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REPORT
OF THE
SIXTY-THIRD MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
HELD AT
NOTTINGHAM IN SEPTEMBER 1893.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1894.
Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.
Mies ASM A hei VE
CONTENTS.
Pag
OxsEors and Rules of the Association ..............cscsceeseeeceecscseseeeeeneees a
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement .............4+ XXXV
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
LD ETTGIIN A pergnanesédt eocecoonpadcou Saba cengdegcd oo CaPAOD ABDC SOAS SAE caocapSraeenubecr xlv
MIME ONIN LCCLUTOS s.5.0 wa iveces leodnecied Ne tasiedere sacs dcaseecesdotcceeees sera ]xiii
Merminessto the Operative Olagses . ...cse.cceeow--censee'eccnenesecrosesecaccescuecseue Ixvi
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Nottingham Meeting ...... lxvii
Bee eMON WOUNGHS LBQ—O4 wet oh ce se cick race deta Saiatweec scetuseseceestectadecamend lxix
RITE RO NCE OMIM recon cee snot assets caine sewe sae arses cdeninesaieveseisla ch feaeacucspre lxx
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... xxii
Report of the Council to the General Committee ..............:cccceeeeeseeeeeeee lxxiy
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Nottingham Meet-
Pepeamentember WG Orc. jeaxs.h <deraaatitscws celal (etticicdet oan delend ses a co'eteueeudena Ixxviii
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Committee ................00.:008 Ixxxvil
Resolutions, &c., referred to the Council for consideration, and action if
LELILETU ey Saasce Saeerges desea scea degdon er acd ae DosCC aa ees O ACC RC aRCOCE BASH AT nea Ixxxvii
MIC TOIG: OD NIODDY. «15. Felina don ty caslehn cess -ades nawcia evs sheachsansonene sis Ixxxviil
fincas of Meeting in 1894 and 1895. ...........5....scscossacnsnsncovcesesscceveeess lyxxix
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants
RTI GL Cr ETD OSOR Fea gs ane aap deren sesniom sone eadis daa eases sass ccsens «5ecsees ae xe
iil GTT DUS nF chases Weobrisdgeogees #baasanee dshondonScer bedodernacecneaesnachic-OcUaere civ
Address by the President, Dr. J. S. Burpon Sanpprson, M.A., M.D.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology in the
Rear TO YE CM CINE agra ee cerba dn enisaiore ceeds santesasdy-Uaaebeds wb neneve> see 3
iv CONTENTS.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark + indicates the same,
but a reference is given to the journal or newspaper where it is published in extenso. |
Page
Corresponding Societies.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor R.
Mexpora (Chairman), Mr. T, V. Hotes (Secretary), Mr. FRANCIS GALTON,
Sir Dovetas Garron, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Sir Jounw Evans, Mr. J. Hopxrnson, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
W. Warraxsr, Mr. W. Toptey, Professor EK. B, Poutron, Mr. CurHBErt
PnpKeand rey,(Canon He B. TRISTRAM .......:..c0ssecscesesctesceRereeseemetereees
Tables connected with the Pellian Equation from the point where the work
was left by.Degen in 1817.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor A. CaytEy, Dr. A. R. Forsyru, Professor A. Lopes, and Professor
J. J. Sytvester. (Drawn up by Professor CAYLEY) ........cseecsecsseeeeseves
On the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor OLIvER J. Lopex (Chairman), Mr. R. T.
GLazEBROOK (Secretary), Lord Kervin, Lord Rayieren, Sir H. E. Roscon,
Professors J. J. Taomson, A. W. Ricrer, R. B. Crirton, G. F. FirzGerarp,
30
73
G. Canny Foster, J. Virtamu Jones, A. Scoustpr, and W. b. Ayrton 120
The Best Means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations.—In-
terim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. GRyLLs ADAMS
(Chairman and Secretary), Lord Krtyin, Professors G. H. Darwin and
G. Curystat, Mr. C. H. Carpmaznt, Professor A. ScuustER, Mr. G. M.
Wuirerte, Captain Creax, The Astronomer Royat, Mr. Witt1Am ELLs,
Andee rotessor A. Wi. RUCKER. 2....0-csccccciescecseaccebacees cases cone tetetetaeeeeeene 120
On Electro-opties.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joan Kerr
(Chairman), Mr. R. T. GuazeBroox (Secretary), Lord Kutyry, and Professor
Aho Vie LUCK eee ER Re cc amdecincnatcsce 1
Magnetic Work at the Falmouth Observatory—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. Howarp Fox, Professor A. W. Ricker, and Professor W.
SMP AMIAWE a norco nnes ones sne seep sensivecsconssesesvebauseRonetah;spteese-sunaeee tae
Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for Elec-
trical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
Cargy Foster (Chairman), Lord Ketvry, Professors AYRTON, J. PERRY,
W.G. Apams, and Lord Rayizeten, Drs. O. J. Lopen, Joun Hopxryson,
and A. Murraean, Messrs. W. H. Preece and Herpert Taytor, Professor
J. D. Everert, Professor A. Scuusrer, Dr. J. A. Fremrne, Professors
G. F. FrrzGerarp, G. Curysrat, and J. J. Taomson, Messrs. R. T. GiazE-
BROOK (Secretary), W. N. SHaw, and T. C. Frrzparricx, Dr. J. T. Borrom-
LEY, Professor J. Virtamu JonEs, Dr. G. Jonnsronr Stoney, Professor
S. P. Toompson, and Mr. G. Forsis...............0+0
CO eee eee er
AppENDIX I.—Supplementary Report of the Electrical Standards
Committee of the Board of Trade
eee eee eee eee eee eee
CONTENTS. v
Page
Apprnpix II,—Experiments on the Effects of the Heating produced
in the Coils by the Currents used in Testing. By R.T.GLazzproox 136
Apprnprx III.—On Standards of Low Electrical Resistance. By
Professor J. VIRIAMU JONES ....ccccecsecsececsecee teetseescnceeseecsceeees 137
The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteorological Pheno-
mena.—Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons
(Chairman), Professor R. Menpora, Mr. J. Hopxiyson, and Mr. A. W.
CraypEN (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary) .........::.sseeereeeneeens 140
The best methods of recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation.—Ninth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir G. G. SroKEs (Chairman),
Professor A. Scuusrer, Mr. G. Jounstonse Sronny, Sir H. E. Roscoz,
Captain W. pe W. Asney, Professor H. McLxop, and Mr. G. J. SYMONS.
(Drawn up by Professor MCLEOD) ......... ssseserseeeeeeeeettntenercneeeseeeeeeenes 144
The Present State of our Knowledge of Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.—
Report by W. N. Suaw and T. ©, FITZPATRICK ....seessssseseseeeerseeeereeeens 146
Table of Electro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled
by T. C. FITZPATRICK ..ccceeeeeeeeseeeeeeseeeesereceeeeeaneneneeeteeereeteeees 146
Investigation of the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan.—Thir-
teenth Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rt. Hon. Lord Kervin,
Professor W. G. Apams, Mr. J. T. Borromiry, Professor A. H. GREEN,
Professor C. G. Knorr, and Professor Jon Mine (Secretary). (Drawn
up by the Secretary) ........0.csseeees Fe REARS EE ROE AGAR ORE HORROR cc cCu OR an SocerBOni: 214
Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor H. McLrop (Chairman), Professor W. C. Roperts-AUSTEN
(Secretary), Mr. H. G. Manan, and Dr. D. H. NAGEL «0.0.00... seeeeseeseeeeees 227
Bessel’s Functions.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord RaYLEricH
(Chairman), Lord Krtvin, Professor Cayiey, Professor B. Price, Mr. J.
W. L. Graisuer, Professor A.G.GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, and
Professor A. Lopez (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of calculating
Tables of certain Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, of taking steps
to carry out the Calculations, and to publish the results in an accessible form 227
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaren (Chairman), Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary),
Dr. Joun Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER Bucuan, Hon. RALPH ABERCROMBY,
and Professor R. CopEetanp. (Drawn up by Dr. BUCHAN) .........-....+00 280
Earth Tremors.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J. Symons,
Mr. C. Davison (Secretary), Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor J. A. Ewine, Dr. Isaac Roperts, Mr. THomas Gray, Sir JoHN
Evans, Professors J. Prestwicu, E. Hurt, G. A. Lesour, R. Metpoza,
and J. W. Jupp, Mr. M. Watton Brown, Mr. J. GiaisHer, Professor C.
G. Knorr, Professor J. H. Porntrne, and Mr. Horace Darwin. (Drawn
up by the Secretary) ........cs.sccescccnesseceseeercensecsenonszecs Pee icobsscisten eases 287
AppEnprx.—Account of Observations made with the Horizontal Pen-
dulum. By Dr. E. von REBEUR-PASCHWIUZ ...........0eeseeeeeeeeeeeeees 309
The Action of Magnetism on Light ; with a critical correlation of the various
theories of Light-propagation. By JosrpH Larmor, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge ..........sscesseeseeeeeeee esse eeeeeceeees 335
I. Magnetic Action on Light ............scceeseeecseeeeeereeeeeeaeesaneecnn ens 335
II. Correlation of General Optical Theories .........+sseseeseseeesseereeeeneres 360
vi » CONTENTS.
Page
The Bibliography. of Solution—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
ot Professor W. A. TiLpEN (Chairman), Dr. W. W. J Nicot (Secretary),
Professor H. McLerop, Mr. 8S. U. Pscxerine, Professor W. Ramsay, and
SE OIONSOP NO MDN EY OWING 0) pods each loa sctbi¥acacdene enunnes ben «coeoeceleeeaeneee 372
The Action of Light upon Dyed Colours.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor T. E. Toorpx (Chairman), Professor J. J. Hummat (Secretary),
Dr. W. H. Pxerxr, Professor W. J. Russett, Captain ABNuy, Professor
W. Srrovp, and Professor L. Mrtpora. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ... 373
The Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of
Oxygen.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. J. RussExt,
Captain W. pE W. Asney, Professor W. N. Hartiny, Professor W. Ramsay,
qudride cll RICHARDSON, (Secretary), ...c.......+.3.s0s0d- senda ees «monde eee 381
‘The Investigation of Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives—Seventh Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. Tr~prn and Professor H. E,
ArRmsrRone (Secretary). (Drawn up by Professor ARMSTRONG) ........ ... 381
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscon, Dr. MArsHatn Warts,
Mr. J. N. Locxynr, Professors Dewar, Liverne, Scuuster, W. N. Hart-
Ley, and Wotcorr Gipss, and Captain Abnny. (Drawn up by Dr. Mar-
PREIS N WPACTIE ) 11 Wich achicnghnson iano su odddhaaws ochiewesdxsqniasthgeh. cs eee ete etn 387
An International Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel.—Fifth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor W.C. Ropprrs-A ustEN (Chairman),
Sir F, Aner, Mr. E. Rirzy, Mr. J. Sprntur, Professor J. W. LANexry, Mr.
G. J. Syetvs, Professor TinpEen, and Mr. Tuomas TuRNER (Secretary).
(Umynnp by the Secretary) »...s:...qiett onc-+saceeecieon+-naenrnsacse ae eee 437
On Solution.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor TimpEN
(Chairman), Dr. W. W. J. Nicoz (Secretary), and Professor W. Ramsay... 438
The Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other
Gases.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor H. McLzop (Chair-
man), Mr, W. A. SHenstonu (Secretary), Professor W. Ramsay, and Mr.
J. Tupor Cunpatt. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ..........sscceccccsseeeeeeees 439
I. The Preparation and Storage of Oxygen.........sss..sseees sesssensseecues 439
II. Ozone from Pure Oxygen. Its Action on Mercury, with a Note on
the Silent Discharge of Electricity. By W. A. SHensronz and J.
PUDOR! CUNDATI 8.) athe eee Derac ck Loe eee ee 439
III. Studies on the Formation of Ozone from Oxygen. By W. A.
SHENstoND and Martin Prrmsr. 2.) 0s... es docee.ceeeee eee 440
Bacteriology in its relations to Chemical Science. By Percy FRANKLAND,
Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.8., Professor of Chemistry in University College,
Dundee;Si: Andrews: University. .icvcncssvsayctna sab eghorasveeatinveos fev oh ae 44]
The Circulation of Underground Waters.—Nineteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor E. Hur (Chairman), Rev. Dr. H. W.
Crosskey, Sir D. Gatron, Messrs. J. GuatsHER and Percy KEnDAtt,
Professor G. A. Lzsour, Messrs. E. B. Marren, G. H. Morton, and
W. Penceity, Professor J. Prestwicn, and Messrs. I. Ropurts, THos. S.
Stooxs, G. J. Symons, W. Toptey, C. Tyrpen-Wricut, E. WETHERED,
W. Wurraxer, and C, E. De Rancu (Secretary). (Drawn up by C. E.
Dr Rance)
The Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Tenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor T. WILTSHIRE (Chairman), Dr. H. Woop-
WARD, and Professor T. Rupert Jonus (Secretary). (Drawn up by Pro-
Messor Tl. RORERT JONES). ete.sies0b-csides.saicseeghsossendcesedy dee 465.
CONTENTS. vii
Page
The Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. R. H. TRaquarr (Chairman), Professor T. RUPERT
Jonus, and Mr, Matcorm Laurie (Secretary), (Drawn up by Mr. M.
SPPASELIOEO MEE ete wraseres oies sin oP untcp.dscuigese dcapiviasa sae «aan sath ss dslesh vies cajoventiosinn fd edobe 470
The Voleanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its Neighbourhood.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Baverman, Mr. F. W. Rupizr, Mr.
J. J. H. Teatt, and Professor H. J. Jonnsron-Lavis. (Drawn up by
PE TOCSSOIPET. Jl, JOH NSTON=IsAVIS)) (4.cecc.ccstsrsacscecscecccecstsisshactsetectescecs 471
The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Fourth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor JamEs GEIkIE (Chairman), Professor
T. G. Bonney, Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Dr. VaLEntTINE Bat, Mr. Jamus
E. Beprorp, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. James W. Davis, Mr.
Epmunp J. Garwoop, Mr. Witttam Gray, Mr. Roperr Kipsron, Mr.
ArtTHuR 8. Rem, Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Mr. W. W. Warts, Mr. Horace
B. Woopwarp, and Mr. Osmunp W. JzErrs (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
RMIRIREITM etree rene ead camss dpc ci4dahds abu rBapatesicaca tetera sc vdcadie eee takea ree con « 473
The Registration of the Type Specimens of British Fossils—Fourth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Henry Woopwarp (Chairman), Rev.
G. F. Wuipsorne, Mr. R. Kinston, Mr. J. E. Marr, and Mr. A. S.
MMA ID A SECKCUREY ) ods cncarasecsscessceeemecesassueetcnasseceencuntnessadvanecsiots« 482
The Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall,
and other Localities.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. J. Hornz
(Chairman), Mr. Davin Rozsertson, Mr. T. F.-Jamieson, Mr. Jamus
Fraser, Mr. P. F. Kunpart, and Mr. Dueatp Bett (Secretary). (Drawn
up by Mr. Horns, Mr. Fraser, and Mr. Bett; with Special Reports on
the Organic Remains, by Mr. ROBERTSON)..........0...c..cssssseeescosssenseceees 483
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.—Twenty-first Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor E. Hunn (Chairman), Professor J.
Prestwicu, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, Professor
T. McK. Huewss, Professor T. G. Bonnzy, Mr. C. E. Dr Rano, Mr. P. F.
Kenpatu (Secretary), Mr. R. H. Trppeman, Mr. J. W. Woopatt, and
Professor L. C. Miatt. (Drawn up by Mr. P. F. Kenpatt, Secretary)... 514
The present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands,—
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Newron (Chair-
man), Dr. W. T. Buanrorp, Dr. 8. J. Hickson, Professor C. V. Rizzy,
Mr. O. Satyrn, Dr. P. L. Sctarsr, Mr. E. A. Suirs, and Mr. D. SHarp
BPC 9. 55 cS 2a = bxece Et baeReheh sa Foes aceact hl ieulaktlad od. aod deoctewdeai« ook 523
A Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
Light-vessels—Interim Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor
A. Newton (Chairman), Mr. Joun Corpuavx (Secretary), Messrs. R. M.
Barrineron, J. A. Harvig-Brown, W. Eacte Crarke, and the Rev. E. P.
a ae raise ace oe Pct Se Bein ca tuatnieg oagnaieccrieead ae nee 524
The present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West
India Islands, and on taking steps to investigate ascertained deficiencies in
the Fauna and Flora.—Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr.
P. L. Scnarer (Chairman), Mr. Guorer Murray (Secretary), Mr. W.
Carruruers, Dr. A.C. L. G. Ginraer, Dr. D. Suarp, Mr. F. DuCane
Gopman, Professor A. Newron, and Dr. D. H. Scor........c.ccccccseceseeeeee 524
The Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea —Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. GrorcE Broox, Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. W. E. Hoyts, Mr. I, C.
THompson (Secretary), Mr. A. O, WaxKer, and Professor W. A. HERDMAN
SEL es Se a 5 RE Fea sum 8 ode «ax sae desove esis emo A CEL weaves oe 526
Vili CONTENTS.
Page
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scrarnr, Professor E. Ray LANKEsTER,
Professor J.CossAR Ewart, Professor M. Fosrpr, Mr. A. Sepe@wick, Professor
A. M. MarsHatt, and Mr. Percy SLADEN (Secretary)...........cecsesseeeeeeees 537
I. On the Action of Coloured Light on Assimilation, By Czcrn C.
IBD OINOAIN rs cathe ca tas cate-oiciies'sssicovsenne ses dees sce toeinte nine em mien: teen e 538
II. On the Function and Correlation of the Pallial Organs of the
Opisthobranchiata. By Jouw D. F. GILCHRIST ............000 eeeseees 540
Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at
Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E, Ray
LaAnxkester (Chairman), Professor M. Fosrer, Professor 8. H. Vines, and
IMPASe tls ELAR MBER: (SECTCLATY,)..0.05..cesscoescaiecenectuhe sere dcrns stash ar etteeeee Ree 546
I. The Turbellaria of Plymouth Sound. By F. W. Gamstz, B.Sc... 546
II. The Larvee of Decapod Crustacea. By Epnaar J, ALLEN, B.Sc... 547
III. Notes on How Fish find Food. By Greece Wirson, M.A., B.Sc. 548
The Physiological Action of the Inhalation of Oxygen in Asphyxia, more
especially in Coal Mines.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J.G. McKeworicx, F.R.S. (Chairman), Dr. J. T. Borrominy, F.R.S., and
Mr. W. Ernest F, Toomson, M.A., M.D. (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
BSBCTOUANY)) vozpascevsceesacecvn ses ceesesesansseceaues sues sa cicgelee seamen toe heteee eeeeemeee 561
The Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Ezes.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr, THomas Henry Tuomas, RC.A. (Chairman), Rey. Canon
Tristram, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor Atrrep Newton, F.R.S., Pro-
fessor ADoLPH LEIPNER, F.Z.S., Professor Nrwron Parker, Ph.D., F.Z:S.,
and Dr. CHartes TANFIELD VAcHELL (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
SSECLCLATY:)) iacdsscecsucvssdascvceseossostcepbdescensscbasesstesmeanserse tener ancteeeeeeneeee 552
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir W. H. Frowmr, Dr. P. L. Sctarer, Dr. H. Woopwarp, and
Mr. G. Broox (Secretary), for supervising its compilation by Mr. C. Davies
SSTHRBO EN, dss esnsin vey pankespadiies asveincessancwascedre dues seat sspacseneegieea tan 553
Scottish Place-names.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir C. W.
Witson, F.R.S. (Chairman), Dr. J. Bureuss (Secretary), and Mr. Courrs
Trorrer. (Drawn up by the Secretary)............00jsccesseseedarsesasssansnnusee 554
Exploration of Ancient Remains in Abyssinia.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. G. Garson (Chairman), Mr. J. ToroporE Bent (Secre-
tary), Mr. F. W. Ruprer, Mr. E. W. Brasproox, and Mr. G. W. Bioxam.
(Drawn up by Mr, J. THHODORM BERT) 54 .0000--cssensssa>eseraicingtesees eee 557
AppENDIx.—On the Morphological Characters of the Abyssinians. By
Je Ge GARBON,, MD; . 5. :ccisvecgencese€eesucteetieessaeseserecmneee aaa 563
The Exploration of the Glacial Region of the Karakoram Mountains.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Colonel Gopwry-AvstTEN (Chairman), Pro-
fessor T. G. Bonney (Secretary), and Colonel H. C. B. TANNER............00 564
The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapsronz (Chairman), Professor H, E. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary), Mr. S. Bourn, Dr. Orosskny, Mr. G. Guapsronn, Mr. J.
Heywoop, Sir Joun Lussock, Sir Partie Maenvs, Professor N. Story
MasKELYNE, Sir H. E. Roscos, Sir R. Temprn, and Professor 8S. P. Taompson 566
The Methods of Economic Training adopted in this and other Countries.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. CunnrneHam (Chair-
man), Professor E. C. K. Gonnrr (Secretary), Professor F. Y. Epg@ewortu,
Professor H. 8. Foxwxtt, Dr. J. N. Keynes, and Mr. H. Hiees..............- 571
CONTENTS. ix
Page
The Climatological and Hydrographical Conditions of Tropical A frica.—
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. G. RavensTnrn
(Chairman), Mr. Batpwin Laruam, Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., and Dr.
H. R. Mitt (Secretary). (Drawn up by Mr. HE. G. RavENsTEIN)............ 572
The Dryness of Steam in Boiler Trials——Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir F. BRamwetu (Chairman), Professor W.C. Unwin (Secre-
tary), Professor A. B, W. Kennepy, Mr. Marr Rumigy, Mr. JereMian
HEAD, and Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS ..........s.ccececsscecncsccsceosscscescss 572
The Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science.—Third Report
byperoressor EH. S, Hinne Saw, Mi. Inst.C. By -.c22c<scccvsssecs coneoscessoressoesces 573
On the Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Elementary
and other Schools—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Dovetas
Gauton (Chairman), Dr. F. WarneEr (Secretary), Mr. G. W. Broxam, Mr.
E, W. Brasroox, and Dr. J. G. Garson. (Drawn up by Dr. Francis
RPMUAICE) avis. sea cccndsai ost eee tncnccdessmsnces Saiouecotassencee ioses desea potere saosin 614
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom,—First Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. Francis Garon (Chairman), Dr. J. G. Garson,
Professor A. C. Happon, Dr. JosepH ANnprrRson, Mr. E. W. BraBrook
(Secretary), Mr. J. Romitty Aten, Professor D. J. Cunnrnenam, Pro-
fessor Boyp Dawxtrns, Professor R. Metporna, General Pirt-Rivers, and
Mr. E. G. Ravensrern. (Drawn up by the Secretary) .....6....:ccsceeeeeeees 621
The North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. E. B. Tytor, Mr. G. W. Broxam (Secretary), Dr. G. M.
Dawson, Mr. R. G. Hatrpurton, and Mr. H. Hatz, appointed to investi-
gate the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social condition
of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada..............s00eee0eee 653
Anthropometric Laboratory.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. Fiower (Chairman), Dr. J. G. Garson (Secretary), Mr. G. W.
Buoxam, Professor A, C. Happon, and Dr. WILBERFORCE SuirH. (Drawn
NER SIS ECTOBAEY. yo 22 sn sslaian Sab wscne ipa veebatunge dss wtwadeiiswqadtesauig-tsuegeed 654
Uniformity in the Spelling of Barbaric and Savage Languages and Race
Names.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis GaLron
(Chairman), Dr. E. B. Tynor, Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. G. W. Bioxam,
Mr. Line Roru, and Mr. C. E. Park (Secretary)...........-scsccsssseeceseneeees 662
The Automatic Balance of Reciprocating Mechanism. By W. Worsy Brav-
mont, M.Inst.C.E. ....... Rete aeete nt ioe oalevoeks cgtaet am setae gested apne sdoaasthesnane 665
x, CONTENTS.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Page
Address by R. T. Grazeproox, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section ...... 671
1. Interim Report of the Committee on a National Physical Laboratory ... 681
2. Interim Report of the Committee on Electro-optics ..........sseeesseeseeeeens 681
3. Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation ...................sescsseeceeveeees 681
4, Report of the Committee for Comparing and Reducing Magnetic
Observations yf. sodas oe tienes deianedelstes nis cowerks dees +e gleladolaigs dios dete eee Ea 681
5. Report of the Committee in connection with the Magnetic Work of the
Halmouth: Observatory sevice deca Gsseacivewss access see detie bocense ste RRR eeee ease eee 681
6. On the Period of Vibration of Electrical Disturbances upon the Earth.
By Professor G. ¥. FitzGeratp, Sc.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.T.C.D............. 682
7. The Moon’s Atmosphere and the Kinetic Theory of Gases. By G. H.
AESRAWAN, NIGAL, oc caatstestas scncasdescssisadeecsuseeecestede ics sashes sseceasest tae eae 682
8. *On Grinding and Balichines By Lord RayiEIeH, Sec.R.S. ..........060+. 685
9. Simple Apparatus for Observing and Photographing Interference and
10.
