7
6
4067-21
0-60
24578-6
4067-04
66-3
6
0-74
24580-5
4066-66
4
24582-8
4066-29
1
24585-0
4065-87
1
24587-0
4065-48
4
24589-9
4004-55
2
24595-6
4063-63
63-0
10
t4063-94
0-63
24001-1
4063-40
4
24602-5
4062-94
1
24005-3
4062-51
61-8
8
4062 73 0-71
24007-9
4062-00
1
246110
4061-24
1
24615-0
4060-88
1
24617-8
4059-80
59-2
4
4060-03 0-60
24624-3 1
4058-99
In
'
24629-3
4058-86
58-2
4
4059-16 0-00
24630-1
4058-30
4
24633-8
4057-91
57-(;
6
0-31
24635-8
4057-43
56-7
4n
1 4057-77
0-73
24038-7
4056-01
1
24043-7
4050-04
1
24047-2
-f4055-63
4
1-22
24649-7
4055-12
2
1-21
24652-8
4054-94
54-2
2
' 4055-18 1 0-74
24653-9
4054-25
1
1
24658- 1
198
RKPOUT — 1891.
lEOsr (Arc Spectrum) — continued.
1
0= si
Reduction to
Kayser and
Eunice
(Rowland)
Thalen
Intensity
and
Dharactcr
Milllpi- and
9 S'ai '
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Vogcl
Fievez
Kempt'
S ^ to 1
1 1
4053-87
]
24660-4
4053-31
.1
i
24603-8
4052-75
:
24667-2
4052-50
51-7
1052-77
0-86
24668-4
4052-43
1
i
24669-1
4052-03
1 1
24671-0
4051-40
1
24075-4
4050-83
24678-9
: 4049-92
24084-4
4049-40
24087-6
t4048-82
48-2
4049-12
0-62
24691-2
4047-40
24099-8
4045-90
45-3
10
14040-00
0-60
24709.0
4044-69
44-0
4044-94
0-69
24716-4
4044-00
43-3
4044-27
0-70
24720-6
4041-44
40-5
0-94
24736-3
4040-74
39-5
1-24
24740-5
404012
24744-3
4038-83
In
24752-2
f4035-76
24771-1
4034-59
33-9
4034-86
0-69
24778-3
4033-16
32-4
4033-47
0-70
24787-1
4032-72
320
4032-97
0-72
24789-8
4032-54
24790-9
4032-06
31-3
4032-38
0-76
24793-8
4031-33
24798-3
4030-84
30-0
t4030-85
0-84
24801-3
4030-60
24802-8
4030-26
7-4
24804-9
4029-72
7-5
24808-1
4027-63
248210
4025-93
24831-5
4024-86
24-0
4025-05
0-86
24838-1
4024-20
24842-2
4023-51
24846-4
4022-80
1 24850-8
4022-25
! 24854-2
4021-96
21-3
4022-27
0-66
24856-0
4021-69
j
24857-7
4020-54
1-21
24864-8
4019-75
1-20
24809-7
4019-13
24873-5
4018-79
24875-6
4018-36
17-5
4018-54
0-86
24878-3
4018-21
1
24879-2
4017-23
16-4
4
; 4017-53
0-83
24885-3
4016-55
i 24889-5
i 4015-40
1 24896-6
; 4014-63
13-6
\ 4014-68
103
24901-4
4014-41
1
24902-8
4013-91
13-0
1 4014-22
0-91
24905-9
4013-75
24906-9
: 4011-81
24918-9
4011-49
1 24920-9
401105
I 24923-6
ON WAVK-LEKGTU TABLES OF THE SPECTKA OF THE ELEMENTS
idu
Iron
(Arc Spectrum) — continued.
Kiiyser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Thalun
Intensity
and
Character
Miillcr and
Kcmpf
8.1
llf
Reduction to
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
iu Vacuo
Vogel
Fievez
\-f-
1_
A.
4009-80
09-0
4010-08
0-80
j
24931-4
4008-97
1
1
24936-6
4007-36
oo-o
4
4007-68
0-76
24946-6
4006-71
2
24950-6
4006-39
05-5
2
4000-67
0-89
24952-6
4005-33
04-3
04 3
8
t4005-46
1-03
24959-2
4005-07
1
i
24900-8
4004-90
1
24961-5
4003-88
2
24968-3
4002-77
1
24975-2
4001-77
00-9
4
4002-03
0-87
24981-4
4000-57
99-5
2
4000-59
107
24988-9
4000-30
I
24990-2
3998-70
1
25000-2
3998-10
97-2
3998-33
0-97
25004-0
3997-49
90-7
90-7
3997-77
0-79
25008-2
3997-25
1
25009-7
3997-06
2
25010-9
:!996-42
1
25014-9
3996-08
4
25017-0
3995-34
1
25021-7
3994-22
4
25028-7
S990-48
4
25052-1
3989-94
2
7-5
25055-5
3980-27
G
t3987-04
7-6
25078-5
3985-40
4
25083-6
t3984-08
3984-23
1-20
25092-3
3983-47
1
1-19
25096-1
3981-87
6
25106-2
3981-21
1
25110-4
3979-73
1
25119-7
3978-91
1
25124-9
3978-55
1
i
25127-2
3977-83
.
8
25131-7
397706
1
25132-8
3976-95
1
25137-3
3976-71
2
25138-8
3976-47
1
25140-3
3976-00
1
25143-3
3975-33
1
25147-5
3974-81
1
25150-8
3974-46
1
251530
3974-10
In
25155-3
3973-75
4
25157-5
3973-00
1
i
25162-1
3971-41
G
'
25172-4
3970-51
4
25178-1
3970-35
1
!
25179-1
3969-72
1
j
25182-1
3969-34
66-7
8
3969-52
i
25185-5
3968-55
4
t3968-79
i
25190-5
3968 05
2
1
25193-7
3967-51
1
!
25197-1
3966-70
4
1
25202-3
3960-lC
i
4
25205-7
200
REPORT — 1891.
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — continved.
\
j
Reduction to
Kayser nnd
Kun£;e ;
(Rowland) j
1
Intensify ;
Cornu , and ■
Character i
1
Jldllcr and
Kempf !
Difference
It^owland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
I'rennoncy
in Vacuo
- \r
3965-(;2 i
1 1
; 25209-1
3964f.l 1
2
25215-6
3963-24 1
4 1
3963-61
25224-3
3'.)62-80
1 1
25227-1
3962-42
1
3962-57
1
25229-5
3961 -63
2
1
25234-5
3961-24
1
25237-0
3960-38
2
3960-46
25242-5
3958-48
1
25254-6
3958-29
1
25255-8
3957-80
1
1
3958-10
25259-0
3957-17
2
252630
3956-77
55-9
6
0-87
1
!
25265-5
3956-54
1
4
252670
3956-05
4
395612
25270-1
3955-50
2
25273-6
3954-78
1
25278-3
3953-93
1
25283-7
3953-25
4
3953-65
25288-0
3952-71
6
t3953-00
■
25291-5
3951-25
C
25300-,S
395005
G
3949-27
1-19
25308-5
3949-25
1
118
2531 3-r
3948-87
6
253161
3948-23
4
25320-2
3947-64
4
3947-87
25324
3947-11
2
3947-4S
25327-4
2945-22
2
3945-47
25339-5
3945-00
2
3945-28
25340-9
3944-82
1
25342-1
3944-11
2
25346-7
3943-4;'.
2
25351-0
13942-54
6
3942-92
25356-8
3941-40
2
25364-1
3940-98
6
3941-36
25366-8
3940-14
1
25372-2
3938-59
1
25382-2
393816
1
25385-0
3937-42
4
25389-7
3935-92
«
3936-00
25399-4
3935-40
2
25402-8
3934-81
1
25406-6
3934-4T
1
25408-8
3933-75
32-9
6
3933-79
0-85
25413-4
393301
1
25418-2
3932-71
2
25420-3
3931-22
2
[
1
25429-8
3930-37
1 29-8
8
3930-44 0-57
25435-3
3929-24
2
3939-31
25444-6
3928-17
1
22449-5
392805
1 27-3
8
3938-27
0-75
7-6
254503
392605
i 4
7-7
25463-2
3925-74
i 4
1
25465-2
3925-31
j
i 1
25468-0
3923-00
i 22-0
1 8
392304
1-flO
25483
ON W.VYK-LKNGTIl TABLES OF THE SPECTUA OF TIIK lOLEilENTt;. 2U1
Iron (Arc Spkctrvji)— cojjrt/iw^-rf.
liednction to
Kayser niul
ftuDfJC
Cornu
Intensity
.iiid
Miillei-.-ind
Kempt"
Difference
llowlaiid
Vacuum
0^cillation
Frequency
(Kowlaiul)
Cliaracter
— Angstrom
\ +
1
in Vacuo
302i;u
1
25493-8
3920-9:5
1
55496-4
3920-3(;
18-4
6
3920-11
1-96
25500-2
39)9-18
2
3919-28
25507-8
3918-7-1
4
3918-82
25510-7
3918-49
17-8
4
0-69
25512-3
3917-29
(i
3917-36
25520-1
t3916-82
6
3916-92
25523-2
3914 35
1
3914-55
25539-3
3913-74
4
3913-87
1-18
25543-3
3910-95
2
1-17
25561-5
3909-95
4
391014
25568-1
3909-78
1
3909-89
25569-2
3909-40
1
3909-50
25571-7
390802
4
3908-20
25580-7
3907-58
1
3907-75
25583-6
390G-84
2
3907-02
25588-4
390G-58
05-9
6
3906-74
0-68
25590-1
3905-G4
1
13905-87
25596-3
3904-00
i;
3904-1 6
25607-0
3903-OG
01-9
8
3903-24
1-16
25613-2
3902-43
1
3902-60
25617-4
3900-64
2
3900-86
25629-1
3899-80
98-4
6
;!900-04
1-40
256346
3899-13
2
25639-0
3898-73
1
25641-7
389805
97
6
3898-32
1-05
25646-1
13897-54
2
3897-82
25649-5
3895-75
94-7
(!
13895-78
1-05
25661-3
3894-56
1
25669- 1
3894-09
2
25672-2
8893-47
92-6
4
0-87
25676-3
3893-00
1
25679-4
3892-54
1
25682-5
389202
4
25685-9
3890-94
4
256930
3890-49
1
256960
3890-02
1
25699-1
3888-92
880
4
0-92
25706-4
3888«3
87-4
C
1-23
25708-3
3887-17
86-4
6
0-77
25717-9
3886-38
860
i;
0-38
25723-2
388561
S4-7
4
0-91
25728-3
3885-25
1
25730-7
3884-46
4
25735-9
3883-39
4
25743-0
3882-11
1
25751-5
3878-82
80-3
S
-1-48
25773-3
3878-63
2
25774-6
3878-12
77-4
8
0-72
1-17
257780
3876-81
1
1-16
25786-7
387614
4
25791-2
3874-95
1
25799-1
3874-55
1
25801-7
3874-18
1
26804-2
202
REPORT 1891.
lEOX
[Aec Specteum)— cwi<irt?<«Z.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Intensity
Sliiller and
Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
ilunge
Cornu
and
Kempf
Ro-n-land
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
! 1
^+ 1 r
in Vacuo
3873-88
6
1
25806-2
3873-69
1
25807-5
3873-04
1
25811-8
3872-Cl
71-3
8
1-31
25814-7
3871-86
70-6
4
1-26
25819-7
3871-36
1
25823-0
3869-69
4
7*7
25834-2
3868-71
1
7-8
25840-6
3868-37
1
25842-9
3868-03
65-5
2
2-53
25845-1
3867-33
65-2
6
213
25849-8
3865-65
64-8
8
0-85
25861-1
3864-42
1
25869-3
3864-16
1
258710
3863-87
4
25873-0
3861-69
1
25887-6
3861-46
60-6
4
0-86
25889-1
386003
59-3
10
0-73
25898-7
3859-34
6
25903-4
3856-49
55-7
8
0-79
25922-5
3856-00
1
25925-8
3855-45
]
25929-5
3854-51
53-7
2
081
25935-8
3853-60
52-7
1
0-90
25942-0
3852-71
51-8
6
0-91
25947-9
3850-96
50-0
(i
0-96
26959-7
3850-11
49-7
8
0-41
259655
3848-42
1
1
25976-9
3S46'96
45-9
6
loi;
25986-7
3846 55
o
25989-5
3846-18
1
25992-0
3S45-84
1
25994-3
3845-58
1
25996-1
3845-30
44 (i
4
0-70
25998-0
384408
]
26006-2
3843-40
41-9
6
1-50
116
26010-8
3843-04
1
260133
384119
40-5
8
0-69
115
26025-8
3840-58
40-1
8
0-4S
26029-9
3839-78
1
26035-4
3839-38
38-5
6
0-8S
26038-1
3838-87
1
26041-9
3837-27
2
26052-4
3836-48
G
26057-8
3834-37
33-6
8
0-77
26072-1
3833-44
4
26078-4
3830-95
2
26095 5
3830-54
1
26098-2
3830-29
1
■
26099-9
3829-86
2
26102-8
3829-59 ■
1
26104-7
3829-30
1
26106-6
3829-02
1
26108-5
3828-65
1
26111-1
3827-96
27-7
8
026
26115-8
ON AVAYE-LKXGTU TABLKS OF THK SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
203
Ikon
[Aec Specteum) — continued.
1
Rednetion to
Kayser and
Kun}{c
Cornu
Intensity
JUiillci- and 1 Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
and 1 K-»n,„f
liowiana
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A.+
1
in Vacuo
3827-72
2
7-8
26117-4
3826-90
1
7-9
26122-3
3S2li()l:
25-3
8
0-74
26128-8
382.V.-)4
1
26132-2
3824-58
24-1
8
0-48
26138-8
:{824-24
1
26141-1
3823-06
1
26145-1
3822-39
1
26153-7
3821-98
2
26156-5
3821-71
1
26158-4
•3821-32
4
26161-1
L 3820-56
19-7
8
0-86
26166-3
3819-75
192
1
0-55
26171-8
3818-77
1
26178-5
3818-43
1
26180-9
3817-84
1
26184-9
3817-11
1
26189-9
3Sl6-t8
16-9
4
-0-42
26194-3
3815-97
15-3
8
0-67
26197-9
:'.8l4-94
1
26204-8
:',S14U6
14-0
4
0-66
26206-8
:;sl4-03
2
26211-1
3813-77
2
26212 9
3813-12
12-6
8
0-52
26217-3
3812-03
4
•
26224-8
3811-19
1
26230-6
3,slO-89
4
26232-7
3809-70
2
262409
3809-20
1
26244-3
3808-8G
4
26246-7
3808-43
1
26249-6
3807-68
4
y
26254-8
3807-39
1
26256-8
3806-84
6
26260-6
3806-36
2
26263-9
380(;-12
1
26265 6
3805-82
1
26267-6
3805-47
05-0
6
0-47
1-15
26270-1
3804-15
1
1-14
262792
3802-41
2
26291-3
3801-92
1
26294-6
3801-81
02-0
4
-019
26295-3
3801-54
1
26297-2
3801-15
2
26299-9
3799-68
99-4
6
0-28
263101
3798-65
98-7
6
-0-06
26317-2
3798-09
1
26321-1
3797-65
96-8
6
0-85
26324-2
3797-04
1
26328-4
3796-67 ,
1
26331-0
379612 !
1
263348
8795-66
1
26338-0
3795-13
94-9
8
0-23
26341-7
3794-46
93-3
4
116
1
26346-3
3793-99
1
1
263496
204
KEPOKT 1891.
Ihon (Akc Spectkum) — roniinucd.
Kayper and i
Intensity
Runge
Cornu
and
(Rowland)
Character
3793-60
1
3793--18
1
3792-96
1
3792-62
92-7
1
3792-28
92-2
2
3791-89
1
3791-65
1
3791-38
111
3790-88
1
3790-22
90-5
6
3789-31
89-8
4
3788-01
87-1
6
3787-30
1
3786-81
862
4
3786-30
4
378G07
85-4
4
3785-83
1
3782-7-i
2
3782-56
2
3782-23
1
3782-05
2
3781-31
4
3779-58
6
3779-32
1
3778-82
1
3778-63
4
3778-45
1
3777-56
2
3777-20
1
3776-58
4
3775-93
1
3774-95
4
3773-84
2
3773-51
1
3770-43
2
3770-12
2
3768-15
2
3767-31
66-8
8
3766-74
1
376619
1
3765-66
66-0
8
3763-90
63-4
8
3762-30
1
3761-52
1
3760-60
4
3760-17
4
3759-30
1
3758-36
57-7
8
3757-60
1
3757-06
2
375617
1
3754-63
1
3753-74
53-4
4
3763-27
1
3752-57
1
Reduction to
Vacuum
0-62
0-G7
7-9
8-0
1-14
1-13
0-51
0-66
0-50
0-66
0-34
I
i i
1
r re(|uenc_\
in Vacuo
\
26352-3
26353-1
263567
26359-1
26361-5
26364-2
ox WAYK-LENGTII TABLES OF Xni: SirECTUA OF THE ELEMENTS. 205
Iron (Akc i^PECTHVM)— continued.
!
lleduction to
Kayser and
Coriiii
Intensity
and
Character
1
Miillernnd
Difference
I!(>wlan<l, ,
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
RuDKe
(Rowland)
A.+
1
A.
Frtquency
in Vacuo
.;75l-97
:
26644-7
:;74!»-Gl
49-5
8
0-11
26661-4
37490G
2
26665-3
3748-39
48-2
6
0-19
26670-1
•f3747-09
4
26679-4
H74G-5fi
1
8-0
26683-1
:?745-95
6
8-1
26687-4
:!745-G7
45-5
8
017
26689-4
:'.r44-21
2
26699-8
:i743-58
4
26704-3
3743-45
42-9
6
0-55
26705-2
37*2-77
2
26710-1
3740-44
2
26726-7
3740-22
1
2G728-3
3739-73
2
2G731-8
3739-45
1
26733-8
3739-22
1
2G735-4
3738-44
6
26741-0
3737-27
36-5
S
0-77
26749-4
3735-45
6
2(;762-4
:;:;i5-00
34-4
8
0-60
26765-7
:i7H3-46
33-2
4
0-26
2677G-7
3732-54
32-4
6
0-14
1-13
26783-3
3731-51
2
1-12
2G790-9
3731-07
2
26793-9
:!730-53
4
^
26797-7
3728-81
1
26810-1
,,,3727-78
27-0
0-78
26817-5
*'\3727-13
26-7
4
0-43
26822-2
3725-62
1
26833-1
3724-51
24-1
6
0-41
26841-1
3722-69
21-9
G
0-79
26854-2
3722-07
1
26858-7
3721-69
2
26861-4
3721-57
1
26862-3
3721-41
I
26863-4
3720-07
19-7
10
0-37
26873-1
3718-55
4
26884-1
37)G-59
16-4
G
019
26898-3
3716-04
15-5
4
0-54
26902-3
3711-54
1
26934-9
3711-35
2
26936-3
3/09-79
1
26947-6
3709 66
1
26948-5
3709-37
09-0
G
0-37
26950-7
3708-72
1
20955-4
3708-03
07-8
G
0-23
2G960-4
3707-73
1
269G2-6
3707-GO
1
81
26963-5
3707-18
07-5
4
-0-32
8-2
2G966-5
3705-70
05-5
4
0-20
26977 2
3704-59
03-7
6
0-89
1 26985-3
3703-96
2
i 26989-9
3703-83
1
: 26990-9
3703-68
03-2
4
0-48
i 269920
206
BEPORT — 1891.
Ikon (Aec Specteum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
llunge
(Kowlaud)
Cornu
Intensity
aiid
Character
Miiller and Difference
Vacuum
OsciUati
Kempf
li^owlana
— Angstrom
A.+
1
A
Freqiicr
in Vaci
3702-63
1
26999
3702-16
2
27003
3701-20
00-8
(>
0-40
27010
3699-23
1
27021
3698-73
'2
27(»2s
369817
1
27032
3697-58
4
1-12
27036
3695-68
1
1-11
27050
3695-18
4
\
2705)
3694-13
93-7
6
0-43
270(51
3693-16
1
270(!8
3692-79
1
27071
3691-49
1
27081
3691-19
1
27083
3690-86
2
27085
3690-60
1
27087
3690-23
1
27090
3689-98
1
27092
3689-58
4
27095
3688-65
1
27102
3687-77
87-2
(i
0-57
27108
3687-58
6
27109
3687-21
1
27112
3686-65
1
27116
3686-40
1
27118
3686-10
85 -S
6
.0-30
27120
3684-24
85-0
4
0-76
27134
3683-77
83-9
2
0-13
27137
3683-18
1
27142
3682-35
81-7
G
0-65
27NS
3681-79
1
27152
3681-35
1
27155
3680-90
2
27159
3680-03
80-3
4
-0-27
27165
3679-49
1
27169
3679-13
1
27172
3678-99
2
27173
3677-76
77-r,
4
0-16
27182
3(;77-(i0
1
27183
3677-42
2
27184
3677-03
1
27187
3676-44
4
27192
3675-29
1
27200
3674-89
1
27203
3674-55
1
27206
3674-12
1
27209
3673-19
1
27216
3672-85
1
27218
3671-80
1
27226
3671-64
1
27227
3670-95
1
27232
3670-20
4
27238
3669-65
69-3
6
0-35
27242
S669-29
2
27245
3669-04
1
27246
ON WAVE-LENaiH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Ikon (Aec Spectkum)— cOTi<i««e«i.
:07
Reduction to
1
Kayser and
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Eowland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
iKunge
(Rowland)
Doruu
A +
1
A.
3668-82
27248-5
3668-68
27249-6
3668-35
27252-0
3668-11
8-2
27253-8
3667-45
8-3
27263-6
3660-99
27262-0
3666-41
27266-3
3665-90
27270-1
3665-33
27274-4
3664-74
27278-8
3664-10
27283-5
3663-60
27287-3
3663-41 (12 4
1-01
27288-7
3663-04
62-0
104
27291-4
3661-52
27302-8
3661-08
273060
3660-53
1-11
27310-1
3659-65
56-2
3-45
110
27316-7
3658-68 1
273240
3658-07 1
27328-5
3657-66
27331-0
3657-27 j
27334-5
3656-37
27341-2
3655-93
27344-5
3655-60
273470
3655-12
27350-6
3654-83
27352-7
365411 1
27358-1
3653-90
27359-7
3651-61
51-7
-009
27370-n
3650-64
27384-2
3650-42
49-4
4
1-02
27385-8
3650-14
2
27387-9
3649-65
48-r.
1-05
27391-0
3649-44
27393-2
3647-99
46-9
1-09
274040
3647-57
27407-2
3645-96
4
27419-3
3645-63
27421-8
3645-22
27424-9
3644-97
27426-8
3644-73
27428-6
3643-80
27435-6
3640-53
27460-2
3638-44
37-7
0-74 i
274760
3637-98
27479-5
3637-39
27483-9
3637-16
In
27485-7
3636-73
In
27488-9
3636-32
274920
3635-39
In
27499-1
3634-80
27503-5
3634-48
33-3
0-68
27506-0
3633-98
27409-7
363316
2
27515-9
208
EEPOKT — 1891.
Iron (Arc Specteum) — continued.
1
Reduction to 1
Kavser and
RunRe
Intensity
Cornu and
Miiller and ^}«^r^^^f '
Kemiif ' I^owland
Vacuum
O'lcillation
Frequency
1
(Eowland)
Cliaractei-
-Ang&trora ^^
1
\
in Vacuo
3632-71
27519-4
3632-20
1
27523-2
3631-62
30-9 6n
0-72
27527-6
3631-23
27530-6
3630-50
8-3
27536-1
3628-97
8-4
27547-6
3628-22
27553-3
3627-91
27555-7
382719
27561-2
3626-64
27565-3
3626-31
27567-8
3625-30
237 4
1-60
27575-5
3624-95
27578-2
3624-46
27581-9
3623-94
27585-9
3623-58
27588-6
3623-33
22-7 6
0G3
1-10
27590-5
362215
21-0 (•)
1-15
1-09
27599-5
3621-87
27601-6
3621-61
20-6 (!
1-01
27603-6
3621-21
27606-4
3620-62
27611-2
3620-37
27613-1
3619-89
! I
27616-7
3619-54
27619-4
3618-92
17-s : N
1-12
27624-1
3618-54
o
276270
3617-94
lG-9 G
1-04
27631-6
3617-47
27635-2
3617-23
27637-1
3616-76
27640-7
3616-46
27642-9
3616-29
27644-2
3615-80
■
27648-0
3615-41
27651-0
3614-78
1
27655-8
3614-26
276598
3613-75
27663-7
3613-58
i
27665-0
3G13-26
27667-4
3613-10
27G68-7
3612-25
27675-2
3610-86
1 ^
27685-8
3610-29
09-7 G
0-59
27690-2
3608-99
OS-3 1 8
0-69
27700-2
3608-33
27705-3
3607-72
1 i
27709-9
3606-83
06-0 1 G
0-83
27716-8
3606-05
1
27722-8
3605 62
04-6 (!
1-02
27726-1
3604-88
27731-8
3604-54
27734-4
3504-29
27736-3
3603-98
27738-7
i 3603-83
1
27739-9
ON AVAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTBA OF THE ELEMENTS. 209
Kayser and
Intensity
iiunj^e
Cornu
and
(Rowland)
Character
1
3603-71
3603-59
1
3603-34
02-1
4
3G02-64
01-8
2
3602-23
]
359;»-77
2
3599-30
1
3599-12
1
359885
1
3597-84
1
3597-23
2
3596-35
2
3596-03
1
3595-78
1
3595-43
1
3594-71
94-0
6
3593-63
1
3593-46
1
3592-97
1
3592-83
1
3592-61
1
3592-13
1
3591-48
1
359113
1
3590-80
1
3590-21
1
3589-73
1
3589-58
2
3589-25
4
3589-05
1
3588-75
2
3587-87
2
3587-55
2
3587-34
1
3587-10
86-2
8
3586-62
1
3586-24
6
3585-84
4
3585-43
84-9
4
3585-33
2
3585-08
4
3584-78
84-1
G
3583-74
1
3583-45
2
3582-76
1
3582-32
4
3581-94
1
3581-73
1
N 3581-32
80-6
10
3578-80
2
3578-49
1
357803
2
3576-89
2
3576-11
1
3575-49
4
IBON (Arc SPEcrnvM')— continued.
Miiller and
Kempf
Diflerence
lleduction to
Vacuum
liowland
— Angstrom
X +
1_
1-24
0-84
0-71
8-4
8-5
0-90
1-09
1-08
0-53
0-68
0-72
Oscillntion
Frequency
in Vacuo
27740-8
27741-7
27743-6
27749
27752-2
27771-3
27774-8
27776-2
27778-3
27786-3
27790-8
27797-6
27800-0
27802-0
27804-7
27810-2
27818-7
27819-9
27823-7
27824-8
27826-5
27830-2
27835-2
27837-9
27840-4
27845-0
27848-7
27849-9
27852-5
273540
27856-3
27863-2
27865-7
27867-3
27869-2
27872-9
27875-8
27879-0
27882-1
27882-9
27884-9
27887-2
27895-3
27897-6
27902-9
27906-4
27909-3
27911-0
27914-2
27933-8
27936-2
27939-8
27948-7
27954-8
27959-7
1891.
210
KEPORT — 1891.
Irox (Arc Spectrum) — contimted.
Kayser and
Inteusity
Kunge
Cornu
aud
(liowland)
Character
?.575:57
1
3575-22
1
nu74-00
6
3573-52
2
3272-79
1
:!572-12
fi
:i571-34
2
3570-45
4
3570-23
68-9
10
3569-GO
1
3509-09
•>
3568-94
I
35()8-53
1
3567-52
1
3567- 15
2
3566-70
1
3566-46
3565-72
I
3565-50
64-1
10
3564-61
1
3664-22
1
3560-81
2 '
3559-62
2
3559-39
1 :
3559-18
1 .
3558-62
58 1
iS ;
3556-99
56-0
S i
3555-04
54-0
10 1
3554-62
1 1
3554-24
4 1
3553-84
4 i
3553-58
I
3553-29
1 1
3552-95
4
3552-58
1
3552-24
2 1
t3549-97
2
3548-13
2
3547-89
2
3547-31
2 I
3546-29
1 ■
3545-95
1
3545-74
6
3544-74
2
3543-78
2
3543-53
1
3542-37
o
3542-20
41-5
6
3541-22
40-1
6 (
3540-82
39-2
2
t3540-24
2
3538-87
1 1
3538-68
1 1
3538-48
1 1
3538-01
4 1
Miiller and
Kempt'
Ditference
E^owland
- Ansstrom
1-33
Reduction to
Vacuum
1-40
0-52
0-99
1-04
0-70
1-12
1-62
1-08
1-07
8-6
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
ON WAVE-LENGXir TABLES OF THE SPECTUA OF THE ELEMENTS. 211
Iron" (Arc SFEcrytvii)—cpnfi7nted.