Nn
Diffraction Phenomena. By W. B. CRori, M.A. ......cescssssceeeeeeeeneaeeee 685
On Wilson’s Theory respecting the asserted foreshortening of the inner
side of the Penumbree of the Solar Spots when near the Sun’s Limb, and
of the probable thickness of the Photospheric and also Penumbral
Strata of the Solar Envelopes. By Rev. Frepertck How Ler? ..........+ 686
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge ot Electrolysis and
Electro-chemistry. By W. N. Saw, F.RB.S., and the Rev. T. C.
SEE ABRUTEET Esa Sas p23 as. se venqsesennendccew ess iivanes sian ovWaae cneresothae een 688
- On the Connection between Ether and Matter. By Professor Otrver J.
Lopes, F.R.S. ......, Fic op altos vie wy alt n(Seiu eke ae view cate ede.c os pens uc shee Sen eee 688
. On a Mechanical Analogue of Anomalous Dispersion. By R. T. Guaze-
BROOKS aN WAL Ss IH) Ie Spmsteescevercntcnecctesesereraecbiaiocasecorsecsstcate aaa tee 688
. Note on oso Ebert’s Estimate of the Radiating Power of an Atom,
with Remarks on Vibrating Systems giving Special Series of Overtones
like those given out by some Molecules. By Professor G. F. FirzGuratp,
M.A., F. Se on ee Me 689
. On the Reflection of Sound or Light from a Gorcugnted Surface. By
NOT CUEVAW. TEWLGH erat ste aenitne oSh tetecc re tiec nn ba cdei< uns <iddecoe su coeile Got oer eee e eae 690
. tOn the Piezo-electric Property of Quartz. By Lord Ketviy, Pres.R.S.. 691
. On a Piezo-electric Pile. By Lord Kutvrn, Pres.R.S. .......00.sseceseeeceeee 691
. Electrical Interference Phenomena somewhat Analogous to Newton's
Rings, but exhibited by Waves in Wires. By Epwin ‘HL. Barton, B.Sc. 692
10.
bo
bo
CONTENTS. Xl
Page
. On Interference Phenomena exhibited by the Passage of Electric Waves
through Layers of Electrolyte. By G. UpNY YULR..................0eeeeeee 694
On a Familiar Type of Caustic Curves. By J. Larmor, F-.R.S. ............ 695
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables (Bessel’s Functions) ... 696
. Report of the Committee on the Pellian Equation .............cccseceeeeeees 696
. On a Spherical Vortex. By M. J. M. Hitt, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of
Mathematics at University College, London ...............ccseseceeeeeeeee eens 696
. On the Magnetic Shielding of Two Concentric Spherical Shells. By
EGISESORA Win RUCKER, ERGs) fsa sce daaceainenb age anorestinanilessiegeudseeaees 698
. On the Equations for Calculating the Shielding of a Long Iron Tube on
an Internal Magnetic Pole. By Professor G. F. FirzGuraxp, M.A.,
PANES ee tats se Selesycse ais aes sions ev cuct'd nie Ho Ret sclause ne eine «sa cas adapiadchigaisietss sels d 698
. On the Equations for Calculating the Effect of a Hertzian Oscillator on
Points in its Neighbourhood. By Professor G. F. FrrzGrratp, M.A.,
SR Ee ioe cakes citi s w gals wntncioe's sonia Se ote eure dpaceatle eehddes eal rawa@eelealete 698
. Magnetic Action on Light. By J. Larmor, F.RBAS, .............csceneeeeeeeee 699
. *On a Special Class of Generating Functions in the Theory of ce
exe Vigor ber A MACNIAHON; ROA\) BE O..2.:)05sersessrncanerssecssdevsdoaede 699
. On Agreeakle Numbers. By Lieut.-Col. Attan CunyincHaM, R.E.,
Hallowsot King’s Collere, TondOm. ......ccuscss0s sosesscccesswseascocedecssaesas 699
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
. Report of the Committee on Harth Tremors .............ssssseecsseseeeenceees 699
. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
ae eM ecce cane tat cc ate cee cicceacesdecosacevacssecsenscedeoousevacaanesteacessies 700
*Discussion on the Teaching of Elementary Physics introduced by the three
following Papers :—
3. Apparatus for Class-work in Elementary Practical Physics. By Professor
BPO AHV HOSTER, WE Sscessesaccsdessssise ctacsossoee'casscsccccasedenecasiulegensacee 700
4. On Physics Teaching in Schools. By W. B. Crort, M.A. ............e000es 700
5. Notes on Science Teaching in Public Schools. By A. E. Hawxins, B.Sc. 701
6. Report of the Committee on the Application of Photography to Meteoro-
Maem BNC OUe Rass fac. d a. fea setacaeccesveceneetscsaarntdesncdpcenacesaee scessp 701
femiseport of the Ben Nevis Committee ...cc.sccessesasesencesscseccocssenovessas ces 701
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1, Report of the Electrical Standards Committee ............cccceeseeeeeecseeeees 702
2, On Standards of Low Electrical Resistance. By Professor J. ViIRIAMU
MINARNRI ER Soh ros Seat te Ni yetatcnet dae taal ael sae eeede Sa tteee aad a Soe eee en eae eeeeeelstibieates 702
An Apparatus for Comparing nearly Equal Resistances. By F. H.
(SEE I ARS SSS ioe or boadcor asco pci neh hon gure nee Gh aBee eet actide son apa aet 702
. Note on a Galvanometer suited to Physiological Use. By Dr. Otiver J.
ones, FAR:S.-and Fs El, NALDER: .:..:..6-:c0.scccdsesiasesssdecestedeteceseeceas 703
xii CONTENTS.
Page
5. On a Simple Interference Arrangement. By Lord Rayteien, Sec.R.S8.... 703
6. tOn the Construction of Specula for Reflecting Telescopes upon New
Principles, “By Dr. ‘A. SHARA RIK | 2 soem ceanseesaRyodetasdakatscseeeoareeeenaeen 704
7. Supplementary Note on the Ether. By Dr. Oxtver J. Lopes, F.R.S. ... 704
8. On the Publication of Scientific Papers. By A.B. Bassur, M.A., F.R.S. 704
9. *On a new Form of Air-pump. By Professor J. J. THomson, F.R.S. ... 705
10. *A Peculiar Motion assumed by Oil Bubbles in ascending Tubes containing
Caustic Solutions. | By Bu Demo u ron, frei csepet «cas vac scanscoeeeneeees ease 705
11. On Electro-magnetic Trails of Images in Plane, Spherical, and Cylindrical
Current Sheets, | By \G. He BRwany MAG ee. ssn ieits sa areca ciseeeaneeaeeae rae 706
12. On Thermal Relations between Air and Water. By Hucu Roper MIx1,
ID:Sic,; HRS Eiciepesenstecies ses cosines acbeslsenaatcinest est adeos ce can shaaee epee 706
18. *On a new Artificial Horizon. By W. P. SHADBOLT ...........cccdsseeeseee 707
14, *Investigations as to what would be the Laws which would Regulate the
Transplacement of a Liquid by a Moving Body ; and Reasons why Ether
eludés’ our Senses:) tBy. HMASOR 22)... .ccdossdanduvieclesecasccceaeseaasserdes 707
Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Address by Professor J. Emerson Reynoxps, M.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., President
ofthe Section ..c.ccecssrevesorctusces+us- cagiteetelees scons sites. cecal neemeeeneeie 708
1. On Tools and Ornaments of Copper and other Metals from Egypt and
Palestine, By Dr. J. H. Guamstonn, PVRS. ........0..0..-.ss--sscnneavnncns 715
2. Report on International Standards for the Analysis of Iron and Steel ... 716
3. *On Native Iron Manufacture in Bengal. By H. Harris and T. Turner 716
4. On Nitride of Iron. By G. J. FOwneR; Misc. ......0.05 s..sassosssssesensers= 716
5. Report on the Silent Discharge of Electricity in Oxygen and other
GASES ives sanes'svusssese ssn eos cna sasae uelemageenuepMeyaeetest ess 0. sm ater tee 717
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
1. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours .........ccsseesseeeeeeeees TE
2. *Demonstration of the Preparation and Properties of Fluorine by Moissan’s
Method. “By Dr. M. MusiaWs...s....Jcs.cesseatecescars5y0<ba0aqes issn 717
3. *Interim Report on the Formation of Haloids ..............s..seeeeeeeeeeeeees 717
4, Report on the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in the
Presence OF Oxygen 6.2. ..d2ssesecseecbeiscesnssendesd noevtiesn dances ae 718
5. On the Iodine Value of Sunlight in the High Alps. By Dr. 8. Ripnar . 718
6. On a Modified Form of Bunsen and Roscoe’s Pendulum Actinometer. By
Dr. ARTHUR RICHARDSON and. J. QUICK.......s.c.+-+.s0srsasss cues s ces uennene 719
7. On the Expansion of Chlorine Gas and Bromine Vapour under the
Influence of Light. By Dr. ARTHUR RICHARDSON .......s0..cesecceneceseons 719
8, On the Cause of the Red Colouration of Phenol. By Cuartes A. Kony,
FEEDS, BIS Gs cnccone nave consnsvece 05s sseeeensenashueenss taeanneeeepe ds eee 720
10.
CONTENTS. Xili
Page
. On the Rate of Evaporation of Bodies in Atmospheres of Different
Densities. By Dr. R. D. PHOOKAN ...0...00ccesessthecsseessceceseconserovencsenee 721
. On the Occurrence of Cyano-nitride of Titanium in Ferro-manganese.
FT PES SIRE S89 90 Fn e 721
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. *Interim Report on the History of Chemistry.........-..ssssseseeeeseeeseeeeeees 722
2. Report on the Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ...... 722
3. *Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy .......++seeeeeeeeeseeee 722
4, Report on the Bibliography of Solution ...............::ssseseeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeees 722
BH. Report on Solution ........,ssscsescesseccrsecceeecesscensseneescscseseersaseeneseaeses 723
6. Discussion on the Present Position of Bacteriology, more especially in its
relation to Chemical Science, opened by Professor Percy F. FRANKLAND,
D_TRIS) Scoposctodesocecoaseseinabsose tech ose apd ia tlic nar Euadd ina ABacc oe cbEo onc a aoneae canes 723
7. *Remarks on the Chemistry of Bacteria. By R. Warrneton, F.R.S. 723
8. On Fermentation in the Leather Industry. By J.T. WooD. ...........006. 723
9, On some Ferments derived from Diseased Pears. By Guorce Tare, Ph.D.,
MO SPY Sneiie. coc chcsiock sedan eccbas socdasiecsceutteseletesecliositedderacemicesssomsisessiess 724
*On the Action of Permanganate of Potassium on Sodium Thiosulphate
and Sulphate. By G. E. Brown and Dr. W. W. J. Nicon ............... 725
11. On the Application of Sodium Peroxide to Water Analysis. By Dr. S.
PA ANG OA PESO ULM ss. cacccuesstvecciceicnvecsesesn-cvsantsaccudsenmsniin- wane 725
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ............cc:.cceeeceeeeeeeeeenees 726
2. On the Application of Electrolysis to Qualitative Analysis. By CHARLES
On, TS@TEnS, TED gs BMS teie ase: ie sapere oat bees sqeoes donee can gocu a odecooeeetos Pe arasnde 726
8. *Interim Report on the Proximate Constituents of Coal ...........sseeeeeees 127
4, Apparatus for Extraction for Analysis of Gases Dissolved in Water. By
PANGAN UR UNTAN, IMIDE EOS, cges soceesngaecretesactics sce donendercdeedntss. 727
5. *A Discussion on Explosions in Coal Mines, with special reference to the
Dust Theory, was introduced by Professor H. B. Drxon, F.R.S............. 728
6. The Application of the Hydrogen Flame in an Ordinary Miner's Safety
Lamp to Accurate and Delicate Gas Testing. By Professor Frank
Mira Re) Sea WON dan ccscien ees cnevsccns Surcnaah act circGaesponeds oPaljactaclen-ats «si 728
7. *On the Gases enclosed in Coal Dust. By Professor P. P. Brpson ...... 729
8. *A Note on the Temperature and Luminosity of Gases. By Professor
EAMES MUDELEIGES 7 ¢ye cctiere dale oo pels dasiee nidratedeciiemenens aie jnppadeAbeorigaroocoonese 729
9. On Ethyl Butanetetracarboxylic Acid and its Derivatives. By Brvan
MepeSeN ep ED Ate otis: SSE wcaniaceuanaicces« (4-che-Mlasiulanecicceta cab cccsrscveascccdescacsbee 729
10. On the Salts of a new Platinum-sulphurea Base. By W. J. Sutt, M.A,
fe Fide. and) 1 a, BAbrmmmrimn \MOAL ytd a cads eeeee dao bed tete 731
11, On Citrazinic Acid. By W. J. Sent, M.A., F.C.S., F.1.C., and T. H.
EN SITET OTTTeT Py IN TVS as reaeteee sun eee Bebo Ucar deere CEOO DoSC GHD SOEE IOuC HoDRbEInEESeEr 731
12
. On a Nottingham Sandstone containing Barium Sulphate as a Cementing
Material. By Professor FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc. ....ces.ceseeesececeeeeeseeeee 732
XiVv
CONTENTS,
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Page
Address by J. J. H, Traut, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the Section ... 733
1. Notes of the Water-bearing Capacity of the New Red Sandstone of
Nottingham. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. ...... 748
2. On a Nottingham Sandstone containing Barium Sulphate as a Cementing
Material. By Professor FRANK CLOWES, D.Sc.............0-cosscsseceseceoseve 745
3. On the Discovery of a Concealed Ridge of pre-Carboniferous Rocks under
the Trias of Netherseal, Leicestershire. By Professor Epwarp Hutz,
GE Di, BR Sig F GSe. saveccsasssssancs ceadangeanepeeesnests eeeee ee 745
4, On the Geology of the Coastland of Caria. By Jonn L. Myrss............ 746
5. Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palzeozoic Rocks .............eeeeeeee 747
6. On the Discovery of Cephalaspis in the Caithness Flags. By Dr. R H.
PRRAQUADR, HRS. ,..u\acseeeeceueessay census tecternease cna eeeee nc ek ee 747
7. Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills ......... 747
8. On some Vertebrate Remains not hitherto recorded from the Rhetic Beds
of Britain. By Montacu Browns, F.G.S., F.Z.S. .......cccccecesescedeceevs 748
9. Note on a Fault at Cinder Hill. By Grorar Fowrmr, M Inst.0.E.,
HUGS): assess iasiensnenie s anntus ehh Sogeeeee Ria caaiites suave heclect cpsicaiean ieee 749
10. On the Base of the Cambrian in Wales. By H. Hicks, M.D., E.R.S.,
BGS. cst nna ves ens se etepinsiene nd andudsebniwaans seine wane tteaee ct tear 750
11. On the Reptilia of the British Trias. By E. T. Newron, F.R.S. ......... 752
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
]
10
. TJoint Discussion with Section E on the Limits of Geology and Geo-
BIA PHY. |. ccsenne ave sedetasds steuthaned adaddied a eeMRlaseels, os fad: ee +835, *753
. The Dissected Volcano of Crandall Basin, Wyoming. By Professor
JOSEPH. PAXGON IDDINGS-<é:cissssccscessisstors dotesereevecsb ee ee 753
. On Structures in Eruptive Bosses which resemble those of Ancient
Gneisses. By Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIB, F.R.S. ........ccccccccccceeececee seuss 754
. On the Pittings in Pebbles from the Trias. By Professor W. J. Sonas,
Dido iF BS. ninitsscase.oncathi voi se ovmank aes oneal easis es: salle deur eae nn 755
- On Bones and Antlers of Cervus giganteus incised and marked by Mutual
Attrition while buried in bogs or Marl. By V. Baut, C.B., LL.D.
F.R.S, 756
ADESSO ECO 0.0 0-008 Bie 9.6.9 0\0\0\6 0.6.0 0\0\0)4\0)0 0 ele 010 0.0.0.0 '6.0 0.0/u\d 68.6 6.n)0)610]0 01e'o ou om be binly' aw an Iaiinis nine
- *On a Mass of Cemented Shells dredged from the Sea Bed. By Professor
W..Ay Bagrnatany, (BRIS, ois. deoru>sncnndtusved abs tntuceriemdtcsssae Aina 756
. Note to accompany the Exhibition of a Geological Map of India. By
R. D, OtpHam, A.R.S.M., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of India...... 756
. Geological Sketch of Central East Africa. By Watcor Grsson, F.G.S. 758
. Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius 759
Po ee ee er ray
On Quartz Enclosures in Lavas of Stromboli and Strombolicchio, and their
Effect on the Composition of the Rock. By Professor H. J. Jounston-
Lavis, M.D., M.R.C.S., B.-és-Se., F.G.S. 759
CO rd
CONTENTS. XV
Page
11. On the Gypsum Deposits of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire. By A. T.
PUMESRMAUNIGEMMEN Ch }O see crete te cetsatetectcas regs cei MEG es scareevewcseeces seasecceese 760
12. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest ..............cecaeeeeenceeeeeees 760
13, On a Bed of Oolitic Iron-ore in the Lias of Raasay. By Horace B. Woop-
WLLEIE, TEAGUSS pschetncresdsaneab cbc Saaceeunsarec es tcHcosGhaee reac cesnAnn aaa aareEs 760
. Note on a Transported Mass of Chalk in the Boulder Clay at Catworth in
Huntingdonshire. By A. C. G. Cameron, Geological Survey ............ 760
. Augen Structure in Relation to the Origin of Eruptive Rocks and Gneiss.
REE eOONOHITD; BG ie oi ressntessssteveaced oat assoersrreestapaadueeaesseses 761
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
. The Genetic Relations of the Basic Eruptive Rocks of Gran (Kristiania
Region). By Professor W. C. Brocexr, of the University of Kristiania 762
. Petrological Features of the Dissected Volcano of Crandall Basin,
Wyoming. By Professor JosepH Paxson IDDINGS ..............08 freee ahert 763
. Berthelot’s Principle applied to Magmatic Concentration. By ALFRED
UAC eVGA.» BGS 0 Sacblactetiocacetdtewatetae ceed ocde sdb ative cheba awedete maceeeeee 765
On the Origin of Intermediate Varieties of Igneous Rocks by Intrusion
and Admixture, as observed at Barnavave, Carlingford. By Professor
PVAPIEISOUGAS, IL SC., HRS. os ciseoaasamacntasesecs since onenciothoncaes Dara eeeeeee 765
. On the Transformation of an Amphibolite into Quartz-mica-diorite. By
EROLSSSOD ENV ile, SOLLAS DSCs, a Hiab ees y crserentlometem vas edcaceswa borne ae taee eee 765
. On some Igneous Rocks of South Pembrokeshire, with a Note on the
Rocks of the Isle of Grassholme. By F. T. Howarp, B.A., and E. W.
Semeur MVEA Bi SOA Aparweatt reeves dad- 2 taide ittok sees vats Vad ode bbiakidaaaSetbe tor tl 766
7. Notes on a Hornblende Pikrite from Greystones, Co. Wicklow. By
men avy tthe MEALS EN GS ib. cs. coved codes caeck «fou fib ddadasdvcetercostite fee <5. 767
8. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens of Fossils ............ epeonoode 767
MONDAY, SHPTEMBER 18.
1. “Discussion on Coral Reefs, Fossil and Recent. Opened by Professor
RUMEN OMAGH Sa). ceria. sata peetaereh cep ao oe: wachaat We ccasetbontPacedenar new ae sed 768
2, Twenty Years’ Work on the Younger Red Rocks. By Rev. A. Irvine,
EAN BCCI i ab pteciaty ct dnintanl gables ate tag ied gous Mi covbianeees mes dere 768
5. *On the Trias of the Midlands. By Professor C. LApwortu, F.R.S. ...... 768
4, On the Occurrence of Fossils in the Magnesian Limestone of Bulwell, near
Nottingham. By Baron A. von Retnacu and W. A.E UssHer ......... 768
5. Note on the ‘Himlack’ Stone near Nottingham. By Professor E. Hutt,
(ep LESS iS Sp i ed ae, I eG ee 769
6. On the Junction of the Permian and Triassic Rocks at Stockport. By
J. W. Gray, F.G.S., and Percy F. KEnpALt, F.G.S. ...........0cceceeeeeeee 769
7. Note on some Molluscan Remains lately discovered in the English
Keuper. By R. Butten Newron, F.G.S., British Museum (Natural
BEY) ocean unt acckeare tals iseiate gociaactea buns adhd ho. ERIN RU 2eO. ais 770
xvi CONTENTS.
Page
8. Observations on the Skiddaw Slates of the North of the Isle of Man. By
Herpert Borton, Assistant Keeper, the Manchester Museum, Owens
Oolle ge’ sc. nserscovceass nents concn tnaemeecmndy senean eaten aa. se 5's ihe pene 770
9, *On the Volcanic Phenomena of Japan. By Professor J. Mityn, F.R.S. 771
10. On the Radiolarian Cherts of Cornwall. By Howarp Fox, F.G.S. ...... 771
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. *Discussion on Geological Education. Opened by the Reading of the
following Papers... ...<.0degencpnaerdbieeeSeecatecnsy tes sates. 0k + 95 Seem 772
Geology in Secondary Education. By Professor Grenvitte A. J.
Comm, MIR TAS GiSie i cencs- che cpoectnecbe cores cocsne cece cemeeen emote 772
On Geology in Professional Education. By Professor G. A. Lezour,
MAS D.GiSs ta.cideecbtesenseneece ss neces etaee. (set sk'sasaaatere se eeeneenee 773
2. The Glaciation of Asia. By Prince KROPOTKIN ..............scscecesceceeeee 774
3. On some Assumptions in Glacial Geology. By Professor T. G. Bonnny,
DBe.5 FORAS. . ..c.cceces0a500 0c sceeedeWees dovndeeaevere couener ace se. aie ate 775
4, On the Glacial Period, its Origin and Effects, and the Possibility of its
Recurrence. By.C. A. LinpvaLL, of Stockholm .................::ceeceeeeens 776
5. Report on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall, and
Other Localities | ¥...s0:5.sc00+s.csesssepamenmar ches speaaievtass «sce os eeeeet eet Mie 776
GayReport. on, Hrratic Blocks ,......scasoedetsan-tevsn dense oae chee ss Arsene teamneeie 776
7. On some Shell-middens in North Wales. By P. W. Aszorr and P. F.
GRIND ATI, BGS S. ccsnecasesnsccessinessteewesttaeener cent eedessGatr Geet: emeaaamene 776
8. A Map of the Esker Systems of Ireland. By Professor W. J. Sotnas,
DSC GEES. Yeas wenspevionsdees sce soas dovevondheltyeebiaw Sey te. sies dees saake aan 777
9. On some Shelly Clay and Gravel in North-east Aberdeenshire. By
Dra Amp Bet AE. GaSe ocsciasen» sospecacieenies eppiteg ove once ctteepaaee eee aaeeeeaaie 778
10. On the pre-Glacial Form of the Ground in Lancashire and Cheshire. By
CE. Da Rann, EGS... J....0sscesctebevecseemmege uss dene de cbee cena he eee 779
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.
1. On the Distribution of Granite Boulders in the Olyde Valley. By
IDTGALD Buns F.GIS ~\..2..c.cccccsscosascsone case tenders seaciiees seca eee 780
2. On the Derbyshire Toadstone. By H. Arnotp-Brmross, M.A., F.G.S.... 780
8. Note on the Perlitic Quartz Grains in Rhyolite. By W. W. Warts,
IVIAV SHEE GES: Fetes cebe ce sisscuic Seaebeein oct Qeee sheet cee see een a: = 781
4, On the Minute Structure of the Skeleton of Monograptus Priodon. By
Professor W. J. Sorzas, D.Sc., F.R.S.
5. Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters ...........csccesecseeeeees 782
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Address by Rev. H. B. Trisrram, M.A., LL.D., D.D., F.R.S., President” of
HG) SCCM Ge caain du a pluroinsiides. ck deb bd as aya 5s auepetiebehaee hee RES eee eee ame 784
1. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ..............s0cceeeceeeseeeees 783
CONTENTS. XVii
Page
. On the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands. By D, Swapp, F.R.S............. 783
. Interim Report on a Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds at
MRD E Oy Serna tsi ap odatt rads Ser Alp asienscgvdene MMMEn ews ce eibuld a Fans ale sh sy dele 784
. Report on the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands............... 784
. *Note on the Discovery of Diprotodon Remains in Australia. By
MaMTECMES RN fe TUR TEN CRY eh tol sides achhe nodded eb bslepihite demedsiweiwcrdecvvdes &ebaeay 784.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
. “On the Physico-chemical and Vitalistic Theories of Life. By J. S.
chu LUDO] le JASE 0a 5 ASSES COO TE OR CESNOE: AP COMEREEI EEC Re TREE raha eer) nh ii tne aad ae 798
2. *On the Effect of the Stimulation of the Vagus Nerve on the Disengage-
ment of Gases in the Swimming-bladder of Fishes. By Dr. Carisr1an
MY ves celiac hc tata aa vildiguen as aniciesinp susie ngih snd s «Tigh odneok doo cuahds «vw 798
3. On Malformation from Pre-natal Influence on the Mother. By Atrrep
LP VPACE A OH HU) O14, 9 Ri) ans cs vucasvtvy cccvemermancuy sence at uate cant atammt te on 798
4, On Calorimetry by Surface Thermometry and Hygrometry. By Aveusrus
PPP PATTIE WUCL), BES. c0s ep nvoseins coeds Soe nse axnetussheeststoace roses tucasbe ene 799
. "On a Method of Recording the Heart Sounds. By Professor W.
PERO MEN ras ccrveiesssiceacynPseagse curmsrasadederidieenrmacnassstdds « delaasea Sa daaene son 801
6. *On Nerve Stimulation. By F. Gorton, E.R.S., ........ccsevcescossecsevcetences 801
7. On the Digestive Ferments of a large Protozoon. By Marcus Harroe
SE EEL OLOS Ei, TRON 6) os vcs vadssdachonvep once osdadscmegagsd. Waa vuhapraredyiecen 801
8, Report on the Physiological Action of the Inhalation of Oxygen............ 802
DEPARTMENT OF Zoouoey.
1. On the Luminous Organs of Cephalopoda. By Witt1am E. Hoyts ...... 802
2. Report on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea .........ccccceeceecesseseceeeee 803
8. “Interim Report on a Deep-sea Tow-net ............:sssssccsssersscceeccenscsenss 803
4, The Origin of Organic Colour. By F. T. Mort, F.R.G.S. ..............006- 803
5, Remarks on the Roots of the Lemna and the Reversing of the Fronds in
Lemna trisuica. By Miss Nina F. LAYARD ...........csecsscsscecneseensseecs 803
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1. *Interim Report on the Botanical Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon ...... 804
2. Interim Report on the Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs......... 805
3. On the Xtiology and Life-history of some Vegetal Galls and their
Inhabitants. By G. B. Rornera
. On some New Features in Nuclear Division in Liliwm Martagon. By
PRRICBSOL Tl opleys) EAR MINE fas svc vas esis cieelsen sie vince sor eaweteetotaecuekecatGecnscsvawedes 806
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
. “Discussion on Coral Reefs. Opened by Professor W. J. Soruas, M.A.,
ra) SAM Si Ch sn «Aerio adee ii ot cs duesuddecbadatocddedewsets odsbvoveasedutdeys sees sale 807
2. Report on Work carried on at the Zoological Station, Naples .........ss00 807
1893. a
XVili CONTENTS.
Page
3. Report on Work carried on at the Biological Station, Plymouth............ 807
4. Interim Report on the Index Generum et Specierum Animalium............ 807
5. A. few Notes on Seals and Whales seen during the Voyage to the Antarctic
Mcean, 1892-93, By. WM.)S.BRUCH |... .ntauscocscnsccsalesstisnscsctestecsenrayy 807
6. On the Penguins of the Antarctic Ocean. By C. W. Donatp, M.B. . 808
7. On the Development of the Molar Teeth of the eS a with ita
on Dental Series, By Professor J. CLELAND, FVR.S. ......cecceecceeeeeeeee 808
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1, On certain Gregarinide, and the possible connection of Allied Forms with
Tissue Changes in Man, By Cuarizs H, Carrrn, M.D., M.R.C.P., and
WAREES MILLAR! MAD. .cctscs.ccccdscneosesacececccttetereesuorseveethcceeease ene 809
2. On the Wings of Archeopteryx and of other Birds. By C. Herperr
TERURAT Wise ledsisins os sticdaavesdsee acces cess e-ieaneeaebecutataccsae pads. s- nett eee eam 810
. On the Sensory Canal System of Fishes. By Watrer E. Cottinep...... 810
4. On the Starch of the Chlorophyll-granule, and the Chemical Processes
involved in its Dissolution and Translocation. By Horacz T. Brown,
PTR Ss cidacacas aes «bite 0 ctvsevdetesombeseavadssdussemensarensteess. <xdreeasseaenamneme 811
5. On Cytological Differences in Homologous Organs. By Professor G.
GILSON, (Of Louvain: ......0:-dcoscsct oth aad secdsteerssosctabecst ss tceesd eaeeeeEEe 813
6. On Karyokinesis in the Fungi. By Harotp Wager, F.LS. ............... 816
7. On Variation of Fecundity in Trifolium pratense and its varieties and
10.
Trifolium medium. By WILLIAM WILSON .......0..0.cseceeseetoesssesecesore 817
. On the Cortex of Tmesipteris tannensis, Bernh. By R. J. Harvey
GIBSON; MUA) ELGS:. “orcclececegcoscusdosnavccccetecscdscces cacctret te teen 817
. On Lime Salts in relation to some Physiological Processes in the Plant.
By: Dr. JT. OG:b BE ssenvecend sia W0d ss osndledeesteubeelsee as 00s Jeune ds cave 818
On the Development of the ‘Ovipositor’ in the Cockroach (Periplaneta
orientalis). By Professor A. DENNY
i eee eee es Pee ee eee eee eee eee eee errr ree
Section E.—-GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
Address by Henry Suesoum Sec.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., President of the
SOCHON o 10s casanvesneedgusecagedssadsnsaun phadsvasyaanitarane rear sscsastocss (enn 819
1. A Journey across Australia. By GUY BooTHBY ............cccssesnsscenseoes 832
2. On the Islands of Chiloé. By Mrs. Litty Grove, F.R.G.S. .......00...005 833
3. On Recent Explorations in Katanga. By E. G. RAVENSTEIN ........0....05 833
4
1.
. *Pictures of Japan, By Professor J. Mixyz, F.R.S.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
tOn the Limits between = ulaaics Geography and Geology. By Clements
R. ManKW AM 0.B.y BRS, ..¢1ucvccée<eassunnsyocsedeseodasiies det ae 834
2.\On the Relations of Geology to Physical Geography. By W. Torry,
“ae aniphvaapeuepeau slang Pakipastbicyas vhos sonetai beeen niahtelgs trae eam 834
ou
CONTENTS. xix
Page
+A Discussion on the limits between Physical Geography and Geology
followed the reading of these Papers ..........sseescseceereeenereeeeecsesseeeeees 835
. Report on Scottish Place Names ............ssssceesesseeseeseececseeseceseeeneeees 835
. Report of the Karakoram Expedition .............:sseessesseseeeeeeeeesseesaneens 835
. *On the Influence of Land and Water on the Temperature of the Air.
By J. Y. BUcHANAN, F.RAS, ..........ssceeesecccnncsceenssereensseeaeessseeeeeseees 835
. The Temperature and Density of Sea Water between the Atlantic Ocean
and North Sea. By H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E. .......ceeeeseseeeseccesseceeees 835
. The Clyde Sea Area: a Study in Physical Geography. By Hue Rozert
ea CET ea te GR Ard (ah not Saha usb bynass ces td te 836
. Configuration of the English Lakes. By Huan Roserr Mitt, D.Sc.,
RS.E.
PTB ics ceeseec cae sagen siascstsessgcostnesseasbesesssieasecsusevesneooncsantsbeber eas 836
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Ancient Remains in
(AUPYRSUNIA..: 000. .cccssedesncsnctenscseecsocsssescctenuesesesesanenreesceosecetseccoeses 836
2. Report of the Committee on the Climatological and Hydrographical
Conditions of Tropical Africa .......c0..c.sccecsssceecseccennecccerenscsesconcseree 836
3. On Uganda and its People. By Captain Wrttiams, R.A. ...........0.0000 837
4. On Hausa Pilgrimages from the Western Sudan. By Rev. Cuartzs H.
IPRA A oa g 2 t oecs ning o cepicatieeninesa ness vi snes adtvincuyey santa Gees 837
5. *On the Relation of Lake Tanganyika and the Congo. By J. Howarp
TEI: 426) GSS 8 nee ec Basics Hosa ues brea dees sccc Runes Hoece oo Ureeadmare rao saBHe Sane ci 837
6. On Environment in relation to the Native Tribes of the Congo Basin. By
TE GIPDETETY WHATS oe SeosenceScoscecoseesosc doc sane necact Cesc co acne Ueacteachanee sca 837
7. On the Vertical Relief of Africa. By Dr. H. G. SoHLicHTEr ............... 837
8. The Distribution of Disease in Africa. By R. W. FeEtxin, M.D.,
PME SMD etc anca cence savtceccoeeadaevsonidesgosaaeecccscsanemebuvcissendncdqcmiy suse 839
. Middle Egypt from Ptolemaic Maps and Recent Surveys. By Copz
VV UEBHOUSH, MLA, HIRLAGS, o.ccscecosgisccscosseseaseostedcesetenaescucassbsvnsess 839
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. Notes ofan Antarctic Voyage. By WM.S. BRUCE }..........:ceccecseeeeeees 840
2. On the Antarctic Expedition of 1892-93. By C. W. Donazp, M.B....... 841
3. *On the Importance of Antarctic Exploration, By Admiral Sir Erasmus
ROMER ete fie cc se eeO ae Dap ween qi oxnong apn ons ena ages vise cenapusiiniens ss. « 841
4, Recent Exploration in Tibet. By E. Detmar Mor@an ................ eee 841
5, On the Bengal Duars. By Epwarp Heawoop, M.A., F.R.G.S. ............ 841
6. The Use of the Lantern in Geographical Teaching. By B. BrentHam
MUEMREON MEAG, faci cuu>encesecisteneescoarsdduecwarennsneteusvedsasecodacaeesus' ies 842
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
_ Address by Professor J. Saretp NicHoxson, M.A., President of the Section... 843
“il,
Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools...............0066+5 850
xx CONTENTS.
Page
2, Report on the Methods of Economic Training adopted in this and other |
MO RUMETIOS sas sue es aa case a necae antoea acd s« sss ddoisas ee upee em se ai eileen s-attete aeemee 850
3. The Improvement of Labourers’ Cottages. By Rev. J.O. Bryan, M.A.,
TEU CUS Bete ne Aa ae eee ARR EMERR RFE Cho coras shat Aire sage asa cd 9cn9- 851
A, *Index Numbers. By STEPHEN BoURNE.......,...-.sescsercesessensseseecenssoes 851
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,
1. On Agricultural Depression. By H. H. SCOTT ............seeeeeeeeeeseeersees 85k
2, The Diminution of the Net Immigration from the rest of the country into
the great towns of England and Wales, 1871-91. By Epwin Cannan,
PION ce aruc hzavesnceau 03 sys oaaga caeeecucenaruuk qralne ute wusents anes aca a a 851
3. *On Poor Law and Old Age. By Rev. J. FRome WILKINSON ............ 852
4, On Statistical Correlation between Social Phenomena. By Professor F.
Or
WED GHWORTH. &. <cisiscenassseseonuesn acess seahseeieemmunnses Semsuee kee eet meee arenas 852
. On the Lessons of the Australian Banking Collapse. By C. Garrpnmr... 853
. On Bishop Hugh Latimer as an Economist. By the Rev. W. Cunnine-
BEAM, TODD. sachds csoniusenvovsianccevasnetesaness tierce tae ama 853
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. On Nottingham Lace and Fashion. By J. B. Frrtm ............... s.0eeeee 854
2. *On Agricultural Depression. By W. J. ALLSEBROOK.............. Keveaets 855
3. On Home Work—The Share of the Woman in Family Maintenance. By
Migs ADA FimATHBR-BIGG :...0cccpes oreo sedesesecsebnsncne secs o hdhce tt: Sane eee 855
4, On the Progress of the Newspaper Press, and the Need of Reform and
Consolidation of the Laws affecting it. By Professor J. A. Srrawan,
MGA. AGL Be. oecassedescecessonenereeweeensasecasBiede <se00e coaeetisciteea teeter 856
5. *On the Census of Foreigners in France. By M. A. pp LiteEarp......... 856
6. On Social and Economical Heredity. By W. B. GRANT ..............c0ce0 ee 856
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. *On the Currency Problem. By Professor H. 8S. Foxwett, M.A. ......... 857
2. On the Currency Question practically considered from a Commercial and
Financial Point of View. By W. E. DoRRINGTON ...............cccccc0se0e8 867
3. On some Objections to Bimetallism viewed in connection with the Report
of the Indian Currency Committee. By L. L. Price ....................0006 é
4. On India and the Currency. By F.C. HARRISON...............ccecceeeesee ses 859
Section G.i—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,
Address by Jrerpmiau Heap, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S., President of the Section... 860
15
On the Automatic Balance of Reciprocating Mechanism. By W. Worsy
BEAUMONT, Mi Tnpts Cie ipicessiueniiendst ysfaagora seta ste Koes cee eeMGe ER CR EEED fansite
CONTENTS. xxi
Page
ee on Dace Machinery.-\By Ie. DOUGHTY. ..:....5. Mpei.cc.ssscessvccctecsesecedeees 873
' 3. On Knitting Machinery. By Cas. R. WoopWARb ...............seeeeeseeees 874
4. *On Lace and Hosiery Machinery. By Professor W. Robinson ............ 874
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
1. Third Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical
Science. By Professor H. 8. Hee Suaw, M.Inst.C.F, «2.0... ee 874
2. Report on Determining the Dryness of Steam in Boiler Trials............... 874
_ 3. *On Thermal Storage by Utilisation of Town Refuse. By C. C. Keep... 874
_ 4, On the Disposal of Refuse. By Witt1am Warner, A.M.Inst.C.E, ...... 874
5. On Warming and Ventilation. By Frank AsHwett, M.Inst.M.E. ...... 875
pee, “On Modern Watchmaking. By T. P. HEWITT .......22...ccnccsscecseceeoee 877
7. On Patent Percussive Tool for Calking, Chipping, Mining. By J. Mac-
EET cn gaye Sires eo whoa a shane t'e <d csivae pana kab dhueps - ple reve Seg eden veh 877
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1. On the Relative Cost of Conductors with Different Systems of Electric
Power Transmission. By GIsBERT KAPP ...............0.csceseseneceeneeeceees 878
2. On the Utilisation of Waste Water-power for Generating Electricity. By
MRE IN MIE, bite tere ti snc asad « bruins Nag rapa od Yadias avn aaeldg poedton3 pidge foedy 878
-3. On a new Form of Variable Power-gear for Electric Railways and Tram-
ways. By W. Worsy Beaumont, M.Inst.C.B. ........ cece eeeeeceeceeeeeee 880
_ 4, *On Self-exciting Armatures and Compensators for Loss of Pressure. By
EE PIETE Nach aaauatncie aden cwawr datay @ienca te jeneteonos ste ete cextnactaxsesrecetes 881
4, On a Mechanical System of Electrical Conductors. By E. Paynr......... 881
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
1. On Flashing Lights for Lighthouses. By O. T. OLSEN .................eeeee 882
2. On an Automatic Gem-separator. By Wurm 8. Locxyart,
eater Hee WE ST MG Eh) caveabctnawanste dh dowetheds eva dens dccsveiadisdesdeceessens 883
‘3. On some Experiments with Ventilating Fans or Air-propellers. By
WILLIAM GEORGE WALKER, M.Inst.M.E. .............cccececceeeeseecececeneees 884
4, *On the Testing Machine and Experimental Steam Engine in the
Engineering Laboratories of University College, Nottingham. By Prof.
REE ASEND eater enc an ates urithde a cuvacneeeuday eho ceus ce < deed ase -hae +See arab 834
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
a i i ee
Address by R. Munro, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.E., President of the Section ...... 885
1. On the Ethnographic Aspect of Dancing. By Mrs. Litty Grove,
ER rai sic edaaiebinaidecwwwsiduidauide pabuibceeseh es iidu'dcsenb an'vicccvudonwes wachacdh:<tudesee 3895
2. Report on the Anthropometric Laboratory .....cccccsceeessecssceeeeeenceueeenees 895
xxli CONTENTS.
on
1. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom............... 896:
2. *On Anglo-Saxon Remains and Coeval Relics from Scandinavia. By
Professor LAWS HtUDEBRAND) scc.ssmscssearbendesresecsh seerasoe once Reet 896.
3. On the Origin and Development of Early Christian Art in Great Britain
and Ireland. By J. RoMILLY ALLEN, F\S.A.Scot. .........scccsescessceeoes 896,
4. *On an Implement of Hafted Bone, with a Hippopotamus Tooth inserted,
from Calf Hole, near Grassington. By Rev. E. JONES .................0ceeee 897
5. The Prehistoric Evolution of Theories of Punishment, Revenge, and
Atonement. By Rev. G. HARTWELL JONES ...............0..sscssecduecoeceees 897 |
6. ‘Four’ as a Sacred Number. By Miss A. W. BUCKLAND............00c0es00e 898:
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
1, On Ancient Metal Implements from Egypt and Lachish. By Dr. J. H.
GADSTONH wics sy tote oreenaet ans conceabecererestreeas the Paenon «dame cenetedaeetets Dene 899
2. Notes on Flint Saws and Sickles. By Roperr Munro, M.D................ 899
3. On Prehistoric Remains in Crete. By Joun L. MYRSS.................000000 899:
4, *Funeral Rites and Ceremonies among the Tshinyai, or Tshinyangwe. By
ICTONEE D)BOULL s.caecpeaceccnce secncccdsones sentences ai concsesoytasees caindretneetmteateee 900:
5. *The Arungo and Marombo Ceremonies among the Tshinyangwe. By
ILTONHL DEOLE) *, te.scssccpdesercs-pereenssecssewacsodeacccp vest userestr eet reeeneeeree 900:
G, *The'Ma-Gon. By TONER DEOEE) vi....0.005 0s. hseoscacsesvavsanss-seeeseeeriaem 900»
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
1, Report on the Exploration of Ancient Remains in Abyssinia ............... 900:
2. On the External Characters of the Abyssinians examined by Mr. Bent.
By Js GiGamson, Mie, jh eexas cows cove on tstivve oeasedawelds «s'snde Ads dea eee 900:
3. Ethnographical Notes relating to the Congo Tribes. By Herpert
WARD RIGS HE acenarecmenrer es: ecivsusie. sosbe ss stecswes seus oete see tteemeenttne 900:
4. On the Mad Head, By Crockiny CrapHaM, M.D. ............cscceeceseneees 900»
5. *On the Dards and Siah-Posh Kafirs. By J. Beppon, M.D., F.R.S., and
Dr. TERUENER ices cceptictaee cen meseass aes shoes vaoisd nena doses eee ten: Seen Saas sor 901
G. Pin-wells and Rag-bushes. By E. Sipnpy Harrnann, F.S.A, ............ 901
7, *On the Primitive Americans. By Miss J. M. WELCH .........s00c0see00 901
8. On the Indians of the Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers, Canada. By the
Page
. Report on the Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Blementary and other) Schools... ..--s-~.sc-siceecs scp s-he shee secven der aPemers 895.
. On Anthropometric Work in large Schools. By Berrram C. A. WinD13,
MUSEO MUAY se oscsscesocsnsecentens oes ere ees ee 895:
. Notes on Anthropometric Weighing. By W. Wuitserrorce Smit,
DDD MRCP! vaca qethsoctantolyess gure oh sane epiituanedase = foie eee ee ee tne Rees 896:
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
Right Rev. Dr. Bompas, Bishop of Selkirk .............-:-csosssseencassestanoncs 901
. *On the Australian Natives. By Miss J. A. FOWLER .......s0ccceseseseveres 902
10,
=
CONTENTS. xxill
: Page
*On a Modification of the Australian Aboriginal Weapon termed the
Leonile, Langeel, Bendi, or Buccan. By R. Ernerres, Jun. ............ 902
*On an Unusual Form of Rush-basket from the Northern Territory of
South Australia. By R. ETHERIDGE, Jun, .........cccssccsesccssscccesecanees 902
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19,
Recent Introduction into the Indian Army of the Method of Finger Prints
for the Identification of Recruits. By Francis Gatton, F.R.S, ......... 902
2. On the Excavation of the Stone Circle of Lag-ny-Boiragh on the Meayll
Hill at Port Erin, Isle of Man. By P. M. C. Kermops, F.S.A.Scot.,
and Professor W. A. HERDMAN, F.R.S. ........cccececesecscsseccecssssceceeeaes 902
3. On the Structure of Lake Dwellings. By Rosert Munro, M.D, ......... 903
4. A British Village of Marsh Dwellings at Glastonbury. By ArrHuur
FAIGMRED WH, SHAM, sicteccecusstsacnaressorctarsetuanescevedacctdstectenecces scttcceos tas 903
5. *On the Place of the Lake Dwellings at Glastonbury in British Archzo-
‘ logy. By Professor W. Boyp DAWKINS, F.R.S. ......ecceessccecesccneeeeeees 903
6. On Early Uses of Flint in Polishing. By H. Sropes ..............0...000005 904.
7. On Paleolithic Anchors, Anvils, Hammers, and Drills. By H. Sropzs... 904
. Report on Uniformity in the Spelling of Barbaric and Savage Languages
PHTBLUACO-TAINIOS Bescsctvedeteresten ste ccaccetenss «ucdcocum dies su teitanske advan beso sks 904.
. Interim Report on the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada 904
MRM ee cer acaSavceeudvecedaesdatsboavecsaeiaeessbedeansdssnees euaatde SaiWessenieienentese 905
XXIV )
Lisa =O.1F « PbAaT as:
PLATE I.
Illustrating the Tenth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.
PLATES II., II.
Illustrating the Report on the Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits
at Clava, Chapeihall, and other Localities.
PLATE IV.
Illustrating the Report on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea,
PLATE V.
Illustrating Mr. Seebohm’s Address to the Geographical Section.
ERRATA.
In 1889 (Newcastle) Report.
Page 28, In equation (2) for +(x*+n")u, read — (2? +n°)u.
In 1893 (Nottinghanr) Report.
Page 308, fig. 10, The Scale should be transferred to fig. 4, p. 295.
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
eee
OBJECTS.
Tae Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, inthe British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
Awnnvat Supscepers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive
XXV1 RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Association.
Associatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. ]
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of 'T'wo Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!
Application to be made at the Office of the Association.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXVii
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
Crass A. Permanent MEMBERS.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the Associa- ©
tion. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of the Associa-
tion to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.
Cuass B. Temporary Memsers.!
1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims wnder this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organising Sectional Committees.?
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,’ and of preparing Reports
1 Revised by the General Committee, 1884.
2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
3 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
XXVili RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ez officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.!
An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the Sectional Committee, after which their functions as an
Organising Committee shall cease.”
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.*
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
‘General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 P.M., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
mumber from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, for the
‘objects stated in the Rules of the Association, and specified below. The
Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of
meeting of the Section and the Sectional Committee.
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
DELOLCs: «i: sconce scanaseaave reece , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... ? If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.
1 Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880. 8 Edinburgh, 1871.
* The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXIxX
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Comuittees.!
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.2_ The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally. ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ea officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxvii), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should. be named, and
These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
? This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871,
Xxx RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION,
one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.
That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.
That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.
That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Committee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Oom-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.'
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.
The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.”
Notices regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Chairman of a Committee to whom a money grant has been made must
forward to the General Officers, before July 1, a statement of the sums
which have been expended, with vouchers, and the balance which
remains disposable on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire on June 30 following; nor is the Treasurer authorised, after that
date, to allow any claims on account of such grants, unless they be
renewed in the original or a modified form by the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices
of the British Association without special permission from the General
1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
? Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879,
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxxi
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of the Association.
In each Committee, the Chairman is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Riicker, ¥'.R.S., Burlington
House, London, W., for such portion of the sums granted as may from
time to time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, when not
employed in carrying on scientific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.
At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,! and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public commenced.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Secretary.
3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed ou
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms,
' The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of
meeting of the Section and Sectional Committee. Passed by the General Committee
at Edinburgh, 1892,
XXXil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
Presidents of the Association in former years are ew officio members of
the Committee of Recommendations.!
’ All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.
All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.”
If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.’
Corresponding Societies.!
1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the Annual Meeting at
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied
by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific
investigations recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annnuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.
4, Every Corresponding Societyshall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, properly filled
up, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Association, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
1 Passed by the General Committee at Newcastle, 1863.
2 Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865.
3 Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.
4 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXiil
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.
7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.
9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
__to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.
__ 10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.
11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
_ to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee
1893.