Reduction to
Kayser and
I'tunge
Cornu
Intensity
and
1 MUllcr and
i Kempf
Difference
Rowland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A.-1-
1_
A.
in Vacuo
3537-84
4
28257-2
3537-60
2
28259-2
3536-65
35-4
(i
1-25
28266-7
3535-01
I
28279-9
3534-63
1
28282-9
3533-30
6
28293-6
353308
4
28295-3
3532-71
1
28298-3
3532-17
1
28302-6
3531-90
1
28304-8
3531-56
1
28307-5
3530-48
2
28316-2
3529-90
4
28320-8
3529-63
1
28323-0
3529-44
1
28324-5
3527-90
27-0
6
0-90
28336-9
3526-76
4
283460
3526-51
25-7
(!
0-81
28348-0
3526-25
(i
28350-1
3526-08
o
28351-5
3525-97
1
28352-4
3524-62
2
28363-2
3524-34
2
28365-5
3524-15
2
28367-0
3523-38
1
2S373-2
3522-97
1
28376-5
3522-37
2
28381-4
3521-93
2
28384-9
3521-36
20-6
8
0-76
28389-5
3520-95
1
28392-8
352014
1
28399-4
351896
28408-9
3518-80
1
28410-2
3517-19
1
8-6
28423-2
3516-66
I
8-7
28427-4
3516-50
2
28428-7
3515-39
1
28437-6
3515-15
2
28439-6
3514-72
1
28443-1
3513-91
13-7
8 t
0-21
1-07
28449-6
3513-15
1 t
1-06
28455-8
3513-05
1 !
28456-6
3512-78
1
28458-8
3512-30
1
28462-7
3511-80
1
28466-7
3511-49
1
28469-2
3510-76
1
28475-2
3510-52
4
28477-1
3510-43
1
28477-8
3509-95
2
28481-7
3509-23
1
28487-6
3508-58
4
28492-9
3507-23
1
28503-8
3506-59
05-8
4
0-79
28509-0
3506-39
I
1
28510-7
p 2
212
KEPOKT — 1891.
Iron
[Aec SFECTKVii)— continued.
Reduction to
i
i
Kay8er and
Intensity
Miiller and
Dltference
Vacuum
Oscillation i
Frequency
RuQge
Cornii
and
Kempf
Rowland
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A+
1
in Vacuo
3505-15
28520-7
3504-95
2
28522-4
3504-52
1
28525-9
3502-35
1
28543-6
3500-64
01-8
4
-116
28557-5
3498-84
1
28572-2
3497-92
96-8
t;
112
28578-7
3497-20
95-9
6
1-30
28585-G
3496-27
1
28593-2
3496-96
1
28595-7
3495-37
94-5
4
0-87
28600-6
3494-7G
1
28605-6
3494-24
1
28600-8
3493-78
3493-3/
2
28613-6
1
28617
3493-04
2
28619-7
3492-68
1
28622-6
3490-65
91-9
8
-1-25
28639-3
3489-74
89-8
6
-0-06
28646-7
3489-49
88-9
1
0-59
28648-S
3486-63
88-0
1
-1-37
28672-3
3485-42
85-4
4
0-02
28682-2
3485-06
1
28685-2
3484-92
1
28686-4
3483-91
1
28694-7
3483-09
2
28701-4
3482-23
1
28708-5
3481-87
1
28711-5
3481-64
1
8-7
28713-4
3480-45
1
8-8
28723-1
3479-73
1
28729-1
3478-69
2
28737-6
3477-93
2
1-06
28743-9
3477-0»
1
1-05
28750 8
3476-93.
4
28752-2
3476-75
761
S
0-65
28753-7
3476-39
I
28756-7
3476-17
1
28758-5
3475-95
1
28760-3
3475-7-i
4
28762-2
3475-52
71-0
8
0-62
28763-9
3474-51
2
28772-2
3474-U
1
28775-3 1
3473-78
1
28778-3
3473-59
1
28779-9
3473-3»
1
28781-5 1
3472-61
1
28788-0
3472-29
In
28790-6
3472-06
la
28792-5
3471-40
70-4
8
1-00
28798-0
3470-78
1
28803-2
3469-91
4
28810-4
3469-70
1
28812-1
3469-49
1
28813-9
346909
^
28817-2
ON WAYE-LENGTII TABLES OF THE SPECTHA OF THE ELEMENTS. 213
Ikon (Arc Sfectuvu}— continued.
1
! Keduction to
lyser nnc:
Conm
Intensity
and
Charactei
Miiller and
Kempf
DiflFerence
P^owland
—Angstrom
1 Vacuum
1 Oscillation
1 Frof|iiency
! in Vacuo
1
{owlanil)
X +
1
!4G8-92
4
28818-6
i46G-t)8
2
28834-7
U66-57
4
28838-2
U65fl5
65'5
10
045
i
! 28843-3
!464-98
1 1
i
28851-4
54641C
1 In
1
28858-2
J463-39
i 1
1
28864-6
!462-87
1 1.
;
28869-0
1462 43
2
1
28872-6
J461-3
2
1
28878-5
546115
In
1
28883-3
i460-40
1
28889-6
.46002
61-5
6
-1-48
28892-8
4o9-83
1
28894-3
459-51
2
1
28897-0
458-55
2
28905-0
458-39
57-8
4
0-59
28906-4
457-53
1
28913-6
457-] 5
In
28916-8
456-32
In
28923-7
455-41
In
28931-3
454-26
1
28941-0
453-60
1
28946-5
45310
53-2
4
-0-1
28950-7
452-35
6
28957-0
451-99
G
28960-0
451-71
2
28962-3
450-41
«
28973-3
447-37
45 7
6
1-67
28998-8
44700
I
29001-9
446-86
1
290031
446-34
2
29007-5
445-87
la
29011-4
445-22
44-4
8
0-82
8-S
29016-9
443-96
43-0
10
0-96
8-;»
29027-4
443-30
In
29033-0
443-03
In
29035-3
442-75
!
2
29037-6
442-44
40-8
4
1-64
29040-3
442-07
1
1-05
29043-4
141-07
39-9
10
117
1-04
29051-8
440-69
39-6
10
1-09
29055-0
439-93
2n
29061-5
139-09
In
29068-6
13886
la
29074-7
138-02
2
29077-6
137-68
la
29080-5
137-37
In
29083-1
137-11
2a
29085-3
136-06
In
29094-2
133-64
4
29114-7
133-09
1
1
29119-4
131-00
4
1
2i> 129-5
128-81
In
29155-7
128-26
6
29160-4
214
REPOllT 1891.
Iron (Arc S^ECTUVuy—continwd.
Kayser and
Intensity
Runge
Coruu
and
(Rowland)
Character
3427-21
26-7
S
3426-71
f,
3426-44
25-4
(!
3425-08
24-8
6
3424-36
22-8
10
3423-7!)
1
3422fi!t
20-9
10
3419'7G
4
3419-25
1
3418-91
1
3418-58
lG-0
8
3418-28
1
3417-92
Ib'o
8
3417-30
1
3416-65
1
3416-30
1
3415-61
G
3414-83
4
3413-22
11-8
10
3412-43
\
3411-43
4
3411-22
1
3410-98
1
3410-26
6
3409-22
2
3408-52
1
3407-55
06-1
10
3406-88
G
t3406-50
2
3405-89
2
3405-65
1
3405-45
1
3405-24
1
3404-75
1
3404-41
o;t-i
10
3403-39
2
3402-33
G
3401-60
fi
3400-50
1
3399-39
97-6
10
3398-29
1
3397-68
2
3397-05
4
339613
1
3394-65
G
339413
2
3393-72
1
3393-46
1
339307
1
3392-74
91-0
8
3392-37
4
3392-12
2
3391-21
1
3390-61
1
3389-83
2
Miiller and
Kempf
Diflerence
Rowland
— Angstrom
051
Reduction to
Vacuum
A +
1-04
0-28
1-56
1-79
2-58
2-42
1-42
1-45
1-31
1-79
1-04
103
1-74
9-0
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTBA OF THE ELEMENTS. 215
Iron
(Arc STEC-niVM}—eontinuc(7.
] Reduction to
Kavser and Intensitj
IVIiiller ciid
nillerence
i Vacuum
Oscillation
Kungc Cornu
(Kowland)
I .-md
Charactei
Kempf
■ i;owl;md
— Angstrii])
: A+
1
Frequency
in Vacuiu
338901
I
1
29498-1
3388-84
1
29499-6
3387-48
4
295115
3385-58
2
29528-0
3385-02
1
29532-9
338405
8
29541-4
3383-80
4
29543-6
3382-48
4
29555-1
3381-42
2
29564«4
3380-62
2
29571-4
3380-17
8
29575-3
3379-11
6
29584-6
3378-77
6
29587-6
3378-06
1
29593-8
3376-58
2
29606-8
3375-64
1
29615-0
3374-58
1
29624-3
3374-01
1
9-0
29629-3
3372-90
1
9-1
29639-0
3372-18
4
29645-3
3370-87
10
29656-8
3369-62
8
29667-8
3368-16
1
103
29680-7
3366-88
6
1-02
29692-0
3364-66
1
29711-6
3364-34
1
29714-4
3363-77
1
29719-4
3363-63
1
29720-7
3362-37
1
29731-8
3362-09
1
29734-3
336103
1
29743-7
3359-84
1
29754-2
3359-55
1
29756-8
3358-41
1
29760-9
3356-44
j
4
29784-4
3355-27
6
29794-8
3354-16
4
29804-6
3353-42
1
29811-2
3353-10
1
298140
3351-85
4
29825-2
3351-65
2
29826-9
3350-45
1
29837-6
3348-03
6
29859-2
3347-03
2
29868-1
3345-12
1
29885-2
3343-83
1
29896-7
3343-29
1
29901-6
3342-35
6
29910-0
3342-01
4
299130
334101
1
29922-0
3340-64
6
29925-3
3339-70
2
29933-7
3339-24
2
9-1
29937-8
3338-70
2
9-2
29942-0
3337-73
1
6
2995 l-;i ;
216
BEPORX 1891.
iKox (Akc Spectrum) — co7ithiucd.
Reduction to [
Kayscr luid
Kun^e
(Rowland)
Cdi-nu
Inten'ity
and
Cliarat-tcr
2
Mullev aud
Keiiiiif
Difference
It^owland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Freq uen^y
in Vacuo
A.+
1_
X
333(i-30
299041
3335-85
4
1 29908-2
3334-31
2
1-02
i 29982-0
3331-74
4
1-01
I 30005-1
3330-37
]
30017-5
3329-04
a
30024-1
3329-00
8
30029-8
3327-CO
1
30042-5
3325-50
4
30000-9
3324-G2
4
30069-4
3323-84
30070-5
3322-05
2
30087-3
3320-8G
2
30103-5
3320-30
1
30108-0
3319-35
4
30117-2
3317-24
4
30130-3
3310-00
1
30142-2
3315-75
1
30149-9
3314-80
8
30158-0
3314-00
I
30160-3
3314-25
1
30163-5
3313 98
1
301660
3312-82
1
30176-6
3312-40
1
301804
3311-23
1
30191-1
3310-53
30197-4
3308-89
1
30212-4
3307-87
1
30221-7
3307-33
01-7
2-03
30220-7
3307-10
1
30228-2
3300-50
04-1
10
2-40
30234 3
3300-09
03-7
10
2-39
30238-0
3305-28
1
30245-4
3304-45
1
9-2
30253-0
3303-09
1
9-3
30259-9
3302-87
1
30267-4
330202
1
30275-2
3301-35
1
1 30281-3
3300-09
I
30287-4
3299-01
1
' 30297-3
3299-14
1
30301-0
3298-77
1
30305
3298 25
90-0
s
2-25
30309-8
3290-91
1
1 30322-1
3290-50
1
! 30325-3
3295-94
1
! 303311
3295-12
1
I-Ol
30338-6
3293-17
1
1-00
30356-0
3292-70
90-8
8
1-90
30360-9
3292-13
90-0
8
213
30366-2
3291-10
89-3
6
1-80
30375-7
3290-80
1
30377-9
3290-03
1
30385-6
3289-51
1
30390-4
3289-04
1
30394-7 i
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Iron (Akc Spectrum)— «m^irtMe<?.
217
Reduction to
Kayser and
Intensity
JliiUer and
Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
Kunge
Cormi
and
Kenipf
Rowland
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
—Angstrom
A.+
1_
in Vacuo
3288-77
1
30397-2
3288-14
1
304030
3:87-09
2
30412-7
Q 3286-87
84-8
1 10
2-07
30414-8
3286-11
84-6
1
1-51
30421-8
3285-.')0
2
30427-5
3285-33
1
304290
3284-71
83-4
4
1-31
30436-2
3283-64
1
30444-7
328300
82-7
4
30
30450-6
3282-40
1
3045(;-2
3281-95
1
30460-4
3281-40
1
30465-5
3280-37
8
304751
3279-87
1
30479-7
3278-83
2
30489-4
3277-42
1
30502-5
3276-55
2
30510-6
3275-84
1
30517-2
327453
I
30529-4
327405
72-2
8
1-85
30533-9
3272-75
I
30546-0
3271-75
2
30555-4
3271-58
2
30567-0
3271-12
69-3
8
1-82
9-3
30561-3
327008
1
9-4
30570-9
3269-40
1
30577-2
3268-33
4
30587-3
3265-73
63-9
8
1-83
30611-6
3265-15
4
306171
3264-80
In
30620-3
3264-60
4
30622-2
3263-46
2
30632-9
3263-05
1
30636-8
3262-40
2
30642-9
3262-10
1
30645-7
3261-41
2
30652-2
3260-32
2
30662-4
3260-09
4
30664-6
325915
1
1-00
30673-4
3258-50
1
0-99
30679-6
3257-69
6
30687-2
3257-33
2
30690-6
3256-80
1
30695-6
3256-20
1
30701-2
3255-97
1
30703-4
3254-79
1
30714-5
3254-47
52-4
8
2-(7
30717-6
3254-03
1
30721-7
3253-70
2
30724-8
325300
2
30731-4
3252-55
2
30735-7
325131
6
30747-4
3350-75
2
30752-7
3350 50
1
30755-1 1
218
BEPORT — 1891.
Ieon (Abc SrECTKL'ii) — coniinued.
KavBer and
Intensity
Kunge
Cornu
and
(Kowland)
Character
3249-94
1
3249-27
1
3248 53
1
3248-31
46-8
6
3247-70
401
4
3247-39
4
3247-08
2
3246-55
1
3246 09
4
3245-59
1
3245-35
1
3244-97
1
3244-27
42-8
8
3243-94
1
3243-50
1
3243-22
1
3242-35
1
3241-54
1
3240-59
1
3239-53
38-9
38-7
8
323907
37-3
1
3238-60
1
3237-92
1
3237-43
1
3236-88
2
3236-31
34-3
4
3235-66
1
3234-71
2
3234-07
32-3
6
3233-14
4
3232-42
1
3231-72
1
3231-05
6
3230-80
1
3230-29
4
3230-01
2
3229-64
1
3229-19
2
3228-97
2
3228-64
1
3228-36
4
3228-11
2
3227-88
26-5
6
3227-17
2
3226-80
1
3225-90
24-4
10
3224-98
1
3224-27
1
3223-89
1
3223-31
1
3222-12
21-0
10
3219-92
18-7
8
3219-67
8
3218-60
1
Miiller anil
Kempf
r)iffcrence
Eeduction to
Vacuum
I?owlantl
-Angstrom
A +
1_
A.
1-51
1-00
1-47
1
1
1
!
0-63
1-27
2-01
9-4
9-5
1-77
1-38
0-99
0-98
j
i
1-50
1-12
1-22
i
Oscillation
Frequency
in V'acuo
ON -WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF TTTE ELEMENTS. 219
Iron
(Arc Spectruj
a) — continued.
1 '
1
Reduction to
1
Ka yser and
Intensity
Miillor .-mil
Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
Fi-e<nicncy
Uunge
Cornu
and
Kcmpf
I Ijowland
(Kowland)
Charactci
— AngstrOm
X +
1
a""
in Vacuo
3217-49
8
!
31070-6
321G-03
8
i
31084-7
3215-49
1
310900
3214-48
2
31099-7
3214-14
12-2
8
1-94
311030
3213-43
1
31109-9
3212-08
10-8
6
1-28
311230
3211-77
10-5
2
1-27
311200
3211-63
2
31127-3
3210-92
09-8
4
1-12
31134-2
3210-35
09-3
i
1-05
31139-7
3209-45
4
31148-5
3208-60
4
31156-7
3207-22
2
31170-1
3205-45
04-3
8
1-15
31187-4
3204-15
1
31190-0
3203-14
1
9-5
31209-9
3202-65
2
9-6
31214-5
3201-52
1
31225-G
3200-81
1
31232-5
3200-58
99-7
8
0-88
31234-7
3199-G2
98-8
8
0-82
31244-1
3198-38
In
31256-2
3197-67
In
31263-2
3197-04
9C-3
8
0-74
0-98
31269-3
3196-24
2
0-97
31277-2
3195-35
1
31285-9
3194-73
1
31291-9
3194-52
1
312940
3193-92
1
31299-9
3193-37
92 7
6
0-67
31305-3
3192-93
92-3
6
0-63
3 J 309-6
3192-66
1
31312-2
3191-77
6
31321-0
3191-22
1
3132G-4
3190-80
1
31330-5
319013
1
31337-1
3188-96
4
31348-6
3188-67
4
31351-4
3188-14
2
3135G-6
3187-70
1
31361-0
3187-35
2n
31364-4
3186-83
2
31369-5
3185-72
1
31380-5
3185-34
1
31384-2
3185-00
4
31387-6
3184-73
1
31390-2
3184-24
1
31395-1
3183-67
1
31400-7
3183-11
4
31406-2
3182-13
2
31415-9
3181-97
4
31417-5
3181-60
4
31421-1
3180-85
4
31428-5
K 3180-30
79-8
10
0-50
31434-0
220
REPORT 1891.
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — contintted.
i
Reduction to
Kayeer and
Kunse
Intensity jj-j^^^ ^^^^
Difference
Bjswland
Vacuum
Oscillation
1 Frequency
(Kowlaod)
— Angstrom
A.4-
l_
\
i iu Vacuo
3179-61
2
31440-8
3179 06
1
31446-2
3178-64
1
31450-4
3178-08
6
31455-9
3177-64
I
314603
317709
1
31465-7
3176-44
2
31472-2
3176-09
1
31475-7
3175-53
8
31481-2
3175-18
1
31484-7
3173-75
4
31498-9
3173-53
1
31501-1
3172-14
2
31514-9
3171-73
1
31518-9
3171-44
6
9-6
31521-8
3170-43
2
9-7
31531-8
3168-94
4
31546-6
3168-15
1
31554-5
3167-97
4
31556-3
3166-55
6
31570-4
3165-97
6
31576-2
3165-11
4
31584-8
3164-40
1
31591-9
3163-95
2
31596-4
3162-45
2
31611-3
316204
60-9
()
1-14
31615-4
3161-44
2
31621-5
3160-74
8
31628-5
316037
4
0-97
31632-2
3159-20
1
0-96
31643-9
315908
2
31645-1
3158-48
1
31651-1
3157-99
67-4
6
0-59
31656
3157-15
56-7
8
0-45
;
31664-4
3156-35
4
31672-5
3155-89
1
1
31677-1
3155-37
2
1
31682-3
3154-61
2
1
t
31689-9
3154-29
1
j
316931
3153-85
1
}
31697-6
3153 31
6
1
31703-0
3151-95
1
i
31716-7
3151-43
8
1
317220
315035
2 :
i
31732-8
3149-64
1
31740-0
3148-47
2 1
1
31751-8
3148-31
1 :
I
31753-4
3147-84
2
i
31758-1
314770
2
1
31759-5
3147-40
2
31762-5
3146-52
1
31771-4
314513
2
317^5-5
3) 44-61
44-4
4
1
0-21
31790-7
314406
44-2
6
1
-U-14
31796-3
3143-33
1
1
1
i
31803-7
ON 'WAYE-LENGTII TABLES OF THE SrECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 221
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
(Kowlaud)
(.'orrii
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempt'
Difference
IJowland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency !
in Vacuo
A +
1
K
3142-97
43-3
4
-0-33
31807-3
3142-54
12-6
6
-0-06
31811-7
3140-47
4
31832-7
3140-00
4
31837-4
3139-76
1
318399
3138-62
2
31851-4
3137-84
1
9-7
31859-4
3136-8»
1
9-8
31868-9
3136-59
4
31872-0
3135-76
1
31880-4
3135-51
2
31882 9
3134-21
8
31896-2
3132-61
6
31912-5
3129-45
4
31944-7
3129-20
2
31947-2
3129-05
2
31948-8
3126-89
1
31970 8
3126-25
6
31977-4
3125-77
8
31982-3
3125-00
1
31990-2
3124-16
1
31998-8
3123-43
1
0-96
3200C-3
3122-41
2
0-95
32016-7
3121-83
1
32022-7
3120-95
4
32031-7
3120-54
4
32035-9
3120-41
1
32037-3
3119-58
6
32045-8
3117-69
2
32065-2
311673
8
32075-1
3116-47
1
32077-8
3115-86
1
32084-1
3113-70
2
32106-3
3112-16
4
32122-2
3111-90
2
32124-9
3111-81
2
32125-8
3110-97
2
32134-5
3110-37
4
32140-7
3109-73
1
32147-3
3109-07
1
32154-2
3108-07
2
32164-5
3107-46
1
32170-8
3106-59
1
9-8
32179-8
3105-69
1
9-9
32189-1
3104-34
1
32203-1
3103-96
1
32207-1
3102-96
4
32217-4
3102-76
6
32219-5
3102-23
1
32225-0
3101-96
1
32227-8
3101-63
4
32231-2
3101-10
1
32236-7
3100-97
2
32238 1
3100-77
99-8
8
0-97
32240-1
Sj3100-38
99-5
6
0-88
32244-2
REPORT — 1891.
Iron
(Abc SFECTnvM)—contmved.
i
Reduction to
Kavser and
llunge
Coi-nu
Intensitj
and
Sliiller and
Difterence
Ilowland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A.+
1
A.
iu Vacuo
:5 100-04
99-2
10
0-84
32247-7
309911
1
32257-4
3098-25
6
32266-4
:i097-70
1
32272-1
3097-00
1
32279-4
309G-12
1
32288-6
3095-37
2
32296-4
309iJ-03
1
32300-0
3093-92
6
32311-6
3093-45
2
32316-5
3092-87
1
32322-5
3091-67
90-4
8
1-27
32335-1
3091-25
1
32339-5
8090-31
1
32349-3
3089-64
1
32356-3
3088-93
1
0-95
32363-8
3088-25
1
0-94
32370-9
3087-49
1
32378-9
308G-85
la
32385-6
3085-78
In
32396-8
3083-81
10
32417-5
3083-22
I
32423-7
3082-75
1
32428-7
3082-27
1
32433-7
3081-97
1
32436-9
3081-26
I
32444-3
3081-09
1
324461
3080-11
79-3
4
Q-81
32456-5
3079-81
1
32459-6
3078-50
4
32473-5
3078-10
4
32477-7
3077-77
2
32481-2
3077-32
1
32485-9
3076-CO
1
32493-5
3075-80
10
32502-0
3074-53
2
32515-4
3074-24
2
32618-5
3074-08
2
9-0
32520-1
3073-28
1
10-0
32528-5
3072-28
In
32539-1
3071-54
la
32547-0
3070-33
1
32659-8
3069-56
In
32568-0
3068-89
1
325751
3068-25
4
32581-9
3068-06
1
32583-9
3067-30
65-5
10
1-80
32594-8
3066-55
4
32599-9
3066-13
1
32604-4
3065-40
1
32612-2
3064-82
1
32618-3
3064-01
2
32627-0
3063-28
1
326347
3062-96
1
32638-2
3062-47
1
32643-4
ON W.VVE-LENGTir TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 223
Iron
(Aiic ^i>Ecnivu)—cont'mv£d.
,
Kediiction to
Kayser and
Intensity
Miilli^i- and l;>ifterence
Vacuum
Oscillation
llungc
Cornu
and
Kemp" KoOwland
ivcmpi -Angstrom
1
Frequency
(Uowland)
Chnractei
X +
1
A.
in Vacuo
3062-29
1
1 :
1
32645-3
;;061-89
1
32649-6
3061-08
4
32G58-2
;5060-63
2
326630
3059-19
57-3
10
1-89
32678-4
3057-55
10
32695-9
3056-39
2
32708-6
3055-82
1
32714-4
3055-35
G
32719-5
3054-45
2
32729-1
3053-95
1
32734-5
3053'53
\in
32739-0
3053-15
6
32743-1
3051-84
1
32757-1
3050-90
4
32767-2
3049-53
2ii
32781-9
3048-61
2n
0-93
32791-7
s 3047-71
46-5
10
1-21
32801-5
3047-15
4n
32807-5
304702
1
32808-9
3045-70
2
32823-2
3045-16
6
328290
3044-68
2
32834-2
3043-36
1
32848-4
3042-75
41-5
8
1-25
32855-0
3042-13
40-7
6
1-43
10-0
32861-7
3041-83
40-3
8
1-63
101
32864-8
3041-08
1
32872-9
3040-54
39-2
8
1-34
32878-8
3040-07
1
32883-9
3039-44
2
32890-7
3039-19
In
32893-4
3038-47
1
32901-2
3037-80
2
32908-6
3037-54
3G-2
(I
1-34
32011-3
3037-37
«
329131
3035-86
2n
32929-5
3034-63
2ri
32942-8
3034-26
2
32946-9
3033-45
1
32955-7
3033-20
2
32958-4
3031-74
6
32974-3
3031-31
29-8
6
1-51
32978-9
3030-75
1
32985-0
3030-24
28-7
8
1-54
32990-6
3029-33
4
33000-5
3026-57
25-3
8
1-27
33030-6
3026-00
4
33036-8
3025-75
24-6
C
115
33039-6
3025-39
L'
33043-5
3024-13
22-7
8
1-43
33057-3
3022-89
]
33070-8
J3021-15
^\3020-70
19-9
S
1-25
33089-9
19-4
10
1-30
33094-8
3019-31
1
2
33110-0
224
REPORT — 1891.
IROX (Aec Specttivm')— continued.
Kayscr and
1
Intensity
KuDJiO
Cornii
and 1
(Rowland)
Charactei-
301908
17-7
8
301823
1
3017-72
16-5
8
301i;-29
150
6
301(;04
4
301501
1
3014-27
2
3012-51)
2
301207
1
3011-57
6
3010-28
1
3009-6(;
08-4
10
3009-18
4
3008-23
07-3
10
3007-30
06-3
10
3005-40
4
3004-73
1
3004-20
2
3003-74
1
3003-14
027
3002-74
02-4
4
3002-58
1
300218
1
3001-80
1
300105
00-2
8
3000-56
6
2999-Gl
990
lOn
2998-61
1
2997-51
1
2996-49
G
2995-96
1
2995-41
1
t 2994-54
94-4
10
2992-63
1
2992-34
1
2991-78
6n
2990-48
6
2989-43
1
2989-00
1
2988-58
2
2987-82
1
2987-40
87-1
8
2986-72
1
2986-54
2
2985-65
6
2984-92
84-1
8
2983 68
82-0
10
2982-94
1
2982-78
1
2982-31
1
2981-95
6
2981-54
79-7
8
2980-62
6
2979-98
1
2979-44
1
MUller and
Keiupf
i Difference |
I J^owland ,
— Anffstrom
l-3f
Reduction to
Vacuum
1-22
1-29
10-1
10-2
0-93
0-92
1-26
0-93
1-00
0-44
0-34
0-85
0-(U
014
10-2
10-3
0-30
0-82
1-68
1-84
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 225
Iron (Arc Spectrum)— cowiiwwe^f.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Kunge
Cornn
Intensity
and
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
(Uowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A.+
1
in Vacuo
2978-16
1
33567-5
2976 91
1
33581-6
2976-66
1
33584-4
2976-22
76-8
6
-0-5S
0-92
33589-4
2974-86
1
0-91
33604-7
2973-41
73-8
8
-0-39
10-3
33621-1
297317
8
10-4
33623-7
2972-36
4
33632-9
2971-89
1
33638-2
2970-60
4
33652-8
297020
70-7
10
-0-5
33657-4
2969-52
70-0
10
-0-48
83665-1
2968-95
1
33G71-5
2968-58
4
33675-7
2966-99
67-4'
10
-0-41
33693-8
2966-31
2
33701-5
2965-92
4
33705-9
2965-35
65-6
8
-0-25
33712-4
2965-12
4
3a715-0
2964-72
2
33719-6
2964-30
2
33724-4
2963-77
In
33730-4
2962-67
1
33742-9
2962-20
2
33748-3
2961-74
1
33753-5
2961-30
4
33758-5
2960-75
33764-8
2960-64
1
33766-1
2960-39
4
33768-9
296007
60-5
8
-0-43
33772-6
2959-76
2
33776-1
2959-44
1
33779-8
2958-55
1
33789-9
2958-04
In
33795-8
2957-57
6
33801-1
2957-48
57-4
6
0-08
33802-2
2957-38
6
33803-3
2956-94
2n
33808-3
2955-76
1
33821-8
2954-39
In
33837-5
2954-13
6
33840-5
2953-99
4
33841-9
2953-86
53-8
6
0-06
33843-6
2953-59
6
33846-7
2952-65
In
33857-5
2951-69
In
10-4
33868-5
2950-34
50-5
8n
-0-16
10-5
33883-9
2949-83
1
33889-8
2949-28
6
33896-1
2949-07
1
33898-5
2948-79
2
33901-7
2948-52
6
33904-8
U 2948-00
47-8
8
0-20
33910-8
2947-77
8
33913-4
2947-45
4
33917-1 I
1891.
226
REPORT — 1891.
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
Liveing and
Dewar
Intensity
and
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
R^owland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A +
1
in Vacuo
2947-26
1
33919-3
2946-54
1
33927-6
2945-79
2n
33936-2
2945-20
44-6
4q
0-60
33943-0
2944-49
440
6
0-49
33951-2
2943-73
43-1
2
0-63
33960-0
2942-79
1
33970-8
2941-93
1
33980-8
2941-42
40-8
8
0-62
33986-7
2940-68
39-9
4n
0-78
33995-2
2939-39
38-7
4
0-69
34010-2
2939-15
2
34012-9
2937-90
37-3
8u
0-60
34027-4
2936-99
36-4
10
0-59
34038-0
2936-18
4
34047-4
2934-45
1
34067-4
2934-04
1
0-91
34072-2
293314
32-4
4
0-74
0-90
34082-6
2932-06
1
34095-2
2931-92
*31-1
1
0-S2
34096-8
2931-55
2
34101-1
2931-18
1
34105-4
2930-72
1
34110-8
2930-49
1
34113-5
2929-67
4
34123-0
2929-20 ;
28-3
8
0-90
34128-5
2929-04 -■
2
10-5
34130-4
2928-83
4
10-6
34132-7
2928-20
2
34140-1
2928-02
1
34142-2
2927-66
4
34146-4
2927 08
1
34153-1
2926-65 '
26-0
8
0-65
34158-2
2925-96 I
25-2
6
0-76
34166-2
2925-43 ;
24-7
6
0-73
34172-4
2924-66 ;
In
34181-4
2923-94 ,
23-2
6
0-74
34189-8
2923-39
22-8
8ii
0-59
34196-3
2922-81 ■
In
34203-0
2922-46
*21-5
2
0-96
34207-1
2921-86 i
1
34214-2
2921-19
In
34222-0
2920-76
20-0
6
0-76
34227-1
2920-41
1
34231-2
2919-95
4
34236-6
2919-31
1
342441
2919-11
1
34246-4
2918-42
4
34254-5
2918-11
17-4
8
0-71
34258-2
2917-58
1
34264-4
2916-20 '
In
34280-6
2914-34 :
13-6
6
0-74
34302-5
2913-70
In
34310-0
Those marked with an asterisk (*) were observed only in the Spark-spectrum.
ON AVAVE-LENGTU TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 227
lEON (Aec Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayper and
Rungc
Liveing and
Dewar
ten,«ity
and
MUIler and
Kempf
Difterence
Rowland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequencj'
(Rowland)
aracter
— Angstrom
A +
1_
A.
in Vacuo
2912-20
n-5
10
0-76
34327-0
2911-01
*10-5
4
0-51
34341-7
2909-91
1
34354-7
2909-0-
OS -9
067
34358-7
2909-3.S
1
34361-0
2908-97
08-2
6
0-77
34365-8
2907-94
1
34378-0
2907-59
07-1
G
0-49
10-6
34382-1
2906-70
1
10-7
34392-6
2906-53
05 8
4
0-73
34394-6
2906-23
1
34398-1
2905-60
1
34405-6
2905-46
2
34407-3
2904-66
1
34416-7
2904-22
035
4n
0-72
34421-9
2903-53
1
34430-2
2902-55
1
34441-8
2902-02
01-3
8a
72
34448-0
2901-46
00-8
G
0-66
34454-7
2899-49
98-9
8
0-59
34478-1
2898-93
2
34484-8
2898-74
1
344870
2898-52
97-3
6a
0-72
34489-7
2897-69
I
34499-5
2897-33
*96-7
1
0-63
34503-8
2897-14
1
34506-1
2890-63
1
34512-2
2895-11
94-5
8
0-61
34530-3
2894-59
f-40
8
0-59
34536-5
2893-97
93-2
4
0-77
34543-9
2893-86
2
34545-2
2893-47
1
34549-9
2893-17
1
34553-5
2892-89
1
34556-8
2892-50
92-0
6
0-56
0-90
34560-7
2891-98
91-2
2
0-78
0-89
34507-7
2891-82
2
34569-6
2891-49
1
34573-5
2890-99
2
34579-3
2890-53
lu
34585
2890-12
2
34589-9
2889-96
89-2
4
0-76
34591-9
2889-66
1
34595-4
2888-01
''■■87-6
1
0-41
34615-2
2887-88
87-3
6
0-58
34616-8
2887-43
1
34622-2
2887-22
1
34624-7
2886-38
85-8
6
0-C8
34634-8
2885-46
2
34(;45-8
2884-45
la
34657-9
2883-80
83-3
6
0-50
34665-8
2882-99
1
34675-5
2881-65
LO
34091-6
2880-84
80-4
(!
0-44
34701-4
2880-67
2
34703-4
Q 2
228
EEPORT — 1891.
Ieon (Aec Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Run?e
Liveine; and
Dewar
Intensity
and
Midler and
Ktmpf
Difference
E/iwland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
1_
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
\ +
in Vacuo
2879-60
1
34716-3
2879-01
1
34723-5
2878-84
78-2
4
0-64
34725-5
2878-75
1
34726-6
2877-95
1
34736-2
2877-37
76-8
8
0-57
10-7
34743-3
2876 80
76-4
2
0-40
10-8
347500
2870-24
In
34756-8
2875-78
1
34762-4
2875-35
74-9
2
0-45
34767-6
2874-98
4
34772-0
2874-24
73-6
8
0-64
34781-0
2873-74
73-0
2
0-74
34787-1
2873-48
2
34790-2
2872-93
1
34796-9
2872-54
1
34801-6
2872-38
72-0
8
0-38
34803-5
2871-83
1
34809-6
2871-39
*70-7
1
0-69
34815-5
2871-16
1
34818-3
2870-37
1
34827-9
2869-93
2
34833-3
2869-38
690
8
0-38
34839-9
2868-94
2
34845-3
2868-50
G80
4
0-50
34850-6
2868-33
2n
34852-7
2867-94
1
34857-4
2867-G3
G7-1
4
0-53
34861-2
2867-37
4
34864-4
2867-09
*66-5
1
0-59
34867-8
2866-68
66-2
8
0-48
34872-8
2865-90
1
34882-3
2865-43
*64-7
In
0-73
34888-0
2863-92
63-r,
8
0-32
34906-4
2863-46
631
10
0-36
349120
2962-56 .
62-4
6
0-16
349230
2862-00
1
31929-8
2861-48
*60-C)
1
0-58
34936-1
2861-29
1
34938-5
2860 50
4
34948-1
2859-48
1
34960-6
2858-96
58-3
G
0-66
34966-9
2858-41
*57-9
4
0-51
34973-7
2858-13
2
34977-1
2857-88
2
34980-2
2857-29
*56-7
1
0-59
34987-4
2857-09
1
34989-8
2856-19
1
0-89
35000-9
2855-75
*55-3
2
0-45
-0-88
35006-3
2853-81
10
35030-1
2853-02
1
35039-8
2852-19
35050-0
2851-85
10
35054-1
2851-58
2
35057-5
2850-69
6
35068-4
<3N WAVE-LEXGTII TABLES OF THE SPECTKA OF THE ELEMENTS. 229
Iron (Akc Spectrum) — continued.
j
Reduction to
Kavf er and
Livcins and
Intensity
Milllei- and
Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
itunge
Dc\v;ll-
and
Kempf
Ivowland.
Freqnency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
1
in Vacuo
2849-91
*49-3
1
001
35078-0
2849-67
1
35081-0
2848-77
48-2
8
0-57
35092-1
2848-13
48-0
2
0-13
10-8
351O0-0
2847-72
In
10-9
35104-9
284G-87
46-5
6
0-37
35115-4
2845-75
2
35129-2
2845-03
45-3
8
0-33
35130 7
2844-04
436
10
0-44
35150-3
2843-69
43-1
8
0-59
35154-7
2843-30
2
35159-5
2842-96
2
35163-7
2842-46
1
35169-9
2842-06
In
35174-8
2841-72
In
35179-1
2841-32
In
351840
2840-99
4
35188-1
2840-73
2
35191-3
2840-50
40-3
0-20
35194-2
2840-06
39-6
10
0-46
35199-6
2839-66
1
35204-6
2838-51
2n
35218-8
283819
37-7
8
0-49
35222-8
2836-45
In
35244-4
2836-02
4
35249-8
2835-76
2
352530
2835-51
*35-2
«
031
35256-1
2834-81
4
35264-8
2834-48
1
35268-9
2834-22
1
35272-2
2834-07
1
35274-0
283395
32-S
In
1-15
35275-5
2833-47
32-4
2
1-07
35281-5
2832-47
31-8
10
0-67
35294-0
2831-04
4
35311-8
2830-85
1
35314-2
2830-55
In
35317-9
2829-58
In
35330-0
2828-87
28-3
6
()-57
35338-9
2828-70
1
35341 -Oj
2828-44
In
35344-3
2827-98
27-3
4
a68
35350-0
2827-68
*270
2n
0-68
35353-8
2827-20
In
35359-8
2826-88
In
10-9
35363-8
2826-56
4
110
35367-7
282607
2
35373-8
2825-75
6
35377-8
2825-60
251
8
0-50
35379-7
2824-73
2
35390-6
2824-42
23-9
6
0-52;
35394-5
2823-32
22-9
8
0-42
35408-3
2821-95
1
35425-5
2821-69
1
35428-7
2621-33
1
35433-3
230
BEPORT — 1891.
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to |
Kayser and
Runge
(Rowland)
Liveing and
Dewar
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
E^owland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
OsciHation
A +
1
Frequency
in Vacuo
2821-09
1
35436-3
2820-86
20-4
2
0-46
35439-2
2820-35
In
0-88
35445-6
2819-51
2
0-87
35156-1
2819 35
19
6
0-35
35458-2
2818-28
1
35471-6
2817-98
1
35475-4
281755
17-0
8
0-55
35480-8
2816-74
In
35491-0
2815-58
15-1
6
0-48
35505-7
2815-14
2
35511-2
2813-67
*)3-4
2
0-27
35529-8
2813-36
12 8
10
0-56
35533-7
2812-60
*12-2
1
0-40
35543-3
2812-36
1
35546-3
2812-09
11-7
4
0-39
35549-7
2811-23
*10-9
In
0-33
35560-6
2810-94
In
35564-3
2810-37
09-7
In
0-67
35571-5
2808-73
1
35592-3
2808-37
07-9
G
0-17
35596-8
2808-03
1
35601-2
2807-32
2
35610-2
2807-03
06-7
10
0-33
35613-8
2806-53
In
35620-2
2806-13
2
110
35625-3
2805-87
*05-4
2
0-47
11-1
35628-5
2804-92
4
35640-5
2804-56
04-2
10
0-36
35645-1
2804-13
*03-8
In
0-33
35650-6
2803-68
03-2
6
0-48
35656-3
2803-20
2
35662-4
2802-76
01-8
4
0-96
35668-0
2801-15
00-8
8
0-35
35688-5
2800-73
00-1
In
0-63
35693-9
2800-31
994
1
0-91
35699-2
2799-87
1
35704-8
2799-34
1
35711-6
2799-21
98-8
4
0-41
35713-3
2798-64
1
25720-5
2798-31
97-9
8
0-41
35724-7
2797-82
97-4
8
0-42
35731-0
2796-91
*96-3
2
0-61
35742-6
2796-38
In
35749-4
2795-90
1
35755-6
2795-58
8
35759-7
2795-00
94-5
10
0-50
35767-1
2794-77
6
357700
2794-21
1
35777-2
2793-97
*93 3
2
0-67
35780-3
2792-89
1
35794-1
2792-44
92-2
6
0-24
35799-9
2791-84
91-5
6
0-34
35807-6
2791-51
6
35811-8
2791-00
*90-3
1
0-70
35818-3
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 231
Iron (Arc Spectrum)— co«<i»t?<e<f.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
Liveing and
Dewar
Intensity j^jj^^ „„^
.,, """l, ! Kempf
Character '
Difference
B^owland
Vacuum
OscUlation
Frequency
(Rowland)
— Angstrom
A.+
1
in Vacuo
2789-87
89-5
8
0-37
11-1
35832-9
2789-54
4
11-2
35837-0
2788-19
jss-o
10
0-12
35854-4
2788-05
10
35856-2
2787-16
1
35867-6
2786-84
4
35871-7
2786-26
1
35879-2
2785-25
1
35892-2
2785-11
1
35894-0
2784-40
84-2
4
0-20
35903-2
2784-07
2
0-87
35907-4
2783-75
*83-4
8
0-35
0-86
35911-6
2782-12
1
35932-6
2781-89
81-6
8
0-29
35935-6
2780-93
1
35948-0
2780-77
4
35950-1
2780-61
1
35952-1
2780-28
4
35956-4
2779-85
4n
35962-0
2779-34
78-9
6
0-44
35968-6
2778-89
78-3
6
0-59
35974-4
2778-64
1
35977-6
2778-29
77-9
8
0-39
35981-2
2778-15
*77-7
G
0-45
35984-0
2776-86
•-'^76-1
1
0-76
36000-7
2776-47
2n
36005-7
2775-92
1
36012-9
2775-11
1
36023-4
2774-76
74-5
8
0-26
36028-0
2774-47
1
36031-7
2774-21
1
36035-1
2773-96
2
36038-3
2773-28
73-1
8
0-18
36047-2
2772-89
2
36052-3
2772-56
4
36056-5
2772-40
2
36058-6
2772-15
71-9
8
0-25
36061-9
2771-94
1
36064-6
2771-30
711
1
0-20
36072-9
2770-75
70-3
4
0-45
36080-1
2770-57
1
36082-4
2770-06
1
36089-1
2769-73
69-4
4
0-33
36093-4
2769-37
691
6
0-27
36098-1
2768-98
68-8
4
0-18
36103-2
2768-52
2n
36109-2
2768-19
2n
36113-5
2767-56
67-2
10
0-36
36121-7
2766-99
66-8
6
0-19
361291
2766-75
2
36132-3
2766-45
36136-2
2766-07
36141-2
2765-73
*65-3
0-43
36145-6
2765-30
*64-7
0-60
36151-2
2765-13
11-2
36153-5
232
EEPOET 1891.
Ieon (Arc Specteum) — continued.
Keduction to
Kayser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Liveing and
Dewar
Intensity
and
Character
MuUer and
Kempf
Difference
B^owland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
A +
1_
A.
2764-80
1
11-3
36157-7
2764-41
64-0
8
0-41
36162-8
2763-17
63-0
6
017
36179-0
2762-82
*62-4
6
0-42
36183-6
2762-62
1
36187-5
2762-12
61-9
8
0-22
36192-8
2761-83
61-7
8
0-13
36196-6
2761-57
1
36200-0
2761-30
1
36203-5
2760-96
6
36208-0
2760-71
1
36211-3
2760-42
1
362151
2760-20
1
362180
2759-86
59-7
8
010
36222-4
2759-42
1
36228-2
2759-02
1
36233-6
2758-20
1
36244-2
2757-91
6
36248-0
2757-38
57-2
8
0-18
36255-0
2757-09
*56-9
1
0-19
36258-8
2756-85
1
36262-0
2756-36
56-2
. 8
0-16
36268-4
2755-77
55-5
10
0-27
36276-2
2755-25
4
362830
275501
2
36286-2
2754-72
1
36290-0
2754-48
54-3
6
0-18
36293-2
2754-09
53-9
6
0-19
36298-3
2753-74
53-5
6
0-24
36302-9
2753-37
53-0
6
0-37
36307-8
275319
2
36310-2
2752-20
1
36323-3
2752-89
4
36327-4
2751-44
*50-8
2
0-64
36333-3
2751-20
1
36336-5
2750-95
50-6
8
0-35
36339-8
2750-82
1
86341-5
2750-21
49-8
10
0-41
36349-6
2749-58
6
36357-9
2749-42
49-0
6
0-42
36360-0
2749-23
6
36362-5
2748-49
1
36372-3
2748-25
1
36375-5
2747-64
6
36383-6
2747-03
46-6
10
0-43
36391-6
2746-54
46-1
10
0-44
36398-1
2745-87
2
0-86
36407-0
2745-52
1
0-85
36411-7
2745-13
6
36416-8
2744-60
44-2
8
0-40
11-3
36423-9
2744-12
43-7
8
0-42
11-4
36430-3
2743-63
43-3
6
0-33
36436-7
2743-2;
42-8
10
0-43
36442-0
2742-45
42-0
10
0-45
36452-3
2742-11
4
36456-9
ox WAYE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 233
lEON (Arc Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
kunge
(Kowland)
Liveing and
Dewar
Intensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
E^owland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
\ +
1
A.
2741-65
*41-1
2
0-55
36463-0
274148
1
36465-2
2741-20
4
36469-0
2740-42
In
36479-4
2739-59
39-1
10
0-49
3G490-4
2738-92
1
36499-3
2738-55
2
36504-3
2738-28
4
36507-9
2737-93
4
36512-5
2737-72
2
36515-3
2737-37
36-9
8
0-47
36520-0
2737-02
36-5
8
0-52
36524-6
2736-61
1
36330-2
2736-31
1
36534-2
2735-71
G
36542-2
2735-61
G
36543-5
2735-51
35-0
6
0-51
36544-9
2734-98
o
36551-9
2734-70
2
36555-7
2734-39
33-9
8
0-49
36559-8
273407
33-7
4
0-37
36564-1
2733-65
33-1
10
0-55
36569-7
2732-88
*32-5
1
0-38
36580-0
2732-53
1
36584-7
2731-93
*31-5
In
0-43
36592-8
2731-37
2
36600-3
2731-04
4
36604-7
2730-79
30-2
8
0-59
36608-0
2730-16
1
36616-5
2729-45
*29-l
1
0-35
36626-0
2729-02
1
36631-8
2728-90
28-3
G
0-60
36633-4
2728-45
1
36639-4
. 2728-11
27-5
6
0-61
36644-0
2727-61
27-1
8
0-51
36650-7
2727-48
1
36652-5
2726-90
In
36G60-3
2726-20
25-5
10
0-70
36669-7
2725-92
1
36673-5
2725-68
2
36676-7
2725-37
4
36680-9
2724-97
24-3
8
0-67
36686-2
2724-78
2
36688-8
2724-42
1
36693-7
2723-66
23-1
10
0-56
36703-9
2723-08
1
11-4
36711-7
2722-10
2
11-5
36724-8
2720-99
20-3
10
0-69
36739-8
2720-28
19-7
6
0-58
36749-4
2719-51
G
36759-8
2719-11
18-5
10
0-61
36765-2
2718-51
18-0
8
0-51
36773-4
2717-84
17-4
4
0-44
36782-4
2717-43
2
36788-0
2716-52
1
36800-3
234
KEPORT — 1891.
Ieon (Aec Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Liveing and
Intensity
Muller and
Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
Kunge
Dewar
and
Kempf
Kp-wland
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A +
1
in Vacuo
2716-31
15-7
4n
0-61
36803-1
2715-38
14-9
In
0-48
36815-8
2715-24
1
36817-7
2714-93
14-4
4
0-53
36821-9
2714-48
13-8
10
0-68
36828-0
2714-15
13-5
4
0-65
36832-4
2713-64
1
36839-4
2712-42
*ll-9
2
0-52
36855-9
2711-92
*ll-5
2
0-42
36862-7
2711-71
11-2
6
0-51
36865-6
2711-02
1
36875-0
2710-61
101
6
0-51
36880-6
2710-08
09-7
2n
0-38
36887-8
2709-74
1
36892-4
2709-47
1
36896-1
2709-13
*08-7
2
0-43
36900-7
2708-64
08-1
10
0-54
0-84
36907-4
2708-00
1
0-83
36916-1
2707-57
06-7
2
0-87
36922-0
270713
1
36928-0
2706-63
06-0
8
0-63
36934-8
270607
05-6
6
0-47
36942-5
2705-61
1
36948-7
2705-30
In
36953-0
2704-80
In
36959-8
2704-06
*03-6
6
0-46
36969-9
2702-83
02-6
In
0-23
36986-8
2702-52
4
36991-0
2701-99
01-2
4
0-79
36998-3
2701-08
In
11-5
37010-7
2699-93
In
11-6
37026-4
2699-18
98-6
8
0-58
37036-7
2698-68
1
37043-5
2698-23
97-7
In
0-53
37049-7
2697-58
*970
1
0-58
37058-7
2697-08
96-6
8
0-48
37065-5
2696-41
95 9
8n
0-51
37074-7
2696-12
95-6
6n
0-52
37078-7
2695-64
950
4n
0-64
37085-3
269512
94-4
4
0-72
37092-5
2694-63
940
4n
0-63
37099-2
2694-37
*93-4
1
0-97
37102-8
2692-91
2
37122-9
2692-71
92-1
4
0-61
37125-7
2692-31
91-7
2
0-61
37131-2
2691-80
*91-2
1
0-60
37138-3
2691-46
90-9
1
0-56
371430
2690-80
In
371521
269012
89-5
6
0-62
37161-5
2689-92
89-3
6
0-62
37164-2
2689-71
4n
37167-1
2689-28
88-8
8
0-48
37173-1
2687-91
87-3
2n
0-61
37192-0
2687-59
86-8
In
0-79
37196-5
2686-82
86-0
2n
0-82
37207-1
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEME>iTS. 235
Iron (Aec SPKCTRVVL)—ccntinued.
Eeduction to |
Kayser and
Liveing anc
Intensity
Miiller and
Difference
Vacuum
0,-cillation
Kuneie
(Rowland)
Dewar
and
Characte
Kempf
Ep-wland
— Angstrom
A +
1
Frequency
in Vacuo
2686-77
In
37221-7
2085-19
1
37229-7
2684-86
84-2
4
0-66
37234-3
2084-10
83-5
4n
0-60
37244-8
2G82-28
81-5
2ii
0-78
37270-1
2681-62
80-8
4n
0-82
37279-3
2680-99
*80-4
1
0-59
37288-1
2680-53
79-9
6
0-63
37294-5
2680-26
2
37298-2
2679-97
1
n-6
37302-2
2679-14
78-5
10
0-64
11-7
37313-7
2678-25
77-2
In
105
37326-1
2677-30
1
37339-4
2676-97
*76-l
2
0-87
37344-0
2676-56
1
37349-7
2676-21
75-1
In
1-11
37354-6
2676-37
74-6
4n
0-77
37366-3
2674-74
2
37375-]
2674-32
1
0-84
37381-0
2673-28
72-4
6
0-88
0-83
37395-5
2672 30
71-8
In
0-50
37409-2
2671-49
*70-8
1
0-69
37420-6
2670-86
I
37429-4
2670-59
69-9
1
0-69
37433-2
2670-00
*69-2
1
0-80
37441-5
2669-55
68-7
8
0-85
37447-8
2669-00
*68-5
1
0-50
37455-5
2668-84
In
37457-8
2668-30
1
37465-3
2667-97
67-2
6
0-77
37470-0
2667-72
1
37473-5
2667-36
1
37478-5
2667-05
6
37482-9
2666-94
66-1
8
0-84
37484-4
2666-72
4
37487-5
2666-43
65-7
8
0-73
37491-6
2663-87
64-2
1
0-67
37499-5
2665-15
64-0
1
1-15
37509-6
2664-74
63-5
8
1-24
37515-4
266416
4n
37523-6
2663-28
*62-2
In
1-08
3753G-0
2662-42
2
37548-1
2662-13
61-6
8
0-53
37552-2
2661-57
1
37560-1
2661-31
60-8 i
8
0-51
37563-8
2660-48
6
37575-5
2659-26
In
37592-7
2658-48
57-8
2
0-68
11-7
37603-8
2656-85
56-4
6
0-45
11-8
37626-7
2656-22
55-7
8
0-52
37635-7
265517
*54-4
1
0-77
37650-6
2653-40
2
37661-5
2653-87
*53-3
1
0-57
37669-0
2652-53
*52-2
1
0-33
37688-1
2651-78
50-9
6
0-88
37698-7
236
KBPORT 1891.
lEON (Aeg S-pECTRV M^—contimied.
Reduction to
Kayser nnd
(Rowland)
jiveins and
Dewar
[ntensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Keuipf
Difference
R^owland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
A +
1
A
2651-27
50-4
4
0-87
37706-0
2648-57
4
87744-4
2648-29
1
37748-4
2647-64
47-3
H
0-34
37757-7
2646-40
45-2
I
1-20
37775-4
2645-52
44-9
6
0-62
37787-9
2644-07
43-8
10
0-27
37808-7
2641-74
41-4
8
0-34
37842-0
2641-13
*40-7
2
0-43
37850-8
264035
1
37862-0
2639-60
*39-2
1
0-40
11-8
37872-7
2637-69
36-6
1
1-09
0-83
11-9
379001
2636-54
36-1
4
0-44
0-82
37916-6
2635-87
35-5
8
0-37
37926-2
2635-00
In
37938-8
2633-68
*32-9
1
0-78
37957-8
263309
1
37966-3
2632-66
32-3
2
0-36
27972-5
2632-30
32-0
4
0-30
37977-7
2631-72
2
37986-1
2631-37
31-0
10
0-37
37991-1
2631-07
30-7
10
0-37
37995-4
2630-13
29-7
2
0-43
38009-0
2629-66
29-2
1
0-46
38015-8
2629-28
1
38021-3
2628-35
27-9
10
0-45
38034-8
2627-18
26-8
2
0-38
38051-7
2626-52
26-2
1
0-32
38061-3
2625-72
25-2
10
0-52
38072-9
2624-84
1
38085-7
2624-21
23-6
2
0-61
38094-8
2623-58
23-1
10
0-48
38104-0
262200
1
38126-9
2621-72
21-2
8
0-52
38131-0
2620-73
*20-4
1
0-33
38145-4
262047
19-9
6
0-57
11-9
38149-2
2619-06
*18-6
1
0-46
12-0
38169-6
2618-78
18-3
4
0-48
38173-7
2618-47
1
38178-2
2618-10
17-6
4
0-50
38183-6
2617-71
17-2
C
0-51
38189-3
2617-25
2
38196-0
2616-50
1
38207-0
2615-94
1
38215-2
2615-50
150
6
0-50
38221-6
2614-62
14-0
4
0-62
38234-5:
2614-27
1
38239-6]
2613-01
13-3
8
61
38244-9
2613-33
2
38253-4
2612-96
12-3
4
0-66
38258-8
2611-94
11-4
10
0-54
38273-7
2611-16
10-7
2
0-46
38285-1
2610-87
10-3
1
0-57
38289-4
2609-79
09-1
In
0-69
38305-3
2609-30
08-7
1
0-60
38312-5
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TUE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 237
Iron (Aec Spectrum) — continued.
Eeduction to
Kayser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Liveing anc
Intensity
Miiller and
Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
Do war
and
Charactei
Kempf
Kj)wland
— Angstrom
A.+
1
Frequency
in Vacuo
2608-65
08-2
4n
0-45
38322-0
260716
06-7
8
0-46
38343-9
2606-92
06-5
4
0-42
38347-4
2606-36
*06-l
2
0-26
38355-7
2005-77
05-3
8
0-47
38364-4
2604-90
04-4
6
0-50
38377-2
2603-71
03-5
4
0-21
12-0
38394-7
2600-25
99-7
4
0-55
0-82
121
38445-7
2599-53
989
10
0-63
0-81
38456-4
2598-95
1
38465-0
2598-44
97-8
10
0-64
38472-5
2596-60
90-0
2n
0-60
38499-8
i 2595-41
95-2
1
0-21
38517-5
2594-20
93-5
6
0-70
38535-4
2593-75
93-1
6
0-65
38542-1
2592-90
*92-2
4
0-70
38554-8
2592-35
91-7
2
0-65
38562-9
2591-65
91-0
8
0-65
38573-4
2591-34
4
38578-0
2590-65
*900
1
0-65
38588-3
2588-96
*8S-2
1
0-76
38613-4
2588-11
87-5
10
0-61
38626-1
2586-50
1
38649-3
2585-93
85-4
10
0-53
38658-7
2584-59
84-0
8
0-59
38678-8
2582-50
82-0
81-7
10
0-50
12-1
12-2
38710-1
2581-57
80-9
2
0-67
38723-9
2581-05
80-3
1
0-75
38731-7
2580-52
79-9
2
0-62
38739-7
2579-92
79-5
79-3
6
0-42
38748-7
2579-35
78-7
4
0-65
38757-3
2578-86
78-3
1
0-56
38764-6
2578-01
77-4
10
0-61
38777-4
2577-41
*76-5
1
0-91
38786-4
2576-76
70-2
8
0-56
38796-2
2576-20
75-7
6
0-50
38804-7
2575-83
75-3
74-8
10
0-53
38810-2
2574-43
740
6
0-43
38831-3
2573-84
1
38840-3
2573-23
*72-8
1
0-43
38849-5
2572-82
72-5
6
0-32
38855-7
2571-67
*71-2
4
0-47
38873-0
2570-92
*70-6
1
0-32
38884-4
2570-56 .