XXXIV RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Council.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
(1) The Council shall consist of}
1. The Trustees.
2. The past Presidents.
3. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.
4. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.
5, The past and present General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.
6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting.
7. Ordinary Members.
(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.
(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.
(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—Ist, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years ; and,
Qnd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.
(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.
(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.
1 Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.
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xlv
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
Date and Place
4832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
Presidents
Secretaries
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin......
Bristol......
Liverpool...
Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1853
Glasgow ...
Plymouth
Manchester
Cambridge
Southamp-
. Swansea ...
. Birmingham
. Edinburgh
. Ipswich ...
. Belfast......
Pebvull ss sarsays
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Rey. Dr. Robinson
Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S..........+8-
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
E.R.S.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.IA. ...
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.
Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......
William Hopkins, F.R.S.......
M.A.,
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
W. Whewell,
F.RS.
. W. Thomson,
E.RB.S., F.R.S.E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.2.S.
D.D.,
M.A.,
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof, Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.
W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly. :
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin,. Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Rey. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W..J.Macquorn Rankine, Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
xlvi
Date and Place Presidents
1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
E.R.S., F.R.8.E.
1856, Cheltenham
1857, Dublin...... Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.
1858. Leeds ...... Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.
1859. Aberdeen... |The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester/G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.
B.S.
1862. Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
F.R.S.
1863, Newcastle
C.E., F.R.S.
1864, Bath......... a Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.B.A
1865, Birmingham
W. ase re RCH A.,F.B.S.,
F.R.A.S.
1866. Nottingham |Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
1867. Dundee ...|Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,
F.R.S
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
1869, Exeter...... Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
1870. Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ..
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...; Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S.
1874. Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.
1875. Bristol...... Prof. age ed Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
1876. Glasgow ...
D.C.L., F.R.S.
1877. Plymouth...
Pres. Physical Soc.
1878. Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon,
D.C.L., F.R.S
1879. Sheffield ...|George
M.A., F.R.S,
Prof. G. G, Stokes, M.A., Sec.
R.S.
Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
Rey. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
REPORT—1 893.
Secretaries
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall,
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. G. C. Bell, Rey. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,| Rev. N. Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.
Jenkin, Prof. Stevelly, Rey. C. T.
Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin,Prof.H.J.8. Smith,
Rev. 8S. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
.|Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
.| Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A. S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W.L., Glaisher,
T. Muir.
Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.8.,| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, FG. Landon.
D.D.,| Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
"Johnstone Stoney,|A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS, xlvii
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1880. Swansea... ee W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,)W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
F.R.S. Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
1881. York......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. 0. J. Lodge,
LL.D., D.C.L., E.R.S. D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
1882, Southamp- | Rt. Hon. ” Prof. Lord Rayleigh,|W. M. Hicks, Prof, O. J. Lodge,
ton. M.A., F.B.S. = . MacAlister, Rev. G. Richard-
1883. Southport |Prof.O.Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S. w. wo Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
1884, Montreal ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A.
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S. Johnson, Prof. O. J. Lodge, Dr. D.
MacAlister.
1885, Aberdeen...|/Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A.,|R.E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
F.R.S.E W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
1886. Birmingham|Prof. G. Hy Darwin, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S. J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.
1887, Manchester | Prof. Sir R. §. Ball, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
LL.D., F.R.S. H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.
1888. Bath......... Prof. G. F, Fitzgerald, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
E.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw.
1889. Newcastle- |Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
upon-Tyne| R.H., F.R.S. A. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, Prof. H.
Stroud.
1890. Leeds ...... J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,)R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.B.S., V.P.R.A.S. W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.
1891. Cardiff...... Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.8c.,|R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
LL.D., F.R.S. Lodge, Prof, A. L. Selby.
1892. Edinburgh |Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,|R. EH. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
1893. Nottingham|R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.|W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
1832. Oxford...... John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |James F. W. Johnston.
1833. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |Prof. Miller.
1834. Edinburgh | Dr. Hope..............s0008 Gaecicrals Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
1835. Dublin...... Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......|Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... Dr. Apjohn, Dr, C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
1837. Liverpool...| Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... Prof. i ohnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.
1838. Newcastle | Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S./Prof. Miller, H. L, Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
1839. Birmingham | Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......]Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson,
1840. Glasgow ...|Dr. Thomas Thomson, F,R.S.|Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. TT. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
1841. Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ......... J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
1842. Manchester |John Dalton, D.O.L., F.R.S. |Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
1843. Cork......... Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A.........|R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
1844. York......... Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......| Dr. L. Playfair, EH. Solly, T. H. Barker.
1845, Cambridge |Rev. Prof, Cumming ......... R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,
E. Solly,
xlvili
REPORT—1893.
seen Inn SSS Un SSS
Date and Place
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847. Oxford
seeeee
1848. Swansea
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull.........
1854. Liverpool
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
seeeee
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter ......
1870, Liverpool...
41871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
4873. Bradford...
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol......
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1876. Dublin......
. | Prof.
...|W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. .......
Presidents
Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
E.R.S.
...| Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
John Percy, M.D., F.RB.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews,M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.8. ...
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S,
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......
Prof. W.A. Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof, W.H.Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
F.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.,
F.C.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
V.P.B.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. HE. Frankland, F.R.S.,
F.C.S.
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.
M.D.,
Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof, T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....
Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.RB.S., F.C.S.
F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S.
| Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
1 SEBS: Crs.
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,|
Secretaries
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. 8. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.
J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
..|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
...|Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. xlix
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1879. Sheffield ...} Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S, H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.
1880. Swansea ...| Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,|P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, Dr.
F.R.S. W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson, J. M.
Thomson.
1881. York......... Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,|P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
E.R.S. T. Gough.
1882. Southamp- |Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,/P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
ton. F.R.S. J. L. Notter.
1883. Southport |Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.../Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
1884. Montreal ...| Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
LL.D., F.R.S. T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S. H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.
1886, Birmingham| W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. |Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley, W. W.
J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.
1887. Manchester | Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.S.| Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.
1888. Bath......... Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc.,/Prof. H. B. Dixon, Dr. H. Forster
F.R.S., V.P.C.S. Morley, R. E. Moyle, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.
1889. Newcastle- |Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,|Dr. H. Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel,
upon-Tyne} D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S. Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattin-
son, jun.
1890. Leeds ...... Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,/C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S. Morley, D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W.
J. Nicol.
1891. Cardiff...... Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,!C. H. Bothamley, Dr. H. Forster
C.B., F.RB.S., F.C.S8. Morley, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, Dr.
G. 8. Turpin.
1892. Edinburgh | Prof.H.McLeod,F.R.8.,F.C.S.|Dr. J. Gibson, Dr. H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
1898. Nottingham|Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,|J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. D. H. Nagel, Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
‘GEOLOGICAL (anv, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1832. Oxford...... R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......; John Taylor.
1833. Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......|W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
1834. Edinburgh .|Prof. Jameson ..........eseee00e Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
1835. Dublin...... RSs) GEifhth [o.c0stceeusvoscebend |Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
1836. Bristol ...... Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—| William Sanders, S. Stutchbury,
Geography, R.I.Murchison,| T. J. Torrie.
F.R.S.
1837. Liverpool...| Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— | Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— Geo-
Geography,G.B.Greenough,| graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
F.R.S RN
_ 1838. Newcastle. .|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—|W. C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.| Geography, Capt. Washington.
1839. Birmingham} Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
Geography,G.B.Greenough,| land, Charles Darwin.
E.R.S,
1893. Cc
] REPORT—1893.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1840. Glasgow ...|Charles Lyell, F.R.S.—Geo-|W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
graphy, G. B. Greenough,} Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
F.R.S. Scoular, M.D.
1841, Plymouth...|H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...|W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.
1842, Manchester |R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
1843. Cork......... Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S8.,|Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
M.R.LA. land.
1844, York......... Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.| Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Geol. Soc.
1845. Cambridge.|Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,|Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
F.R.S. Rev. W. Thorp.
1846. Southamp- | Leonard Horner,F.R.S.—Geo-| Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
ton. graph y, G. B. Greenough,| Prof. Oldham.— Greography, Dr. C.
B.R.S T. Beke.
1847. Oxford...... Very Rev.Dr. Buckland,F.R.S.|Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
1848.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Swansea ...|Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,|Starling Benson, Prof. Oldham,
F.R.S. Prof. Ramsay.
1849.Birmingham|Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,|J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof,
F.G.S
A. C. Ramsay.
1850. Edinburgh? |Sir Roderick I, Murchison,|A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
F.R.S.
1851.
1852.
1853,
1854,
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861,
1862.
1863.
Prof. Nicol.
SECTION C (continued).—GEOLOGY.
Ipswich ...| WilliamHopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.|C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,|James Bryce, James MacAdam,
F.R.S. Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Hill vcs evetse Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S......... Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
Liverpool..|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.| John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
Glasgow ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.8....|/James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Cheltenham| Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....|Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Dublin...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide| Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Leeds ...... William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,|Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
F.R.S. Shaw,
Aberdeen,..|Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,|Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
D.C.L., F.R.S. H. C. Sorby.
Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,| Prof. Patni: Edward Hull, Capt.
E.R.S., F.G.5. D. C. L. Woodall
Manchester |Sir R. rd Murchison, D.C.L.,| Prof. Harkness, Baward Hull, T,
LL.D., F.R.S: Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.|Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
Newcastle |Prof. Warington W. Smyth,/E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
F.R.S., F.G.8, Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.
1 At a meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ‘ That
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the ‘“ Geographical and Ethno-
logical Section,”’ for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page lvi.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place Presidents
1864. Bath......... Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
1865. Birmingham |Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,/Rev. P. B
Secretaries
LL.D.,| W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
ares W. Pengelly.
. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
1866. Nottingham Prof. A. Pei Ramsay, LL.D.,/R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
:
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891,
1892.
1893.
1885.
E.R.S
Dundee ... Archibald Geikie,
F.G.S.
Norwich ...|/R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Exeter ...... Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Liverpool... |Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Edinburgh | Prof. A. ’ Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Brighton...|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Bradford ...|Prof. J. ee D.C.L.,
F.R.S., 43h
Belfast...... Prof. Tull M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Bristol...... Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S.
Glasgow ...|Prof. John Young, M.D.......
Plymouth...|W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Dublin...... John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Sheffield ...|Prof.P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Swansea ...|H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.B.S.,
F.G.S.
OTK. 000000 A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Southamp- |R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.
ton.
Southport |Prof. W. OC. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Montreal ...|W. T. Blanford, F.RS., Sec.
G.8.
Aberdeen ...| Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S.
Birmingham| Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.B.S., F.G.S.
Manchester | Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Bath os. .s.0. Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
Newcastle- | Prof. J. Geile, LL.D., D.C.L.,
upon-Tyne| F.R.S., F.G.S.
Leeds ...... Prof. a H. Green, M.A.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.
Cardiff ...... Ext T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Edinburgh |Prof. C. te a LL.D.,
F.RB.S.,
Nottingham|J. J. H. Teil “M. A., F.RB.S.,
F.G.S.
son, G. H. Wright.
F.R.S.,| Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rey. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.
L. i Miall, E. B, Tawney, W. Top-
J. ral ener W.Rudler,W.Topley.
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker
T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.
R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.
F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.
C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.
W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.
J. oie Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
y, W. W. Watts.
Prof GA Lebour, W. Topley, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
H. M. ‘Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.
Ce2
lii
REPORT—1893.
Date and Place
Presidents
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
Oxford
Cambridge!
Edinburgh.
Liverpool...| W. S. MacLeay
Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846,
1847.
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Manchester
se eeeaeee
Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
Secretaries
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...| Rev. Prof. J. 8S. Henslow.
Rey. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.8.!C. C. Babington, D. Don.
Prof: (Gxahamites.s.ccs.cesseseeces
|W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
seme erm ere eres ee eeeeees
Sir W. Jardine, Bart. .........
ProfiOwen,laies-eiececcsesaec
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......
John Richardson, M.D.,F.R.S.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-
bert, LL.D., F.L.S.
William Thompson, F.L.S....
Very Rev, the Dean of Man-
chester.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Sir J. Richardson,
F.RB.S.
M.D.,
J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.
C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
Turner.
G. J. Allman, Dr.
Patterson.
Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
| Wooldridge.
Lankester, R.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S. Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
, Wollaston.
SECTION D (continwed).—zZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. lv.]
1848.
Swansea ..
1849. Birmingham
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast
Ea ee ceees
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham
Hits, Wie Li wrryais okt: Sameeteemas
William Spence, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. | Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
ae Rev. Prof.
F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Henslow, M.A.,
Canam meee erecanereeeeeree
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.
F.R.S.
Pret. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
|Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, EF. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
1 At this Meeting Pliysiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. ly.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1843. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham
Presidents
Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.
Perof iuley RSs | ssscssese
Prof. Balfour, M.D.. F.R.S....
Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...
SECTION D (continued)
|C. C, Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. |
hiii
Secretaries
\Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W. 5S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E, Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H,
b. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
../H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B, Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
,—BI0LoGy.!
1866. Nottingham|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.; Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
1867. Dundee
—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S,
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
...| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
1868. Norwich ...|Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
1869. Exeter......
H. Flower, F.R.S.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.|Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
—Dep. of Bot. and LZool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., H. B. Tylor.
EK. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, Rey. H. B. Tris-
tram.
1870. Liverpool...|Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,]Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
1871. Edinburgh .
1872. Brighton ...
1873, Bradford ...
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,| Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
KH. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.
1 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved:—‘That the
title of Section D be changed to Biology;’ and ‘That for the word “ Subsection,”
in the rules for conducting the business of the Sections. the word “Department ”
be substituted.’
liv
REPORT—1893.
Presidents
Date and Place
1874, Belfast ......
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— Dep. of An-
throp.,Sir W.R.Wilde, M.D.
1875. Bristol ......
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-
land, M.D., F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.R.S.
A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJeffreys, LL. D.,F.R.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol. RB.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
K. B. Tylor,. D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
F,. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Richard Owen, C.B., M.D.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. J. S. Burdon
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.RB.S.
— Dep. of. Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.B.S.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.
1876. Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin ......
1879, Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York.
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport!
1884. Montreal?...
F.R.S.
Secretaries
Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of| W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of| EK. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.
K. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.
G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.
G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. HE. Spencer.
G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,|Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments
of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated.
* By authority of the General Committee,
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which
Anthropology was made a separate
see p. lxii.
——————————=— Se
- 1840. Glasgow .
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lv
Date and Place Presidents
Secretaries
1885. Aberdeen ...| Prof. W. C. McIntosh, M.D.,|W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.
1886. Birmingham|W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,|Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
E.B.S., F.G.S.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.
1887. Manchester | Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,|C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.
1888. Bath......... W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,|F'. E. Beddard, 8. F. Harmer, Prof.
F.B.S., F.L.S. H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
1889. Newcastle-| Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson,
upon-Tyne} M.A., M.D., F.R.S.
1890, Leeds ...... Prof. A. Milnes
1891. Cardiff...., .|Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
E.R.S., F.L.S.
1892. Edinburgh
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
1893. Nottingham|Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
Dr. S. J. Hickson, Prof. F. W.
Oliver, H. Wager, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.
F. E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.
G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Murray, Prof. W. Stirling, H.
Wager.
G. C. Bourne, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Dr. S. J.
Hickson, Dr. W. B. Ransom, W.
L. Sclater.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1833. Cambridge
1834. Edinburgh
DreHavilandcccccsssccsseces
Dr. Abercrombie ...... tseseeeee| Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.
....|Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin......
1836. Bristol ......
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
Dr. Pritchard....... pmaanisveen
Dr. Roget, F.R.S. .....c0.0s0-
Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......
T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......
...| Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
...| Dr. Symonds.
...|Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
...|T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1839. Birmingham|John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....|Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
mes Watson, M.D.
...|Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
1841. Plymouth...|P, M. Roget, M.D., Sec. B.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8.
Sargent.
1842. Manchester | Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1843. Cork .........}Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.
1844. York......... J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......
1845. Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ..
...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
...{L. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
....|Dr. R. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
lvi
Date and Place
1846.
1847.
1850.
1855.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1865.
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea
Southamp-
ton.
Oxford! ...
Edinburgh
eeeeee
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
REPORT— 1893.
Presidents
Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......
C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
| Secretaries
| gent.
|Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.
| Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......
Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,
F.RB.S.
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.
Prof.G.Roleston,M.D.,F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.
Gla. Paget, MoD i ccrsccsscetes
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,
Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
C. G. Wheelhouse.
Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. 8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner,
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
p. xlix.]
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh /|Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854,
1855.
1856.
1857.
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard..............es0e088
Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.
Soe | eee eee eee eee en ese e ee eeeseeeaeeeeeeseeee
[Dr. King.
Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,
Pres. R.G.S.
Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
1 (600 SRS R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.
Liverpool... |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
Glasgow ...|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Cheltenham |Col. Sir H. ©. Rawlinson,
K.C.B.
Duablinizssec Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,
Pres. R.I.A.
R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
Shaw.
|R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.
Norton Shaw‘
R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. lii.).
Geography.
* Vide note on page liii.
Section E, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
Presidents
1858. Leeds
seeeee
1859. Aberdeen...
1860.
1861.
Oxford
Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
seeeveeee
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter......
1870.
1871.
1872.
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
1873.
1874.
1875,
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879, Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881.
1882.
1883.
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
RS ‘Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......
.|Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,
Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,
F.R.S,
Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
E.R.S.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
E.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.
\Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.
.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
F.R.S.
Secretaries
R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. 0’Cal-
laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.
Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode..
J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.
H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, CyrilGraham, Clements
R. Markham, S. J. Mackie, R.
Sturrock.
T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.
Markham, T. Wright.
SECTION E (continwed),—GBOGRAPHY.
|Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.
|Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
| Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.
‘Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,
¥.R.G.S.
Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.8.1.,F.B.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S.
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom- |
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.B.S ,
F.R.G.S.
Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.1,,!
C.B., F.B.S.
Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.1.,
F.R.G.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
J. H. Thomas.
H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
Mott, Clements R. Markham.
A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.
H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
\H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, H. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C,
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.
E. G. Ravenstein, H. C. Rye.
John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Austen, F.R.S.
Rye.
\viii
Date and Place Presidents
REPORT—1893.
Secretaries
1884. Montreal ...
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.,V.P.8.G.8.
1885. Aberdeen...
LL.D., F.RB.S.
Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,} Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O'Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,|J.S. Keltie, J. 8. O'Halloran, E. G.
Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
1886. Birmingham | Maj. Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,|F. T. S. Houghton, J. 8. Keltie,
KC 8:1, 3B). BRIG:
1887. Manchester}|Col.
G.C.M.G., F.B.S., F-R.GS.
1888. Bath
K.C.B., F.R.S., F.B.G.S.
1889. Newcastle- {Col. Sir F.
upon-Tyne}, K.C.M.G., C.B., F.B.G.S.
1890. Leeds ......
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
1891. Cardiff
E. G. Ravenstein.
Sir G Warren, R.E.,| Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. S. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.
Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,|J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein.
de Winton,|J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.
Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert|A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
A. Silva White.
E. G. Ravenstein, E.B.GS., John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
F.S.8.
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.
1892. Edinburgh |Prof. J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.R.S.,|J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
V.P.R.Scot.G.s.
Keltie, A. Silva White.
1893. Nottingham} H. oe ae Sec. B.S., F.L.8.,|Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
F.Z.S8.
Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES,
1833. Cambridge| Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .
1834, Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart... tee:
VI.—STATISTICS.
.|J. E. Drinkwater.
Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
Charles Babbage, F.R.S. .
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F. R. S.
..| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........
1837. Liverpool.
1838. Newcastle (Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........
1839. Birmingham) Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........
1840. Glasgow ...|Rt. Hon, Lord Sandon, M.P.,
E.R.S.
1841. Plymouth...|Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...
1843. Cork
1844. York.........
Sir C, Lemon, Bart., M.P. ..
Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F-.R.S.,
F.L.S.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............
ton.
1847. Oxford Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S.
1849. Birmingham! Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton......
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr.
| V.P.R.S.E.
.|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.
W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
F, Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.
C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.
Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
.|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock,
J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.
P. Neison.
...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P
Neison.
John Lee,|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
Stark.
_ 1876. Glasgow ...
+
4
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lix
eee
Date and Place Presidents
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin.
1853. Hull......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.
1854. Liverpool...|Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. ........-
1855. Glasgow ...|R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...
SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC
1856. Cheltenham Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P.
1857. Dublin...... His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.1LA.
1858. Leeds ....... Edward Baines....... ddeastsaaes
1859. Aberdeen...|Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......
1860. Oxford......
‘Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......
1861.
1863.
1864.
William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
1867. Dundee .....|M. E. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......
1868. Norwich....|Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
1869, Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh |Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves
1872. Brighton...
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......
eeeeeeces
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Lord O’Hagan
1875. Bristol
Pres. 8.8.
1877. Plymouth...}Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
1878. Dublin
M.R.LA.
1879. Sheffield ...}G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
8.5.
1880. Swansea ...|G. W. Hastings, M.P...........
1881. York......... Rt. Hon. M. E, Grant-Duff,
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. W. EH. Forster, M.P.
Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L,
M.P
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
Secretaries
J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
MacAdam, jun.
Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
Duncan, W. Newmarch.
J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh,
SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
Rey. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.
Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.
T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, 8. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rev. Prof. J. H. T. Rogers.
David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. EH. T.
Rogers
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
K. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
E. Macrory, F, Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.
James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.,|F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R. EH. Leader, C.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.
Ix
Date and Place
REPORT—1893.
Presidents
1882.
1883.
1884,
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892,
1893.
1836.
1837.
1838.
Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
seeeee
Cardiff
Edinburgh
Nottingham
IBTIBLOl s,s.
Liverpool...
Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840.
1841.
1842.
1843,
1844.
1845.
Glasgow ....
Plymouth
Manchester
sees eeeee
Cambridge
1846.Southampton
1847.
1848.
Oxfords:
Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850.
1851.
Edinburgh
Ipswich .....
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,
M.P., F.R.S.
R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.
Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.L., C.I.E., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,
Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.
Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.8.
Rt. Hon, Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.S.S.
Prof, A. Marshall, M.A., F.S.S.
Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,
D.Sce., F.S.8.
Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle,
K.C.B.
Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,
E.S.8.
Secretaries
G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.
Rey. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.
Prof. H. S$. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.
Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.
F. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.
Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,
Prof. J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sar-
gant.
Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T, H.-Elliott,
Prof. H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. BR.
Price.
Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,
¥F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. BR. Price.
W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.
Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof. W. R. Sorley.
Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.
E. C. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,
LL. LL. F. R. Price.
Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
| Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinsor .........00.
| Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......
Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.
Sir John Robinson ..........06+
John Taylor, H.R.S. a.c.cesce0..
Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......
Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.LA....
John Taylor, F.R.S. ........060+
George Rennie, F.R.S..........
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.
Rey. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.
Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.
Robt. Stephenson, M.P., F.R.
Rev. R. Robinson ...........0006
William Cubitt, F.R.S..........
S.
8.
S.
8.
T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.
J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.
Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
lxi
Date and Place
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull.........
1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin......
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford ......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
a eeeeenee
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee......
1868. Norwich
1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ..
1874. Belfast
we eeee
1875. Bristol ......
1876. Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin......
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
MSSI. YOrK.....000
1882. Southamp-
ton
Presidents
Secretaries
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn,
E.R.S.
C.E.,
John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...
W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S. ........
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.B.S. ...
Rey. Prof, Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J.F. Bateman, C.E., F.B.S...
William Fairbairn,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
LL.D.
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LE Ds
F.R.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.
C.E.,
Prof. W. J. “Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
eco KGrnd an Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F. RS.
Prof, Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
.|F. J. Bramwell, C.E. ......00.
Sl Werkls Banlows, HWE Salcapscoress
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
...|C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
Edward Woods, C.E.
ee eeeeeee
Edward Easton, C.E.
se eeeeeee
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech. |
Eng.
James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.R.8.E.
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.~
James Oldham, J. Thomson, WwW.
Sykes Ward.
John Grantham, J. Oldham,
Thomson.
L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson.
J.
.|C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
Henry Wright.
.|P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster,
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
..|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
O. Tarbotton.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
.|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie,
J. P. Smith.
H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman,
E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw,
J. N. Shoolbred.
A. T, Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.
A. T. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood,
lxii
REPORT—1893..
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1883. Southport |James Brunlees, F.R.S.E.,|A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.
Pres.Inst.C.E.
1884. Montreal...|Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,)A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
V.P. Inst.C.E. Kennedy, H. T. Wood.
1885. Aberdeen...|B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........|A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.
1886. Birmingham|Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.|C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.
C.E. Marshall, E. Rigg.
1887. Manchester | Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,|C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
LL.D., F.B.S. E. Rigg.
1888. Bath......... W. 4H. Preece, F.R.S.,]C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
M.Inst.C.E. Rigg, P. K. Stothert.
1889. Newcastle- |W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
upon-Tyne C. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.
1890. Leeds ...... Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.|/E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
E.R.A.S. Marshall, E. Rigg.
1891, Cardiff ......|T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.0.E.,/C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.
1892. Edinburgh |Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.,)C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C,
M.Inst.C.E. Popplewell, E. Rigg.
1893. Nottingham|Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
eas) Rigg, H. Talbot.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
1884. Montreal ...|E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.8....|G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.