70-1
8
0-46
38889-8
2569-73
69-4
6
0-33
38902-4
2568-97
680
4
0-37
38913-9
2568-49
*68-l
2
0-39
38921-2
2567-93
4
38929-7
2566-99
66-7
8
0-29
38933-9
2565-55
65-1
2
0-45
38965-8
2564-63
64-2
4
0-43
0-81
38979-8
2563 99
1
0-80
38989-5
238
REPOET 1891.
Iron (Aec Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
Liveinc
Dew
and Intensity
ar and
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
B^owland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
1
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
A.+
in Vacuo
2563-53
63:
J 10
0-33
12-2
38996-5
2562-63
62-.
5 10
33
12-3
39010-1
2562-35
61-'
) 4
0-45
39014-4
2561-87
61-
> 4
0-37
39021-7
2561-33
60-
) 4
0-43
39029-9
2560-65
60-
i 6
0-35
39040-3
2560-43
60{
1 4
0-43
39043-6
2551)-91
*59-
3 2
0-31
39051-6
2559-25
*58-
) 1
0-35
39061-6
2558-GO
58-
i 4
0-30
39071-6
2557-42
*57-
2 1
0-22
390!)0-4
2556-92
66-
5 6
0-32
39097-2
2556-38
56-
3 6
0-38
39105-5
2555-59
*55-
2 4
0-39
39117-6
2555-37
54-
3 4
0-47
39121-0
2555-04
*54-
^1*1
0-24
39126-0
255400
*53-
11 0-60
391420
2553-32
52-
^ 1 8 1 0-52 1
39152-4
2552-74
52-
5 4 0-44
39161-3
2551-19
50
? 1 8 ' 0-39
39185-1
2550-75
50-
5 2n
0-45
39191-8
2550-07
49-
r 2ii
0-37
39202-3
2549-63
49-
i 8
0-43
39209-1
2548-76
*i8-i
^ 6 1
0-36
39222-5
254817
47
i 2
0-37
39231-5
2547-0!)
46-
J 8
0-46
39248-6
2546-26
45-
3 8
0-46
39261-0
2545-95
*44-
) 2
1-05
12-3
39265-8
2544-83
44-
> 8n
0-33
12-4
39283-0
2544-02
43-
r 6
0-32
39295-5
2543-47
43-
1 4
0-47
39304-0
2542-85
*42-
1 1
0-45
39313-5
2542-20
41-
7 \ 8
0-50
39323-6
2541-18
40-
5 6
0-38
39339-4
2540-90
-^40-
I 4
0-50
39343-7
2540-00
1
39357-7
2539-48
39-
\ 2
0-38
39365-7
2538-98
38-
3 10
0-38
39373-5
2537-21
36-
J 10
0-31
39401-0
2536-90
36-
i 8
0-30
39405-8
2585-67
35-
I 6
0-47
39424-9
2535-25
4
39431-4
2534-52
34-
I 4
0-32
39442-8
2.")33-8fi
33-
4 10
0-46
39453-1
2533-26
32-
5 2
0-66
39462-4
2532-H8
32-
1 1 i
0-58
39466-8
2532-37
32-
^ ' 6 1
0-37
39476-3
2531-62
31-
1 1 1
0-52
39488-0
2530-79
30-
4 , 8 1
0-37
39500-9
253003
29-
k 4
0-43
39512-8
2529-65
*29-
i 4
0-45
39518-8
2529-40
28-
? 1 8n
0-50
39522-7
2529-03
. 1 . 4
39528-4
2528-57
28-
I i 6
0-47
39535-6
27-
» 1
ON AVAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF TUE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 239
lEON (Arc Specteum) — cmvtinued.
Kayser and
Kunge
(Rowland)
Liveinc: and
Dewar
2527-67
2527-30
2520-30
2525-48
252511
2524-52
2524-32
2523 76
2523-19
2522-93
2522-67
2521-97
2521-09
2519-71
2519-30
2518-93
2518-25
2517-76
2517-25
2516-65
2516-19
2514-84
2514-38
2513-94
2513-33
13-2
2512-38
12-2
12-0
2511-84
11-6
2511-41
11-4
2511-05 \
2510-87 /
10-6
25C9-43
*08-8
2508-78
08-5
2507-99
07-6
2507-49
2506-98
06-6
2506-70
06-2
2500-25
*05-8
2505-64
05-2
2505-09
04-9
2503-89
*03-6
2503-50
03-0
2502-53
02-1
2501-87
01-4
2501-00
00-9
2498-96
98-7
2498-37
2497-88
97-5
2497-15
2496-60
96-3
2496-01
95-6
2495-35
2494-30
93-9
2494-10
93-7
2493-34
92-9
27-1
*26-7
26-0
25-1
24-7
23-9
23-3
22-5
21-5
20-8
19-3
18-8
18-5
17-8
17-4
16-8
16-3
15-8
14-3
14-1
Intensity
and
Character
10
6
6
2
In
6
6
10
2
6
6
6
8
1
1
4
10
Reduction to
Miiller and
Difference
E^owland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Kempf
Frequency
— Angstrom
A.+
1
in Vacuo
0-57
39549-7
0-60
0-80
12-4
39555-5
0-30
0-79
12-5
39571-1
0-38
39583-9
0-41
39589-7
0-62
39599-0
39602-1
0-46
39610-9
39619-9
39623-9
0-17
39628-0
0-47
39639-0
0-29
39652-9
0-41
39674-6
0-50
39681-1
0-43
<
39686-9
0-45
39697-6
0-36
39705-3
0-45
39713-4
0-35
39722-9
0-39
39730-1
0-54
39751-5
0-28
39758-7
39765-7
0-13
39775-4
0-18
39790-4
0-24
39799-0
0-01
39805-8
0-36
f39811-5
\ 39814-3
0-63
12-5
39837-2
0-28
12-6
39847-4
0-39
39860-0
39867-9
0-38
39876-0
0-50
39880-5
0-45
39887-6
0-44
39897-4
0-19
39906-1
0-29
39925-3
0-50
39931-5
0-43
399470
0-47
39957-5
0-10
39971-4
0-26
40004-0
40013-5
0-38
40021-3
40033-0
0-30
40041-9
0-41
40051-3
40061-9
0-40
40078-8
0-40
40082-0
0:44 i
1
40094-2
240
EEPORT 1891.
Iron (Arc Spectrum) — continued.
Reduction to
Kayser and
iiunge
(Rowland)
Liveing and
Dewar
[ntensity
and
Character
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
Rowland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
A +
1
2i92-72
1
40104-2
249212
92-0
4
012
40113-9
2491-50
91-0
6
0-50
40123-9
2490-98
90-5
6
0-48
12-6
40132-2
249050
4
0-70
12-7
40139-9
249001
89-5
4
0-51
0-78
40147-8
2489-63
*89-2
4
0-43
40153-9
2489-04
88-7
6
0-34
40163-4
2488-23
87-7
10
0-53
40176-5
2487-44
87-1
1
0-34
40189-3
2487-18
86-8
2
0-38
40193-5
248G-77
86-4
2
0-37
40200-1
2486-42
86-1
2
0-32
40205-8
2486-04
85-7
2
0-34
40211-9
2485-47
1
40221-1
2485-21
84-7
1
0-51
40225-3
2484-35
83-7
8
0-65
40239-3
2483-34
82-9
10
0-44
40255-6
2482-16
81-8
4
0-36
40274-8
2481-11
*80-7
1
0-41
40291-8
2480-25
80-0
6
0-25
40305 8
2480-01
6
40309-7
2479-64
79-5
79-2
10
014
40315-7
2478-67
78-3
2
0-37
40331-5
2478-22
*77-9
1
0-32
40338-8
2477-41
*771
1
0-31
40352-0
2476-77
765
8
0-27
40362-5
2476-40
75-8
1
0-60
40368-5
2474-88
74-5
8
0-38
40393-3
2473-30
*72-9
1
0-40
40419-1
2473-15
72-7
6
0-45
12-7
40421-6
2472-83
72-4
6
0-43
12-8
40426-7
2472-40
71-9
6
0-50
40433-7
2471-05
70-5
4
0-55
40455-8
2470-78
*70-3
4
0-48
40460-2
2470-01
1
40472-9
2469-60
*69-0
1
0-GO
40479-6
2468-97
68-4
8
0-57
40489-9
2468-41
*67-8
1
0-61
40499-1
2467-80
67-2
6n
0-60
40509-1
2466-81
66-4
en
0-41
40525-4
2466-02
*65-4
2
0-62
40538-4
2465-23
64-7
8
0-53
40551-4
2465-05
*fi4-5
1
0-55
405543
2464-09
*63-7
1
0-39
40570-1
2463-86
63-4
4
0-46
40573-9
2463-39
62-8
2
0-59
40581-7
2462 81
62-3
6
0-51
40591-2]
2462-60
4
40594-7
2462-30
61-9
4
0-40
40599-6
2461-89
*61-4
4
0-49
40606-4
2461-28
610
60-8
8
0-28
40616-5
2460-37
60-2
6
0-17
40631-5
ON WATK-LE.NGTII TABLES OF TUE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 241
IHON (Aec Spectrum) — continncd.
Reduction to
Kayser and
kunge
Liveing and
Dewar
Intensity
and
Miiller and
Kempt'
Difference
IJowland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
(Rowland)
Character
— Angstrom
X +
1
A
ia "Vacuo
2459-53
1
406454
2458-78
58-5
58-2
8
0-28
40657-8
2457-68
57-4
8
0-28
40676-0
2456-67
*56-4
2a
0-27
40692-7
2456-14
56-0
2
014
12-8
40701-5
2455-66
55-3
4a
0-36
12-9
40709-3
2454-55
*54-3
2q
0-25
0-78
40727-8
2453-57
53-2
8
0-37
0-77
40744-0
2452-67 •
523
2a
0-37
40759-0
2452-29
51-8
]
0-49
40765-3
2451-80
51-3
2
0-50
40773-5
2451-55
51-0
2
0-55
40777-6
2451-28
50-7
2
0-58
40782-1
2450-56
500
2
0-56
40794-1
2449-93
*49-fi
1
0-33
40804-6
2448-88
48-5
la
0-38
40822-1
2448-50
48-1
2
0-40
40828-4
2447-81
47-5
8
0-31
40839-9
2447-25
*47-l
1
0-15
40849-3
2446-53
4(;-3
2
0-23
40861-3
2446-30
*45-9
1
0-40
40865-2
2445-68
45-4
4
0-28
40875-5
2445-23
44-9
2
0-33
40883-0
2444-58
44-3
6
0-28
40893-9
2443-94
43-7
6
0-24
40904-6
2442-68
42-3
10
0-38
40925-7
2441-73
41-5
2
0-23
40941-7
2440-25
39-8
8
0-45
409G6-5
2439-82
39-4
8
0-42
40973-7
2439-36
*:i9-o
«
0-36
12-9
40981-5
2438-27
37-9
fi
0-37
130
40999-7
2437-33
*3(i-9
la
0-43
41015-5
2436-45
36-0
8
0-45
41030-3
2435-93
35-6
4
0-33
41039-1
2435-04
34-7
6
0-34
41054-1
2434-86
34 3
4
0-56
41057-1 1
33-9
2433-54
■►33-2
1
0-34
41079-4
2432-97
*32-5
2
0-47
410890
2432-34
31-8
4
0-54
41099-7
2431-38
30-7
4
0-68
41115-9
2431-08
30-5
8
0-58
41121-0
2430-16
29-7
6
0-46
4113G-5
2429-53
290
8
0-53
13-0
41147-2
2429-00
28-5
1
0-50
131
41156-1
242841
*27-9
4
0-51
41166-1
2427-11
*27-0
1
o-ii
41188-2
2426-46
25-4
In
0-06
41199-2
2425-68
250
In
0-68
41212-5
242504
*24-3
1
0-74
41223-3
2424-22
23-8
8
0-42
41237-3
2423-25
22-9
2
0-35
41253-8
2422-73
224
1
0-33
412G2-6
2421-79
21-3
8
0-49
41278-7
1891.
242
BBPOET — 1891.
Iron (Aeo Spectrum) — conti
Keduction to
Kayser and
Liveing and
Dewar
Intenisity
and
Character
IMuller and
Kempf
Difference
liowland
— Angstrom
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Runge
(Rowland)
A +
1
A
2421-02
20-7
1
0-32
41291-8
2420-39
20-0
1
0-39
41302-6
2419-80
19-4
1
0-40
41312-6
2419-49
18-9
4n
0-59
41317-9
2419-17
18-2
4
0-97
41323-4
2417-94
17-5
4n
0-44
41344-4
2117-58
17-1
2
0-48
0-77
41350-6
241C-68
16-3
1
0-38
0-76
41366-0
2416-00
15-4
2n
0-60
41377-6
2415-29
14-8
1
0-49
13-1
41389-8
2414-50
13-8
1
0-70
13-2
41403-2
2413-37
13-0
10
0-37
41422-6
2112-45
1
41438-3
2111-79
11-4
In
0-39
41449-8
241116
10-7
10
0-46
41460-6
2410-56
10-2
10
0-36
41470-9
2408-13
07-6
2
0-53
41512-8
2407-66
07-3
06-9
2n
0-36
41520-9
2406-72
06-3
10
0-42
41537-1
240502
04-5
10
0-52
41566-5
2404-48
04-2
8
0-28
41575-8
2402-67
02-3
4
0-37
41607-2
2402-23
01-9
1
0-33
41614-8
2401-60
01-1
2
0-20
41625-7
2401-25
01-0
1
0-25
41631-8
2400-39
00-0
2
0-39
41646-7
2399-31
99-0
10
0-31
41665-4
2398-29
98-0
1
0-29
41683-2
2395-62
9.V4
95-2
10
0-22
13-2
41729-6
2394-33
941
92-8
1
0-23
13-3
41752-0
2392-70
92-4
1
0-30
41780-5
2391-53
91-3
6
0-23
41800-9
2390-03
89-9
4
0-13
41822-4
2388-71
88-4
8
031
41850-3
2388-42
*S8-0
In
042
41855-4
238603
87-2
85-8
1
0-23
41897-3
2385-07
84-8
4
0-27
41914-2
2384-48
84-2
6
0-28
41924-6
2383-24
83-0
82-7
8
0-24
41946-4
238215
81-7
10
0-45
41965-6
238082
80-5
G
0-32
0-76
41989-0
2379-38
790
8
0-38
0-75
13-3
42014-5
2378-03
77-6
2
0-43
13-4
42038-2
2377-33
76-9
2
0-43
; 42050-6
2376-54
76-2
1
0-34
42064-6
2375-90
1
42075-9
2375-30
74-9
8
0-40
42086-5
2374-59
2373-79
74-1
73-4
2
10
0-49
0-39
42099-1
42113-3
2372-65
72-7
1
0-05
42133-6
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 243
Ikon (Aec Spectrum) — coiitmued.
Reduction to
Kavser and
Runge
Living anc
Dewar
Inteoisity
and
Miiller and
Kempf
Difference
R^owland
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
(Rowland)
Charactei
— Angstrom
A +
1
A
in Vacuo
2371-51
71-1
4
0-41
42153-8
237056
70-1
6
0-46
42170-7
2369-55
69-1
2
0-45
42188-7
2868-66
68-2
8
0-46
42204-6
2366-66
66-2
6
0-46
42240-2
2365-61
65-1
1
0-51
42259-0
2364-88
64-4
10
0-48
42272-0
2363-81
63-5
1
0-31
13-4
42291-2
2362-11
*61-6
60-3
8
0-51
13-5
42321-5
2360-37
59-9
8
0-47
42352-7
2360-OG
59-7
59-2
8
0-30
42358-3
2359-16
58-7
55-6
6
0-46
42374-5
2355-37
551
1
0-27
42142-7
2354-93
53-6
541
51-5
6
0-33
42450-6
2351-22
50-9
2
0-32
42517-6
2350-50
49-9
1
60
42530-6
2349-91
49-5
4
0-41
13-5
42541-3
2348-28
48-0
47-8
45-9
10
0-28
13-6
42570-8
2345-29
44-7
2
0-59
426250
2344-37
43-9
6
0-47
32641-8
2344 09
43-6
6
0-49
0-75
42646-9
2343-52
431
6
0-42
0-74
42657-3
2341-69
41-2
In
0-49
426110-6
2340-30
40-0
2n
0-30
42716-0
2339-62
39-3
39-0
2n
0-32
42728-4
2338-08
37-7
34-8
8
0-38
42756-5
2334-83
34-5
34-2
33-1
4
0-33
13-6
13-7
42816-1
2332-87
32-5
10
0-37
42852-0
2331-38
30-9
8
0-48
42879-3
2329-67
29-3
In
0-37
42910-8
2327-40
26-9
8
0-50
42952-7
2321-48
1
43062-3
2320-42
19-9
19-6
19-2
6
0-52
13-7
43081-9
2318-23
17-7
17-5
4
0-53
13-8
43122-6
2317-32
16-7
4
0-62
43139-5
2314-10
13-6
1
0-50
43199-5
2313-17
12-7
6
47
43216-9
2312-40
12-0
11-6
11-0
10-6
1
0-40
43231-3
244
EEPOKT— 1891
Iron Arc Spectrum — (continued).
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
(Kowland)
Liveing and
Dcwar
Intensity Miillpr nnd
Difference
E^owland
— Angstrom
"Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
and
Character
Kemp
\ +
1_
09-3
230903
08-6
6
0-45
0-74
43294-0
2306-35
06-0
05-8
4
0-35
0-73
43344-7
2304-83
04-4
03-4
2
0-42
13-8
13-9
43373-5
2303-53
03-2
6
0-32
43397-9
2301-75
01-4
01-0
4
0-35
43431-3
2300-70
00-4
I
0-30
43451-1
2300-20
00-0
99-2
2
0-20
43460-6
2299-30
99-0
98-6
4
0-30
43477-6
2298-34
98-0
6
•24
43497-7
2297-85
97-G
6
0-25
43505-0
2297-04
96-8
4
0-24
43520-4
2296-23
1
43535-7
2294-45
94-2
2
0-25
43569-5
2293-90
93-6
6
0-30
43580-0
2292-56
92-3
91-4
2
0-26
43605-5
2291-18
90-9
90-6
6
0-28
43631-7
229061
90-3
4
0-31
43642-6
2290-05
89-9
1
0-15
436533
2289-05
88-8
8
0-25
43672-3
2288-19
87-9
2
029
43688-8
2287-70
87-4
0-30
13-9
43698-1
2287-37
87-1
0-27
43704-3
2284-13
84-0
83-6
83 2
0-12
14-0
43766-5
2283-15
83-0
82-8
n
0-15
43785-1
2282-17
81-8
800
0-37
43803-9
2280-05
79-7
35
43844-7
2277-73
77-5
0-23
43889-4
2277-12
769
0-22
43901-1
2276-07
75-7
75-2
74-9
n
0-37
43921-4
2274-09
73-8
0-29
43959-6
2272-83
72-5
71-8
0-33
43984-0
2271-84
71-5
0-34
14-0
44003-2
2270-87
70-5
0-37
0-73
14-1
44021-9
2270-47
0-72
44029-6
2268-96
G8-8
0-16
44059-0
2267-51
67-2
0-31
44087-1
2267-06
66-8
66-6
0-26
44095-9
2266-37
05-7
, 0-67
/ 0-35
44109-3
2265-05
64-7 1
441350
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 245
Iron Arc Spectrum — (continued).
Reduction to
Kayser and
Runge
Liveing and
Intensity
and
Mliller and
Difference
Vacuum
Oscillation
Frequency
' —Angstrom
(Rowland)
Character
A +
1
A
in Vacuo
2264-51
64-2
0-31
44145-6
2263-37
63-2
62-8
62-4
GO-7
0-17
44167-8
2260-83
60-4
0-43
44217-4
2260-15
59-8
0-35
44230-7
2259-50
59-2
0-30
44243-5
2255-94
55-4
0-54
14-1
14313-3
2253-15
52-8
61-6
51-2
50-6
0-35
14-2
44368-1
2250-82
50-5
0-32
44414-0
2248-97
48-8
0-17
0-72
44450-6
2230-01
29-7
&c.
0-31
&c.
0-71
44828-6
The Telluric Lines of the Solar Spectrum.*
Intensity
Oscillation Frequency
Becker
(Rowland)
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
tion to
Vacuum
Rowland
Angstrom *
6020-33
10?
9
16610-4
4-9
16605-5
6019-25
7
2
16613-4
16608-5
6016-56
6?
—
16620-8
16613-9
6016-06
8
2
16622-2
16617-3
6015-88
9
3
16622-7
16617-8
6015-48
8?
1
16622-8
16618-9
6015-22
6
1
16624-5
16619-6
6014-64
4
2
16626-1
16621-2
6014 03
4
1
16627-8
16621-9
6012-93
6
2
16630-8
16625-9
601217
5
—
16632-9
166280
6011-83
5
—
16633-9
16629-0
6011-58
5
2
16634-5
16629-6
6011-18
5
2
16635-7
16630-8
6010-09
4
2
16638-7
166338
6009>53
9
2
16640-2
16635-3
6009-43
5
1
16640-5
16635-6
6008-50
5?
—
16643-1
16638-2
6007-20
5
1
16646-7
16641-8
6006-81
4?
2
16647-8
16642-9
6006-08
5
1
16649-8
16644-9
6005-03
5
1
16652-7
16647-8
6004-82
8
2
16653-3
16648-4
6004-33
4
—
16654-6
16649-7
6003-96
8
2
16655-7
16650-8
6002-78
8
3
16659-0
16654-1
' Becker, Trans. Hoy. Soc. Edin. xxxvi. I. 1890. - Coruu, Piazzi-Smyth, and Fievez.
246 KBPOET — 1891.
The Tellueic Lines of the Solae Sfect-rvm— continued.
Becker
Intensity-
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
tion to
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
1
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
Vacuum
Ro-n^land
Angstrom
6002-22
7
2
16660-5
4-9
16655-6
6001-68
6
1
16662-0
16657-1
6001-39
5
2
16662-8
16657-9
6000-34
7
2
16665-7
16660-8
5999-83
11
4
16667-1
16662-2
5998-73
3?
2
16670-2
16665-3
5998-37
6d
2
16671-2
16666-3
5997-43
10
4
16673-8
16668-9
5996-67
5
—
16675-9
16671-0
5996-53
5
—
16676-3
16671-4
5995-39
5
1
16679-5
16674-6
5994-74
11
4
16681-3
16676-4
5994-08
6
2
16683-1
16678-2
5993-81
5
2
16683-9
16679-0
5993-27 \
5993-17/
8d
3
16685-5
16680-6
5992-17 \
5992-01/
lid
{I
16688-4
16683-5
16688-9
16684-0
5991-03
11
4
16691-6
16686-7
5990-74
10
3
16692-4
16687-5
5990-50
6
1
16693-1
16638-2
5989-44
11
4
166961
16691-2
5989-06
4
1
16697-1
16692-2
5988-75 \
5988-67/
lOd
4
16698-1
16693-2
5988-27
8
2
16699-3
16694-4
5987-20
11?
8
16702-3
16697-4
5986-25
4
2
16705-0
16700-1
5985-86
5
2
16706-0
16701-1
5985-37
10
4
16707-4
16702-5
598500
8
—
16708-4
16703-5
5984-41
7
3
16710-1
16705-2
5984-24
6
2
16710-6
16705-7
5983-55
7
2
16712-5
16707-6
5983-00
6
2
16714-0
16709-1
5982-47
5
2
16715-5
16710-6
5982-16
8
2
16716-4
16711-5
5981-89
7
2
167171
16712-2
6981-40
9
3
16718-5
16713-6
5980-96
4
1
16719-7
16714-8
5980-70
6
1
16720-4
16715-5
5980-31
8
3
16721-5
16716-6
5979-93
4?
—
16722-6
16717-7
5979-33
5
—
16724-3
16719-4
5979-08
6
2
167250
167201
5978-18
6
1
16727-5
16722-0
5977-94
12
4
16728-2
16723-3
5977-55 '
8
3
16729-3
16724-4
5977-14
12
5
16730-4
16725-5
5976-94
10?
7
16731-0
16726-1
5976-66
8
3
16731-8
16726-9
5976-04
7
2
16733-5
16728-6
5975-27
12
5
16735-6
16730-7
5974-40
8
3
16738-1
16732-2
5973-72
4
2
16740-0
16735-1
C972-95
6
1
16742-1
16737-2
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 247
The Tellueic Lines of the Solar Spectrum — continued.
Intensity
Oscillation
Frequency
Becker
Oscillation
Keduc-
in \'
acuo
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
Frequency
Vacuuiu ' ,, , ,
1 Rowland
Angstrom
5972-77
3?
.
16742-6
4-9
16737-7
5972-71
5
2
16742-8
16737-9
5971-53
11
5
16746-1
16741-2
5970-871
K
/2
16748-0
16743-1
5970-70/
o
12
16748-5
16743-6
5970-24
10
5
16749-7
16744-8
5969-24
10
4
16752-5
16747-6
5968-64
4?
. —
16754-2
16749-3
5968-49
12
3
16754-7
16749-8
16752
5967-87
11
5
16756-4
16751-5
16754
5967-66
10
4
16757-0
16752-1
16735
5967-39
7
3
16757-8
16752-9
5967-18
3?
—
16758-3
16753-4
5966-81
10
5
16759-4
16754-5
5966-421
5966-33/
lOd
3
16760-6
16755-7
16759
5965-40
4
2
16763-3
16758-4
16761
5965-05
8
3
16764-3
16759-4
16762
5963-98
4
1
16767-3
16762-4
5963-71
5
2
16768-1
16763-2
5963-30
4
2
16769-2
16764-3
5962-65
10
4
167711
16766-2
5962-35
6
I
16771-9
167670
5961-89
5
1
16773-2
16768-3
5961-59
8
3
16774-0
167691
5960-82
3?
2
16776-2
16771-3
5960-38
2?
—
16777-4
16772-5
5960-13
9
3
16778-2
16773-3
5959-84
5
2
16779-0
16774-1
5959-39
6
2
16780-2
16775-3
5959-14
6
2
16780-9
167760
5958-98
8
—
16781-4
16776-5
5958-85
12
5
16781-8
16776-9
16779
5958-481
5958-42/
12
5d
16782-9
16778-0
16781
5958-02
12
5
16784-1
16779-2
16782
5957-95
4?
16784-3
16779-4
5957-37 1
5957-27/
5
{j
16785-9
16781-0
16786-2
16781-3
5956-76
8?
16787-6
16782-7
16785
5956-50
9
4
16788-4
16783-5
16786
5955-90
6
2
16790-1
16785-2
5955-10
11
5
16792-3
16787-4
16790
5954-61
6
2
16793-7
16788-8
5953-88
3?
16795-8
16790-9
5953-61
8
2
16796-5
16791-6
16795
5952-81
8
—
16798-8
16793-91
16797
5951-68
10
5
16802-0
16797-1/
5951-50
8
2
16802-5
16797-6
5951-05
9
3
16803-7
16798-8
16801
5950-91
4?
—
16804-2
16799-3
5950-49
10
4
16805-3
16800-4
16803
5950-35
8
2
16805-7
16800-8
5949-92
11
4
16807-0
16802-1
16804
5949-80
7
1
16807-3
16802-41
16805
5949-69
5
—
16807-6
16802-7/
248
REPORT 1891.
The Telluric Lines of the Solae Sfectuum— continued.
Intensity
Reduc-
tion to
Oscillation
Frequency
Becker
Oscillation
in^
acuo
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Frequency
(J
Altitude
Rowland
Angstrom
5949-42
10
6
16808-4
4-9
16803-51
16807
5949-25
11
6
16808-8
16803-9/
594918
2?
— .
16809-0
16804-1
16808
5948-96
8
3
16809-7
16804-8
5948-78
4?
—
16810-2
16805-3
5948-35
10
2
16811-4
16806-5
5947-54
8
3
16813-7
5-0
16808-7
5947-24
12
6
16814-5
16809-5
16811
5947-02
11
5
16815-1
168101
16813
5946-73
4
—
16816-0
16811-0
5946-18
(5?)
__
16817-5
16812-5
5946-14
12
6
16817-6
16812-61
16816
5945-81
10
4
16818-6
16813-6J'
5945-39
10
4
16819-8
16814-8
16817
5944-84
10
4
16821-3
16816-3
16819
5944-42
lOfl
5
16822-5
16817-5
16820
5943-58
3?
2
16824-9
16819-9
16822
5943-22
3?