1885. Aberdeen...|Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. |G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
1886. Birmingham|Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S.L.,
1887.
1888.
1889,
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
Manchester
Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.
Prof. A. H. Sayce, M.A. ......
Lieut.-General _ Pitt-Rivers,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Turner,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. Evans, Treas.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...
M.B.,
Prof. A. Macalister,
M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E.
M.A.,
Hurst, Dr. R, Saundby.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.
G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.
G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof.
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.
G. W. Bloxam, Rey. T. W. Davies,
Prof. R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.
Date and Place
1842. Manchester
1843. Cork
1844. York
1845. Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton,
1847. Oxford......
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull........
1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES. lxiii
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
|
Lecturer Subject of Discourse
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
Charles Vignoles, F.R.8....
Sir M. T. Brunell). .3:.stecewsce The Thames Tunnel.
Re I. Murchison........2....0.... The Geology of Russia.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.5....... The Dinornis of New Zealand.
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S.......... The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
Dr. RODINSOM. -...5..00.0..-.000008 The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .|Geology of North America,
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S......,.060. The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India.
G.B.Airy,F.B.S.,Astron.Royal| Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|Geology of Russia.
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
W. R. Grove, F.R.S............. | Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. |Shooting Stars.
Prof. M. Faraday, F. R. Sioscdes Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....|The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... Metallurgical Operationsof Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....} Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ............ Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,|Passage of the Blood through the
F.R.S.E. minute vesselsof Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. ............ Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal|Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,| Recent Discoveries in the properties
E.R.S. of Light.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.| Recent’ Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,)Some peculiar Phenomena in the
F.G.S8. Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S... ..|The present state of Photography.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F, R. 8. Anthropomorphous Apes.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P. R. 8. ..| Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the
present time.
Correlation of Physical Forces,
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ...
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
W. R. Grove, F.R.S.
lxiv
REPORT—1893.
Date and Place
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
——
1857
1858.
1859.
1860.
186].
1862
1863.
1864.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876,
seeeee
Aberdeen...
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Birmingham
Nottingham
Liverpool...
Edinburgh
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast ....6+
Bristol ......
Glasgow ...
| Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S.
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
| Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S. |
|Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F. B.S.
‘Sir R. I. Murchison, D.Cle
|Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
|
Rey. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.
Royal.
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S8.
Prof. Odling, F'.B.S..........066
|Prof. Williamson, F.R.S....
James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. ......s0008
| Dr. Livingstone, ERS. ae
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S.....00...
William Huggins, F.R.S.......
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
...|J. Fergusson, F.R.S.....cc.ee00+
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S..........
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer F.R.S....
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
|\F. A. Abel, F.R.S....c04 veeseess
HB ely lor, Wek. Selesecs<easee
F.R.S.
Profe Wi. Re Clitiord cic sosseves
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,
F.R.S.
ProteHumley sj WRS. s<ccceses
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E.
|Sir Wyville Thomson, ¥. R. Ss.
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
.|The Atlantic Telegraph.
Recent Discoveries in Africa.
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands,
Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun.
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
-|The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
.|The Chemical Action of Light.
.|Recent Travels in Africa.
Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.
The Scientific Use of the Imagina-
tion.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects,
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarised Light.
Railway Safety Appliances,
.| Force.
The Challenger Expedition,
ee
Date and Place
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York
se eeeeeee
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Birmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath
1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds
1891. Cardiff
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1893.
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
Lecturer
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Odling, F.RB.S...........6+
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S..........
Prof. Dewar, F.RB.S. ........60++
W. Crookes, F.R.S. .........006
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.
Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, Sec. R.S.
ee teee
W. Spottiswoode, Pres. B.S.
Prof, Sir Wm. Thomsen, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
Prof. R. $8. Ball, F.R.S. ......
Prof. J. G. McKendrick,
F.R.S8.E.
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S....
John Murray, F.R.S.E..........
A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
Col. Sir F. de
K.C.M.G.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....
Winton,
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
F.RS.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.RB.S.
Walter Gardiner, M.A.........
E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S.
Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.R.8.
Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. J. A. Ewing, M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.
Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........|
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.5. |
lxv
Subject of Discourse
The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
The new Element, Gallium.
Animal Intelligence.
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
Radiant Matter.
Degeneration.
Primeval Man.
Mental Imagery.
The Rise and Progress of Palzon-
tology.
The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.
Tides.
Pelagic Life.
Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.
Galvanic and Animal Electricity.
Dust.
The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.
The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.
The Great Ocean Basins.
Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.
...| The Rate of Explosions in Gases.
Explorations in Central Africa.
The Electrical Transmission of
Power.
The Foundation Stones of the Harth’s
Crust.
The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.
How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.
Mimicry.
Quartz Fibres and their Applica-
tions. |
Some Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.
Electrical Stress.
Pedigrees.
Magnetic Induction.
Flame.
The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.
lxvi
REPORT—1893.
LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1867. Dundee......| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.| Matter and Force,
1868. Norwich ...| Prof. ena LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk.
1869.
Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., 'R. 8. ...| Experimental Illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tionof the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the Spectrum,
1870, Liverpool... |Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,| Savages.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880,
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888,
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
E.RB.S.
Brighton ...|W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.| Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
Bradford ...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Fuel.
Belfast ...... Prof.,Odling; WBS: wc-asseeess The Discovery of Oxygen.
Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |A Piece of Limestone.
Glasgow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,|A Journey through Africa.
RN.
Plymouth... |\Wi. bes E8CCCC.. acveseenccnatserss Telegraphy and the Telephone.
Sheffield ...)]W. H. Ayrton ......ccscssescees Electricity as a Motive Power.
Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............ The North-East Passage.
MVOTIE S. wsasess Prof. Osborne Reynolds,|Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
E.RB.S. flakes.
Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas.R.S.| Unwritten History, and how to
ton. read it.
Southport |Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.RB.S. ...] Talking by Electricity—Telephones.
Montreal ...| Prof. R. §. Ball, F.R.S..........] Comets.
Aberdeen ...|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ The Nature of Explosions.
Birmingham|Prof. W, C. Roberts-Austen,]The Colours of Metals and their
E.R.S. Alloys.
Manchester | Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ...... Electric Lighting.
BAG BA. sa cess Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P.,|The Customs of Savage Races.
F.B.S.
Newcastle- |B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........| The Forth Bridge.
Leeds ...... Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S. {Spinning Tops.
Cardiff ...... Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S. | Electricity in Mining.
Edinburgh |Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.|Electric Spark Photographs.
Nottingham | Prof. Vivian B, Lewes......... Spontaneous Combustion.
lxvii
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
NOTTINGHAM MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
President.—R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.; Professor W. H.
Heaton, M.A.; Lord Rayleigh, Sec.R.S.; Professor A. W. Reinold,
F.R.S.
Secretaries.—J. Larmor, F.R.S.; Dr. W. Peddie, F.R.S.E.; W. T. A.
Emtage, M.A.; Professor A. Lodge, M.A. (Recorder).
SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE,
President.—Professor J. Emerson Reynolds, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor F. Clowes, D.Sc.; Professor H. B. Dixon,
F.R.S.; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.; Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S.;
Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S.; Sir H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S.; Professor T.
E. Thorpe, F.R.S.; Professor W. A. Tilden, F.R.S.
Secretaries.—J. B. Coleman, F.C.S.; M. J. R. Dunstan, F.R.S.E.; D. H.
Nagel, M.A.; Dr. W. W. J. Nicol, F.R.S.E, (Recorder).
SECTION C,—GEOLOGY,
President.—J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor W. C. Broégger; Sir A. Geikie, F.R.S.; Pro-
fessor J. P. Iddings; Rev. A. Irving, D.Sc.; Professor T. Rupert
Jones, F.R.S.; Professor C. Lapworth, F.R.S.; Rev. J. Magens
Mello, M.A.; Henry Woodward, F.R.S.
Secretaries—J. W. Carr, M.A.; J. HE. Marr, F.R.S.; Clement Reid, F.G.S.;
W. W. Watts, M.A. (Recorder),
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY,
President.—Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram, M.A., LL.D., D.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor D. J. Cunningham, F.R.S.; Sir W. H. Flower,
K.C.B., F.R.S.; J. N. Langley, F.R.S.; Professor A. Newton, F.R.S.;
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.L.S.
Secretaries.—G. C. Bourne, M.A.; Professor J. B. Farmer, F.L.S.; Pro-
fessor W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.; Dr. S. J. Hickson, M.A. (Recorder) ;
Dr. W. B. Ransom; W. L. Sclater, F.Z.S.
d 2
Ixviii REPORT—1893.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY,.
President.—Henry Seebohm, Sec.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.; J. Y. Buchanan, F.R.S.;
Colonel Godwin-Austen, F.R.S.; J. Scott Keltie, F.R.G.S.; Clements
R. Markham, C.B., F.R.S.; E. Delmar Morgan, F.R.G.S.; E. G.
Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.
Secretaries.—Lieut.-Col. Fred. Bailey, Sec.R.S.G.S.; John Coles, F.R.G.S.;
H. O. Forbes, F.R.G.S.; Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.S.E. (Recorder).
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—Professor J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc., F.S.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor Bastable, M.A.; Professor W. Cunningham,
D.D.; Professor Edgeworth, D.C.L.; Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle,
K.C.B.; J. B. Martin, M.A.; R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.; Pro-
fessor H. Sidgwick, D.Litt.; Professor J. HE. Symes, M.A.
Secretaries.—Professor HB. C. K. Gonner, M.A. (Recorder) ; H. de B. Gib-
bins, M.A.; J. A. H. Green; H. Higgs, LU.B.; L. L. F. R. Price,
M.A.
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.; Gisbert Kapp,
M.Inst.C.E.; Professor W. Robinson; Professor W. C. Unwin,
F.R.S.; Edward Woods, M.Inst.C.E.
Secretaries.—Conrad W. Cooke; W. Bayley Marshall, M.Inst.C.E.; E.
Rigg, M.A. (Recorder) ; H. Talbot.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President.—Robert Munro, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.H.
Vice-Presidents——Professor Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.; Professor A. H.
Sayce, M.A.
Secretaries—G. W. Bloxam, M.A. (Recorder); Rev. T. Witton Davies,
B.A.; Professor R. Howden, M.B.; F. B. Jevons, M.A.; J. L.
Myres, B.A.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1893-94.
) eee reneppeegeprseiinetecenrencegertll
PRESIDENT.
Dr. J. S. BURDON SANDERSON, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.O.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in the University of Oxford.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
His Grace the DuKE oF Sr. ALBANS, Lord Lien- ; The Right Worshipful the Mayor or Nortrina-
tenant of Nottinghamshire. HAM.
His Grace the DuKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., Chan- | The Right Hon. Sir W. R. Grovr, M.A., D.C.L.,
cellor of the University of Cambridge. LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
His Grace the DUKE oF PorTLAND, Lord Lieu- | Sir JoHN TurRNEY, J.P.
tenant of Caithness. Professor MIcHAEL Fostrr, M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
His Grace the DUKE OF NEWCASTLE. Sec.B.S., F.L.S., F.C.S.
The Right Hon. Lorp BELPER, LL.M. W. H. Ransom, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
Tuer Most Hon. THE MARQUESS OF SALISBURY, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of the
University of Oxford.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the Ear or Jersry, G.C.M.G., | The Rey. the VicE-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVER-
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Oxford. SITY OF OXFORD.
The Right Hon. Lorp WANTAGE, K.C.B., V.C.,Lord- | Sir W. R. Anson, D.C.L., Warden of All Souls
Lieutenant of Berkshire. College.
The Right Hon. the EARLOF RosEneEry, K.G.,F.R.S. | Sir BeRNHarD SAMUELSON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
The Right Rey. the LorpD Bishop oF OxFoRD, | Sir Henry Dyker AcLAND, Bart., M.D., F.R.S.,
D.D. Regius Professor of Medicine.
The Right Hon. Lorp RotuscuHinp, Lord-Lieu- | The Rey. the MASTER OF PEMBROKE COLLEGE,
ee eeEEEee eller
tenant of Bucks. Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy.
The Right Hon. Lorp KELvy, D.C.L., Pres.R.S. Dr. J. J. SYLVFSTER, F.R.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir Douciuas GALTON, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow, Middlesex.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor ARTHUR RUckER, M.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT OXFORD.
GILBERT C. BouRNE, Esq., M.A. D. H. NAGEL, Esq., M.A.
G. C. Druce, Esq., M.A.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT OXFORD.
F. M, Davis, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ANDERSON, Dr. W., F.R.S. MELpDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S.
Ayrton, Professor W. E., F.R.S. PREECE, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
BAKER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Ramsay, Professor W., F.R.S.
BALL, Sir RB. S., F.R.S. RkINOLD, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
Boys, Professor C. VERNON, F.R.S. REYNOLDS, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D.,
EDGEWORTH, Professor, M.A. RS.
Evans, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S. Smpewick, Professor H., M.A.
GLAZEBROOK, R. T., Esq., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
GREEN, Professor A. H., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. J., M.A., F.R.S.
HOoRSLEY, Professor Victor, F.R.S. UNWIN, Professor W.C., F.R.S.
LIVEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S. WarD, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S.
LonGE, Professor OLIVER J., F.R.S. WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.
MARKHAM, CLEMENTS R., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. Woopwanrkp, Dr. H., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.
The Right Hon. Lord RayYLricu, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S.
The Right Hon. Lord PLAYFatR, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
, F.R.S., F.L.S.
, F.R.A.S,
Lord Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. | Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir Frederick Abel, Bart., F.R.S.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. Dr. Wm. Huggins, F.R.S.
The Rt. Hon. Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.| Lord Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S. Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, LL.D., Pres.R.S, Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S, P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
J.B. Martin, Esq., M.A., F.S.S. | Prof. W.Cunningham, D.Sc. | Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.
lxx REPORT—1893.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR
Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
1892-93. RECEIPTS. a
£ 8 .
Balance brought forward i .c..ce..scusewaeneapeccvercs tse ssence.csesser 328 8 6
Mife, CompositiOns: cc ss<si cases cs.c8s seaceassodeeeeece eens dee see eset oak 170 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ..............csececeeeeeeeees 300 0 0
Anintial SubSCriphlOUs caress. oe cs ee eee eateeeme se nere te necesceoeeee 669 0 0
Sale, of Associates, Tickets s:./.<.2 seve .teede semen aeon weciivavenabscks 724 0 0
Sale of Ladies Mncketsi,-t.c.<..stec reece deus seeeer cette tee skeresee 439 0 0
Sale of ‘Publicaimons 2s... ses ces-tencenasieness setae neere cate oa seees see 120 18 6
interest,on ixchequer bills: & cocsc00 coswacsensecuertens cesses oeaeaee lib (Bi lete
Dividends on" Consols \v.3255:50.1. accede eee eaaeeeemtestadetece saaeesa es 22718 4
Dividends'onsindiata per Cents; ey.veatesceecestrere-s crests teers 105 6 O
Unexpended Balance of Grant (made in 1891) for investi-
gating the Phenomena accompanying the Discharge of
Hlectricity trom LOmts er seecontsteteeecete est coee ct ene teaceceeeee 615 4
Unexpended Grant (made in 1891) for improving a Deep-sea
WOW-NEU Stecsseresctres trav ete unmet tremnendesso ests: esse onsatde saenente 40 0 0
Boe
peas fe
pall
ee
i
a mo
- x
Bap
ae
ie
ca ms
£3142 18 2
Investments.
£ & da.
In hands of Trustees:
23 per cent. Consolidated Annuities ........:...sseeeeee 8500 0 0
Undia tS Per Cent.wStOCK) 2c ner ce epics sales wees Moe eees an aaa 3600 0 0
In hands of Treasurer :
Exchequer Bills ....... gsiig espera sak Baesshitiemmanits delesle'sinn saa 500 0 0
£12600 0 0
BALANCE SHEET, 1892-93.
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
lxxi
from July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1893. Cr.
1892-93. PAYMENTS.
Ee er
Expenses of Edinburgh Meeting, including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &C..............++ des caisss Bl ciscsariaee 196 15 0
Rent and Office Expenses ......ccesscecsecececessseeeeeseees Sieesmene | Gk) Lon oe
GAIATIOS ssecacevtenecstseccducssicevenclesesensesaptannscasrsincnanessie eee OUOL OL LO
Messrs. Spottiswoode & Co., printing, binding, &c. ......
wegen LO TO) de pa
GRANTS.
Bs .8s sds
Hlectrical Standards .............. lath aofareya.s'sieieyaniorer Sietetaeed 25 0 0
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis . on, 160; 0 0
Tables of Mathematical Functions .......... 15 0 0
Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation... reas 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Falmouth Observatory .......-. -. 25 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ....0...-seesseetrereees 20 0 0
Erratic BlockS ........ees+++ee poeere cu eaaciaanitcecesisces 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ....... Seelsevece lale ofujsletelele: diel ele’s vecie clslals 5 0 0
Underground Waters ....ccee ee eecessenceeeeree senescence 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall, &c. .....-....-- 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills ......... Bielea's|ale/a'et=is:afeiala 10 0 0
Table at the Naples Zoological Station .......-... Rraacramtetete 100 0 0
Table at the Plymouth Biological Laboratory ........--++-+ 30 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands...........+++ aa ateiatatelersta «(aie aaa 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West India Islands .......-..-----+ 50 0 0
Exploration of Irish Sea .........seeeeeeee eee -. 30 0 0
Physiological Action of Oxygen in Asphyxia ..... 1 0205,.0) 50
Index of Genera and Species of Animals ........... .- 20 0 0
Exploration of Karakoram Mountains ......seeeeeeeeseess 50 0 0
Scottish Place-names (10/., less 37, returned) ..........+ ae e100
Climatology and Hydrography of Tropical Africa .......... 50 0 0
Methods of Economic Training (41., less 13s. returned)...... 3 7 0
Anthropometric Laboratory ....++.ssceeeesseeseeccreccees 5.0 0
Exploration of Ancient Remains in Abyssinia ......+-.-++++ 25 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Canada ..... Rcinveasuedcentere te o LOU ONO)
Corresponding Societies Committee .......sseseeeeeeeeeeees 30 0 0
907 15 6
Balance at Bank of England, Western Branch 424 8 9
Less Cheques drawn but not presented ......... 39 0 0
385 8 9
In hands of General Treasurer ..........sssseeeeees bald 70
ARTHUR W. RUCKER, General Treasurer.
JOHN B. MARTIN, ie
Wa. CUNNINGHAM, \ Auditors.
July 5, 1893.
391.19
£3142 18 2
j
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
Date of Meeting Where held
1831, Sept. 27 ...| York ...2.......0ceeses
1832, June 19...) Oxford ............00-
1833, June 25 ...| Cambridge .........
1834, Sept. 8 ...| Edinburgh .........
1835, Aug. 10 ...} Dublin ...............
1836, Aug. 22 ...| Bristol ..........0+0s-
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............
1838, Aug. 10 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne
1839, Aug. 26 ...) Birmingham.........
1840, Sept. 17 ...} GlasgOW ......ee0eee
1841, July 20 ...| Plymouth ............
1842, June 23 ...| Manchester .........
Sa See AOs Lie. c} COL vccnesesecsenes sa
1844, Sept. 26 ... York .......-ccesseeses
1845, June 19 ...| Cambridge .........
1846, Sept. 10 ...] Southampton ......
SaiUNe 2d 5) OLONd! <tc enoeseceee
1848, Aug. 9 ...] Swansea ........066-
1849, Sept. 12 ...| Birmingham.........
1850, July 21...) Edinburgh .........
1851, July 2 TPSWACHitscccsreesosse
1852, Sept. 1 Belfast Geacacsseeserse
TSS Sept. o) 2.|peUll oo. wesccever .
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............|
1855, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ............
1856, Aug. 6 ...| Cheltenham .........
USbyyAur: 26...) OUbLIN: -.ccesceerssees
1858, Sept. 22 ...) Leeds...............006
1859, Sept. 14 ...) Aberdeen ............
1860; June 27 ...) Oxford 2....ccsc.0ecee|
1861, Sept. 4 ...| Manchester .........
1862, Oct. 1 ...) Cambridge .........
1863, Aug. 26 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne
S64, Sept, 13: ..-| Babb. os. .... ces cceeen
1865, Sept. 6 ...! Birmingham.........
1866, Aug. 22 ...| Nottingham.........
1867, Sept.4 ...] Dundee...............
1868, Aug. 19 ...| Norwich ............
1869, Aug. 18 ...| Hxeter .........s0ece:
1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ............
1871, Aug. 2 ...] Edinburgh .........
1872, Aug. 14...) Brighton ............
1873, Sept. 17 ...| Bradford ............
USA Aue. 19) ...|' Belfast ...s:e.c..cetee
USTb Aus. 25...) BLIStol ....05.<s.ceees
1876, Sept.6 ...| Glasgow .........+0.
1877, Aug. 15 ...| Plymouth ............
Sie Aue 4:,..| Dublin. ..:..:..scrcces
1879, Aug. 20 ...| Sheffield ............
1880, Aug. 25 ...| Swansea ............
LSS iA o Ts sa MOLK. savccscdesesaseeed
1882, Aug. 23 ...)| Southampton ......
1883, Sept. 19...) Southport ............
1884, Aug. 27 ...| Montreal ............
1885, Sept. 9 ...| Aberdeen ............
1886, Sept.1 ...| Birmingham.........
1887, Aug. 31 ...| Manchester .........
HBSS) Sept.b! ves Batthy .2..ccsdeccesccece
1889, Sept. 11...
...| Leeds
1890, Sept. 3
1891, Aug. 19 ...
1892, Aug. 3
...| Edinburgh
| 1893, Sept. 13...
Oe eee ee eeeenee
.| William Hopkins, F.R.S. ......
Nottingham
Presidents
The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L.......
The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.
The Duke of Northumberland
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
The Marquis of Breadalbane...
The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
The Lord Francis Egerton......
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.......
The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart.......
The Marquis of Northampton
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
Sir David Brewster, K.H.......
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ..
Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.
The Rey.Humphrey Lloyd, D.D.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
H.R.H. the Prince Consort ...
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...
WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S.
The Rey. Professor Willis, M.A.
Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D.
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S.
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.......
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.......
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.
R.
8.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
SirJohn Hawkshaw,C.E. ‘F. B.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M. D., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.RB.S.
Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S..
Sir John Lubbock, Bart. Ba iy} iy S
Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.
Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., F.B.S.
Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.
Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B.,F.R. s.
Sir J.W. Dawson, C.M.G.,F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L.,F.R.S
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.B.S.......
Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B.,
Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.
Dr. W. Huggins, F. RS.. =
Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., ERS. . eee
Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson...
i bm
Old Life | New Life
Members | Members
169 65
303 | 169
109 28
226 | 150
313 36
241 10
314 18
149 3
227 12
235 9
172 8
164 10
141 13
238 23
194 33
182 14
236 16 |
229 42 |
184 27
286 21
321 | 13 1%
239 16 im
203 36 |
287 40 |
292 44
207 31
167 25
196 18
204 21
314 39
246 28
245 36
212 27
162 13
239 36
221 35
173 19
201 18
184 16
144 11
272 28
178 17
203 60
235 20
225 18
314 25
428 | ' 86
266
277
259
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.