2
16825-9
16820-9
5942-73
12
6
16827-3
16822-31
16826
5942-57
12
6
16827-7
16822-7/
5942-35
8
. —
16828-4
16823-4
16827
5941-73
10
5
16830-1
16825-11
16828
5941-19
11
5
16831-6
16826-6/
5941-01
8
4
16832-2
16827-2
16830
5940-54
9
4
16833-5
16828-5
16832
5940-27
4
—
16834-2
16829-2
594003
8
3
16834-9
16829-9
16833
5938-72
7
2
16838-6
16833-6
5938-41
4
_
16839-5
16834-5
5938-21
4
16840-1
16835-1
16S37
5938-01
8
3
16840-6
16835-6
5937-58
8
2
16841-9
16S36-9
5937-37
6
1
16842-5
16837-5
5937-22
2
—
16842-9
16837-9
5936-85
4
2
16844-0
168390
5936-42
4
2
16845-2
16840-2
5935-96
10
4
16846-5
16841-5
16846
5935-66
2
—
16847-3
16842-3
5935-38
7
2
16848-1
16843-1
16847
5934-32
9
2
16851-1
168461
16849
5934-14
4
—
16851-6
16846-6
5933-91
7
3
16852-3
16847-31
16851
5933-16
5
1
168544: \
16849-4 J'
5932-96
U
5
16855-0
'
168500
5932-51
3
1
16856-3
16851-3
5932-28
12
6
16856-9
16851-9
16855
6932-13
3
1
16857-4
16852-41
16857
6931-17
8
3
16860-1
16855-1/
5930-77
8
2
16861-2
16856-2
5929-57
6
i
16864-6
16S59-61
16862
5929-25
9
2
16865-5
16S6U-5J'
6928-99
9
3
16866-3
1686: ■:'.
16863
5928-69
4
—
16867-1
16S621
5928-53 \
5928-43/
lid
5
16867-7
16862-7
6927-86
6
—
1G869-5
16864-5
16868
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 249
The Telluric Lines of the Solar SPECTRVM—conti7i,ued.
Intensity
Oscillation
Frequency
Becker
(liowland)
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
tion to
Vacuum
Rowland
Angstrom
5926-94
5
2
16872-1
5-0
16867-1
16869
5926-74
8
2
16872-7
16867-7
5926-29
4
1
16874-0
16869-0
5925-82
4
1
16875-3
16870-3
5925-19
12
5
16877-1
16872-1
5924-96
6
1
16877-7
16872-7
5924-49
12
6
16879-1
16874-1
16877
5923-98
11
5
16880-5
16875-5 \
16876-0/
5923-82
11
5
16881-0
5923-39
7
3
16882-2
16877-2
16881
5922-87
9
3
16883-7
16878-7 \
16879-3/
16882
5922-66
10
4
16884-3
5922-54
8
4
16884-7
16879-7
5921-83
7
3
16886-7
16881-7
16885
5921-39-1
5921-25 J
6d
3
16888-1
16883-1
16886
5920-73
10
4
16889-8
16884-8
16888
5920-29
6
2
16891-1
168861
5919-83
12
6
16892-4
16887-4
5919-22
12
5
16894-1
16889-1
16893
5918-62
12
4
16895-8
16890-8
16894
5918-08
7
2
16897-4
16892-4
16896
5917-53
8
3
16898-9
16893-9
5917-29
5
—
16899-6
16894-6
5916-93
6
2
16900-6
16895-6
5916-77
7
2
16901-1
16896-1
16900
5916-21
C
2
16902-7
16897-7
16901
5915-77
9
4
169040
168990
16902
5915-52
9
4
16904-7
16899-7 \
16901-0 r
16903
5915-06
9
4
16906-0
5914-64
4
1
16907-2
16902-2 i
16904-3 J
16906
5913-92
4
1
16909-3
5913-15
10
4
16911-5
16906-5
16909
5912-82
8
3
16912-4
16907-4
5912-70
8
3
16912-7
16907-7
5912-15
7
2
16914-3
16909-3
5911-99
7
2
16914-8
16909-8
5911-56
5
2
16916-0
16911-0
5911-33
5
—
16916-7
16911-7
5911-06
3?
—
16917-5
16912-5
5910-95\
5910-87/
lid
^1
16917-8
16918-0
16912-8\
169130/
16916
5910-79
4
16918-2
16913-2
5910-S2
3?
—
16919-6
16914-6
5910-25
lid
4
16919-8
16914-8
16918
5909-57
7
3d
16921-7
16916-7
16919
5909-14
10
5
16922-9
16917-91
16921
5908-85
3
1
16923-8
16918-8/
5908-36
9
4
16925-2
16920-2
16923
5907-98
9
5
16926-2
16921-2
16923
5907-58
8
3
16927-4
16922-4
16925
6907-42
8
4
16927-9
16922-9
5907-16
6
—
16928-6
16923-6
16927
5906-53
6
2
16930-4
169254\
16925-8/
16928
5906-38
6
2
16930-8
5905-68
5
—
16932-8
16927-8
250
REPORT — 1891.
The Telluric Lines of the Solar Specteum — oontinnsd.
Intensity-
Oscillation
Frequency
Becker
Oscillation
Reduc-
tion to
Vacuum
in Vacuo |
(Kowland)
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
Frequency
Rowland
Angstrom
5905-46
9
3
16933-5
5-0
16928-5
16932
5905-25
7
1
16934-1
16929-1 \
16929-9/
16932
5904-97
5
3
16934-9
5904-53
5
3
16936-2
16931-2
5904-16
8
3
16937-2
169322
5904-04
8
3
16937-6
16932-6
5903-87
7
4
16938-0
16933-0 \
16933-7/
16937
5903-64
9
2
16938-7
5903-34
(4?)
3
16939-6
16934-6
16938
5902-90
5
2
16940-8
16935-8
5902-73
4
—
16941-3
16936-3
5902-53
5
4
16941-9
16936-9
5902-25
10
3
16942-7
16937-7
16941
5902-13
8
3
169430
16938-0
5901-62
12
7
16944-5
16939-5
5901-43
9
3
16945
16940-0
16944
5901-07
8
3
16946-1
16941-1
5900-60
7
2
16947-4
16942-4
16945
5900-22
11
6
16948-5
16943-5
16947
590006
10
5
16949-0
16944-0
16948
5899-17
10
4
16951-5
16946-5
16949
5898-94
6
1
16952-2
16947-2
16950
5898-56
6
2
16953-3
16948-3
16951
5898-33
11
7
16954-0
16949-0
16953
5898-10
6
2
16954-6
16949-6
5897-90
6
—
16955-2
16950-2
5897-58
9
4
16956-1
16951-1
16954
5897-22
6
—
16957-1
16952-1
16955
5896-97
10
4
16957-8
16952-8
16956
5896-72
4b
—
16958-6
16953-6
5896-58
11
4
16959-0
16954-0
16957
5896-37
5b
— .
16959-6
16954-6
5895-89
5
2
16961-0
16956-0
5895-64
lb
—
16961-7
16956-7
5895-26
10
3
16962-8
16957-8
16960
5895-11
10
3
16963-2
16958-2
16962
5894-71
5
1
16964-4
16959-4
16963
5894-51
9
4
16964-9
16959-9
5893-88
4?
—
16966-8
16961-8
5893-72
10
4
16967-2
16962-2
16965
5893-52
4
1
16967-8
16962-8
5893-24
9
4
16968-6
16963-6
16966
5892-88
6
4
16969-6
16964-6
16967
5892-59
10
5
16970-5
16965-5
16968
5892-40
(3?)
1
16971-0
169660
5892-09
4?
2
16971-9
16966-9
5891-87
11
5
16972-5
16967-5
16970
5891-73
10
4
16972-9
16967-9
16971
5891-37
8
5
16974-0
16969-0
16972
5891-11
6
1
16974-7
16969-7
5890-02
7
1
16975-3
16970-3
16973 .
5890-42
7
1
16976-7
16971-7
589034
14
—
16977-0
16972-0
5889-78
11
5
16978-6
16973-6
16977
5889-23
5
2
16980-2
16975-2
5888-86
9
4
16981-2
16976-2
16980
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTEA OF THE ELEMENTS. 251
The Tellueic Lines of the Solae Spectrum — continued.
Becker
Intensity
Oscillation
Reduc-
tion to
Vacuum
Oscillation Frequency
in "Vacuo
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Frequency
Altitude
Kowland
Angstrom
5888-01
7
3
16983-7
5-0
16978-7
5887-82
9
5
16984-2
16979-2
16982
5887-60
4b
1
16984-8
16979-8
5887-36
10
5
16985-5
16980-5
16984
5887-10
3
1
16986-3
16981-3
5886-84
6
1
16987-0
169820
5886-55\
5886-51/
9
4d
16987-9
16982-9
16985
5886-34
3b
16988-5
16983-5
5886-12
lOd
5
16989-1
16984-1
16987
5885-77
6
2
10990-1
16985-1
16988
5885-68
6
2
16990-4
16985-4\
16987-3/
16989
6885-02
3?
2
16992-3
5884-68
4?
2
16993-3
16988-3
5884-34
8
2
16994-3
16989-3
5884-04
11
7
16996-1
16990-1
16994
5883-52
4
1
16996-6
16991-6
16996
5883-12
8
2
16997-8
16992-8
5882-92
8
3
16998-4
16993-4
5882-58
6
—
16999-4
16994-4
16997
5882-51
6
—
16999-6
16994-61
16998
5882-02
8
3
17001-0
16996-0/
6881-91
8
3
17001-3
16996-3
6881-79
6
—
17001-6
16996-6
17000
5881-53")
5881-45 J"
(5?)
4d
17002-6
16997-5
5881-21
8
3
17003-3
16998-3
5881-03
8
3
17003-8
16998-8
5880-84
8
2
17004-4
16999-4
5880-651
5880-59/
6d
3
17005-0
17000-0
17003
5879-98
6
4
17006-9
17001-9
17004
5879-77
9
4
17007-5
17002-5
5879-64
9
4
17007-8
17002-8
17007
5879-24
7
1
17009-0
17004-0
17008
5877-66
6
1
17013-6
17008-6
5877-43
6
2
17014-2
17009-2"!
17012
5877-21
4
1
17014-9
17009-9/
5877-04
3
_
17016-4
17010-4
17013
6876-44
9
3
17017-1
17012-1 \
17012-7/
17015
5876-22
9
3
17017-7
5876-71
9
3
17019-2
17014-2
5875-56
5
1
17019-7
17014-7
5875-24
5
3
17020-6
17015-6
17019
5874-771
5874-68/
4d
2
17022-1
17017-1
17020
5874-37
4
1
17023-1
17018-1
5874-02
5
2
17024-1
17019-1
6873-71
7
2
17025-0
17020-0
5873-37
6
5
17026-0
17021-0
5872-37
5
Id
17028-9
17023-9
5872-09
4
1
17029-7
17024-7
5871-85
4
1
17030-4
17025-4
5871-38
9
3
17031-8
17026-8
5871-26
5
—
17032-1
17027-1
5870-73
9
3
17033-7
17028-7
252
REPOET 1891.
The Tellueic Lines op the Solar SF-Ecinvu— continued.
Intensity
Oscillation Frequency
Becker
(Rowland)
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
tion to
Vacuum
o
Altitude
Rowland
Angstrom
5869-94
6
3
17036-0
5-0
17031-0
5869-82
6
3
17036-3
17031-3
5868-89
7
2
17039-0
170340
5867-71
9
5
17042-4
17037-4
5866-31
4
2
17046-5
17041-5
5865-90
7
2
17047-7
17042-7
5865-66
7
2
17048-4
17043-4
5864-90
4
1
17050-6
17045-6
5864-38
6
3
17052-1
17047-1
5863-37
4
1
17055-0
17050-0
5863-18
4
—
17055-6
17050-6
6861-86
5
2
17059-4
17054-6
5861-77
6
2
17059-7
17054-7
5859-73
10
8
17065-6
17060-6
5859-04
3
—
17067-6
17062-6
5857-13
4?
2
17073-2
17068-2
5854-97
5
2
17079-5
17074-5
5854-52
4
2
17080-8
17075-8
5853-43
(4?)
3
17084-0
17079-0
5853-29
(4?)
2
17084-4
17079-4
5851-52
8
3
17089-6
17084-6
5851-34
3
—
17090-1
17085-1
5851-051
6850-97/
8
Id
17091-1
17086-1
5849-89
5
3
17094-3
17089-3
5848-82
5
1
17097-5
17092-5
5846-09
(4?)
2
17105-4
17100-4
5845-76
8
1
17100-4
17101-4
5845-15
(4?)
2
17108-2
17103-2
5844-00
3
2
17111-6
17106-6
5842-87
6
2
17114-9
17109-9
6842-63
5
2
17115-6
17110-6
5842-29
3?
2
17116-6
17111-6
5841-3?
4
1
17119-4
17114-4
5841-02
6
1
17120-3
17115-3
5839-84
4
2
17123-8
17118-8
5839-61
5
2
17124-4
17119-4
5838-90
4
8
17126-5
17121-5
5838-64
6
3
17127-3
17122-3
6838-44
4
2
17127-9
17122-9
5837-46
4
1
17130-7
17125-7
5836-62
4
1
17133-2
5-0
17128-2
5835-80
5
3
17135-6
5-1
17J30-5
5834-78
4?
2
17138-6
17133-5
5834-20
8
4
17140-3
17135-2
5833-51
4
1
17142-4
17137-3
5832-64
4d
2
17144-9
17139-8
6832-07
4
1
17146-6
17141-5
5831-55
4
—
17148-1
17143-0
5831-14
4d
2
17149-3
17144-2
5830-28
5
2
17151-8
17146-7
5830-06
4
2
17152-5
17147-4
5829-56
4
2
17154-0
17148-0
5828-90
4
2
17155-9
17150-9
5828-49
5
1
17157-1
17152-0
5827-89
7
1
17158-9
17153-8
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 253
The Telluric Lines op the Solae Spectbum — continued.
Becker
Intensity
Oscillation
Reduc-
tion to
Vacuum
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
Frequency
Rowland
Angstrom
5827-13
(3?)
2
17161-1
5-1
17156-0
5826-47
(3?)
2
17163-0
17157-9
5825-32
4?
2
17166-4
17161-3
5824-90
4
—
17167-7
17162-6
5824-61
4
2
17168-5
17163-4
5823-82
4
2
17170-9
17165-8
5823-53
5
—
17171-7
17166-6
5823-36
(3?)
2
17172-2
17167-1
5823-13
(3?)
2
17172-9
17167-8
5822-56 \
4
{j
17174-6
17169-5
5822-50 /
17174-8
17169-7
5822-27
4?
17175-4
17170-3
5822-10
4
3
17175-9
17170-9
5821-51
3
2
17177-7
17172-6
5821-23
3?
—
17178-5
17173-4
6821-12
3?
—
17178-8
17173-7
5820-98
3
1
17179-2
17174-1
6820-62
4
1
17180-3
17175-2
5820-13
4?
2
17181-7
17176-6
5819-51
3
2
17183-6
17178-5
5819-07
4
—
17184-9
17179-8
5818-76
4
2
17186-8
17180-7
5818-34
6
2
17187-0
17181-9
5818-18
(3?)
2
17187-5
17182-4
5817-79
4
1
17188-7
17183-6
5817-59
4
1
17189-2
17184-2
5817-00
4
2
17191-0
17185-9
5815-80
4
2
17194-5
17189-4
5815-30
(5?)
4
17196-0
17190-9
5814-96 \
5814-87/
(5?)
5d
17197-2
171921
5813-74
4
2
17200-6
17195-5
5813-13
4
2
17202-5
17197-4
5812-75
3
2
17203-6
17198-5
5811-61
3
1
17207-0
17201-0
5811-35
2?
—
17207-7
17202-6
5809-94
3
—
17211-9
17206-8
5809-70
4
1
17212-6
17207-5
5809-07
4
2
17214-5
17209-4
5808-84
3
—
17216-2
17210-1
5807-86
4
2
17218-0
17212-9
5806-79
4?
—
17221-2
17216-1
5806-44
4
1
17222-3
17217-3
5806-14
3
I
17223-2
17218-1
5805-14
3
2
17226-1
17221-0
5804-07
3?
—
17229-3
17224-2
5803-57
5
1
17230-8
17225-7.
5803-16
3
1
17232-0
17226-9
5802-91
4
1
17232-7
17227-6
5802-74
4
1
17233-2
17228-1
5802-53
3?
2
17233-9
17228-8
5802-40
3
1
17234-3
17229-2
5802-03
3?
2
17235-4
17230-4
5801-39
4
2
17237-3
172321
5801-04
5
2
17238-3
17233-3
5800-78
5
1
17239-1
17234-0
254 KEPOKT— 1891.
The Telluric Lines of the Solar Spectrum — continued.
Becker
Intensity
Oscillation
Eeduc-
tion to
Vacuum
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Frequency
Q
Altitude
Eo-svland
Angstrom
5800-17
3
17240-9
5-1
17235-8
5800-01
4
2
17241-4
17236-3
5799-49
5
1
17242-9
17237-8
5799-25
(3?)
2
17243-6
17238 5
5798-661
5798-61/
4d
1
17245-4
17240-3
5798-36
9
6
1724C-3
17241-2
5798-24
4
—
17246-6
17241-5
579803
9
6
17247-2
172421
5797-77
4
2
17248-0
17242-9
5797-53
3
—
17248-7
17243-6
5797-32
2
1
17249-3
17244-2
5796-99
4
2
17250-3
17245-2
5796-65
4
—
17251-3
1724G-2
5796-421
5796-28/
(4?)
4d
17252-2
17247-1
5796-10
4
1
172530
17247-9
5795-77
3
1
17254-0
17248-9
6795-51
2
1
17254-7
17249-6
5795-31
3
2
17255-3
17250-3
5794-93
2
1
17256-5
17251-4
5794-71
2
—
17257-1
17252-0
5794-51
4
2
17257-7
17252-G
5794-02
5
—
17259-2
17254-1
5793-67
4
1
17260-2
172551
5793-06
3
—
17262-0
17256-9
5792-301
5792-15/
4d
2
17264-5
17259-4
5791-84
4
2
17265-7
17260-6
5791-48
3
1
17266-7
17261-6
5791-01
4
—
17268-1
17263-0
5790-33
5
3
17270-2
17265-1
5790-05
4
2
17271-0
17265-9
5789-80
2
—
17271-8
17266-7
5789-35
5
—
17273-1
17268-0
5789-03
5
2
17274-1
17269-0
5788-871
5788-76/
4d
2
17274-7
17266-6
5788-31
4
1
17276-2
17271-1
5787-63
2?
1
17278-2
17273-2
5787-41
6
2
17278-9
17273-8
5787-19
5
3
17279-5
17273-4
5786-911
5786-76 J
5782-67
3cl
I
17280-6
172751
4
1
172931
17288-1
5782-05
4
—
17294-9
17289-8
5780-34
5.
1
17300-0
17294-9
5779-50
4
2
17302-5
17297-4
5778-11
3
1
17306-7
17301-6
5777-83
3
1
17307-5
17302-4
5776-56
6
• —
17311-3
17306-2
5776-31
4
2
17312-1
17307-0
6776-19
6
—
17312-4
17307-3
5775-82
3
1
17313-6
17308-5
5775-60
3
—
17314-2
17309-1
5774-65
4
2
173171
17312-0
ON WAVE-LENGTn TABLES OF THE SPECTKA OF THE ELEMENTS. 255
The Telluric Lines of the Solae Specteum — continued.
Intensity
Oscillation Frequency
Becker
Oscillation
Keduc- in Vacuo
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
Frequency
tion to
Vacuum
1
Rowland
Angstrom
5774-38
4?
3
17317-9
5-1
17312-8
5774-15
4?
3
17318-6
17313-5
5773-79
3
2
17319-6
17314-5
5773-34
7
2
17321-0
17315-9
5773-16
7
2
17321-5
17316-4
5772-88
4?
—
17322-4
17317-3
5772-77
8
2
17322-7
17317-6
5771-81
7
2
17325-6
17320-5
5771-70
5
—
17325-9
17320-8
5771-53
6
2
17326-4
17321-3
5770-89
2
1
17328-8
17323-2
5770-41
7
1
17329-8
17324-7
5770-31
4
1
17330-1
17325-0
5769-GO
7
1
17332-2
17327-1
5769-38
6
2
17332-9
17328-8
5768- n
3
—
17334-9
17329-8
5768-55
5
2
17335-4
17330-3
5767-84
3 ■
1
17337-5
17332-4
5767-32
8
2
17339-1
17334-0
576713
3
—
17339-6
17334-5
576647
6
2
17341-6
17336-5
5766-08
3
1
17342-8
17337-7
5765-88
2?
—
17343-4
17338-3
5765-70
2
1
17343-9
17338-8
5765-14
2
1
17345-6
17340-5
5764-84
2
1
17346-5
17341-4
5764-48
4
1
17347-6
17342-5
576415
(3?)
2
17348-6 1
17343-5
5763-64 \
8
2
17350-1
17345-0
5763-55 J
7
2
17350-4 i
17345-3
5762-76
3
1
17352-8
17347-7
5761-75
8
3
17355-8
17350-7
5761-36
3
2
17357-0
17351-9
5759-72
(4?)
3
173620
17356-9
5759-39
5
1
17363-0
17357-9
5759-04
5
2
17364-0
17358-9
5758-59
4
2
17365-4
17360-3
5758-08
3
2
17366-9
17361-8
5757-65
3?
2
17368-2
173631
5757-41
3
—
17368-9
17363-8
5757-16
5
1
17369-7
17364-6
5756-68
3
1
17371-1
17366-0
5755-91
5
1
17373-5
17368-4
5755-64
5
2
17374-3
17369-2
5754-37
9
2
17378-1
173730
5754-13
5
2
17378-8
17373-7
5753-55
3
1
17380-6
17375-5
5753-13
8
3
17381-8 1
17376-7
5752-68
3
2
17383-2 !
17378-1
5751-99
6
2
17385-3 1
17380-2
5750-74
4
2
17389-1 :
17384-0
5750-56
3?
—
17389-6 1
17384-5
5749-49
4d
2
17392-9
17387-8
5748-12
7
5
17397-0 j
17391-9
5747-83
7
5
17397-9 1
17392-8
5747-45
3
1
17399-0
17393-9
256 EEPOBT^1891.
The Telluric Lines of the Solae Spectrum — contimied.
Intensity
Oscillation Frequency
Becker
(Rowland)
Oscillation
frequency
Reduc-
tion to
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
Vacuum
Altitude
Rowland
Angstrom
5747-02
3
1
17400-3
5-1
17395-2
5746-67
3
1
17401-4 .
17396-3
5745-92
10
2
17403-7
17398-6
5745-44
4
1
17405-1
17410-0
5745-05
9
1
17406-3
17401-2
5744-37
3
1
17408-3
17403-2
5744-11
2?
—
17409-1
174040
5743-94
5
2
17409-7
17404-6
5743-58
Od
2
17410-8
17405-3
5742-72
4
1
17413-4
17408-3
5742-30
10
1
17414-6
17409-5
5741-49
4?
2
17417-]
174120
5741-10
4
2
17418-3
17413-2
5740-19
4
2
17421-0
17415-9
5739-59
4?
3
17422-8
17417-7
5739-14
4
1
17424-2
17419-1
5738-57
4
3
17426-0
17420-9
5738-30
5
2
17426-8
17421-7
5737-82
11
2
17428-2
17423-1
5737-53^
5737-38/
5737-16
5
2cl
17429-3
17424-2
5
2
17430-2
174251
5736-49
4
1
17432-3
17427-2
5735-96
3
—
17433-9
17428-8
5735-74
9
2d
17434-6
17429-5
5735-20
4
2
17436-2
17431-1
5734-66
4
1
17437-8
17432-7
5733-80
7
1
17440-4
17435-3
5733-27 \
5733-11/
8
2d
17442-3
5-1
17437-2
5732-77
4
1
17443-6
5-2
17438-4
5731-46
4
2
17447-6
17442-4
5731-02
4
2
17448-9
17443-7
5730-27
5
1
17451-2
17440-0
5729-95
9
2
17452-2
17447-0
5729-78
9
2
17452-7
17447-5
5729-30
4?
2
17454-1
17448-9
5728-92
7
2
17455-3
174501
5728-58
7
2
] 7450-3
17451-1
5727-95
3
1
17458-2
17453-0
5727-76
(4?)
3
17458-8
17453-6
5727-18
10
7
17400-6
17455-4
5720-98
9
3
17461-2
17456-0
5726-79
6
—
17461-8
17456-6
5726-10
3
1
17463-7
17458-5
572600
3
1
17464-2
17459-0
5724-70
3
1
17468-2
17463-2
5724-54
(4?)
3
17468-7
17463-5
572412
9
1
17469-9
17464-7
5723-74
4
1
17471-1
17466-9
5722-98
2?
—
17473-4
17468-2
5722-34
6
2
17475-4
17470-2
5722-07
10
2
17476-2
17471-0
5721-92
4
1
17476-6
17471-4
5721-05
5
3
17479-3
174721
5720-51
8
2
17481-0
17478-8
ox WAVE-LENGTU TABLES OF THE SPECTKl OF TUK ELEMENTS. 257
The Telluric Lines of the Solae SPECTRVn^—notitinucd.
Intensity
Oscillation Frequency
Becker
(Rowland)
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
• tion to
Vac uiini
Q
Altitude
Ro-nrland
Angstrom
5719-94
5
2
17482-7
5-2
17477-2
5719-75
11
2
17483-3
17478-1
5719-15
8
2
17485-1
17479-9
5718-51
4
2
17487-1
17481-9
5717-65
9
2
17489-7
17484-2
571713
4
2
17491-3
17486-1
5716-16
(3?)
2
17494-3
17489-2
5715-87
3
1
17495-2
174900
5714-271
8
4d
17500-1
17494-9
5714-21/
5712-76
4
2
17504-7
17499-5
5711-69
5
1
17507-0 j
17502-8
5711-50
8
1
17508-.-i
17503-4
5710-97
5
I
17510-2 1
17505-0
5710-07
4
2
17512-9 1
17507-8
5709-18
3
2
17515-6
17510-4
5707-26
7
—
17521-5
17517-3
5706-69
i
1
17523-3
17518-1
5705-24
(3?)
2
17527-7
17521-9
5704-67
4
—
17529-5
17524-4
5704-42
7
2
17530-3
17525-1
5704-05
3
—
17531-4
17526-2
5703-44
6
1
17533-3
17528-1
6702-95
5
3
17534-8
17529-6
5702-12
3
1
17537-3
17532-1
5700-90
9
2
17541-1
17535-9
5700-78
3?
—
17541-5
17536-3
5700-17
2?
1
17543-3
17538-1
5699-52
10
4
17545-3
17540-1
5699-14
3
1
17546-5
17541-3
5698-93
6
—
17547-1
17541-0
5698-751
5698-60/
(5?)
5
17547-7
17542-5
5
17548-2
17543-0
5698-31
10
2
17549-1
17543-9
5697-921
5697-79/
4d
—
17540-5
17544-3
—
17550-4
17545-2
5697-51
4
1
17551-5
17546-3
5697-31
(3?)
2
17552-1
17546-9
6696-96
8
1
17553-2
17548
5696-58
4
1
17554-4
17549-2
5696-06
8d
3
17556-0
17550-8
5695-65
3
1
17557-2
17552-2
5694-34
6
1
17561-3
17556-1
5693-76
8
—
17563-1
17557-9
5693-38
4
2
17564-3
17559-1
5692-91
8
2
17565-7
17560-5
5692-57
10
2
17566-8
17561-6
5692-35
4
I
17567-4
17562-2
5690-81
4
—
17572-2
175670
5690-62
10
6
17572-8
17567-6
5690-42
8
__
17573-4
17568-2
5690-07
5
-^
17574-5
17569-3
5689-74
9
3
17575-5
175703
5689-20
4
1
17577-2
17572-0
5688-74
6
2
17578-6
17573-4
5687-80
5
2
17581-5
17576-3
1891.
258 EEPORT — 1891.
The Telluric Lines op the Solar Spectrum — continued,.
Intensity
Oscillation
Frequency
l?ccker
(Kowiaiul)
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
tion to
in V
acuo
Horizon
Medium
Vacuum
o
Altitude
Kowland
Angstrom
5687-66
10
3
17581-9
5-2
17576-7
5686-49
5
3
17585-5
17580-3
5686-38
(5?)
4
17585-9
17580-7
5685-97
5
1
17587-1
17581-9
5685-61
8
2
17588-3
17583-1
5685-55
4?
—
17588-5
17583-3
5685-28
5
2
17589-3
17584-1
5684-05
9
3
17593-1
17587-9
5682-98
6
—
17596-4
17591-2
5681-97
8
2
17599-5
17594-3
5681-74
3
—
17600-2
17595-0
5680-98
5
1
17602-6
17597-4
5680-10
5
2
17605-3
17600-1
5679-79
5
2
17606-3
17601-1
5676-94
8
2
17615-1
17609-9
5674-79
4
1
17621-8
17616-6
5674-49
4
—
17622-7
17617-5
5674-42
4
1
17622-9
17617-7
5674-15
5
1
17623-8
17618-6
5672-07
4
—
17630-2
17625-0
5671-58
4
2
17631-8
17626-6
5670-50
5
2
17635-1
17629-9
5668-70
3
i—
17640-7
17635-5
5667-94
3
1
17643-1
17637-9
566603
4
2
17649-0
17643-8
5652-01
(3?)
2
17692-8
17687-6
5634-37
(2?)
2
17748-2
17743-0
5633-23
(2?)
2
17751-8
17746-6
5631-02
(2?)
2
17758-8
5-2
17753-6
5575-53
3
—
17935-5
5-3
17930-2
5548-72
3
2
18022-2
18016-9
5529-92
3?
2
18083-4
18078-1
6523-03
3
1
18106-1
5-3
18100-8
5520-23
3
1
18115-2
5-4
18109-8
5519-95
(3?)
2
18116-1
18110-7
5519-41
4
1
18117-9
18112-5
6516-49
3
2
18127-5
18122-1
5516-09
3
1
18128-8
18123-4
5515-52
4
1
18130-7
18125-3
5513-91
4
2
18136-0
18130-6
5511-37
5
2
18144-3
18138-9
5509-64
4
2
18150-0
18144-6
5509-11
2
—
18151-7
18146-3
5507-67
(3?)
2
18156-5
18151-1
5506-57
(3?)
2
18160-1
18154-7
5505-37
4
2
18164-1
18158-7
6502-00
3?
—
18175-2
18169-8
5500-44
3
2
18180-4
181750
5499-70
3
1
18182-8
18177-1
5499-39
3
—
18183-8
18178-1
5499-05
4
2
18185-0
18179-6
6498-56
3
—
18186-6
18181-2
6496-98
5
2
18191-8
18186-4
5496-33
3
—
18194-0
1 18188-6
5495-65
4
—
18196-2
18190-8
6491-70
3
2
18209-3
j 18203-9
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE Sl'ECTKA Ob' THE ELEMENTS. l!.39
The Tellueic Lines op the Solae Spectvlvu— continued.
Intensity
Reduc-
Oscillation Frequency
Becl<er
(Rowland) ■
Oscillation
Frequcnc)'
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
tion to
Vacuum
Rowland
Angstrom
5491-22
4
2
18210-9
5-4
18205-5
5491-04
(4?)
—
18211-5
18206-1
5485-20
3
2
18230-9
18225-5
5484-28
O
1
18233-9
18228-5
5482-76
4
2
18239-0
18233-6
5482-09
6d
4d
18241-2
18235-8
548052
(4?)
—
18246-4
18241-0
5479'51
2
18249-8
18244-4
5478-93
4
2
18251-7
18246-3
5478-32
7
2
18253-8
18248-4
5475-41
2
—
18263-5
18258-1
5473-54
5
3
18269-7
18264-3
5470-35
8
2
18280-4
18275-0
5466-90
6
2
18291-9
18286-5
546617
3
2
18294-4
18289-0
5465-47
5
2
18296-7
18291-3
5465-21
6
3
18297-6
18292-2
5464-84
(3
2
18298-8
18293-4
5462-59
(7?)
7
18306-3
183009
546218
5
2
18307-7
18302-2
5459-54
7
—
18316-6
18311-2
5459-05
(3?)
2
18318-2
18312-8
5458-65
5
2
18319-5
18316-1
5457-62
7
4
18323-0
18317-6
5457-34
4
2
18323-9
18318-5
5456-58
8
4
18326-5
18321-1
5455-28
4
2
18330-9
18325-5
5452-54
3
1
18340-1
18334-7
5451-26
4
2
18344-4
183390
5450-43
4
1
18347-2
18341-8
5449-57
5
1
183501
183447
5449-16
4
2
18351-5
18348-1
5449-07
4
2
18351-8 i
18348-4
5448-22
G
2
18354-6 i
18349-2
5446-25
8
1
18361-3
18355-9
5444-23
4
2
18368-1
18362-7
5442-51
7
4
18373-9
18368-5
5439-91
3
1
18382-7
18377-3
5439-06 \
5438-99 J
5d
2
18385-6
18380-2
5438-43
4
2
18387-7
18382-3
5438-16
4
2
183880
18383-2
5437-36
6
4
18391-3
18385-9
5437-23
6
4
18391-7
18386-3
5435-76
7
2
18390-7
18391-3
5435-49
3/
—
18397-6
18392-2
5434-92
6
1
18399-5
18394-1
5434-04
4
2
18402-5
18397-1
5431-82
5
3
18410-0
18404-6
5431-60
5
3
18410-8
18405-4
5431-25
3
1
18412-0
18406-6
5430-46
4
3
18414-7
18409-3
5428-88 \
6428-78/
Id
3
18420-0
18414-6
3
18420-4
18415-0
5428-091
5427-89/
5d
3
18422-7
18417-3
1
3
18423-4
184180
s 2
260 iiEPOKT — 1891.
The Telluric Lines of the Solar Spectrum — continued.
Becker
(Ro-wland)
Intensity-
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
tion to
Vacuum
Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
1
Kowland
Angstrom
5427-17
5d
2
15425-8
5-4
18420-4
5426-85
(3?)
3
18426-9
18421-5
5420-42
(3?)
3
18428-4
18423-0
5425-96
3
2
18429-9
18424-5
5425-09
4
1
18432-9
18427-5
5423-66
3
—
18437-7
18432-3
542306 \
5422-98/
9cl
?,
18439-9
18434-5
5421-31
7d
5
18445-7
18440-3
5420-71
7
2
18447-8
18442-5
5420-49 \
5420-41 /
(8?)
6
f 18448-5
1 18448-8
18443-1
18443-4
5419-49
8
3
~ 18451-9
18447-5
5418-4.'5
5
2
18455-5
5-4
18450-1
5418-07
5
3
18456-8
5-5
18451-3
5417-39
5
1
18459-1
18453-G
5416-68
4
2
18461-5
18456-0
5416-47
4
—
18462-2
18456-7
5416-25
6
■2
18463-0
18457-5
5415-66
4
1
1816.--0
18459-5
541518
4
—
18466-6
1S461-1
5414-86
4
1
18467-7
18462-2
5414-50
8
3
18468-9
18463-4
5414-23
7
6
18469-8
184G4-3
5413-30
8d
4
18473-0
18467-5
5413-00
7
4
184740
18468-5
5412-34
7
2
18476-3
18470-8
5411-92
5
1
18477-7
18472-2
5410-61
(3?)
3
18482-2
18476-7
5409-80
6
3
18485-0
18479-5
5408-98
5
—
18487-8
18482-3
5408-40
6
2
18489-8
18484-3
5408-20
6
2
18490-4
18484-9
5407-25
4
1
18493-7
18487-2
5402-43
4
2
18510-2
18504-7
5400-07
3
1
)85l8-3
18512-8
5398-66
4
—
18523-1
185176
5398-12
7
1
18525-0
18519-5
5391-31
(3?)
2
18548-4
18542-9
5390-93
(3?)
2
18549-7
18544-2
5386-02
5
1
18566-6
18561-1
5383-01
(3?)
3
18577-0
1 8571-5
5307-85
(3?)
3
18629-4
18523-9
5366-95
(3?)
2
18632-6
18527-1
6364-09
(3?)
2
18642-5
18537-0
5362-32
4
3
18648-6
18543-1
5301-08
3
2
18653-0
18547-5
5360-51
2?
—
18654-9
5-5
18549-4
5359-95
2?
—
18656-9
5-0
18651-3
5354-10
3d
2
18677-3
18671-7
5353-07
(3?)
2
18680-9
18675-3
5351-82
3
1
18685-2
18679-6
5351-28
4
—
18687-1
18681-5
5350-52
4?
3
18689-8
18684-2
5349-23
4
1
18694-3
18688-7
5348-93
4?
3
18095-3
18689-7
ON WATE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTBA OF THE ELEMENTS. 261
The Tellueic Lines of the Solar SPECTRVM—continited.
Intensity
Oscillation Frequency
Becker
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
in Vacuo
(Rowland)
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
tion to
Vacuum
Rowland
Angstrom
5347-62
3?
2
18699-9
5-6
18694-3
5342-21
3?
3
18718-8
18713-2
5340-42
3?
2
18725-1
18719-5
5322-64
(3?)
2
18787-7
18782-1
5316-19
3 ?
1
18810-5
18804-9
5314-02
3?
1
18818-2
18812-6
5290-52
4
2
18901-7
18896-1
5288-00
5
;•)
18910-7
18905-1
5283-58
(7?)
5
18926-6
18921-0
5277-19
3
1
18949-5
18943-9
5275-40
(7?)
6
18955-9
18950-3
5275-11
(7 7)
6
18957-0
18951-4
5251-66
4?
2
19041-6
19036-0
5251-52
3
1
19042-1
5-6
19036-5
5205-40
4
2
19210-8
5-7
]920n-l
5205-12
4
2
19211-9
5-7
19206-2
5143-94
5d
—
19440-4
5-8
19434-6
5142-10
(2?)
2
19447-3
19441-5
5132-25
(3?)
2
19484-6
19478-8
5125-20
(10?)
8
19511-4
19505-6
5117-02
(5?)
4
19542-6
10536-8
5116-72
(5?)
4b
19543-8
19538-0
5111-16
4
1
19565-0
19559-2
5110-20
3
1
19568-7
19562-9
5105-07
4d
1
19588-4
19582-6
5103-86 "I
5103-77/
5102-57
(3?)
2d
19593-2
19587-4
8
3
19598-0
19592 2
5101-90
6
2
19600-5
19594-7
5097-40
5
3
19617-8
19612-0
5096-23
5
1
19622-4
19616-6
5095-95
7
2
19623-4
19617-6
5094-52
8
5
19628-9
19623-1
5094-20
6
—
19630-2
19624-4
5094-04
6
2
19630-8
19625-0
5093-78
2
—
196318
196260
■
5092-58
8
4
19636-4
19630-6
5092-37
7
o
19637-2
19631-4
5091-32
4
2
19641-3
19635-5
5090-39 \
5090-25 /
4d
2
19645-1
19639-3
5089-92
4
2
19646-7
19640-9
5089-36
(4?)
4
19648-8
19643-0
5089-23
(4?)
3
19649-3
19643 5
6086-75
6
2
19658-9
19653-1
5086-21
6
—
19661-0
19655-2
5085-39
4
2
19664-2
19658-4
5085-11
3
—
19665-3
19659-5
5084-64
5
2
19667-1
19661-3
5083-91
7
2
19669-9
19664-1
5083-12
6
2
19673-0
19667-2
5080-53
8
5
19683-0
19677-2
5079-70
7
1
19686-2
19680-4
5078-57
6
3
19690-6
19684-8
5078-18
3
1
19692-1
19686-3
5077-57
7
3
19694-5
19688-7
j
^^i2
EEPORT 1
891.
The Telluric Likes of the Solae Spectrum — eontimied.
Intensity-
Oscillation Frequency
B6ck6r
Oscillation
Frequency
Reduc-
in Vacuo
(Kowland)
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
tion to
Vacuum
Ro-wland
Angstrom
5076-65
9
2
19698-0
5-8
19692-2
6075-98
5
2
19700-6
19694-8
5074-43
3?
1
19706-H
19700-8
6073-89
4?
3
19708-7
19702-9
5073-09
7
6
19711-8
19706-0
5072-06
4
19715-8
19710-0
5071-40
5
1
19718-4
19712-6
5071-21
5
2
19719-2
19713-4
5070-35
5
—
19722-5
19716-7
5070-04
5
3
19723-7
19717-9
6069-53
4
3
19725-3
19719-5
5069-26
5
7
19726-7
19720-9
5068-88
11?
9
19728-2
19722-4
5068-45
5
4
19729-9
197231
5067-29
11
8
19734-4
19728-6
5066-49
6
3
19737-5
19731-7
5066-04
9
6
19739-3
197335
5065-85
(3?)
3
19740-0
19734-2
5063-74
4
1
19748-2
5-8
19742-4
5062-44
(3?)
2
19753-3
59
19747-4
5061-18
6
2
19758-2
19752-3
5060-56
5
2
10760-7
19754-8
5060-19
10
8
19762-1
19756-2
6059-58
8
1
19764-5
19758-6
6058-32
6
2
19769-4
19763-5
5C57-69
9
—
19771-9
197660
5056-95
5
5
19774-8
19768-9
6056-58
10
3
19776-2
19770-3
5056-44
5
2
19776-8
19770-9
5055-28
4
2
19781-3
19776-4
5054-52
4
—
19784-3
19778-4
5053-92
6
3
19786-6
19780-7
5053-64
5d
3
19787-7
19781-8
5052-52
6
1-
19792-1
19786-2
5052-31
6?
3
19792-9
19787-0
5050-49
4
2
19800-1
19794-2
5049-72
5
1
198031
19797-2
5047-56
(4?)
3
19811-5
19805-C
5047-14
(4?)
3b
19813-2
19807-3
5046-65
3
—
19815-1
19809-2
5046-35
3
2
19816-3
19810-4
5045-76
4
—
19818-6
19812-7
5044-73
3
2
19822-7
19816-8
5044-08
8
3
19825-2
19819-3
5043-13
8
:;
19829-0
198231
5042-97
8
3
19829-6
19823-7
5042-62
3
2
19831-0
19825-1
5041-46
8
4
19835-5
19829-6
6040-67
4
3
19838-6
19832-7
5040-39
5
3 '
19839-7
19833-8
5039-86
7
2
19841-8
19835-9
5039-03
5
19845-1
19839-2
5038-91
5
2
19845-R
19839-7
5038-42
9
7
19847-5
19841-6
5038-23
(5?) .
—
19848-3
19842-4
5038-00 1
5
2
19849-1
19843-2
ON WAVE-LENGTU TABLES OF THE .SPECTKA OF THE ELEMENTS. 263
The Tellueic Lines of the Solae Specteum — contimted.
Intensity-
Oscillation Frequency
Becker
(Rowland)
Oi!oilla.tion
Iteduc-
in Vacuo
Horizon
Medium
Altitude
tiori to
h reouencv ^_
j Vacuum
Rowland
Angstrom
5037-82
9
4
19,S49-9
5-9
19844-0
5037-43
8
3
19851-4
19845-5
5035-83
8
2
19857-7
19851-8
5035-19
5
—
19860-2
19854-3
5034-80
8
1
19861-8
19855-9
5034-69
7
__
19862-2
19856-3
5034-45
5
2
19863-1
19857-2
:'034-23
5
2
19864-0
19858-1
5033-17
5
2
19868-2
19862-3
6031-34
6
2
19875-4
19869-5
5030-52
4
1
19878-7
19872-8
5029-82
8
—
19881-4
19875-5
5028-98
6
2
19884-7
19878-8
5028-72
1
19885-8
19879-9
5026-26
6
. —
19895-5
19889-6
5025-94
G
3
19896-8
19890-9
5024-81
6
2
19901-3
18895-4
5024-39
6
a
19902-9
19897-0
5019-49
4
—
19922-4
19916-5
5019-26
4
3
19923-3
19917-4
5018-65
5?
—
19925-7
19919-8
5018-55
11
9
19226-1
19920-2
5018-00
r
I
19928-3
19922-4
5017-23
5
2
19931-3
19925-4
5016-07
5
1
19935-9
19930-0
*
5015-33
4
2
19938-9
19933-0
5006-90
4
2
19972-4
19966-5
5004-48
5
3
199821
19976-2
5002-75
4
2d
19989-0
19983-1
4998-14
5
3
20007-4
20001-5
4996-13
3
1
20015-5
20009-6
4988-50
(3 ?)
2
20046-1
20040-2
4984-91
4
1
20060-5
20054-6
4983-69
4
1
20005-5
20059-6
4981-48
6
2
20074-4
20068-5
4975-95
3?
2
20096-7
5-9
20080-8
4969-61
(3 ?)
2
20122-3
6-0
20116-3
4969-41
(3?)
2
20123-1
20127-1
4964-80
(4?)
2
20141-8
20135-8
4913-10
2
—
20353-7
20147-7
4902-52
4?
3
20397-7
20191-7
4902-21
4?
3 1
20399-0
20193-0
Interim Report of the Committee consisting of Professor Thobpe,
Professor Hummel (Secretary), Dr. Perkin, Professor Eussell,
Captain Abney, and Professor Stroud, on the Action of Light
upon Dyed Colours. Drawn up by the Secretary.
The primary object of the -work of this Committee is to determine
accurately the relative fastness to light of all the various colours at
present employed by the dyer of textile fabrics. This is to be attained
264 BEPOET— 1891.
by exposing to direct sunliglit and tbe ordinary atmospheric inflaences,
patterns of silks, wool, and cotton, specially dyed with the various
natural and artificial colouring matters.
The work of purifying these colouring mattei-s, dyeing the patterns,
recording the dyed and faded colours of each pattern, &c., &c., must
necessarily require much time. Moreover, owing to the very large
number of colours to be examined, the long exposure needed to give
useful results (one year at least), and the limited capacity of the exposing-
frame employed, the work will naturally proceed but slowly, and will
extend over a period of some years.
During the past year the Secretary of the Committee has been
engaged in collecting samples of the colouring matters required for the
investigation, and in making preliminary exposure experiments with the
view of determining the best method of procedure to be adopted.
Having decided to expose the patterns in groups according to colour,
the work of pui-ifying and dyeing with the red colouring matters has
been begun, and is now in progress in accordance with a scheme in the
hands of members of the Committee.
Of the 20^. originally granted to the Committee at the last meeting
of the Association in Leeds, the sum of \7l. 10s. has been expended in
the purchase of the necessary silk, wool, and cotton material, also an
exposing frame, which has been erected at Adel in the neighbourhood of
Leeds.
Particulars of this expenditure have been forwarded by the Chairman
of the Committee to the General Treasurer.
Report (provisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors
M'Leod and W. Eamsay, and Mr. W. A. Shenstone (Secretary),
appointed to investigate the Influence of the Silent Discharge
of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases.
The Committee regrets to state that, owing to various circumstances,
very little further progress has been made during the past year. The
necessary means for securing assistance in part of the work have, how-
ever, lately been secured, and its continued progress may therefore now
be looked for ; and it is recommended that the Committee be reappointed.
No grant is asked for, as the necessary apparatus is at the command
of the Committee.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors H.
M^LEODi Chairman), Eoberts-Austen (Secretary), and Eeinold,
and Mr. H. Gr. Madan, appointed for the Continuation of the
Bibliography of Spectroscopjy.
The collection and verification of the titles of papers on spectroscopy
have been continued during the past year, but there is not yet suflGcicnt
matter for publication.
The Committee desire to be reappointed.
ON ISOMERIC NArnXHALENE DEEIVATIVES. 265
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Tilden and
Professor Armstrong {Secretary), appointed for the pw^ose of
investigating Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives. {Drawn up
by Professor Armstrong.)
The isomeric d'uMoronaiMlmlenes. — Since the publication of the pre-
vious report Mr. Wynne and the writer have completed their examination
of the dichloronaphthalenes. As mentioned in the third report, no
fewer than twelve isomerides were reputed to exist ; one of these, however
— strange to say, the a-modification, the oldest member of the set — has
proved to be non-existent as a distinct isomeride, being a mixture of two
others inseparable by the ordinary methods of crystallisation ; while
another has been shown to have been improperly ranked as a dichloro-
derivative, being a trichloronaphthalene. The remaining ten have been
characterised and their constitution determined by logical and consistent
arguments, which leave no doubt that they actually are the ten dichloro-
naphthalenes which, according to theory, can exist if the simple double
hexagon formula for naphthalene be adopted.
The formulte of the ten dichloronaphthalenes are given in the table
below, those of the acids into which they are converted on sulphonation
being given in the second column of the table, and those of the corre-
sponding trichloronaphthalenes in the third. In this table S is printed
for SO3H ; the melting points of the chloride and amide of the acid are
indicated below the symbol of the acid.'
aa-BLldoronapldlialenes.
CI CI CI
/\/\ s/\/\ ci/\A
Ml - Ml - i
W ^'Y ^MT
M. p. = (;7°o. SO..CI, m. p. = 132°. M. p. = G6°.
SOjSH,, m. p. = 244°.
Ci CI CI CI CI C'l
/\/\ /x/\ /Y^i
'\/x/ Vx/ \yyf
« Ul
M. p. = 82°. S0„C1, m. p. = m°. M. p. = 131°.
.SO',NH„ m. p. = 228°.
CI CI
CI Cl
SO.Cl, m. p. = 139° 5. M. p. = 103°
bOnNH.,, m. p. = 20-1°.
-^
Cf. Chen. Soc. rrocccdin/jn, 1S90, pp. 77-84.
266
KEPOKT 1891.
M. p. = 119°-5.
Cl/VVl
\y\/
M. p. = 114°.
PfS-DicMoronapJithalenes.
I ' "ci "
S0„C1, m. p. = 142°.
SO.>H„, m. p. = 2GS°.
y\y\,
,C1
Cl!
\y\/
M. p. = 135°
/\/\
I I ' (0
S0,,C1, m. p. = 178°.
ci/Y^ci
Sa.Cl, m. p. = 163°-5.
SO.NH., m. p. = 218°.
/V^ci
I j 1 ->
S0.,C1, m. p. = 13G°.
SOoNH,, 111. p. = 2G1I°.
a/3-DicMoronapJifhalencs.
Cl
,/\/\ci
Cl
/y^ci
' I 'ci
M. p. = 109°-5.
Cl;
/\y\
M. p. = 91
Cl)
Cl
/\/\,
Cl
CL
Cl
M. p. = 113°.
Cl
/VNci
Cl
Cl
\/\/ ^
s
S0.,C1, m. p. = 104°.
SO.]XPL, m. p. = 217°.
Cl
/yxci
S0.,C1. m. p. = 1G7°5.
SO",NH,, m. p. = 190°.
Cl
/\y\
Cl
M. p. = 78°-5.
Cl
^Y^ci
M. p. = 91°,
Cl
/\X\
Cl
Cl
M. p. = or.
S0.,C1, m. p. = 148°-5.
SO'.NH.,, m. p. = 272°,
Cl
Cl
M. p. = 103°.
Cl
ci^,/^
S0..C1, m. p. = 121°.
BOJNH., m. p. = 228°
M. p. = 113°.
ON
ISOMERIC NArUXHALENE DEEIVATITES.
CI
ci/\/\
->
Cl
1 1 ->
Cl
ci/\/\
\x\y
s
Cl
M. p. = C2-U— G3
;°-5.
S0.,C1, m. p = 118°.
SO.NH,,, m. p. = 220°.
M. p. = GG°
CI
->
Cl
->•
Cl
^'\/%/
Cl
M. p. = 48°.
S0„C1, m. p. = 151°.
M. p. = GG°.
267
SO,NH., m. p. = 216°.
The establishment of the existence of such a series of ten isomeride.s
formed by the introduction of but two atoms of chlorine into a hydro-
carbon is in itself remarkable ; it is still more remarkable when the
diversity of properties which the isomerides manifest is taken into con-
sideration ; moreover the identification of ten isomerides and the recog-
nition of their constitution afford striking testimony to the completeness
of modern methods of inquiry and the truth of our theory of constitution :
however much our symbols may differ from actuality, there cannot be a
doubt that they afford a most accurate presentment of intramolecular
relationship.
It may be added that the facts now established place it beyond ques-
tion that the hydrocarbon naphthalene has a symmetrical structure such
as is indicated by the conventional double hexagon formula ; it remains
to solve the far more difficult problem involved in the determination of
its exact inner structure.
The opportunity afforded by a series of ten isomerides for the com-
parative study of physical properties in their relation to constitution is
obviously very great, and it is intended ere long to enter on this branch
of the inquiry.
The isomeric dihromonaphtJialenes. — With the object of securing the
data necessary for the exact comparison of the chloro- and bromo-deriva-
tives of naphthalene, and especially the behaviour of naphthalene towards
chlorine and bromine, much time has been devoted by the writer and Mr.
Rossiter to the study of the dibromonaphthalenes. The results are not
yet sufficiently complete to render their publication desirable.
The isomeric trichloronaphthale^ies. — Theoretically fourteen isomeric
trichloronaphthalenes can exist. As the determination of the constitu-
tion of a large number of naphthalene derivatives — including many of
technical importance — is dependent on a knowledge of the trichloronaph-
thalenes, Mr. Wynne and the writer have paid much attention to their
study ; besides the seven already known, they have succeeded in preparing
six others, and are at present endeavouring to prepare the only modifica-
tion which remains to be discovered. The melting points of the thirteen
known trichloronaphthalenes and their probable constitution are indicated
in the following table, in which also are given the letters by which they
have been distinguished.
268
KEPOET — 1891.
-
Ccinstitution
Jlelting Point
1 -
Constitution
Melting Point
[«]
1 : 2 : :5
81°
i M
1:3:2'
113°
1:2:4
92°
1 W
1:3:3'
80°
1 : 2 :i'
unknown
[7]
1:3:4'
103°
1:2:2'
84°
! [8]
1:4:1'
131°
—
1 : 2 : ;5'
92°-5
1 [6 and Q
1:4:2'
66°
1:2:4'
78°-5
2:3:1'
109°-3
?M
1:3:1'
90°
1 —
2:3:2'
91°
It will be noticed that three modifications melt at about 80°, and four
near to 90° ; hence it is important to ascertain the distinctive properties
of the several modifications, so that their identification may be rendered
easy and certain. This difficult and wearisome task will, it is hoped, be
completed during the coming year.
Naplithalenedisulphonic acids.- — By eliminating the NH2 group from
beta-naphthylaminedisulphonic acid G, Mr. Wynne and the writer, since
the publication of the last report, have succeeded in preparing naph-
thalene 1 : 3 or jjie^a-disulphonic acid ; the same acid has been inde-
pendently prepared in this manner in the laboratory of the Badische Anilin
und Soda Fabrik. It is noteworthy that although in a measure the
analogue of benzenemetadisulphonic acid, which readily yields resorcinol
on fusion with alkali, naphthalene I : o disulphonic acid is converted by
fusion with alkali with remarkable facility into a trihydroxynaphthalene.
Five of the ten possible disulphonic acids are therefore now known.
Their properties are summarised in a table in the ' Chemical Society's
Proceedings,' 1890, p. 14.
Naphthylamine-, iiapldhol- and chloronaj^htlialene-dis^dplionic acids. — A
large number of disulphonic acids of the uaphthylamines and naphthols
are now in technical use,' and both on this account and in order to obtain
the material for a discussion of the comparative influence of NHg and
OH, the constitution of these acids has been determined by Mr. Wynne
and the writer, and they have also prepared disulphonic acids by sulpho-
nating the chloronaplithalenesiilphonic acids in oi'der to compare the
influence of what may be regarded as a neutral radicle with that of the
alkylic NH2 and acidic OH; the results have been recorded during the
past two years in nine communications to the Chemical Society, and
appear in the 'Proceedings.' One interesting result of the examination
of the disulphonic acids, to which attention may be called, is that ap-
parently there is an ' invincible objection ' on the part of two SO3H
groups to remain in either contiguous or para- or peri-positions. The
expression ' remain in ' is used advisedly, as it appears probable that
initially such positions are not infrequently taken up by sulphonic groups.
The formation of heta-derivatives. — In previous reports emphasis has
over and over again been laid on the fact that in the majority of cases
naphthalene gives rise to aZjs/ia-derivatives, ieia-derivatives being formed
only when a group is present which determines the entry of the new
group into the contiguous beta-position or owing to the occurrence of
secondary change. Attention must now be called to certain important
exceptions to this rule.
' A very complete description of the various naphthalene derivatives which are
used technically will be found in the art. Naphthalene by Mr. Wynne in the recently-
published vol. ii. of Thorpe's ZUctMiiari/ uf Ajiplicd Chcmistri/ (Longmans).
ox ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DlJaVATIVE?. 269
One of these exceptions is that afforded by the formation from napli-
thalene 1 : 3' disuliilionic acid on nitnition of a nitro-acid of the formula
(cf. 'Chem. Soc. Proceedings,' 1801, p. 27) ; this acid, however, is but a
subsidiary product, the main product being an acid of the formula
NO,, R
It has long been known that when the 1 : 4' disulphonic acid is
nitrated, it yields an ct-nitro-acid ; recently Mr. Wynne and the writer
Lave found that the product also contains the isomeric /3-nitro-acid.
Other exceptions are afforded by the production of beta-chloro- and
bromo- naphthalene on cblorination and brominationof naphthalene;' and
by the pi'eSence of a certain proportion of beta-naphthylamine in com-
mercial alpha-naphthylamine — a proof that naphthalene yields some beta-
nitronaphthalene on nitration ; the writer's attention has been called to
this last fact both by Dr. H. Caro and by Professor Noelting.
Lastly Mr. Rossiter and the writer have found that beta-naphthol
when brominated yields a dibromo-derivative of the formula
Br
and in this case there appears to be no alpha-compound formed, so that
the departure from the alpha-law is complete.
But the explanation of these results is not difficult. In no case
probably is the substitution derivative the direct product of change ; but
its formation is preceded by that of an addition compound. This is
generally admitted in the case of chloro- and bromo-derivatives, but
evidence of the formation of addition compounds has not hitherto been
forthcoming in other cases. Mr. Rossiter and the writer, however, have
recently given proof that a compound with nitric acid is initially formed
in the process of nitration.'^ Obviously, in the case of a symmetrical
molecule such as that of bromine, either an alpha- or a beta- derivative will
result, according as either the beta- or the alpha-atom of bromine becomes
eliminated from the bromide, thus : —
HBr Br
HBr H
^/\ HBr /\/\ Br
I \^^^ = I I I + HBr
• Cf. Chevi. Soc. Proceedings, 1890, p. 85. - IhiiL, 1891, p. 89.