+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only,
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
| a Attended by ee ae Lear on
recelvec ccount 0
a" eral ee Ladies | Foreigners | Total Being oo gira a
BOS | Mieccecass! | \-avasseeseous 1831
Rae dite sasnaze ||/ ecgewest aces 1832
GUE rene ce fh caves testa 1833
0 ee ee £20 0 0| 1834
eve eee cca ||| AbanecOse 167 O O | 1835
eos | eee TS5Os pe seneseees 435 0 0 | 1836
ase cee ses Scie a6 TS400 |i cc ssecacs 922 12 6 | 1837
see oe nea 1100* | tas ZEOOTN Wes sseaescts 932 2 2] 1838
coe 34 TABBY |. ine oese 1595 11 0 |} 1839
= tee eee oe 40 MEG BS eSecoeces 1546 16 4 | 1840
46 317 eee 60* | oN SOL Sssecesees 1235 10 11 | 1841
75 376 33t 331* 28 JBI ITY eScantod 1449 17 8 | 1842
71 185 ASS 160 soe Gok | WP Acanaseac 1565 10 2 | 1843
ly 45 190 9+ | 260 on SM get BR an: 981 12 8 | 1844
94 22 407 172 | 35 HOMIE iaceenscss 831 9 9 | 1845
65 39 270 196 36 Spt | Ais 685 16 0} 1846
197 40 495 203 | 53 TS2O ul ees eaceis 208 5 4 | 1847
54 25 376 197° | 15 819 |£707 00/275 1 8 | 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 00; 15919 6 | 1849
128 42 510 273 44 1241 | 1085 00} 345 18 0} 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 62000); 391 9 7] 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 | 1085 00} 304 6 7 |} 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 00) 205 O 0} 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 | 1882 00} 38019 7 | 1854
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 | 231100] 48016 4 | 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 | 1098 00} 73413 9 | 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 | 201500] 50715 4 | 1857
111 91 710 509 13 1698 | 193100] 618 18 2 | 1858
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 | 278200] 684 11 1 | 1859
177 59 636 463 47 1689 | 1604 00} 76619 6} 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 | 3944 0 0 | 1111 5 10 | 1861
150 57 433 242 25 1161 | 1089 0 0} 1293 16 6 | 1862
154 209 1704 | 1004 25 3335 | 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 | 1863
182 103 1119 | 1058 13 2802 | 2965 0 0 | 1289 15 8 | 1864
215 149 766 508 23 1997 | 222700] 1591 7 10} 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 | 2469 0 0 | 1750 13 4 | 1866
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 | 2613 0 0| 1739 4 O | 1867
226 117 720 682 45t 2004 | 2042 00 | 1940 0 O | 1868
229 107 678 600 17 1856 | 1931 0 0 | 1622 0 0O| 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 | 3096 0 0 | 1572 0 0 | 1870
311 127 976 754 21 2463 | 2575 0 0 | 1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 | 26490 0| 1285 O O | 1872
237 99 796 601 11 1983 | 2120 0 0} 1685 O 0} 1873
232 85 817 630 12 1951 | 1979 0 0} 1151 16 0 | 1874
307 93 884 672 17 2248 | 239700) 960 0 0 | 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 | 3023 00] 1092 4 2) 1876
238 59 446 283 11 1229 | 1268 00] 1128 9 °7 | 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 | 261500] 725 16 6 | 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 | 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11 | 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 899 00] 731 7 7 | 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 | 268900] 476 8 1 | J881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 | 1286 0 0 | 1126 1 11 } 1882
330 323 952 841 5 2714 | 236900] 1083 3 3) 1883
317 219 826 74 |26&60 H.§) 1777 | 1538 00] 1173 4 O |} 1884
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 | 225600} 1385 O 0 | 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 | 253200] 995 O 6 | 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 | 4336 0 0 | 1186 18 0 | 1887
399 100 639 509 35 1984 | 2107 00] 1511 O 65 | 1888
412 113 1024 579 12 2437 | 2441 0 0/ 1417 O 11 | 1889
368 92 680 334 21 1775 | 177600) 789 16 8 | 1890
341 152 672 107 12 1497 | 1664 0 0 | 1029 10 0} 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 | 2007 00| 86410 O | 1892
328 57 773 268 17 1661 | 1653 00 907 15 6 | 1893
cluding Ladies, § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.
lxxiv REPORT—1893.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Council for the year 1892-938, presented to the General
Commvitiee at Nottingham on Wednesday, September 13, 18938.
The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer during
the past year, and his account from July 1, 1892, to June 30, 1893,
which has been audited, will be presented to the General Committee.
Invitations to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association at Bourne-
mouth or at Ipswich in 1895 have heen received, and will be brought
before the General Committee on Monday ; communications in reference
to future Meetings of the Association have been received from Liverpool
and Toronto.
The Council have been informed that Mr. Arthur P. Johnson, one of
the Local Secretaries, having accepted an official appointment in London,
was obliged to resign his office, and that Mr. Arthur Williams has
allowed himself to be nominated Secretary in his place.
The Council have elected the following Foreign Men of Science, who
attended the Meeting at Edinburgh, Corresponding Members :—
Dr. Svante Arrhenius, Stockholm. Mr. D. C. Gilman, Baltimore.
Prof. Marcel Bertrand, Paris. Dr. C. E. Guillaume, Sévres.
Prof. F. Elfving, Helsingfors. Prof. Rosenthal, Erlangen.
Prof. Léo Errera, Brussels. Dr. Maurits Snellen, Utrecht.
Prof. G. Fritsch, Berlin.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration and action if
desirable :—
(a) That the Council be requested to draw the attention of the Local Govern~
ment Board to the desirability of the publication of the ‘Report on the
Examination into Deviations from the Normal amongst 50,000 Children in
various Schools,’ which has been presented to that Board by the British
Medical Association.
The Council resolved that a letter should be addressed to the President
of the Local Government Board in the sense of this resolution :—
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
BURLINGTON HousE, LONDON, W.,
December 19, 1892.
The Right Hon. Henry Fowler, M.P.,
President of the Local Government Board.
S1z,—The Anthropological and Biological Sections of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science at their last meeting had brought before them the
question of the Deviation from the Normal in Children in Elementary Schools, in
connection with a Report drawn up by a Committee of the International Congress
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxxv
of Hygiene and Demography. It is understood that this Report has been presented
to your Honourable Board by the British Medical Association. The British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, having regard to the importance of the question
from a physiological point of view, as bearing upon the health of the community,
passed a resolution requesting the Council of the Association to urge upon your
Honourable Board the importance of publishing the Report above referred to, and
the Association appointed a committee of their body to continue the further collection
of statistics on the subject.
I am therefore instructed by the Council to submit this recommendation, and to
urge upon your Honourable Board the importance of the publication of this Report.
I have the honour to be, Sir, your most obedient servant,
ARCH. GEIKIE, President.
The following reply was received on January 29 :—
LocaAL GOVERNMENT BOARD, WHITEHALL, S.W.,
January 28, 1893.
S1z,—I am directed by the Local Government Board to acknowledge the receipt
of your letter of the 19th ultimo, in which, on behalf of the Council of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, you urge upon the Board the importance
of publishing the Report made on behalf of the British Medical Association by Dr.
F. Warner on the Physical and Mental condition of 50,000 school children; and to
state that, while the Board fully recognise the value of the Report in question, they
do not consider that they can undertake its publication.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
WM. E. KNOLLYS, Assistant Secretary.
Sir A. Geikie,
President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
(6) That the Council be requested to draw the attention of Her Majesty’s
Government to the Anthropometric method for the measurement of criminals,
which is successfully in operation in France, Austria, and other Continental
countries, and which has been found effective in the identification of
habitual criminals, and consequently in the prevention and repression of
crime.
Council resolved that—
Considering the recognised need of a better system of identification than is now
in use in the United Kingdom and its Dependencies, whether for detecting
deserters who apply for re-enlistment, or old offenders among those who are
accused of crime, or for the prevention of personation, more especially
among the illiterate, the Council of the British Association express their
opinion that the Anthropometric methods in use in France and elsewhere
deserves serious inquiry as to their efficiency, the cost of their maintenance,
their general utility, and the propriety of introducing them, or any modifi-
cation of them, into the Criminal Department of the Home Office, into the
Recruiting Departments of the Army and Navy, or into Indian and Colonial
Administration.
Copies of this resolution and the following letter, signed by the President
of the Association, were sent to the Secretaries of State for the Home
Department, Army, Navy, India, and the Colonies :—
June 1893.
The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science having
had under consideration the question of the best means for the identification of
criminals, I am desired to lay before you the inclosed Report on this subject which
the Council have adopted. Good evidence has been submitted to them that anthro-
pometric methods, that is to say, the classification of measurements of bodily marks
and of finger prints, afford a ready and inexpensive method of identification, and the
progress made abroad in organising these methods justifies the hope that the subject
may be deemed worthy of serious inquiry by the various Government Departments
of this country.
ixxvi REPORT—1893.
It is believed by the Council that the facilities at the command of these Depart-
ments would enable a more correct judgment to be formed, both of the real value to
the nation of improved means of identification and of the efficiency and costs of the
methods above referred to, than could be obtained through the exertions, however
zealous, of private persons.
I therefore venture to hope that you may be willing that inquiries be instituted
in the Department over which you preside. The Council will be ready to furnish
any information at their disposal which may be desired.
I have the honour to be, your obedient servant,
ARCH. GEIKIE, President.
The following replies have been received :—
WAR OFFICE, PALL MALL, S.W., June 28, 1893.
Srr,—I am directed by Mr. Secretary Campbell-Bannerman to acknowledge the
receipt of your letter of the 19th instant, forwarding a copy of a Report from the
British Association for the Advancement of Science relative to the anthropometric
method of identifying persons charged with crime.
In reply, I am to acquaint you that the working of this system in France was not
long since the subject of careful consideration on the part of the Secretary of State
for War, who came to the conclusion that, although the system appeared to be ad-
mirably adapted for the identification of criminals, it was not desirable it should be
introduced into the British Army.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
RALPH THOMPSON.
The President,
British Association for the Advancement of Science,
Burlington House, W.
INDIA OFFICE, WHITEHALL, 8.W., July 11, 1893.
S1r,—I am directed by the Secretary of State for India in Council to acknowledge
the receipt of your letter of the 19th ultimo, and, in reply, to state that anthropometry
according to the system invented by M. Bertillon has been introduced into India by
the Government, and is now being tried there as an experiment.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
GEORGE W. E. RUSSELL.
Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., F.BR.S., President,
British Association for the Advancement of Science,
Burlington House.
ADMIRALTY, August 5, 1893.
S1r,—My Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty having had under consideration
your letter of the 19th June last, on the subject of an improved mode of registration
of physical measurements, &c., of persons entered into the Government services with
a view to the identification of criminals, I am commanded by their Lordships to
acquaint you that they are not prepared to introduce the Continental system of
anthropological examination into the Naval Recruiting Department, as the present
mode of noting the physical measurements of all persons who may be entered, together
with any particular marks or scars, is deemed sufficient for official purposes, so far
as the identification of men is concerned, and that, as a rule, no difficulty arises in
identifying deserters.
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
EVAN MACGREGOR.
Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., President,
British Association for the Advancement of Science,
Burlington House, W.
(ec) That the letter of Professor E. Wiedemann and the communications from
the Committees of Sections B and C on the subject of the headings of
Reports be referred to the Council.
The Council resolved that the subject of a Report should be mentioned
first, then the names of the Committee, and finally the titles of any
Appendices.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxvii
The Council received an invitation from the University and Citizens
of Padua to appoint a delegate to attend the celebration of the three
hundredth anniversary of the appointment of Galileo to the Chair of
Mathematics in the University of Padua, and in accordance with this
request they appointed Mr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., to join in this
celebration.
The Report of the corresponding Societies Committee has been re-
ceived, and will be presented to the General Committee.
The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Professor R. Meldola, Sir Douglas Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Whitaker,
Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W. Topley, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V.
Holmes, Mr. E. B. Poulton, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, and the Rev. Canon
Tristram, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the General Com-
mittee.
The Council nominate Dr. J. G. Garson, Chairman, Mr. G. J. Symons,
F.R.S., Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, F.G.S., Secretary, to the
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to be held during
the Meeting at Nottingham.
An Index to the Reports of the Association from 1831 to 1860
was published in 1864, of which copies are still to be obtained. Mr.
Griffith has for some time been engaged on the arduous task of preparing
an Index to the Reports from 1861 to 1890.
The Council are glad to be able to announce that this new Index is.
now in type, and will be on sale at a cost of 15s. within a few weeks.
It is evident that the utility of the Annual Reports will be much
increased, now that their contents are made more readily accessible by
means of a good index.
In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be—
Sir M. E. Grant-Duff. Prof. Schafer.
Prof. G. F. FitzGerald. Prof. Schuster.
Prof, Roberts-Austen.
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members.
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—
Anderson, Dr. W., F.R.S. Meldola, Prof. R., F.R.S.
Ayrton, Prof. W. E., F.R.S. Preece, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Baker, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. Ramsay, Prof. W., F.R.S.
Ball, Sir R. S., F.B.S. Reinold, Prof. A. W., F.R.S.
*Boys, Prof. C. Vernon, F.R.8. *Reynolds, Prof. J. Emerson, M.D., F.R.8.
Edgeworth, Prof., M.A. Sidgwick, Prof. H., M.A.
Evans, Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S. Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
Glazebrook, R. T., Esq., F.R.S. *Thomson, Prof. J. J., M.A., F.R.S8.
Green, Prof. A. H., F.R.8. Unwin, Prof. W. C., F.RB.S.
*Horsley, Prof. Victor, F.R.S. Ward, Prof. Marshall, F.R.S.
Liveing, Prof. G. D., F.R.S. Whitaker, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Lodge, Prof. Oliver J., F.R.S. Woodward, Dr. H., F.B.S.
*Markham, Clements R., Esq.,C.B., F.R.S.
Ixxviii
REPORT—1893.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
NorTincgHamM MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1893.
1. Recewing Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.
The Application of Photography
to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.
[Last year’s grant renewed. ]
For Calculating Tables of certain
Mathematical Functions, and,
if necessary, for taking steps to
carry out the Calculations, and
to publish the results in an
accessible form.
Considering the best Methods of
Recording the Direct Intensity
of Solar Radiation,
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Professor G. Carey
Foster,
Secretary.—Mr. RB. T. Glazebrook.
/ Lord Kelvin, Professors W. E.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and Oliver J. Lodge, Lord Ray-
leigh, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr.
A. Muirhead, Messrs. W. H.
Preece and Herbert Taylor,
Professors J. D. Everett and A.
Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming,
Professors G. F. FitzGerald,
G. Chrystal, and J. J. Thomson,
Mr, W.. N. Shaws; Dris d= ors
Bottomley, Rev. T. C. Fitz-
patrick, Professor J. Viriamu
Jones, Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney,
Professor 8. P. Thompson, and
Mr. G. Forbes.
Chairman.—Mr. G. J. Symons.
Secretary.—Mr. A. W. Clayden.
Professor R. Meldola and Mr. John
Hopkinson,
Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.
Secretary.—Professor A. Lodge.
Lord Kelvin, Professor A. Cayley,
Professor B. Price, Dr. J. W.
L. Glaisher, Professor A. G.
Greenhill, and Professor W. M.
Hicks.
Chairman.—Sir G. G. Stokes.
Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.
Professor A. Schuster, Mr. G. John-
stone Stoney, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Captain W.de W. Abney, Mr. C.
Chree, Mr. G. J. Symons, and
Mr. W. E. Wilson.
Grants
Sa
10
oF
on
00
00
00
f
ie Ml eel a
eae +?
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
To consider the establishment of
a National Physical Laboratory
for the more accurate deter-
mination of Physical Constants,
and for other Quantitative Re-
search, and to confer with the
Council of the Association.
Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra of
the Elements.
[Last year’s grant renewed. |
To consider the best Method of
establishing an International
Standard for the Analysis of
Tron and Steel.
[Last year’s grant partly renewed. ]
The Action of Light upon Dyed
Colours.
[Last year’s grant renewed. |
Recording the Position, Height
above the Sea, Lithological Cha-
racters, Size, and Origin of
the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting
other matters of interest con-
nected with the same, and tak-
ing measures for their preserva-
tion,
The Description and Illustration
of the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Palzeozoic Rocks,
The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration _ of
Photographs of Geological in-
terest.
[Last year’s grant renewed. ]
Members of the Committee
Chairman. — Professor Oliver J.
Lodge.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Lord Kelvin, Lord Rayleigh, Sir
H. E. Roscoe, Professors J. J.
Thomson, A. W. Riicker, R. B.
Clifton, G. F, FitzGerald, Carey
Foster, J. Viriamu Jones, A.
Schuster, and W. H. Ayrton.
Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.
Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.
Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A.
Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and
Wolcott Gibbs, and Captain
Abney.
Chairman. — Professor Roberts-
Austen.
Secretary.—Myr. Thomas Turner.
Sir F. Abel, Messrs. EH. Riley and
J. Spiller, Professor J. W. Lang-
ley, Mr. G. J. Snelus, and Pro-
fessor W. A. Tilden.
Chairman.—Professor T. E. Thorpe.
Secretary.—Professor J. J. Hum-
mel.
Dr. W. H. Perkin, Prof. W. J.
Russell, Captain Abney, Prof. W.
Stroud, and Prof. R. Meldola.
Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.
Secretary.—Mz. P. F. Kendall.
Professors W. Boyd Dawkins, T.
McK. Hughes, T. G. Bonney, and
J. Prestwich, Dr. H. W. Cross-
key, Messrs. C. E. De Rance,
R. H. Tiddeman, J. W. Woodall,
and Prof. L. C. Miall.
Chairman.—Rev. Prof. T. Wilt-
shire.
Secretary.—Vrofessor T. R. Jones.
Dr. H. Woodward.
Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.
Secretary.—Mr. O. W. Jeffs.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, Prof. Boyd
Dawkins, Dr. V. Ball, Dr. T.
Anderson, and Messrs. A. S.
Reid, E. J. Garwood, W. Gray,
H. B. Woodward, J. E. Bedford,
R. Kidston, W. W. Watts, R. H.
Tiddeman, and J. J. H. Teall.
xxix
Grants
oy sa
56 00
10 00
15 00
5 00
15 00
5 00
10 00
lxxx
REPORT—1895.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
|
| Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To investigate the character of
the high-level shell-bearing de-
posits at Clava, Chapelhall, and
other localities.
The Investigation of the Eury-
pterid-bearing Deposits of the
Pentland Hills.
To open further Sections in the
neighbourhood of Stonesfield in
order to show the relationship
of the ‘Stonesfield Slate’ to
the underlying and overlying
strata.
Considering the advisability and
possibility of establishing in
other parts of the country Ob-
servations upon the Prevalence
of Earth Tremors similar to
those now being made in Dur-
ham in connection with coal-
mine explosions.
To explore the Calf Hole Cave, at
the Heights, Skyrethorne, near
Skipton.
Occupation of a Table at the
Zoological Station at Naples,
to enable Mr. HE. 8. Moore to
investigate the origin of the
Reproductive Organs in various
types of fishes, &c., and to en-
able Mr. E. J. Allen to continue
his researches on the Decapod
Crustacea.
To enable Dr. 8, J. Hickson to in-
vestigate the development of
Alcyonium at the Laboratory of
the Marine Biological Associa-
tion, Plymouth.
Chairman.—Mr. J. Horne.
Secretary.—Mr. Dugald Bell.
Messrs. J. Fraser, P. F. Kendall,
J. KF. Jamieson, and David
Robertson.
Chairman.—Dr. R. H. Traquair.
Secretary.—Mr. M. Laurie.
Professor T, Rupert Jones.
Chairman.—Mr. H, B. Woodward.
Secrctary.—Mr. HE. A. Walford.
Professor A. H. Green, Dr. H.
Woodward, and Mr. J. Windoes.
Chairman.—My. G. J. Symons.
Secretary.—Mr. C. Davison.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, Mr. E. A.
Cowper, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor J. A. Ewing, Mr. Isaac
Roberts, Mr. Thomas Gray, Sir
John Evans, Professor J. Prest-
wich, Professor E. Hull, Pro-
fessor G. A. Lebour, Professor
R. Meldola, Professor J. W.
Judd, Mr. M. Walton Brown,
Mr. J. Glaisher, Professor C.
G. Knott, Professor J. H.
Poynting, and Mr. Horace
Darwin.
Chairman.—My. R. H. Tiddeman.
Seerctary.—Rev. E. Jones.
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Pro-
fessor L. C. Miall, Mr. P. F.
Kendall, Mr. A. Birtwhistle,
and Mr. J. J. Wilkinson.
Chairman.— Dy. P. L. Sclater.
Secretary.—Mr. Percy Sladen.
Professor Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor J. Cossar Ewart, Pro-
fessor M. Foster, Professor A.
Milnes Marshall, and Mr, A.
Sedgwick.
Chairman.— Professor E, Ray
Lankester.
Seerctary.—Mr. G. C. Bourne.
Professor M. Foster and Professor
S. H. Vines.
Grants
Saha!
20 00
5 00
25 00
50 00
5 00
100 00
15 00
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
bxxxi
Members of the Committee
To report on the present state of
our Knowledge of the Zoology
of the Sandwich Islands, and to
take steps to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the Fauna,
with power to co-operate with
the Committee appointed for
the purpose by the Royal Society,
and to avail themselves of such
assistance in their investiga-
tions as may be offered by the
Hawaiian Government.
The Marine Zoology of the Irish
Sea.
The Structure and Function of
the Mammalian Heart.
Climatology and Hydrography of
Tropical Africa.
Geographical, Meteorological, and
Natural History observations in
South Georgia or other Ant-
arctic Island.
Exploration of |§Hadramaut,
Arabia.
The Methods of Economic Train-
ing adopted in this and other
countries.
For carrying on the Work of the
Anthropometric Laboratory.
1893.
Chair man.—Professor A. Newton.
Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.
Dr. W. T. Blanford, Dr. 8. J. Hick-
son, Professor Riley, Mr. O. Sal-
vin, Dr. P. L. Sclater, and Mr.
Edgar A, Smith.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man. ;
Secretary.—Mr. I. C. Thompson.
Professor A. C. Haddon, Professor
G. B. Howes, Mr. W. E. Hoyle,
and Mr. A. O. Walker.
Chairman.—Professor E. A. Schi-
fer.
Secretary.—Mr. Stanley Kent.
Professor Sherrington.
-Chairman.—Mr. FE. G. Ravenstein.
Secretary.—Dr. H. R. Mill.
Mr. G. J. Symons and Mr. Bald-
win Latham.
Chairman. — Mr. Clements R.
Markham.
Secretary.—Dr. H. R. Mill.
Mr. J. Y. Buchanan and Mr. H.
O. Forbes.
Chairman.—Mr. H. Seebohm.
Secretary.—Mr. J. Theodore Bent.
Mr. E. G. Ravenstein, Dr. J. G.
Garson, and Mr. G. W. Bloxam.
Chairman.—Professor W. Cun-
ingham.
Secretary.—Professor E. C. K.
Gonner.
Professor F, Y. Edgeworth, Pro-
fessor H. S. Foxwell, Mr. H.
Higgs, Mr. L. L. Price, and
Professor J. 8. Nicholson,
Chairman.—Sir W. H. Flower.
Secretary.—Dr. J. G. Garson.
Mr. G. W. Bloxam, Dr. Wilberforce
Smith, Professor A. C. Haddon,
and Professor B. C. A. Windle.
40
10
10
50
30
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
- xxxii
REPORT—1893.
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
To organise an Ethnographical
Survey of the United Kingdom.
The Lake Village at Glastonbury.
Anthropometric Measurements in
Schools.
To co-operate with the Committee
appointed by the International
Congress of Hygiene and De-
mography in the investigation
of the Mental and Physical Con-
dition of Children.
Com-
Corresponding Societies
mittee.
Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook.
Secretary.—Mr. G. W. Bloxam.
Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. J. G.
Garson, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Dr. Joseph Anderson, Mr. J.
Romilly Allen, Dr. J. Beddoe,
Professor D. J. Cunningham,
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins,
Mr. Arthur Evans, Mr. HK. Sidney
Hartland, Sir H. Howorth, Pro-
fessor R. Meldola, General Pitt-
Rivers, and Mr. E. G. Raven-
stein.
Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.
Seeretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Gen-
eral Pitt-Rivers, and Sir John
Evans.
Chairman.—Professor J. Cleland.
Seceretary.—Professor B. Windle.
Mr. G. W. Bloxam, Mr. E. W.
Brabrook, Dr. J. G. Garson, and
Professor A. Macalister.
Chairman.—Sir Douglas Galton.
Secretary.—Dr. Francis Warner.
Mr. G. W. Bloxam, Mr. E. W. Bra-
brook, Dr. J. G. Garson, and
Dr. W. Wilberforce Smith.
Secretary.—Mr. T. V. Holmes.
Mr. Francis Galton, Sir Douglas
Galton, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr.
G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson,
Sir John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkin-
son, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr.
W. Whitaker, Mr. W. Topley,
Professor E. B. Poulton, Mr.
Cuthbert Peek, and Rev. Canon
H. B. Tristram.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.
Chairman.—Professor R. Meldola.
40
20
25
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nev
Chairman.—Lord McLaren.
is,
Members of the Committee
Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown.
Mr. John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, Pro-
00
00
00
00
fessor R. Copeland, and Hon. R. Aber-
cromby.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
Ixxxiii
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The various Phenomena connected with
the recalescent Points in Iron and
other Metals.
The Volcanic and Seismological Phe-
nomena of Japan.
To investigate the Phenomena accom-
panying the Discharge of Electricity
from Points.
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.
The Collection and Identification of
Meteoric Dust.
The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of dry Land and under
Water.
To co-operate with Dr. Kerr in his
researches on Electro-optics.
‘
That Mr. W. N. Shaw and the Rev. T.
C. Fitzpatrick be requested to con-
tinue their Report on the present state
of our Knowledge in Electrolysis and
Electro-chemistry.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Professor G. F. FitzGerald.
Secretary.—Professor W. F. Barrett.
Dr. John Hopkinson, Mr. R. A. Hadfield,
Mr. F. T. Trouton, Professor W. C.
Roberts-Austen,and Mr. H. F. Newall.
Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.
Secretary.—Professor J. Milne.
Professor W. G. Adams, Mr. J. T. Bottom-
ley, Professor A. H. Green, and Profes-
sor C. G. Knott.