270 , EEroKi— 181)1.
The alpha-law in this case is expressed by saying that in the main the
tendency is for the beta-bromine atom to be removed.
In the case of a dissymmetrical molecule, such as that of nitric acid,
the formation of the one or the other derivative will depend on the
nature of the addition compound — i.e., on the distribution of the radicles
of the acid — assuming them to be ' distributed ' when addition takes
place, thus : —
NO,
HO
I I j + HO.NO, =
\/\/
y\/\
111+ HO.NO, =
In this case the alpha-law is expressed in the statement that in the main
the tendency is for the acid radicle to assume an alpha-position in the
addition compound first formed.
This question has already been discussed by Mr. Wynne and the
writer with reference to the tetra-chlorides of naphthalene and of its
derivatives, naphthalene tetrachloi-ide affording the three possible di-
chloronaphthalenes, but the 1 : 'A compound in largest and the 1 : 2 in least
proportion, thus : —
HGl CI CI
/\/^ HCl /\/\ /\/\ y\y\ CI
HCl CI
The behaviour of the substituted chlorides is as follows : —
Chief product of iictioa
Chief chloride. of potash on chloride.
CI Cl„ CI
/\/\ /X/X HCl /\A CI
I "^ M "'
I 1 ! Ill TTpi I I I PI
\/\y \/v/ \/\/
HCl M. p. = 81°.
HCl CI
i/\ A CI HCl /VN CI /\/\ CI
HCl M. p. = 113°.
S0„C1 HCl S0„C1 SO3K
i/\A HCl /\/\ CI /V^
I I I Hn III I I I
HCl CI
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 271
Chief product of action
Chief chloride. of potash on chloride.
HCl CI
/\^\ S0,C1 HCl /'^.'^ SOX'l /^/^i SO3K
HCl
HCl CI
The influence of the substituent both as affecting tlie addition of
chlorine and the elimination of hydrogen chloride is especially note-
worthy. It will be seen that the sulphochlorides behave alike, but the
two chloronaphtbalenes dissimilarly towards chlorine, and that each
compound decomposes in a manner peculiar to itself on treatment with
alcoholic potash.
As yet no evidence has been obtained that a heta-hromo-, chlorp-, or
nitro-derivative may result by isomeric change from a previously formed
aZp^a-derivative.
With regard to the suIpJwnic acids, on reference to the previous
table in which the constitution of the acids formed on sulphonating
the ten dichloronaphthalenes is indicated, it will be observed that in some
cases an a- and in some cases a /3-sulphouic acid is formed, or a mixture
of both. Mr. Wynne and the writer have expressed the opinion that the
a-acid is always initially produced, and that in some cases this is so
unstable that it spontaneously passes over into the ^-isomeride and
escapes observation, while in others it is partially preserved. They base
this conclusion on the fact that in all cases hitherto studied in which both
acids are formed it is possible to convert the a- into the y8-acid by heating.
Thus 1 : 2-dichloronaphthalene affords about two-thirds a- and one-third
yS-acid ; but when the product is heated the latter is practically the sole
product. In like manner the initial product of sulphonation from
1 : 3-dichloronaphthalene contains about one-fifth /3-acid ; but if it be
heated at 160° during eighteen hours complete convei'sion into the yS-iso-
meride is effected.
Should this conclusion with reference to the manner in which beta-
sulphonic acids are formed be ultimately established it would follow that,
unlike nitric acid, sulphonating agents regularly act in one way, and that
the formation of the addition compound takes place in such a manner
that the sulphonic radicle always attaches itself in an alpha-position.
Isomeric cltange in the case of sulphonic acids. — The problems which
this subject presents are of extreme interest ; some idea of their character
is afforded by the following example. When heated at about 150-160'*
1 : 4 a-chloronaphthalene sulphonic acid undergoes a change into the more
symmetrical ftZ^/tot-isomeride, while 2 : l'-y8-chloronaphthalenesulphonic
acid is converted in a similar manner into the more symmetrical leta-
isomeride — results which may be regarded as indicative of a tendency to a
final state of symmetry, thus : —
CI
1
1
->
Cl
SO,H
ci/VA.
1
-> 1
SO3H
\y\/
SO,H
\/\/
\/\/^«'^^
In the case of the dichlorosulphonic acids it is noteworthy that tlie
'272 REPoiJT— 1801.
position ultimately taken up by the SO3H radicle appears to be deter-
mined by the beta-chlorine-atom, perhaps because the /8-salphonic acids
ai'e the most ' degraded ' products, thus : —
CI CI CI CI
/\/\ci /\/\ci /\/\ s/\/^-
\x\/ ^\y\x x/v/^^ \/^ ^^^
s
With reference to these examples it may be pointed out that the
apparent passage of the sulphonic radicle in the one case from one
nucleus into the other, in another from an alpha- into the contiguous beta-,
and in a third from an alpha- into the more distant beta-position, are
remarkable variations of the phenomenon of intramolecular mobility.
There is a striking difference in the behaviour of the 1 : 4, 1 : 4', and
1 : 2 oa-dichloronaphthalenes, to which attention may be directed, the non-
formation of the acid containing a chlorine atom and the sulphonic radicle
in the 1:1' position being noteworthy, thus : —
Cl Cl Cl Cl
1 viflds
s
Cl
01
Cl
y\/\
Cl
In the case of the 1 : 4 and 1 : 4' compounds the sulphonic radicle is
obviously influenced in two directions, and may be said to take up a
mean position.
A case of isomeric change which at present appears altogether para-
doxical is that which is said to occur on heating sodium naphthionate
(NH, : SOsNa = 1 : 4) at 200-250°, whereby it is converted into the
isomeric 1 : 2-compound.
The foregoing brief reference to the work of the Committee will
suffice to show that the study of naphthalene derivatives is fraught with
interest, more especially as it is to be anticipated that results of general
application will be obtained in the course of the inquiry.
ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SOLUTION. 273
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden,
McLeod, Pickering, Eamsay, and Young and Drs. A. R. Leeds
and NicoL (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting
on the Bibliography of Solution.
During the past year no progress has been made with the work of
cataloguing the papers on Solution in the few remaining selected
journals.
The Committee invite the co-operation of members who have access
to large scientific libraries and are willing to take an active part in the
work.
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Tilden
and Eamsay and Dr. Nicol (Secretary), appointed for the
picrpose of investigating the Properties of Solutions.
The Committee have to report that, owing to the pressure of other work
but little progress has been made with experiments on the atomic
volumes of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen when substances containing
these elements are dissolved in water or other solvents. A preliminary
research on the volume of oxygen in the oxy-acids of chlorine, bromine,
and iodine has been completed with somewhat startling results, which
lead the Committee to hope that valuable data will be obtained when
the work is complete.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Egberts-
Austen {Chairman), Sir F. Abel, Messrs. E. Eiley and J.
Spiller, Professor J. W. Langley, Mr. G. J. Snelus, Professor
Tilden, and Mr. Thomas Turner (Secretary), appointed to
consider the best method of establishing an International
Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel. (Drawn up by
the Secretary.)
In the two previous reports of this Committee the objects of the
Committee were defined, and an account was give a of the preparation
and distribution by the American Committee of four out of the five
international steel standards which Professor Langley had been requested
and had kindly undertaken to prepare. A year ago it was hoped that a
final report would be presented at the Cardifi' meeting, but, unfortunately,
this hope has not been realised, and the completion of the work has been
deferred. In the second report mention was made of the fact that the
American Committee had entered upon an investigation of the relative
accuracy of different methods of analysis, particularly in connection with
the estimation of carbon in steel. This work was not considered within
the province of the British Association Committee when its obiects were
1891. •* J
274 REPORT — 1891.
defined in accordance with the discussion which took place at Bath and
with subsequent correspondence with Professor Langley.
The British Association Committee have during the past year care-
fully considered the course of action taken by the American Committee
and the position of British analysts now that the scope of the inquiry
entered into by the former has been thus enlarged, and it has been
considered advisable to publish the results of the determinations of the
British analysts as soon as their work is completed. This view was
communicated to Professor Langley, who in a letter received on August 7,
1891, endorses the proposed publication of the results hitherto obtained
by the British Association Committee.
Owing to the very short time which has elapsed since the receipt of
Professor Langley's letter and the fact that two of the British analysts
have not yet forwarded their reports to the Committee, it has not yet
been possible to institute a comparison of results obtained, but no time
will be lost in completing the examination of the four standards at present
in hand and in then prejjaring a report on the English results. Dr.
Wedding has informed Professor Langley that the work of the German
Committee is now nearly completed.
The fifth standard has not yet been prepared, some difficulty having
been met with in obtaining so large a quantity of mild steel of perfectly
uniform composition. It was originally proposed to make the standard
of basic steel, but it was urged that greater uniformity could be obtained
with crucible metal. Professor Langley states that he has made several
attempts to make crucible steel sufficiently low in carbon, but finds it
impossible to do so in the plumbago crucibles used in the United States.
This matter is now under consideration, and it is hoped the fifth standard
will be prepared shortly.
Report (jprovisional) of a Committee, consisting of Professors H. E.
Armstrong and W. E. Dunstan and Messrs. C. H. Bothamley
and W. A. Shenstone (Secretary), appointed to investigate the
direct formation of Haloid Compounds from pure materials.
Having confirmed "VYanklyn's early observation that carefully dried
chlorine was practically without action on sodium, R. Cowper in 1883
(' Chem. Soc. Journ.' 1883, pp. 153-155) made a number of experiments
on the behaviour of dried chlorine towards other metals, and in several
cases found that if dried by contact with freshly-fused calcium chloride
it was without action. Thus Dutch metal was apparently still unacted
on after three months' exposure in the dried gas ; and zinc, in the form of
foil, and magnesium wire were also unattacked. Silver and bismuth,
however, were slightly acted on, and tin, antimony, and arsenic were
rapidly attacked ; mercury appeared to be acted on as rapidly by dried
chlorine as by the moist gas.
Pringsheim has since shown that, even in tlie case of hydrogen and
chlorine, the interaction is affected by the presence of moisture.
These, and similar observations by H. B. Dixon and others with
reference to the formation of oxides from dry materials, render it desirable
to more fully elucidate the conditions which determine the formation of
ON THE FORMATION OF HALOID COMPOUNDS. 275
metallic and other chlorides and analogous compounds ; and it is in this
direction that the Committee are woi'king.
Mr. Shenstone has already obtained results which are both interest-
ing and suggestive. Chlorine prepared in the ordinary manner dried by
exposure in contact with phosphoric oxide during several months was
found to very readily attack mercury — a result in accordance with
Cowper's observation. Nevertheless chlorine prepared in another
manner was found to behave differently. With the object of testing the
quality of chlorine prepared by heating platinous chloride in vacuo, tubes
of such chloi'ine, dried by contact during several hours with phosphoric
oxide, were opened under highly-purified recently-heated mercury :
although the surface of the mercury in contact with the gas was very
quickly tarnished, no sensible absorption occurred during many hours in
dayhght, but afterwards absorption took place, at first gradually, and
subsequently with tolerable rapidity. Several such experiments were
made with chlorine prepared from different specimens of platinous chlo-
ride, and in every case a colourless gaseous residue, not exceeding 5 per
cent., was obtained, which proved to be partly soluble in water, partly in
alkaline pyrogallate, and partly insoluble, (? Nitrogen.) The fact that
absorption at first took place with exceeding slowness, and subsequently
proceeded at a more and more rapid rate, is apparently a significant
indication that the interaction of chlorine and mercury is conditioned by
the presence of some third substance, and the importance of continuing
the enquiry is unquestionable.
It is probable that the impurities in the gas from platinous chloride
are derived from a basic compound. Mr. Shenstone finds that platinous
chloride is to a slight extent volatile — a fact which is ordinarily overlooked,
although it has been noticed by Mr. G. Matthey ; hence the analysis of
the substance by the ordinary method of ignition is liable to afford falla-
cious results.
Nearly 201. has ah-eady been expended, chiefly in the purchase of
platinum and platinum apparatus. The Committee desire to be re-
appointed, with a grant of ,30/., as the experiments are now being extended
to a number of other compounds.
Provisional Report of the Committee, consisting of General Festing,
Captain Abnet, and Professor H. E. Armstrong {Secretary),
on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds.
The determination of the spectra of the compounds which the Committee
have fixed upon as essential has been continued, and several have been
measured and classified. The work is very laborious and can only
progress slowly owing to the difficulty of obtaining absolutely pure
compounds, and other difficulties in the photographic method employed
have also arisen. The Committee wish for reappointment to continue the
investigation.
T 2
276 KEPOiiT — 1891.
Nineteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Prest-
AViCH, Dr. H. W. Ckosskey, Professors W. Boyd Dawkins, T.
McKenny Hughes, and T. (r. Bonney and Messrs. C. E.
De Eance, W. Pengelly, J. Plant, and K. H, Tiddeman,
appointed for the purpose of recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Characters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blochs of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking
measures for their preservation. (Draivn up by Dr. Crosskey,
Secretary.)
In their last report the Committee gave some of the general results of
their survey of the erratic blocks in the Midland district of England ;
they are unable, however, this year still further to address themselves to
the task of giving a scientific arrangement to the vast number of fa^ts
that have been collected in consequence of the number of new facts
which have been reported to them, and which it is necessary to record
before any more systematic generalisations can be attempted.
The destruction of erratics, moreover, is going on so rapidly that
already many of those described in the reports of this Committee have
disappeared, and in a few years these reports will be the chief evidence
of the very existence of a large series of phenomena of great importance
in glacial geology.
During the past year a N.W. of England Boulder Committee has
been formed, with Mr. C. E. De Ranee, F.G.S., as President and Mr.
Percy F. Kendall, F.G.S., as Secretary, which has already done valuable
work, and promises to accomplish a survey of the erratics of the district
it has undertaken to explore, so thorough, as ultimately to render a
scientific arrangement of the facts possible and enable their meaning to
be understood.
The Committee have to thank the N.W. of England Boulder Com-
mittee for the following communications, which contain several features
of especial interest : —
(1) The group of boulders reported from Hest Bank (Lancashire) is
of importance. The stones are exclusively such as might have been
derived from the country at present draining into the internal angle of
Morecambe Bay. Account must be taken of this fact in any attempt to
explain their origin.
(2) The area occupied by drift containing Lake District erratics is
extended and help given towards defining the area of their distribution
on the western slopes of the Pennine chain.
(3) The remarkable sporadic grouping of large boulders is shown ;
for example, in the group in the river Tame when taken in connection
with the records of Cheshire groups.
(4) Evidence is given of the transport and glaciation of local blocks ;
e.g., by the discovery of a large angular block of Ardwick lirdestone at
Haughton Green, the nearest known outcrop of the rock being about
three miles to the N.W., as well as many other angular blocks of the
same limestone.
(5) The mode of transport of some erratics and their behaviour
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND^ ^WALES, AND IRELAND. 277
towards the solid rocks over which they have been carried are illustrated,
the account given of the Levenshnlme group furnishing evidence of ice
in motion.
Many noteworthy boulders and groups of boulders are also described.
Lancashire.
Eeported by Mr. Thomas Ransome.
Bolt on-le- Sands. — On eastern shore of Morecambe Bay, 1 mile north
of Hest Bank Railway Station ; 12 ft. 6 in. x 8 ft. x 8 ft. ; oblong ;
moved ; mountain limestone ; fallen from boulder clay to the sea beach.
Grojip.
This is a series of specimens representing all the varieties met with in
an examination of the boulder clay exposed in the cliffs at Hest Bank.
The determinations are by Mr. P. F. Kendall, F.G.S. —
1. Shap granite.
2. Breccia ; red base with large fragments ; ? Brockram.
3. Grit; gTeenish grey ; very tine and micaceous ; ? Silurian.
4. Limestone ; red base with many white encrinite stems ; Carboniferous.
5- ,, black with lithostrotion ; Carboniferous.
6- « pale buff with ochreous markings ; Carboniferous.
7. „ pale buffi with encrinite stems ; Carboniferous.
^. „ earthy buffi with mollusca ; Carboniferous.
5. „ dark buffi with dendrites ; Carboniferous.
10. „ earthy red with Spirifera glabra ; Carboniferous.
11. Chert with many microzoa ; Carboniferous.
12. „ black with cuboidal jointing; Carboniferous.
13. Grit; very coarse, dark red, with quartz and other pebbles the size of a
pea ; ? origin.
14. Sandstone, buffi, speckled with brown ; Carboniferous.
15. „ dark brick red ; micaceous; ? Carboniferous.
1«. Grit; coarse quartzose with felspar ; '.'Millstone grit.
17. Breccia; andesitic with rhyolitic fragments ; ? Yewdale breccia.
18. ' Halleflinta ' ; buffi greenish ; Borrowdale.
19. Rhyolite ; liver-coloured ; flinty with few felspars and no quartz ; Borrowdale.
20. ? Volcanic rock, stained with copper ; 1 Borrowdale.
21. Breccia ; andesitic with rhyolitic fragments ; Yewdale.
22. Ash ; greenish to purple ; Borrowdale.
23. Mica trap. Cf. those of Sedbergh and Kendal.
24. Granite ; a small fragment grey, with a portion of felspar crystals contain-
ing inclusions of quartz ; ? Shap.
[All these rocks appear to have been derived from the area immediately
to the northward.— P. F. K.]
Eeported ly the Rev. C. R. Barker, S.J., B.A.
A group of boulders from Stonyhurst College, near Whalley, Lanca-
shire. Stonyhnrst lies four miles to the west of Whalley Station, at a
height of 360 feet above O.D., on the gentle south-eastern slope of Long-
ridge Fell. The whole district is made up of Yoredale limestones and
shales beautifully exposed on the banks of the river Hodder to the
°°''^|^-63,st, and of the Yoredale grits which form the Longridge Fell and
all the neighbouring hills ; and up to a considerable height the country
is covered with a uniform coat of boulder clay, from which (except when
278 EEPOET— 1891.
otberwise specified) the erratics in question Lave been extracted.
Glacial striae may be seen on the mountain limestone at various points
some five to six miles to the north-east, near Clitheroe : these stria?, as
shown by the geological survey map, point a few degrees west of south.
The two rocks which seem to be most abundantly represented among
the erratics found near Stonyhurst are — first, a compact, deep, purplish
red Permian marl, which is slightly exposed four miles to the north-east,
near Clitheroe ; secondly, a compact yellow sandstone, very persistently
characterised by speckles of brown iron-oxide. I have coupled this rock
with the one first mentioned because I think it likely that it, too, is
Permian or Triassic. The erratics composed of these two rocks all seem
to be of quite small size.
Almost as numerous as the above mentioned, and far exceeding them
in size, are boulders composed of various andesitic rocks, showing a strong
family likeness, perfectly fresh and hard, of a grey colour, slightly varied
in different specimens by greenish and bluish tints. Many of these
measure a full cubic foot or more, and show well all the characters of
ice-borne boulders. Most of them are certainly identical with rocks in
Borrowdale (andesites of the well-known Borrowdale series).
Next, perhaps, in frequency of occurrence come small rounded or
flattened boulders of a fine-grained rose-coloured rock of syenitic aspect.
Of another rock, also of syenitic aspect, but much larger grained, I
procured a single bouldei", the size of an infant's head, from a field-drain
close to the college.
[Mr. Kendall is of opinion that both of these are varieties of the
Buttermere granophyre.]
A single piece of a compact, homogeneous pink rhyolite, picked up
within a mile or two of Stonyhurst.
This specimen seems to me certainly identical with a similar pink
rhyolite, composing a remarkable group of large boulders a mile or two
west of Dungeon Ghyll Hotel, near Grasmere, by the side of a broad
path or cart-track leading up the valley to the west from the back of
the hotel. Some of the boulders measured two or three cubic feet.
A few hundred feet above the college, on the slope of Longridge Pell,
boulders of other than local rocks become very rare ; at a height of 1,10(>
feet, or so, all drift has disappeared, while on the top, at a height of
some 1,300 feet, I have often walked for miles, examining ground, walls,
and cairn, and have never been able to find a single woi-n pebble or
boulder — nothing but angular fragments of the local sandstone. On
Fairsnape Fell, to the north, at about the same height, I have noticed
the same fact.
Reported hy Mr. G. J. C. Broom, F.G.S.
Group.
St. Helen's. — New Street, on east side of borough between Lancaster
Street and Coburg Street. Largest, 2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. x — ; Smallest,
6 in. diam. ; the majority were of small size ; all water-worn. [? Rounded. —
P. F. K.] They occurred in boulder clay about 10-20 ft. beneath the
surface in a trench 600 ft. long and 6 ft. wide. About two cartloads
were found. One specimen examined was of Buttermere granophyre.
[P. F. K.] G in. X 4| in. x 2 in. ; flat ; egg-shaped ; water-worn
[? Rounded. — P. F. K.] ; finely scratched and grooved upon two faces ;
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 27U
grey sandstone or grit. [? L. Silurian of Lake District or Galloway. —
P- F. K.] , . ,
Tontine Street, Central Ward. 1 ft. 4 in. X 10 m. X 7 m. ; angular ;
scratched obscurely on the top side, which is flat; grey granite. [Gallo-
way.— P. F. K.]
Water Street, Central Ward. 2 ft. X 1 ft. 10 m. X — ; water-worn ;
grey granite.
Oxford Street, South Windle Ward. 7 ft. x 2 ft. x — ; lying at
present north and south, widest end north; andesite, L.D.' ; 160 ft. O.D. ;
? if it has been moved by man.
Norman's Road, Sutton. 3 ft. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. ; long axis north and
south ; water-worn ; red granite [? Eskdale] ; embedded in boulder clay
at about 12 ft, deep.
Group.
St. Helen's, between Vincent Street and Charles Street, Hardshaw
Ward. — This group consists of red granite and blue (trap) rock varying
in size from 3 in. diam., egg-shaped, to about 27 in. diam. and 10 in. to
20 in. deep. They occur in the space of every 20 yards square, in
about equal proportions as to rock ; if anything the blue predominates.
But few show scratches and all are water- worn [? rounded]. [The
specimens, eleven in number, accompanying this report comprised the
following : —
Andesites (L.D.) 6
Buttermere granophj'ie . . 1
Eskdale granite ? 1
Galloway granites 3
II
—P. P. K.]
The following list was of the larger sizes taken at random : —
(a) 2 ft. 3 in. X 2 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 8 in. ; angular ; flat on top ; red granite.
(ft) 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 9 in. x 10 in. ; angular ; fiat on top ; well-defined scratches,
though not deep ; blue [? andesite].
(c) 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 9 in. ; angular ; blue [? andesite].
{d) 2 ft. 11 in. X 3 ft. X — ; angular ; blue [? andesite] ; in situ,
(e) 2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 9 in. ; angular ; blue [? andesite].
These cover an area of about an acre. The smaller sizes are given
as about 50 cartloads to about 70-100 square yards superficial.
(/) Tliree boulders, each about 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. x 8 in. ; angular; red
granite.
ig) 2 ft. 1 in. X 1 ft. C in. x 1 ft. ; angular ; coarse-grained grey granite
[? Galloway].
(70 Three others of like size, but not accessible.
Reported by Mr. S. S. Platt, Assoc.Mem.Inst.O.E.
All the following are from the neighbourhood of Rochdale : —
Facit.— At top of incline in H. Heys & Co.'s quarry —
(1) 2 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. 10 in. x 2 ft. ; subangular ; striated at top ; granophyre,
Buttermere.
(2) 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. X 10 in. ; rounded ; weathered.
' L.D. = Lake District.
280 REPORT— 1891.
(3) 8| in. X G in. X 7| in. ; rounded ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(4) Sic.diam.; rounded.
(4a) 5 in. X 5 in. x 5 in. ; rounded.
Mean Hey Quarry —
(5) 5 in. X 4 in. x 4 in. ; angular : rhyolite ; L.D. [ = Lake District, andbelowj.
(6) 1| in. ; pebble ; quartzite. (Found near Nos. 5 and 7 in drift under peat.)
(7) 3 in. X 3 in. X 3 in. ; angular ; andesite ; L.D.
(8) 5| in. X 31 in. x 3J in. ; sxibangular ; andesite ; L.D.
(9) 9 in. X 6 in. X 7 in. ; rounded ; granite.
Near Butterworth and Brooks' office in qnarry —
(10) 10 in. X G in. X 4 in. ; subangular ; faintly scratched in direction of long
axis ; ? Needle's Eye ; syenite.
[I think ifc probable that this and other specimens so named may be
abnormal varieties of the Battermere granophyre. — P. ¥. K.]
(11) About same dimensions as 12 ; andesite ; L.D.
(12) 1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. G in. X 1 ft. ; weathered ; andesite ; L.D.
(13) 2 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 11 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. ; subangular ; polished on top but not
scratched. (This lay just under the peat, which is here 8 ft. thick.)
(14) 4 in. X 4 in. x 2 in. ; flat ; quartz.
(14a) 1 ft. I in. X 9 in. x 6 in. ; slightly scratched in direction of long axis ;
granophyre, Buttermere.
<15) 9 in. X 4i in. x 4 in. ; flattened ; polished ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(15a) 9 in. X 7j in. x .5| in. ; subangular ; polished ; granophyre, Buttermere.
Hall Cowm Quarry —
(16) 1 ft. 8 in. X I ft. X 9 in. ; scratched in direction of long axis ; marks jp_ in.
deep; chert.
(17) 6i in. X 4 in. X 2i in. ; subangular ; scratched in direction of long axis.
(18) 10| in. X 7 in. X 5 in. ; subangular.
Ditto, on Cowm side —
(19) 12 in. X 9 in. X G in. ; rounded ; porphyritic andesite ; L.D.
(20) 8 in. X G in. x 4 in. ; rounded ; granophyre, Buttermere.
Ditto, above Cowm —
.(21) 8 in. X C in. X 5 in. ; slightly scratched in direction of long axis ; andesite ;
L.D.
Gro?(]i.
Heytvood. — Hopwood brickworks, about 1 mile south of the centre of
Hey wood. The section shows a bed of pnrple boulder clay 7 feet thick,
covered by drift-sand about 6-7 feet thick. Where unspecified the
boulders are from the clay. About 460 feet above O.D.
(58) 8 in. X 4 in. x 5 in. ; angular ; Carboniferous limestone.
(59) 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 9 in. ; subangular ; weathered ; ? variety of Cree-
town granite ; from drift sand.
(60) 7 in. X 6 in. X 3 in.; subangular ; longitudinally scratched; porphyrite ;
L.D.
(61) 10 in. X 9 in. X 8 in. ; rounded ; granite ; Eskdalc.
(62) 9 in. X 6 in. x 6 in. ; rounded ; andesitic agglomerate ; L.D.
(63) 8 in. X 5 in. x 3 in. ; angular ; andesite ; L.D.
(64) 9 in. x 6 in. x 5 in. ; flattened ; slightly scratched at ends ; granophyre,
Buttermere.
(66) 1 ft. X 9 in. X 8 in. ; rounded ; andesite : L.D.
(66) 1 ft. X 9 in. x 8 in. (in two pieces) ; andesite ; L.D.
ON THE ERBATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 281
(67) 10 in. X 7 in. X 6 in. ; subang^ilar ; crossed scratches on flat face ; ande-
site ; L.D.
(68) 1 ft. X 1 ft. X 8 in. ; ellipsoidal ; scratched longitudinally ; quartzose rock,
(69) 8 in. X 10 in. x 8 in. ; rounded with one flat face ; a little scratched near
ends ; variety of granophyre, Buttermere.
(70) 1 ft. X 10 in. X 7 in. ; rounded with flattened faces ; scratched on faces ;
quartzose rock.
(71) 1 ft. 3 in. X 9 in. x 6 in. ; snbangular ; well scratched longitudinally and
some cross scratches ; quartzose rock.
(72) 1 ft. 2 in. X 10 in. x 9 in. ; rounded ; granite, Eskdale.
(73) 10 in. X 8 in. X .5 in. ; snbangular ; scratched on flat side; quartzose rock.
(74) 10 in. X 8 in. X 5 in. ; subangular ; much striated ; quartzose rock.
(75) 6 in. X 5 in. x 4 in. ; angular ; rhyolitic ash ; L.D.
(76) 1 ft. 6 in. X ] ft. 1 in. x 9 in. ; longitiidinall}- .scratched ; red-brown grit-
stone.
(77) 6 in. diameter ; rhyolite ; L.D.
(78) 8 in. X 6 in. x 5 in. ; purple gritstone.
(79) 1 ft. X 9 in. X 9 in. ; subangular ; .scratched ; andesite with epidote ; L.D.
(80) 9 in. X 6 in. x 4 in. ; subangular ; quartz porpliyry.
(81) 6 in. X 8 in. ; quartz porphyry.
With these are many limestones and andesites 3 in.-6 in. in diameter.
Many of them are scratched.
Heywood. — In hedge on west side of road —
(82) 1 ft. 5 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. x 10 in. ; subangular; flattened ; granophyre, Butter-
mere.