Chairman.—Professor Oliver J. Lodge.
Secretary.—Mr. A. P. Chattock.
Professor Carey Foster.
Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Secretary.—Professor W. G. Adams.
Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Mr. C. H. Carp-
mael, Professor A. Schuster, Mr. C.
Chree, Captain E. W. Creak, the Astro-
nomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis, and
Professor A. W. Riicker.
Chairman.—Mr. John Murray.
Secretary.—Mr. John Murray.
Professor A. Schuster, Lord Kelvin, the
Abbé Renard, Dr. A. Buchan, the Hon.
R. Abercromby, Dr. M. Grabham, and
Mr. John Aitken.
Chairman.—Professor J. D. Everett.
Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everctt.
Professor Lord Kelvin, Mr. G. J. Symons,
Sir A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. W.
Pengelly, Professor Edward Hull, Pro-
fessor J. Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve
Foster, Professor A. §. Herschel, Pro-
fessor G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne,
Mr. W. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickin-
son, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered,
Mr. A. Strahan, and Professor Michie
Smith.
Chairman.— Dr. John Kerr.
Secretary.—Mr. R. T. Glazebrook.
Lord Kelvin and Professor A. W. Riicker.
e2
Ixxxiv
REPORT—1893.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
That Dy. J. Larmor and Mr. G. H. Bryan
be requested to continue their Report
on the present state of our Know-
ledge in Thermodynamics, specially
with regard to the Second Law.
The Properties of Solutions.
Reporting on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion.
The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.
The Action of Light on the Hydracids
of the Halogens in presence of
Oxygen.
To inquire into the Proximate Chemical
Constituents of the various kinds of
Coal.
To report on recent Inquiries into the
History of Chemistry.
The Investigation of the direct Forma-
tion of Haloids from pure Materials.
| Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives
The Electrolytic Methods of Quanti-
tative Analysis.
The Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of
England and Wales, and the Influence
of the Artificial Abstraction of
Shingle or other material in that
action,
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professor W. Ramsay.
Chairman.—Professor W. A. Tilden,
Secretary.—Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.
Professors McLeod, Pickering, Ramsay,
and Young.
Chairman.— Professor H. McLeod.
Seceretary.— Professor Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan and Mr. D. H. Nagel.
Chairman.—Dr. W. J. Russell.
Secretary.—Dr. A. Richardson.
Captain Abney and Professors Noel
Hartley and W. Ramsay.
Chairman.—Sir I. Lowthian Bell.
Secretary.— Professor P. Phillips Bedson.
Mr. Ludwig Mond, Professors Vivian B.
Lewes and E, Hull, and Messrs. J. W.
Thomas and H. Bauerman.
Chairman.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Secretary.—Professor John Ferguson.
Chairman.—Professor H. EH. Armstrong.
Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Shenstone.
Professor W. R. Dunstan and Mr, C. H.
Bothamley.
Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.— Professor H. K. Armstrong.
Chairman.—Professor J. Emerson Rey-
nolds.
Secretary —Dr. C. A. Kohn.
Professor Frankland, Professor F. Clowes,
Dr. Hugh Marshall, Mr. A. E. Fletcher,
Mr. D. H Nagel, Mr. T. Turner, and
Mr. — Coleman.
Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.
Secretaries.— Messrs. C. E. De Rance and
W. Topley.
Messrs. J. B. Redman and J. W. Woodall,
Maj.-Gen. Sir A. Clarke, Admiral Sir E.
Ommanney, Capt. Sir G. Nares, Capt.
J. Parsons, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton,
Professor J. Prestwich, Mr. Edward
Easton, Mr. J. 8. Valentine, and Pro-
fessor L. F, Vernon Harcourt.
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.
lxxxv
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius
and its neighbourhood,
To consider the best Methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.
To complete the Investigation of the
Cave at Elbolton, near Skipton, in
order to ascertain whether the re-
mains of Paleolithic Man occur in
the Lower Cave Earth.
To carry on Excavations at Oldbury
Hill, near Ightham, in order to ascer-
tain the existence or otherwise of
Rock Shelters at that spot.
The Circulation of the Underground
Waters in the Permeable Formations
of England, and the Quality and
Quantity of the Waters supplied to
various Towns and Districts from
these Formations. And that a Digest
of the eighteen Reports should be
prepared by the Committee, and sold
in a separate form.
To consider a project for investigating
the Structure of a Coral Reef by
Boring and Sounding.
For improving and experimenting with
a Deep-sea Tow-net for opening and
closing under water.
‘To report on the present state of our
| Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany
of the West India Islands, and to take
steps to investigate ascertained de-
ficiencies in the Fauna and Flora.
‘To make a Digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses
and Light-vessels.
Members of the Committee
Chairman.—Mr. H. Bauerman,
Secretary.—Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis.
Messrs. F. W. Rudler and J. J. H. Teall.
Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.
Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.
Rev. G. F. Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston,
and Mr. J. E. Marr.
Chairman.—Mz. R. H. Tiddeman.
Secretary.—Rev. E. Jones.
Sir J. Evans, Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. W.
Pengelly, and Mr. J. J. Wilkinson.
Chairman.—Sir J. Evans.
Secretary.—Mr. B. Harrison.
Professor J. Prestwich and Professor H.
G. Seeley.
Chairman.—Professor E. Hull.
Secretary.—Mr. C. E. De Rance.
Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Sir D. Galton, Pro-
fessor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. J.
Glaisher, P. F. Kendali, E. B. Marten,
G.H. Morton, W. Pengelly, I. Roberts,
T. 8. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Topley,
C. Tylden-Wright, E. Wethered, and
W. Whitaker.
Chairman.—Professor T, G. Bonney.
Secretary.—Professor W. J. Sollas.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Professors A. H.
Green, J. W. Judd, C. Lapworth, A. C.
Haddon, Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Dar-
win, and A. Stewart, Captain W. J. L.
Wharton, Drs. H. Hicks, J. Murray,
and H. B. Guppy, Messrs. I. Darwin, ;
H. O. Forbes, G. C. Bourne, S. Hickson,
A. R. Binnie, and J. W. Gregory, and
Hon. P. Fawcett.
Chairman.—Professor A. C. Haddon.
Secretary.—Mr. W. E. Hoyle.
Professor W. A. Herdman.
Chairman.—Dr. P. L. Sclater.
Secretary.—Mr. G. Murray.
Mr. W. Carruthers, Dr. A. C. Giinther, Dr.
D. Sharp, Mr. F. Du Cane Godman,
and Professor A. Newton.
Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.
Secretary.—Mr. John Cordeaux.
Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. R. M.
Barrington, Mr. W. E. Clarke, and Rev.
E. P. Knubley.
lxxxvi:
REPORT—1893.
2. Not recewing Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose
Members of the Committee
For taking steps to establish a Botanical
Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon.
To consider proposals for the Legislative
Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs.
The Collection of Facts and Statistics
bearing on the following Questions :—
1. The influence of previous ferti-
lisation of the female on her
subsequent offspring.
2. The effect of material impres-
sions during pregnancy on the
offspring.
The Committee are authorised to
communicate with the Councils of the
British Medical Society, the Royal
Agricultural Society, the Highland
Agricultural Society, and the Royal
Dublin Society, with the view to joint
work.
Compilation of an Index Generum et
Specierum Animalium.
Scottish Place-names , 5 - A
The Teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools.
To report on Methods of determining
the Dry ne:s of Steam in boiler trials.
Chairman.—Professor M. Foster.
Secretary.— Professor J. B. Farmer.
Professor Bayley Balfour, Mr. Thiselton-
Dyer, Dr. H. Trimen, Professor Mar-
shall Ward, Mr. W. Carruthers, Pro-
fessor M. M. Hartog, Professor F. O.
Bower, and Mr. W. Gardiner.
Chairman.—Sir John Lubbock,
Secretary.—Mr. H. E. Dresser.
Mr. John Cordeaux, Mr. W. H. Hudson,
Professor A. Newton, Mr. Howard
Saunders, Mr. Thomas Henry Thomas,
Canon Tristram, and Dr. C. 'l’. Vachell.
Chairman.—Dr. A. Russel Wallace.
Secretary.—Dr. James Clark.
Dr. G. J. Romanes, Dr. 8. J. Hickson,
Professor E. A. Schafer, and Dr, J. N.
Langley.
Chairman.—Sir W. TI. Flower.
Secretary.—Mr. W. Sclater.
Dr. P. L. Sclater and Dr. H. Woodward,
Chairman,—Sir C. W. Wilson.
Secretary.—Dr. J. Burgess.
Mr. Coutts Trotter, °
Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.
Seeretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Mr. 8. Bourne, Dr. Crosskey, Mr. George
Gladstone, Mr. J. Heywood, Sir J.
Lubbock, Sir Philip Magnus, Professor
N. Story Maskelyne, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Sir R. Temple, and Professor Silvanus P,
Thompson.
Chairman.—Sir F. J. Bramwell.
Secretary.—Professor W. C. Unwin.
Professor T. H. Beare, Mr. Jeremiah
Head, Professor A. B. W. Kennedy,
Professor Osborne Reynolds, and Mr.
Mair Rumley.
——
COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxxvil!
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee
The Prehistoric and Ancient Remains | Chairman.—Dr. C. T. Vachell.
of Glamorganshire. Secretary.—Mr. E. Seward.
Lord Bute, Messrs. G. T, Clark, R. W.
Atkinson, Franklen G, Evans, James
Bell, and T. H. Thomas, and Dr. J.
G. Garson.
To consider Uniformity in the Spelling | Chairman.—Mr. F. Galton.
of Barbaric and Savage Languages | Secretary.—Mr. C. E. Peek.
and Race Names. Dr. E. B. Tylor, Professor A. C. Haddon,
Mr. G. W. Bloxam, and Mr. Ling Roth.
The Physical Characters, Languages, | Chairman—Dr. E. B. Tylor.
and Industrial and Social Condition | Secretary.—Mr. G. W. Bloxam.
of the North-Western Tribes of the | Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr, R. G. Haliburton,
Dominion of Canada, with power to and Mr. H. Hale.
utilise any portion of last year’s grant
that may remain after payment of
expenses incurred.
Other Resolutions adopted by the General Commvittee.
That Dr. J. Larmor’s paper entitled ‘The Action of Magnetism on Light ; with a
critical correlation of the various theories of Light-propagation’ be printed in extenso
among the Reports.
That Professor Percy Frankland’s paper on ‘Bacteriology in its relations to
Chemical Science’ be printed in extenso among the Reports.
That the paper by Mr. W. Worby Beaumont on ‘An Automatic Balance of Reci-
procating Mechanism’ be printed in extenso among the Reports.
That at the next Meeting of the Association, and at such future Meetings as may
seem to the Council desirable, there should be a separate Section for Physiology,
Animal and Vegetable.
That it is desirable that, for the purpose of securing co-ordinate action, a joint
Organising Committee be appointed for the purpose of arranging provisionally the
Proceedings of the Sections of Biology and Physiology.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
of desirable.
That the recommendations regarding the times at which the Sections and Sec-
tional Committees shail meet, which have been received from the Sectional Com-
mittees, be referred to the Council.
That the resolution received from the Committees of Sections C and G proposing
a change in the rule relating to the appointment of Committees for special objects
of Science be referred to the Council.
Ixxxviii REPORT—1893.
|
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur-
poses by the General Committee at the Nottingham Meeting,
September 1893. The Names of the Members entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are prefiwed.
Mathematics and Physics.
£
*Foster, Professor Carey—Electrical Standards.................. 25
*Symons, Mr. G.J.—Photographs of Meteorological Phenomena
EPORE WOE): isc sccmpeaansesene eee Rett de Tk ates eee eee 10
*Rayleigh, Lord—Tables of Mathematical Functions .......... 15
*Stokes, Sir G. G.—Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar
PPACIBUION .”.... -.avssestceae meter Oeetece ee nr atte 15
*Lodge, Professor O, J.—National Physical Laboratory ...... )
Chemistry and Mineralogy.
*Roscoe, Sir H.—Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the
Hilsments (renewed) sc.sccaee tae. +, skins doeateeo eee 10
*Roberts-Austen, Professor—Analysis of Iron and Steel (re-
MGW)... 00:45 00000 vical eh See Ae Gaek wes idee cht aS 16
*Thorpe, Professor T. E.—Action of Light upon Dyed
ce GS Eero ee ee 5
Geology.
*Hull, Professor E.—Erratic Blocks ........css.secsessessoscereee 1D
*Wiltshire, Rev. T.—Fossil Phyllopoda ...........:es0ceececeee vee 5
*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest
(ROME). »..... .00:ssccas sans piece eee tee en Rexeailes 10
*Horne, Mr. J.—Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapel-
BBD AUG: «ac ann 300 insta nice send SAREE MRE ealdea reese eveex tert Sn
*Traquair, Dr. R. H.—Eurypterids of the Pentland Hills...... 5
Woodward, Mr. H. B.—New Sections of Stonesfield Slate... 25
*Symons, Mr. G. J.—Observations on Earth Tremors ......... 50
Tiddeman, Mr, R. H.—Exploration of Calf Hole Cave ...... 5
WASBIEG OMWAIA... +2: sar, ecohtieaseerentien cease ee ee
* Reappointed.
So oOo S oS SoS
(Ser Fes) on
eo oes /oS
Oo
ol! oocoo 1 Oo) co'>o
_ ee ee
oe ee er en
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.
Bahia: <a,
EI Ny TOP WAT.) o.oo. cosas sie ceeses coc cadeesscasecevevevces 235 0 0
Biology.
*Sclater, Dr. P. L.—Table at the Naples Zoological Sintion-e 100 0 0
*Lankester, Professor E. R.—Table at the Plymouth Biological
Laboratory RNC Dee couvw sch aps vn ekenecintel oo xoe tats foamy 0 0
*Newton, Professor A.—Zoology of Sandwich Islands ......... 100 0 0
*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Zoology of the Irish Sea......... 40 0 0
Schafer, Professor EH. A.—Structure and Function of the
Semin Tianna MOM Tn Se 19° 0 ‘0
Geography.
*Ravenstein, Mr. EH. G. ere and beeen ag of
Tropical Africa ,...... 10 0 0
Markham, Mr. Clements R.—Observations in South Georgia 50 0 0
Seebohm, Mr. H.—Exploration in Arabia ............. 30 0 0
Economic Science and Statistics.
*Cunningham, Professor W.—Methods of Economic Training 10 0 0
Anthropology.
*Flower, Sir W. H.—Anthropometric Laboratory Statistics... 5 0 0
*Brabrook, Mr. E. W.—Hthnographical Survey of United
RRS AEM ches we ERATE LSM ee hos ceeasy soTadd cea eaenananalleniaies 10 0 0
Munro, Dr. R.—The Lake Village at Glastonbury ............ 40 0 0
Cleland, Professor J.— — Anthropometrical Measurements in
Schools.. 5 0 0
*Galton, Sir D.—Mental and. Physical Condition of Children 20 0 0
*Garson, Dr. J. G.—Corresponding Societies Committee ... 25 0
£705 0
* Reappointed.
The Annual Meeting in 1894.
The Meeting at Oxford will commence on Wednesday, August 8.
Place of Meeting in 1895.
The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Ipswich.
xe REPORT—1893.
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£ s. a. £8. d.
1834. Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Tide Discussions ...... Seats aves 20 O 0 | Bristol Tides ..........0..0sdse008 35 18 6
Meteorology and Subterra-
1835. nean Temperature........ wese 2, dLewa
Tide Discussions ........++++++ 62 © © | Vitrification Experiments .. 9 4 7
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 | Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0
Zle7 00 Railway Constants ........+:.. 28 7 2
——— | Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 4
1836. Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 O
Tide Discussions .........s000+ 163 0 © | Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 6
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 | Starsin Uipeailles cts susciea<mee At 0.0
Thermometric Observations, Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue ... 16616 6
(eae ait er crane ad 17072 50 0 oO | Animal Secretions............. ~ a0) 1056
Experiments on long-con- Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Binued | Hieab’, ->,sccsspatacrress 17 1 0 | Atmospheric Air ........s+++ 16 1 0
Rain-gauges «...+-.e0.»»s0- we. 913 0 | Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0 | Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3 0 0
tmar Nutations.2i...c.c0ccs8s+6 60 0 © | Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22.0 0:
Thermometers ............20000 15 6 © | Hourly Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
Ctb 4 od ROP USBIO Vier eccencs+ccecdecon 49, 7-8
1837. Fossil Reptiles .......sss00-++++ 118. 2 (9
Tide DiscusSionms ...ccc.ccccecce Og4 1-0 Mining Statistics® 2cs25.05.steeee 50 0 O
Chemical Constants ............ 24.13 6 £1595 11 O
Dunar Nutation’.<)...ccccs++-se-0 70 0 0 5° ae
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0 3 : 1840.
Tides at Bristol .....cccscoscceees 150 0 0 | Bristol Tides ......s0..--ssssseres 100 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra- Subterranean Temperature... 1313 6
nean Temperature............ 93 3 © | Heart Experiments ............ 18 19 0
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0 © | Lungs Experiments ..........+. 813 0
Heart Experiments ............ g 4 6 | Tide Discussions .............. 50 0 O
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 © | Landand Sea Level...... oscccy. OL oh
IRBMOWIGEDS ..<.0se0n¥ecne- -<csecex's 11 18 6 | Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 0
7922 126 Stars (Lacaille) ............02s008 415 0
a = Stars (Catalopue)i.ccrerssssncd- 264 0 0
1838. Atmospheric Air ........seeeeee 15.15 0
Tide Discussions ............0.5 29°10) 10))| si Water OU ULrOls coccscens-ceseree 10 0 O
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 O | Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 7 0 30,
Meteorological Observations Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6
and Anemometer (construc- Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
LOM) Meoreeeeaae ss. .ccssoesesseos 100 0 0 | Working Population............ 100 0 O
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0 | School Statistics ............... 50 0 O
Animal and Vegetable Sub- Forms of Vessels .........000+++ 184 7 O
stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10 | Chemical and Electrical Phe-
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10 MOWMETA). wrsdaesasceesnesye scenes 40 0 0
BristolMMiGes ier ascccssssscesa05es 50 0 0 | Meteorological Observations
Growth of Plants .............++ 75 0 0 at Plymouth ..........0:...00- 80 0 6
MiG iin RIVers desshectesscese ssc. 3 6 6 | Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
Education Committee ......... 50 0 O £1546 16 4
Heart Experiments .......... eae on 'O ——
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8 7 1841.
Steam-vessels............::0000008 100 0 0 | Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorological Committee 31 9 5 | Meteorology and Subterra-
£9322 2 nean Temperature............ 88 30
es | Actinomete4 ..........2 cece eee eee 10 OG
: 1839. Earthquake Shocks ............ 17 7 O
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 O O | Aerid Poisons................s0002 6 0 O
Meteorological Observations Veins and Absorbenis ......... 3: °0",.6
at. Plymouth, &¢. .......0++- G5°10..0 | Mudcin Rivers; 5.-v.ecsa-ote-as 5.0.40
eee
GENERAL STATEMENT,
£ 8. a.
Marine Zoology ...... CCA tas 1512 8
Skeleton Maps .......-..sesee008 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille).............s000 7245 0
Stars (Nomenclature of)..... . 1719 6
Stars (Catalogue of)............ 40 0 0
Water on Iron .....ceeeseeee sees 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness .........ceeceeees 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations
(reduction of) 1... . -s..ee0e 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles ..........2...2..- 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ +... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............- se 30) we laO
Forms of Vessels ...........+00+ 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ..............000- 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
SIDAG or coseananoseseecseneersonan 100 0 0
Midesiat Heith: .........<cssec.-s 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... 9 6 3
Races of Men..........cececseeee peaeoy: Onad
Radiate Animals ............. Sai pon (O20
£1235 10 11
——_ ee
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol................. 59 8 0
Gases on Light ...............006 30 14 7
Chronometers......020....ssseeees 2617 6
Marine Zoology..........es...s0- 1 5 0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-
HODES Cecchi cscs sStssentease 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ............... 161 10 O
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication
GEBREPOLL). ..ccccss acess ecesses 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............0 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on
PRIMCMac svisvasacsscssscnassesot 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments
AUPELVIMNOULD .....52icdesnsore 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 0
Force of Wind ............s00000 10 0 O
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 0
Vital Statistics .............066 «~ 500 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 111
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
oT SEALS ae skususcss ees cereaedin 2
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
Forth
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
Inverness
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
THGUUAN cavanuanbseseseacesue css
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations
Meteorological
and Gratuities
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness
Magnetic Co-operation.........
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory
Action of Gases on Light......
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries ...
Experiments by Captive Bal-
loons
Oxidation of the Rails of
Rail WAYS. sete: scccacss<bonss-t9
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections
Registration of Earthquake
SHOCKS Eh yeasttuescdreanusessac:
Report on Zoological Nomen-
CIAGHEC ce cetpeaetesndr are speces
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ......
Vegetative Power of Seeds ...
Marine Testacea (Habits of) .
Marine Zoology
Marine Zoology
Preparation of Report on Brit-
ish Fossil Mammalia
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents
Vital Statistics
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Additional Experiments on
the forms of Vessels
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator
Experiments on the Strength
of Materials
eae ewe re rerseseeaees
een e reece eneeee
eeeeee
Instruments
Peer ercesseeree
eee ere
a seeeererens
Pee rere eeseesrereseseseseee
ete weeneseeree
eee ee reser ereeseee
Soe
Peter eee seeeeeere
seeeee
reer rrr
Pe eee eee eeeeennnne
£ 8. a
25 0 0
120 0 0
U7 ASS
55 0 0°
10,0 10
20 0 0
30 0 0
39 6 0
5612 2
10 8 10
50 0 0
1816 1
ne er eee
81 8 0
20 0 0
40 0 0
14718 3
30 0 0
10 0 0
4 4 6
5 3 8
10h:
10 0 0
21411
100 0 0
20 0 0
Soo re
70 0 0
100 0 0:
100 0 0
69 14 10
60 0 0
£1665 10 2
Sees
xeii
£ 8. da.
1844,
Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at
Pl yINOUtHeiercresadscesse es «cer 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation .......scseeeseeee 25 8 4
Publication of the British
Association Catalogue of
SLITS)" Shoe Abeootnn. Cone Bonaboodoc 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the
East Coast of Scotland 100 0 0
Revision of the Nomenclature
OE WStAIS@ yessessncedine secs 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
OLY pectyescawenerecrasonceeeacsects 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-
WALOLY; cers scccsecssseanetmecenas 566 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature
PMrelanG) \ycvs—sccseswecersnese 5 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections ..........ceceeeee 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0O
Registering the Shocks of
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the
4Hgean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and
Wormwalll..<)sacseses:ccensmucces 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality
DE SCCOS cage cccccasteeusceeres 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality
@IMSCCAS: <2 s.0escccvecrse +e 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura ...........0608 lo eO70
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on
the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal
Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-
rin’s Instruraent ...... 1842 10 0 0
£981 12 8
1845.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness) foccressasesees 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-Operation .......sseeesreeee 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh...............0+ 18 11 9
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
REPORT— 1893.
£ 8. da,
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory .......-+0+ 43 17 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 14915 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
The Actinograph ............+++ 15 0 0
Microscopic Structure of
SHellsiier. ssesecessseceeaeet sot a= 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ..,...... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CIMOS| Boos -pacweles cnn sas serene 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846.
British Association Catalogue
OLAS LARS erasesesnedsare=r 1844 211 15 O
Fossil Fishes of the London
CB etc scicce contest ncasnensteneas 100 0 0
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 5 0 0
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 O
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 2 15 10
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-
IMELETA ss creo recta ceveonacdaqerece pt ay a
Anemometers’ Repairs......... 23 6
Atmospheric Waves ............ 3.3 3
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3
tatistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0 0
£685 16 O
1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829..........++ 50 0 O
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
(CINCH Gieen ss seessbieesereanssesee 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0O
Atmospheric Waves ............ 6 9 8
Vitality of Seeds ............... Bes
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
£208 5 4
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ 3. d.
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves .........++6 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ............... 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of
EGESMMceaestisccecreeseadseeccdss 70 0 O
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0
£275 91 8
1849.
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0
- Maintaining the Establish-
ment at ditto.........see.eeeee 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... LF iat anal
On Growth of Plants ......... nO)
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA .......5-..e0cecesees 10 0 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... 13.9 O
£159 19 6
1850.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 O
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0 0
Meteorological Instruments,
BARBIES ice eat als vale 9 le eleltai(en'e va 25 0 0
£345 18 0
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
EDP Moe ce cee ss.cseaec sas ores 309 2 2
Mprieery Or Heat ..........<...000 P40) ara
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants............... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... Lao oO
QResearches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0
£39 9) 7
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
Cineluding balance of grant
OPED Oh crecisdsieces susiesceens 233 17 8
_ Experiments on the Conduc-
POTN OL ELCAL ss cesascscecosee De Zee
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
_ Researches on the British An-
BIEULAN sev cnccscecstasstavertsesie 10 0 0
Vitality of Sceds ...........000 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 O
£304 6 7
|
|
£ 8. da.