(83) 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. x 1 ft. ; subangular ; granite.
(83a) 1 ft. X 10 in. x 10 in. ; subangular ; andesite ; L.D.
Near Heber's toll-gate —
(84) 1 ft. 6 in. diameter ; andesite ; L.D.
Bochdale. — King Street South, Grove Street —
(97) 9 in. diameter ; granite. Cf. Dahy, New Galloway. O.D. 470 feet; out of
gravel about 6 feet below surface.
(38) — X 5 in. X 4 in. ; granite, Galloway.
Between Bam Edge and Knot Booth, 2^ miles south-east of centre of
Rochdale, above side of road —
(99) 4 ft. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. 9 in. : subangular ; sandstone or grit.
Near Haugh Hey, in field above Wood Mill—
|(100) 2 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. ; very much rounded with hummocky ends ;
andesitic agglomerate ; L.D.
(101) 1 ft. 2 in. X 11 in. x 10 in. ; subangular ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(102) 2 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft. 3 in. ; subangular with flattened sides :
scratched longitudinally ; quartz felsite with epidote.
Group.
Sparth' Bottoms, Norman Eoad, half a mile S.W. of Town Hall,
Rochdale. The section (which is for brick clay) shows above 16 ft. of
strong purple boulder clay surmounted by 9 ft. of drift sand and gravel.
The gravel is at the top, and is about 4 ft. thick. The bottom of the
cutting is at about 400 feet O.D.
(105) 8 in. X 6 in. x 4 in. ; subangular ; granite, Gallowaj'.
(106) 8 in. X (5 in. x 6 in. ; subangular ; andesite ; L.D.
(107) 9 in. X 8 in. x 4 in. ; flattened ; scratched longitudinally ; grit.
282 EEPOKT— 1891.
(108) 2 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft.; subangular ; scratched longitudinally;
Clitheroe grey limestone. [? Locality. — -P. F. K.]
(109) 6 in. X 4 in. X — ; rounded ; granite, Galloway.
(110) 7 in. X 5 in. x 4 in. ; rounded ; granite ? Cairnsmore of Fleet.
(111) 2 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. ; rectangular ; scratched longitudinally, and
on one side diagonally ; sandstone grit.
There are many like this about 3 ft. x 2 ft., and many andesitic and
breccias or agglomerates about 3 in.-4 in. diameter.
(lllA) 2 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. ; < cank.'
(112) 6 in. X 4 in. (broken) ; granite with red felspar ; Gallowaj\
(1 13) 7 in. X C in. x 5 in. ; scratched longitudinally and at rounded corners ;
limestone.
(114) 5 ft. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. 9 in. ; long and angular; well scratched and grooved
longitudinally; 'cank.'
(115) 1 ft. 2 in. diam. ; nearly splierical ; subangular ; sandstone grit.
(IIG) 3 in. X 2 in. X — ; granite ? var. of Eskdale.
(117) 3 in. X 2 in. X — ; granite, Eskdale.
(118) 1 ft. 7 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. x 7 in. ; subangular to round; much scratched
longitudinally and diagonally ; flag-rock.
(119) 4i in. X 3 in. X 3 in. ; oval ; purple quartzite.
(120) 10 in. x 7 in. x 6 in. ; rounded ; rectangular ; granite ? var. of Eskdale.
(121) 7 in. X 5 in. X — ; subangular ; granite, Galloway,
(122) 7 in. X 7 in. x 4 in. ; andesite ; L.D.
(123) 7 in. X 6 in. x 4 in. ; subangular ; ? var. of granophyre, Buttermere.
(124) 4 in. X 3 in. X — ; subangular ; rhyolite ; L.D.
(125) 3^ in. X 2i in. x 2^ in. ; subangular ; granite ? Cairnsmore of Fleet.
(126) 5 in. X 4 in x — ; rounded ; grey granite ? var. of Creetown.
(127) 1| diam. ; subangular ; scratched ; haematite. [There were several of
these.]
(127a) 4 in. X 2 in. ; triangular ; hornblende-andesite ; L.D.
(127b) ; well scratched; red variety of Carboniferous limestone. [This
much resembles the rocks exposed in the bed of the Ribble, near
Mytton Bridge.— P. F. K.]
Greenbooth, Naden Vallej^, two miles N.W. of the centre of Roch-
dale —
(128) 2 ft. X 1 ft. G in. X 1 ft. 6 in. ; subangular; granophyre, Buttermere.
(129) 2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. ; subangular ; broken ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(130) 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. X 1 ft. ; subangular ; quartz porphyr}'.
(131) 2 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. ; rectangular with rounded corners ; under
side flattened and scratched longitudinally ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(132) 3 in. X 2 in. X — ; rectangular ; quartzite.
(133) About 1 in. cube ; hsematite.
(134) 1 ft. 4 in. X 9 in. x 8 in. ; subangular ; granite, Eskdale.
(135) 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 f t. x 8 in. ; subangular ; smoothed ; ? syenite, Needle's Eye,
Colvend [see No. 10].
(136) 1 ft. 6 in. X 8 in. x 4 in ; flat ; angles very little rounded ; quartz felsite
with epidote.
(137) 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 1 in. X 7 in. ; subangular ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(138) 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. x 10 in. ; rectangular ; bedded ash ; ? Borrowdale ; L.D.
(139) 1 ft. 2 in. x 9 in. x 7 in. ; subangular ; hornblende-andesite : L.D.
(140) 1 ft. 3 in. X 9 in. x 10 in. ; irregular ; rhyolite ; L.D.
Groiip.
Heywood "Waterworks Reservoir, 675 ft. O.D., near by-wash of
lowest reservoir near Meter House ; many andesites and syenites, about
2 ft. diameter and upwards.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 283
Heywood Waterworks Reservoir, in bottom of lowest reservoir near
iron-pipe outlet —
(141) 2 ft-. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. ; subangular ; scratched at sides ; granophyre, Butter-
mere.
(142) 5 in. X 3 in. X — ; oval ; quartz vein-stuff ; L.D.
(143) 2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. ; subangular ; sides smoothed ; granophyre,
Buttermere.
(144) 2 ft. X 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; irregular ; subangular ; smoothed and
weathered ; ? syenite, Needle's Eye, Colvend [see No. 10].
(145) 3 ft. X 2 ft. X — ; smoothed ; weathered ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(146) 1 ft. X 9 in. X 6 in. ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(147) 1 ft. 6 in X 1 ft. 6 in. x — ; volcanic ash ; L.D.
(148) 2 ft. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; rounded ; granophyre, Buttermere.
At foot of by-wash to middle reservoir.
(149) G in. X 6 in. x 1^ in. ; flattened ; quartzose grit.
(150) 2 ft. 3 in. x 2 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. ; subangular ; rounded ends ; scratched
longitudinally ; ? syenite, Needle's Eye, Colvend [see No. 10].
(151) 1 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft, 10 in. x 1 f t. ; angular to subangular ; flattened and
rounded ; ? syenite, with marked crystals of epidote [see No. 10].
(152) 2 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. ; subangular ; smoothed ; ? syenite, with
marked crystals of epidote [see No. 10].
(153) 3 ft. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. ; irregular ; subangular ; smoothed and weathered ;
? syenite, with marked crystals of epidote [see No. 10].
Near Moorside, west side Spring Mill Reservoir, Rochdale Water-
works, about 850 O.D. —
(158) 4 ft. X 1 ft. 9 in. X 1 ft. 9 in.
(159) 1ft. 6 in. X 10 in. X 5 in.; subangular; quartzose grit, with slaty frag-
ments. [Cf. ' Haggis Rock, Queensberry grits. — P. F. K.]
(160) 2 ft. X 1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft.; subangular, with rounded corners; ? var. of
granophyre, Buttermere.
Near Hill Top Farm, Castleton, Ih mile S. of centre of Rochdale,
500-550 ft. O.D.—
(169) 2 ft. X 1 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. ; irregular ; subangular ; flattened on one side ;
volcanic ash, L.D.
(170) 11 in. X 10 in. X 7 in.: angular, with flattened sides and ends ; corners
rounded ; weathered ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(171) 1 ft. 1 in. X 10 in. x 8 in. ; tetrahedral; three sides polished and grooved;
granite, Galloway,
(172) 2 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 10 in. x 10 in. ; siibangular ; weathered ; millstone grit.
(173) 8 in. X 7 in. x 6 in. ; subangular, with rounded ends and flattened sides ;
andesitic breccia, L.D.
(174) 8 in. X 5| in. x 3^ in. ; subangular ; weathered ; volcanic ash ; L.D.
(174a) 10 in. x 7 in. x 5 in. ; volcanic ash ; L.D.
(175) 9 in. X 8 in. x 5 in. ; rounded, weathered ; granophyre. Buttermere.
(176) 5 in. X J in. X 4 in. ; rounded, and very much weathered ; granite, Esk-
dale.
(177) 11 in. X 8 in. x 4 in.; irregular; flattened side; scratched diagonally;
' cank.' (There are many grits and canks not enumerated.)
(178) 5 in. X 3^ in. x 2 in. ; oval ; rhyolitic ash ; L.D.
(179) 1 ft. 3 in. x 10 in. x G in. ; flattened, with rounded corners ; grooved a
little on flattened sides ; andesite ; L.D.
(180) 2 ft. 3 in. ( + )x2 ft. x 1 ft. G in.; subangular; a little grooved at
rounded corner ; Gannister, fine siliceous rock.
(181) 2 ft. x 1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 3 in.; subangular, with rounded corners ; red-
brown grit, like those ending N.W. of Rochdale.
(182) 1 ft. 4 in. X 10 in. X 3 in. ( + ) ; fiat side up.
(183) 1 ft. 3 in. X 11 in. X 4 in.; oval; two sides, flattened and scratched
longitudinally ; andesitic breccia ; L.D.
28-i KEPORT— 1891.
(18-t) 1 ft. 2 in. X 9 in. x C in. ; subangular ; quartz fel.site witli epidote.
(185) — subangular; hornblende andesite.
(18<)) 6 in. X 5;^ in. x 4 in. ; rounded ; porphyritic andesite ; L.D.
(187) 5 in. X 4 in. x o in. ; rectangular ; red devitrified rhyolite ; L.D.
(188) 9 in. X 7 in. x .5 in. ; subangular; porphyritic andesite ; L.D.
(189) 8 in. X 5 in. x 4 in. ; subangular ; ? Silurian grit.
(190) 8 in. X 5 in. x 5 in. ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
(191) 65 in. X 4 in. X 3 in.; subangular; andesite, containing garnets (? Kes-
wick).
(192) 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. x 8 in. ; subangular; irreguL"ir ; granophyre, Buttermere.
Facit Cemetery, in front of mortuary cliapels —
(193) 7 ft. X 4 ft. X 2 ft. 9 in. : oblong ; angular with rounded corners ; scratched
diagonally to length ; granophyre, Buttermere.
North end of mortuary chapels —
(194) 6 ft. X 3 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. ; rounded ; flattened ; one side hummocky ;
granophyre, Buttermere.
(195) 9 in. X () in. x 5 in. ; ? syenite ; Needle's Eye, Colvend [see No. 10].
Groxip.
Road from Hill Top by Grange Barn, Cowni Top, &c., to Hardy
Bridge, abont If miles south of centre of Rochdale. 550-600 ft. O.D.
(196) 9 in. X 6 in. X — ; rounded ; grit.
(197) 6 in. X 3 in. x 2 in. ; flat ; granite, Galloway.
(198) 6 in. diam. ; granite, Eskdale.
(199) 9 in. X 6 in. x 4 in. ; irregular : rhyolitic ash ; L.D.
(200) 6 in. X 4 in. X — ; oval ; granite, Galloway.
(201) 4 in. X 3 in. x 2 in. ; subangular ; red rhyolite ; L.D.
(202) — quartzite.
(203) 1 ft. 9 in. x 1 ft. G in. x 1 ft. ; quartz porphyry or porphyritic rhyolite.
(204) 8 in, X 6 in. x 4 in. ; rounded ; rhyolitic ash with well-marked crystals of
hornblende.
(205) 6 ft. in. x 4 ft. 6 in. x 4 ft. G in. ; subangular ; two sides smoothed,
flat and striated, one especially so, with long grooves lengthwise.
Also on rounded edge near the same. Above this on the top (as lying
at present), the striations are at an angle of about G0° divergence
from the last, and here it is rounded and polished. Flag rock. This
is a very well-marked local glacial boulder, and from authentic infor-
mation I learn that it was discovered about 1870 in driftsand about
4 ft. beneath the surface, 400 ft. O.D., and 25 yds. south of the river
Eoch.
lieported by Mr. P. F. Kendall, F.G.S.
First field north of Peel Moat, Heaton Chapel, near Stockport —
3 ft. 2 in. X 2 ft. 7 in. x 2 ft. G in. ; subangular ; moved grey Coal-measure
sandstone, weathering in a bright buff ; source not determinable ; the
at present upper surface is striated longitudinally, i.e., in direction of
long axis ; adjacent hills are covered with glicial sand, but this stone
was found in the underlying clay ; boulder clay.
GroujJ.
The specimens were from a heap in the brickyard. They had been
obtained from very fine sticky clay containing very few stones and
occasional shells in fair preservation. The clay exhibits very compli-
cated folds and contortions. It is overlain by sands, and rests upon red
ON THE EBKATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 285
sandstone rock. This group is very notewortby, as it contains so many
varieties of basic rocks (dolerites, &c.) of a type either absent or very
rare in other localities.
Heaton Merseij, near Stockport, Bailey's brickyard —
Largest about 1 cub. ft., smallest about .3 cub. in. ; some in each con-
dition ; all moved ; several are well scratched longitudinally, especially
the limestones ; Dalbeattie, Criffel, Eskdalc (Cumberland), Butter-
mere ; ? Cairnsmore of Fleet (Galloway).
Specimens
Eskdale granite .......... 3
Buttermere granophyre ........ 2
Yewdale breccia ......... 2
Bright pink micaceous porphp-y 1
Crififel granite 1
Dark green rock with augite ....... 1
Fine hornblende syenite 1
Granite 1 Cairnsmore of Fleet 1
Yellowish quartz porphj-ry ....... 1
Ehyolite ..." 2
Andesite ........... 5
Dalbeattie granite 1
Dalbeattie oranite ? 1
Dolerite (fresh) 3
Dolerite (coarse) 1
Dolerite 1
Peridotite (much decomposed) ? 1
Andesitic ash 3
Millstone grit 3
Coal-measure sandstone 4
Coal-measure sandstone (red) ....... 1
Gaunister ........... 1
Carboniferous limestone ........ 3
Silurian grit 3
New Ked sandstone 3
47
Manchester. — Stretford Road, opposite No. 530 —
4 ft. X 4 ft. X 3 f t. ; scratched on all \isible faces, mostly parallel to long
axis ; scratches on one flat surface are parallel to but in opposite
direction to those on the other ; Coal-measure sandstone ; in boulder
clay, about 30 ft. from the surface ; boulder clay.
Stretford Road, junction with Chester Road. About three tons of
broken-up Coal-measure sandstone — relics of a great boulder found in
a sewer-heading. It was finely striated, but no direction could be assigned.
Barton-upon-Inuell. — Manchester Ship Canal, 200 yards west of
Barton Hospital —
3 ft. 10 in. X 3 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. ; subangular; well scratched on visible
face ; grey Coal-measure sandstone. 2 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. ;
rounded, triangular in section ; longitudinally scratched ; granite,
Eskdale.
50 yards from east end of Sticking's Island —
3 ft. C in. X 3 ft. X 2 ft. G in. ; river- worn ; andesite ; L.D.
2 ft. 9 in. X 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. ; river-worn ; andesitic ash ; L.D.
Irlam, in Railway Goods- Yard —
2 ft. 3 in. X 2 ft. 3 in. x 1 ft. : subangular; Coal-mcasurc sandstone.
286 REPOET — 1891.
Reported hy ]\Ir. J. W. Gray, F.O.S.
Group.
Levensliulme. — New railway cutting about 200 yards east of Slade
Lane. A large boulder of Coal-measure sandstone is to be seen having
a group of smaller stones packed in front of it, the whole resting on the
soft purple shales associated with the Ardwick limestone. The large
stone was separated from the underlying Coal-measures by a thin layer
of brownish boulder clay, and (immediately in contact with the boulder)
a film about 3 in. thick of worked-up shale, which was also massed in
front (i.e., to eastward) of it, and formed the nidus of the smallest
stones before mentioned. In this case the evidence was held to be con-
clusive as showing the direction of movement. The packed shale and
fragments of stone were on the easterly side of the large boulder, and the
largest subangular fragment, 2 ft. x 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 2 in., consisted of
Ardwick limestone of a kind which cropped out 50 yards to the west-
ward. The dimensions of the sandstone boulder are 5 ft. x 4 ft. 3 in.
X 2 ft. 4 in. Long axis about N. 50° W. magnetic. It is scratched upon
all visible faces. The principal scratches upon the upper surface are
from N". 50° "W., i.e., in the direction of the long axis. They clearly
originate at the north-westerly end, and finish at the south-easterly end.
[A boulder of igneous rock, resembling rocks from the Lake District,
weighing 2^ tons, found in Coronation Street, Reddish, has been described
by Mr. Gray in the ' Annual Report of the Stockport Society of Natu-
ralists,* 1889. It has been removed for preservation to the Vernon
Park.]
Reported hy Mr. Thomas Axon.
In river Tame on Lancashire side, about 100 yds. below Arden Paper
Mills, near Woodley, Cheshire —
8 ft. 3 in. X 7 ft. 8 in. x G ft. 6 in. ; siibangular ; has fallen out of some
glacial deposit ; no distinct striations ; volcanic rock, probably rhyo-
litic, and from the Borrowdale series of the Lake District ; about 10
yds. to northwards of boundary between Lancashire and Cheshire ;
isolated from any glacial deposit ; river silt.
HaugJdon Green, about 200 yds. below the river Tame from Arden
Paper Mills,, near Woodley, Cheshire —
6 ft. 6 in. X 7 ft. 3 in. x 4 ft. 2 in. (visible). A great mass lies beside the
stone which has been broken from it. This would make the length 9 ft.
6 in. instead of 6 ft. G in. ; rounded ; has fallen out of the river-bank ;
well scratched on the side which is now uppermost in direction of long
axis ; a rather coarse andesite, from Borrowdale series, L.D. ; 5 yds.
on Cheshire side of Lancashire and Cheshire boundary ; isolated ; on
bed of river Tame.
5 ft. X 2 ft. 9 in. X 2 ft. 3 in. ; none of these is full measurement, as the
stone is partly under water ; rounded ; fallen out of river bank ;
probably andesite, Borrowdale series, L.D. ; 5 yds. on Cheshire side
of Lancashire and Cheshire boundary ; isolated ; bed of river Tame.
In the bank of the river Tame, under Arden Paper Mills, near
Woodley, Cheshire —
4 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. G in. (visible) ; rounded ; has been moved ;
isolated ; river silt.
ON THE EUnATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 287
Near Woodley, Cheshire, Mill Lane, Bredbury, at corner of lane lead-
ing down to the bridge and quarry —
2 ft. 5 in. X 2 ft. 2 in. x 8 in. (visible) ; rounded ; moved ; granite, Esk-
dale, Cumberland ; isolated ; doubtful, but probably boulder clay.
In river Tame on Lancashire side, 160 yds. below Arden Paper Mills,
near Woodley, Cheshire —
3 ft. >: 2 ft. 4 in. X 8 in. ; rounded ; gi-anite, Eskdale, Cumberland.
Haughton Green, 20 yds. on Lancashire side of Gibraltar Bridge —
2 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 10 in. x 9 in. ; rounded ; flat : andesite ; L.D.
Burrow's farmyard, opposite Conservative Club, Haughton Green
Road —
2 ft. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. x 1 f t. 3 in. ; angular ; Ardwick limestone. Both
came out of the main sewer excavation.
Farmhouse, opposite Prospect Place, Haughton Green Road —
2 ft. 2 in. (visible) x 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. (visible) ; well rounded ; scratched
longitudinally ; andesite ; L.D.
Vaudry Lane, corner of Twotree Lane —
2 ft. 8 in. X 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 9 in. ; rounded ; black-mica granite, Gallo-
way.
Group.
Tib Street, corner of Stockport Road —
(1) 2 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
(2) 2 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. (visible) ; rounded ; granite, Eskdale.'
(3) 2 ft. 3 in. X 2 ft. x 10 in. (visible) ; subangular ; granophyre, Buttermere.
(4) 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. X 2 ft. (visible) ; subangular ; andesitic breccia.
(5) 1 ft. 10 in. X I ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. (visible) ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D,
Comer of Clayton Street —
2 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. (visible) ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
Corner of Town Lane —
2 ft. X 1 ft. X 11 in. ; subangular ; andesite or rhyolite ; L.D.
Corner of Acre Street and Town Lane —
2 ft. 3 in. X 2 ft. X 11 in. ; subangular ; granophyre, Buttermere.
2 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
Hyde Hall—
2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; andesite ; L D.
2 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 1 in. ; rhyolite ; L.D.
100 yards west of Hyde Hall —
1 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; subangular, cuboidal ; 'granophyre,
Buttermere.
288 EEPOBT— 1891.
Cheshike.
Hazel Grove, beside gate leading to Mill Hill, Norbury —
1 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. 7 in. x 2 f t. 1 in. (visible) ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
Beported by Mr. Thomas Kay, J.P.
Tabley House, near Knutsforcl. — At south-west side in Ryde Wood, east
of Tabley Pool—
5 ft. X 4 ft. C in. X 2 ft. ; .scratched on side which is now towards east ;
grey granite [Galloway .'—P. F. K.]. This stone is set on end.
3 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. X 2 ft. 6 in. ; rounded ; red granite.
3 ft. 6 in. diam. ; triangular ; rounded.
These boulders, with a few smaller ones, were probably dug up when
the lake was enlarged.
Reported hy W. R. Dambrill-Davies, Surgeon-Major.
Wilmslow. — Lindow Common, in the centre of Common —
4 ft. X 3 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. (visible) ; angular ; andesite ; L.D. ; the stone
protrudes through peat which is underlain by glacial sand.
Near the old workhouse —
4 ft. 4 in. X 2 ft. X — ; almond-shaped ; andesite ; L.D. ; removed from
the Common.
Mr. Henshall's field —
3 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. X — ; andesite ; L.D. ; removed from the Common.
Near W. Worth's pig-cote—
3 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. in. X 2 ft. 3 in. ; rounded : granite, Eskdale ; removed
from the Common.
Potts's turf -field—
2 ft, 3 in. diam. ; almost perfectly sjoherical ; granite ; has been moved.
Macclesfield. — Birtles-of-the-Hill on H. Rostock's farm —
Nearly 4 ft. in diam. ; somewhat triangular ; granite ; has been moved.
Beported hy Mr. W. Bkockbakk, F.L.S., F.G.S.
NortJien Etchells. — Heyhead Farm, Woodhouse Lane —
12 ft. X 6 ft. 6 in. x 6 ft. (visible) ; very sharp and angular ; bean-shaped ;
S. 80° E. geographical ; andesitic rock from L.D. ; 22G ft. O.D. ; Dr.
Ashworth, of Heaton Moor, Stockport, has photographed it ; the
boulder protruded through the turf for many years. It rests on
reddish buttery boulder clay, containing L.D., Scottish, and other rocks
and flint.
The stone has now been removed to the grounds of Sir Edward Watkin
at Northenden.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 289
liepurted hij Mr. P. F. Kendall, F.G.S.
Heyhead Farm, Woodhouse Lane — ■
Two boulders of similar composition to the above, but weighing only
about 2 cwt. each.
Woodhouse Lane, 50 yards east of above —
3 ft. X 2 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft-. 6 in. ; well rounded and weathered ; moved ;
andesitic ash ; L.D. ; 226 ft.
1 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. ; well rounded and weathered ; moved ;
andesitic ash ; L.D.
Woodhouse Lane, half a mile south from Heyhead Farm —
1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 10 in. ; rounded ; Eskdale granite, Cumberland.
1 ft. in. X 1 ft. 2 in. x 10 in. ; rounded ; grey granite, Galloway.
1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. X 9 in. ; rounded ; rhyolite with much iron pyrites ; L.D.
1 ft. G in. X 11 in. x 8 in. ; subangular ; vesicular andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. G in. X 1 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. ; rounded ; ? felsite ; L.D.
1 ft. X 9 in. X 6 in. ; rounded ; andesitic ash ; L.D.
1 ft. X 10 in. X 10 in. ; rounded ; dolerite.
1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. X 1 ft. ; rounded and much weathered ; grey granite with
much black mica ; Galloway.
2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. ; rounded ; Buttermere granophjrre.
1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. X 10 in. ; subangular ; grey granite, Galloway.
1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. X 10 in. ; subangular ; cherty felsite ; L.D.
2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
2 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. ; subangular ; striated ; andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. 9 in. X 1 ft. 8 in. x 1 ft. 2 in. ; rounded; andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. X 1 ft. x 9 in. ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
These have all been moved ; they are lying by the roadside.
Sfyal. — ]3eside footpath, 300 yards west by north of ' Ship ' Inn —
2 ft. 10 in. X 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. ; rounded ; probably moved ; Eskdale
granite ; rests on boulder clay.
Group.
Macclesfield. — ' Setter Dog ' Inn, 3 miles on Buxton Road. Largest,
2 ft. X 1 ft. X ? ; smallest, 6 in. X 6 in. x 6 in. ; all rounded.
Analysis.
Nature Source No. of Specimens
Granophyre .... Buttermere 6
Granite Dalbeattie ? 1
Andesite .... L.D 4
Agglomerate .... ,, 1
Rhyolite with much biotite . .. (?) 1
Quartz porphyry ... » (?) 1
Brick-red porphyry . . Dee above Tongland (?) . .1
Granite Crififel 2
Quartzite .... — 1 •
18
The boulders have all been moved. Altitude about 1,400 feet above
O.D.
100 yards east of * Setter Dog ' Inn — ■
3 ft. X 1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; subangular ; andesite from L.D. ; 1,400 ft. ;
has been moved.
1891. g
290 EEPOET — 1891.
CJieadle Village. — Just behind the church —
2 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. X 9 in. ; roundecl ; striated obliquely across the
visible face ; andesitic ash ; L.D. ; 130 ft. ; has been moved.
Woodley. — Back Lane — ■
2 ft. X 2 ft. X 1 ft. 1 in. ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D. ; has been moved.
2 ft. X 1 ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. ; rounded ; Yewdale breccia, Cumberland ;
has been moved.
Group.
Behind Buckley's lower mill —
Largest, 2 ft. x 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. ; small, G in. cube ; gannister ? ; granite,
Eskdale ; hornblendic granite, Galloway ; granophyre, Buttermere ;
Coal-measure sandstone ? ; rhyolite, L.D. ; Carboniferous limestone ?
The boulders were embedded in soft buttery boulder clay resting on
the shales of the middle Coal-measures. The Coal-measure sandstone.
Beported hij Mr. P. F. Kendall, F.G.S.
Group.
Hyde. — Clay-pit on bank of canal, near Apethorne Mill — ■
1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. 1 in x 10 in. ; cuboidal ; scratched ; andesite; L.D.
2 ft. 7 in. X 1 ft. 5 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. ; triangular in section ; well striated on
two faces ; andesitic agglomerate ; L.D.
2 ft. X 1 ft. 6 in. X 1 ft. 1 in. ; obscurely scratched ; andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. 5 in. X 1 fc. 3 in. x 1 ft. ; cuboidal ; well scratched, the scratches
upon upper surface parallel to but originating at the opposite end to
those on the lower surface ; andesite; L.D.
2 ft. G in. X 2 ft. 4 in. x 1 f t. 3 in. ; subangular ; scratched ; Coal-measure
sandstone.
1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 3 in. ; well rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
2 ft. G in. X 2 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 11 in; cuboidal and slightly rounded;
andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. 3 in. X 1 ft. x 1 ft. ; angular ; Ardwick limestone. South-east Lanca-
shire.
10 in. X 8 in. x 8 in. ; rounded ; Carboniferous limestone.
1 ft. 6 in. X 1 1 in. X 8 in. ; well rounded ; granite, Eskdale.
1 ft. X 10 in. X 8 in. ; Ardwick limestone, brecciated variety. South-east
Lancashire.
I ft. 4 in. X 1. ft. 2 in. X 9 in. ; very well scratched in many directions ;
andesite ; L.D.
2, ft. 2 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. x 8 in. (visible) ; rounded ; andesite ; L.D.
1 ft. 2 in. X 10 in. x 9 in. ; not much rounded ;. scratched ; granite.
9.in. X 8 in. x 8 in. ; very coarse granite, Eskdale.
1 ft. X 10 in. X 9 in. ; well rounded ; granophyre, Buttermere.
1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; rounded ; red black-mica granite,
Galloway.
3 ft. X 2 ft. 10 in. X 2 ft. (visible) ; well scratched longitudinally ; Carbo-
niferous limestone.
1 ft. 8 in. X 1 ft. 4 in. X 1 ft. 2 in. ; rounded ; sc 
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