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British
PANINI a damaenangedeseedsnns5e 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast
Of ScotlanGyaiiaetacesesckseh od 10 0 O
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
£205 0 O
1854,
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former grant)..........ssss000. 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 0
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron..............066+ 10 0 O
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA, ....2.02reeonesceses 10 0 O
British Annelida ............+8. 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .............5. 5 2 8
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 O
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ............66. 10 712
Map of the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0
£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1 eeomorore £75 0 0 =
tn AEM GarOepeer seiny i?
Strickland’s
Synonyms
Dredging
sane so aeeaveeaee ss 0
and Dredging
OTIS, jeu. fsaseeee see demon 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates 0
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena smassessasesccter sss 0
0
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
Dredging on the West Coast
Of Scotland :5A5 hiesete.see-s0e 10
ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave LExperi-
MONIES; ee sett eect tat one inte 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 O
0 0
xclv
£ 38. d.
Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California ......... 10 0 0
‘Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Natural History of Mada-
GASCAL .wuswdecaweestvevesseveesse 20 0 0
tesearches on British Anne-
BURA aso cteldette veleacetaleoww'otewsier'slo 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products
‘ imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
‘ Artificial Propagation of Sal-
ALOU Metteernss saan cescwiccnve senses 10 0 0
Yemperature of Mines......... Gets 10)
Yhnermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations..........+ 5 7 4
Life-Doats .......scssccvescereeees 5 0 0
£507 15 4
. 1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-
AMEDUS feck ied de svs oscar ceaetstaaeete 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
Oh SCOLANG ssp cersdecacveerdvcee 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ...........s006 yy 0)
Dredging near Belfast......... 18 13 2
Report on the British Anne-
HOG alt Wuccaeentsiee twin Wietuse ene 25 0 0
‘ Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
TMU ETA aAbeeae once ueennio ct 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
HAM Glee snsdcdanscseosessesctessnree 10 0 0
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds ..........4.. 50 0 O
mish Tunicata “...2...sc0sseeees 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Meduside ............066 50° 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5970510
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland............... 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 1
Balloon Ascents.........sesseceee 39 11 0
£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels .......0..+. 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den ..- 20 0 0
REPORT—1893.
£ 3. d.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
SPIANIGS: ncscicccacscscdeenes ate a 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility
OL Salts has cc. .cceces senses acres 30 0 0
Researcheson theConstituents
GipManUres hs: choses sebeneeien 25 0 0.
Balance of Captive Balloon
PA CCOUMUS to is0 es accnecesaetclesnn 113 6
£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and Kast
Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :-—
1860...... £50 0 O 72 0
1861......£22 0 0 yi
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0
Chemical Alloys .......e+e+00+. 20 0
Classified Index to the Trans-
ACHLOUSL. cscee ssoesee temeneet aces 100 0
Dredging in the Mersey and
DGG co. tsscrscaseesnset en esaenaue 5 0
Dip Circle ......ccccsssscerscevces 30 0
Photoheliographic Observa-
BLOWS) | wy nscerlandels\ee saisieninarsierinela 50 O
Prison “Diet.......ceccesdscscccveses 20 0
Gauging of Water..........ss00e 10 0
Alpine Ascents .......2..0++0. beste SOmpOU
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0
£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0
PatentnlualwS: ios.ccsancsatasssateane 21 6
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0
Natural History by Mercantile
MarING: > ..\.cnescsnvesscessenaas 5 0
Tidal Observations ..........0. 25 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0
Photographic Pictures of the
UNG vissssapecarses ars sceaaeeres 150 0
Rocks of Donegal.............++ 25 0
Dredging Durham and North-
TL DETIANG fs ieseceneecssseoeaes 25 0
Connection of Storms ......... 20 0
Dredging North-east Coast
OF BCoOtland ..ccavcasse-cosnes 6 9
Ravages of Teredo ............ 3 11
Standards of Electrical Re-
BISGHTICC™ a. ,ccccoeanadsneescacnen 50 0
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0
Balloon Committee ........... - 200 0
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10 0
Seooo oS So ocooces io
eoooc Of COSCO O8O S899 SCSOSO
ae
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ 3. d
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 0
Prison Diet ........ccesccesedoe 20 0 0
’ Gauging of Water............66 1210 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
Thermo-electric Currents 5 0 0
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
PEDSES) ...ccecerecccsseccescees 25 0 0
SO TPAOH cnmancts seicwacslels'eiceseds\avels 25 0 0
MOSIPHOSSIIS: “0.2. .cnccoscecseeees 20 0 0
Herrings....... aupcisecesets Ceo arec 20 0 0
Granites of Donegal............ DeOneO
PPISOMMDICT cccncceacescnescscee 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
PESCTUUS areiselenpcicviesciansitde cies aciais 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east Coast of
Scotland ............ssseessssoes 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland
and Durham ...............06+ 17 3 10
Dredging Committee superin-
BEMGCCHCE Ni icccdccissiesecsessrsaee 10 0 0
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ......... 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 O
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
Electrical Construction and
Distribution .............0c00. 40 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 17 0 0
Kew Additional Buildings for
_ Photoheliograph ............ 100 0 0
Thermo-electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ........... 8 0 0
PEIVOEDIGA s vsesncecscecccessccesees 10 0 O
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
COAIMMOSSIS (Giese cececevesesesce 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
PREPS cab icuvertocewerdséssadwans 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure -- 10 0 0
Standards of Electric Re-
BISUANCOS sacuasssccorardeecceets 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
RMVOTOLGA. Ssissseiecoddsvdesescccs 10 0 0
Askham’s Gift .......... 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
IRBIN=CAUSES! iitoce sede cccees 19 15 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
£
Tidal Observations in the
EP HIMAD OLS ccsxebasmranccinevotaerre 50
Spectral Rays.....ccsssecssssseves 45
Luminous Meteors ............ 20
£1289
1865.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0
Hiydroidaswit-<dssessoscsoesecueas 13 0
Rain-gauges ...,.ssccecssseeeves 30 0
Tidal Observations in the
TIM Der se. seecvueesaschaseewrecle 6 8
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0
Trish WWlOra:.cassieuscsseaedecosssve 25 0
American Mollusca ............ 3.9
Organic Acids. ti svedeterectsee 20 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0
HBYyPterUs-.cscucisecerecancoteees 50 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Malta Caves Researches ...... 50. (O
Oyster Breeding ............+0. 25 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0
Marine Fauna. ..........cs.ceeses 25 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
MM WHtCIe tes ciceniatecacsisases ri 0
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 10 1
Luminous Meteors .........00+ 40 0
£1591 7 ae
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory... 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0
Metrical Committee............ 50 0
British Rainfall...............008 50 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0
Chemical Constitution of
Cast UITON Gy senenwcvawaenccsvece 50 0
Amyl Compounds ..............+ 25 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall ............secees 25 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
In! Watere kismet lens 50 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
Cals: cscs sesaevenvavw/averveeecaa ao O
So 9° e9ags90 SSoSsoSoo csooSeooooRrRS
xevi
£
Rigor Mortis ......ssceeeeees Erte dM)
Trish Annelida .........se0ees00 15
Catalogue of Crania............ 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene
TSIANGS .2-ceccececsscseessesers 50
Typical Crania Researches ... 30
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100
£1750 1
8.
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,
IPAIESEING,,..cepsvaseesesespense=s 50
Lunar Committee ............00e 120
Metrical Committee ............ 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
British’ Rainfall. cveis.secsocrvses 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors .....+....+. 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-
STOU Pe cet seeker sas vawe wees ee upetal 100
Electrical Standards..........++ 100
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25
Fossil Crustacea ........sssse+e 25
Sound under Water ..;......... 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75
Do Plant Beds 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent Laws 30
RIOOCCOROCOOCO coocooocooeceocece &
clooooocooooo ocoooocooocooececoeoo &
1868.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record..........0.+0+ 100
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
British Rainfall ..........+.s00.0. 50
Luminous Meteors...........000+ 50
OVPAWICACIGS Pie sesesesseonesee 60
Fossil Crustacea.........0..se000. 25
Methyl Series. sc. .srarsesssssencss 25
Mercury and Bile ............... 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks .......se0008 “Soe 2)
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds .....+...+++ 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
Wossil; Flora c., a-oteesmesersemess 25
Tidal Observations .........++. 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
o,rcocoececeo ocoecHe oceo oo Ss ©]
o coooooooo ocoocoeococeqoooco
REPORT—-1893. |
£ 8. d.
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30 0 O
British Marine Invertebrate
RAUUA) <ossceeccsneencssorsh- erate 100 0 O
£1940 0 O
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 O
Lunar Committee.....sscssreseeeee 50 0 9
Metrical Committee............+0 25 0 0
Zoological Record ..........-.++8 100 0 0
Committee on Gases in Deep-
WellSWater ...-ccccscasereener ee 2b OF
British Rainfall. 2. ....cssscccten 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
RcCrecassspscaccusvos ssvdeerecesucte 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 0 0
Steamship Performances ...... 30 0 O
Chemical Constitution of
@ast TON. .cccccsccscacabsccse =n 80 0 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 O
Methyl Series...........0ssessee0s 30 0 0
Organic Remains in Lime-
BLONDE ROCKS! sccccrceacsscnansiak 107 O50
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10 0 0
British Fossil Corals ......... 50” 0" 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 30 0 0
Wossilot lova ice ccascenss seep sana 25°00
Tidal Observations .........+++ 100 0 0
Underground Temperature... 30 0 O
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5 0 G@
Organic Acids “<2... scsscssnsss 12 0 0
Kiltorcan Fossils .........0s0+0: 20 Ome
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
ULONS = ys eitecdecatecceaerapes aaa 15016
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10'"'0.'0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 0
£1622 0 O
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600 0 O
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record..........+++++ 100 0 O
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 ©
Hars in Wishes .:. 0s sesasssesune 10 0 0
Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 @
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
BnitisheRaintalll,..ccmss<csseeee 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
Tron; &Crst. gees cecere sc eeeae 20 0 0
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 6
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 15°00
Fossil Oras cenesasnceatecenesee’ 25 0 0
Tidal Observations ....c0s...5 100 0 O
Underground Temperature... 50 0 @
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 9 ©
ate eee ¢
=
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ 8. d.
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50 0 O
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3.0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of
ERG HEM bh se soc vs ssecdueceseesse eee 50 0.0
£1572 0 O
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress
in Chemistry ...........:s0000 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............++ 100
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Fossil Flora ........csceseeeeeeee 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood.............. 7
British Rainfall.................. 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea ....ec.s...se0s 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects .........seces008 20
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing ............+6- 20
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 20
Moab Explorations ............ 100
Gaussian Constants .........0++ 40
£1472
NLSom:orO> -Oo.O Oo OO Nooo c oS ooo oS
aoooo oocococscooococso ooo j=)
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 75 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 O
Tidal Committee ..... sid Boaa 200 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-
MAH ed cc deck Seetcdisivdeweke cael 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
Fossil Crustacea. ............... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 0
Lunar Objects ..............0.08 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall... cbs 100 0 0
Poisonous Substances ‘Ant-
BOWLS 23 ccosF3ceusht<diiienac’s 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
stitution, KC. .....ccccscceecoes 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
BORE 555 c002 5 cocsneen cine secsveere 20-0) 0
£1285 0 0
1893.
xevli
£ s. d.
1873.
Zoological Record...........+00 100 0 0
Chemistry Record.............+6 200 0 0
Tidal Committee ............605 400 0 0
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants .............-. 25 0 O
Wave-lengths ...........c00e0es 150 0 0
British Rainfall...............066 100 0 O
Essential Oils..,...........ss000e. 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ......... -. 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 O
Timber Denudation and Rain-
fealllieenaenescacvasaeteteas cesses 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors............+++ 30 0 0
£1685 0 0O
1874,
Zoological Record ............60. 100 0 0
Chemistry Record.............0. 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Elliptic Functions............... 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors......... 10 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKS 6-7 so sev0s canaescwabepudndes 10 0 0
mga ha aes Instructions,
Bia Soucraasncsectsetesesacts 50 0 0
Kent’ s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0
Essential Oils..............20ese0e 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 90
Mauritius Meteorological Re-
SCALCHD.. fe nosactoRe. vasdstidecee 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ....... - 20 0 0
Marine Organisms..........0.+.. 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
Taree: <cs was enapaehs canes twas 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
Trades Unions ......esecessseeee 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone-corals 25 0 0
Erratic Blocks .............00006 10 0 0
Dredging, Durham and York-
Shire CoastS s......sssseccsees 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3 6 0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
MEASUTES...c00cccsceseceocccens 715 0
£1151 16 0
1875.
Elliptic Functions ......... +. 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall........,......... 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Chemistry Record........... 100 0 0
xevill
£ 38. d.
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid 10 0 0
Isometric Cresols 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid
FRUISUGS tye sersce sdroneseeneveansr 20 0 0
Zoological Record..........-.++ 100 0 0
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0
£960 0 O
1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall...........s.<:00« 100 0 0
WL Ta Sie bia eee ppenecgseroe ocaenrc 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Tsomeric Cresols ...........+66- 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
CEL Abts rassssececaceasae serene 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid.............++ 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave,
SHITE Ganotaocsunaseaponticticotoe 100 0 0
Geological Record.,...........+++ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of
ThiOTS) fS a bapperndbecsock secccbenecnc TOS OG
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record............+.. 100°'0 0
MEIGS MEAING oct ccvcretstes ce scree ERO O
Physiological ActionofSound 25 0 0
Zoological Station......... eoeeee) 1 OREO
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15°" 0'"0
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam-vessels ............ DOO
£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
Mineralsiiseinie.scttss..ceceese 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
TOCKS OGG cess seccesnssevensces Seat i
Zoological Record............006 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern :......2s0c.sscceee. 100 0 0
Zoologica) Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ........... - 100 0 0
Dipterocarpx, Report on..... 20 0 0
REPORT—1893.
£ 3. d.
Mechanical Equivalent of
WTGafiseecccensessecscess tees seceae 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
Gitta INICKC] scecescsecsrecs setae 8 0 0
Underground Temperatures 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ............+4- 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-
Acetate .......sseccccscserseeee 10 0 0
British Earthworks ...........+ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in
TWG1A ee. co0sces-+oc0ndeedeeneceee 15 0 0
Development of Light from
Coal-gas ..........ccsecsoscessas 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid......-0++++40. 118 0
Geological Record............+0« 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric Acid, &C...........0+++- 15 0 0
£1128 9 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
Recorder <s.sck-scnsn.aceceeeceas 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
WWIALEIS! Rok cnn vases onevrestennecs 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure. ..c.cssescesecmegaee 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million ,............+. 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less-known
Alkaloids cozsecscessveaeessoane 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record .......++.+++0+ 100 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCESS. o5,0-srcsspepsseceemewenen 416 6
Luminous Meteors..........++++- 10 0 0
Ancient Earthworks .........+4+ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ 17 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
TLE Wave sasteesweiecec ceed edst sete: 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Pati Nee
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Exploration of Caves in
HBOTHEO) son .cccnseseessesesseees
Kent’s Cavern Exploration...
Record of the Progress of
Geology
Fermanagh Caves Exploration
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
Aten e meee ete nennereeeee
Fat Fat
50 0 O
100 0 0O
100 0 0
5 0 0
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts..........0.00+ 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Circulation of Underground
MBRCTSsccgensscacceatscspacctese 10 0 O
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
mical Clocks ..........s00e000. 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
TEM OW Gre cacao asecsises ss cetseace 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ........ - 1215 6
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
BIHG@IOUES ssasccnsusesscesanensese 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance
SAR onequnebne cee cnnpeaOn ee age 10 0 O
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 O
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships ......... ieee cs
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ............ 10 0 0
£1080 11 11
1880.
New Form of High Insulation
EWE et clio c<secusacsesnssececese 10 0 O
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
PEE HOME sc ciedsbisede scwlccusee va dece 8 5 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8 5 0
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines ..............5 417 7
Report on Carboniferous
Polyzoa ..... serccsesecsssccccee 10 0 0
£
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
SAUGUG) few acneesscceesceuenssersas 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50
Geological Record...........+.+. 1.00
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ 15
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formaticns ............ 5
Record of Zoological Litera-
HUNG force eat aciictesseeeee fetes els 100
Table at Zoological Station
BtPNa les!) ccncs ase. egal = 75
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50
Anthropometry .........seseesse. 50
Baten tpboaws) <occcssesenaescsncsns 5
£731
XCix
NISSS © OS © CO coco ox
NISCSS OC OC OC oO coo of
1881.
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperature... 20
Electrical Standards........ ... 25
High Insulation Key............ 5
Tidal Observations ............ 10
Specific Refractions ............ i
Fossil Polyzoa .......sssesseeeee 10
Underground Waters ......... 10
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25
Tertiary Flora ...............006 20
Scottish Zoological Station ... 50
Naples Zoological Station 75
wlo coco coococoocowosocos
imloO oOo ooocoooorocococso
Natural History of Socotra... 50
Anthropological Notes and
Queries” Heieiekecs tave.svaswves 9
Zoological Record.............+. 100
Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ............... 30
£476
1882.
Exploration of Central Africa 100
Fundamental Invariants of
Algebraical Forms ....,,... 76
Standards - for Electrical
Measurements ........ssseeee 100
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
THOMETETS a ea-eeerareesteeeelcs 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Hlements............... 50
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra .......0...006. 25
Geological Record........+...+++ 100
Earthquake Phenomena of
DA PAN oowcnestssecmacaccessecaeves 26
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
ROCKS iiwcecencsccocecussosnsuepanie 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground
Waters...rsrecseoers eaenaeiecehies 15
0 0
1 11
SSO To Oo: &
o ooo
c REPORT—1893.
£ s. d
Tertiary Flora of North of
AreILIG aawawaecaee sesevaceacess 20 0 0
British Polyzoa .......-..0-sesee 1000
Exploration of Caves of South
Of Treland’ Woccsevcdsve.ceneeese 10700
Exploration of Raygill Fis-
SULC .....sccecssscerevasescecsrecs 20 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0
Albuminoid Substances of
DETUM I cscvcsesacrscescessessasss 10 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Hxercise........0.+++++ 50 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Natural HistoryofTimor-laut 100 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-
LUTE Son asacriesaesessecsssieelsewsas 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
£1126 1 11
1883.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis......cssecccesees 50 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
WAILLVIOS .s/faucicnaa seen esenemeranyes 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
ADADM. .ocecesoncunsssoeonneetn ip 50 0 O
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 0
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
WONG ROCKS... .aussensseedanerene 25 0 0
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng-
land and Wales ........+....0. 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground
IW ERLCTS ih... ooseenecnsccneeeiaeiee 15 0 0
Geological Record..........+.++« 50 0 0
Exploration of Caves in South
Oi TOMANG Ko caseccecsenas onsen 10 0 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ...........5 20 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise ............+0+ 58 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ST: Ga F212 0)5 a ee COR CORED DOCER OBE 500 0 0
Investigation of Loughton
(OF Gre) | aagoncodosoacronooeaedaccee 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Screw Gauges.........seessee esse eee OO
£1083 3 3
1884.
Meteorological Observations
on’ Ben Newisteessssscceteseres 50 0 0
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust..............0008 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstow.its...constesrecpecbens 25 0 0
Tidal Observations............+. LOMO 40
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8 4 0
£
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN. . checeehes nets ss tieveosdn 75
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Fossil Polyz0a........ssssceesseves 10
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS) Ieccseasereedessanens 15
Waters), cctiscssscctvtukeeouseesse 5
International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata: ....Jscesssossoers 50
Natura] History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500
Migration of Birds.............+5 20
Coagulation of Blood..........++ 100
Zoological Literature Record 100
an
.
RPICOCCOOSO COO CSO GC SCOSCS
|
|
&
oe oe ee)
,;\olooooo ©
Anthropometric Committee... 10
£1173
1885.
Synoptic Chart of Indian
OCCAMG. «.scssexsuvdeceseacsenauen 50
Reduction of Tidal Observa-
LOTS AS os owe siclesseuenaseniete ssh
Calculating Tables in Theory
10
Ofe NumMDEXSis iv. ewesoaseeecenee 100
Meteorological Observations
on) Ben NeVIS ...c.ssscessse.ee An 70)
Meteoric Dust! wivien..seswdsas 70
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt
MIOLUGIONS canevcsceecaedeseertaacd 25
Voleanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WAL Fino niin anorna san anao asus 25
Rayeill Wissure \....cssccsesoeons 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
FEY oa cappeacncnoncremnesnarscone 70
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palaeozoic
Rocks
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
tiary and Secondary Beds .
Geological Record ...............
Circulation of Underground
POOP eee nema nee essen easseee
VASE inpggaabononsoeondepassencicas 10
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Zoological Literature Record. 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Exploration of Mount Kilima-
TEE) aanprsborcesaoabandsaresccn 25
Recent Polyzoa ............s0000. 10
Marine Biological Station at
Granton
Biological Stations on Coasts
of United Kingdom 150
Exploration of New Guinea... 200
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100
100
£1385
SOS. OS OO SOOSCreaSosoe.S colt oP emooe. OfSk.6
SSIS SO SO OOS) S'S) SO NO, oo S& 6) Sono Sono
Se ee ee
GENERAL STATEMENT.
1886. £ 3. d.
Electrical Standards............ 40 9 O
Solar Radiation.............s006+ 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ 50 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 0
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis ......cecsessereee 100 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-
ings of Electrolysis .:....... 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... p00
Fossil Plants of British Ter-
' tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Exploration of Caves in North
WeMGSiycecsecateccessecnaesieranes 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
TNS eecacdecscancsccsscccceceseces 30 0 0
Geological Record............+++ 100 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic
AROEEGievecessccnceccececscrssdere 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Marine Biological Station at
GTANtON ......cccceesecreoseoose 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and
Invertebrata at St. Andrews 75 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine.............++ 10 0 O
fixploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
| Sliding Scales ............ EOL OPO
: Prehistoric Race in Greek
Weta Stererstase scccesesesscr ass 20 0 0
- North-Western Tribes of Ca-
Thon Kawenpecscokeebadsperonpaedecad 50 0 0
| £995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation .......00..ssee0s. 18 10 0
IBIECHTOLYSIS........0e0seeeseeneeee 30 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... M5 10% <0
Standards of Light (1886
GSE). sas ncles danlewier ose devsesiews 20 0 O
Standards of Light (1887
GSRAUD)) on ceo. s-omenwecdeay es ones 10 0 0
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations ......sccceeeeeere 15 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
Electrical Standards .........++6 50 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20 0 0
Absorption Spectra .........4. - 400 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
PREPARE vs dcls siosicieaclaaicinsanswaaeiee 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(886 grant). .........0..0c00e0 50|..0) 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
ME CUGS7 GTANL) ~.....c0crceesarees 50 0 0
Exploration of Cae Gwyn
Cave, North Wales ........ 20 0 0
Hirratic: Blocks .{viscsctsecc...o08 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda ..........0+6 - 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25 0
0 |
cl
£8 ae
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0
Circulation of Underground
Waters........cscseccseesscscsees 5 0 0
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
Provincial Museum Reports 5 0 0
Investigation of Lymphatic
System......ccccseeseseeseeeeeees 25 0 0
Naples Biological Station 100 0 0
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Zoological Record .......-+se+-+ 100 0 0
Flora of China ..........sseeeees 75 0 0
Flora and Fauna of the
CAMELOONS ........s2eerceeceres coor 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles) .......s.s.sesss 7 6 O
Regulation of Wages ......... 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race of Greek
TslandS:. .wesewewesanccneeedeceree 20 0 0
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 0
£1186 18 O
1888.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 2 6 4
Magnetic Observations......... 15. 0.0
Standards of Light ............ 79 2 3
Electrolysis <..cdasvse.asaes: wen 30 0 0
Uniform Nomenclature in
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Silent Discharge of LHlec-
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Properties of Solutions ...... 25 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 0 O
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
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Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10 0 0
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Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.,. 50 0 0
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
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Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
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INGie€S) .......0ccccssecscncacevers 100 0 0
Flora of Bahamas. ...... mats codes 100 0 0
Development of Fishes—St.
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Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 O
Hora OF CHINA 2.2.00... cccceeose 75 0 0
cil
£ 8. d.
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0
Biological Station at Granton 50 0 0
Peradeniya Botanical Sta-
(ENOH Bae sels tekitpisacmaiscaeaisle sos 50 0 0
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Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
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Precious Metals in Circula-
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Value of Monetary Standard 10 0 O
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North-Western Tribes of
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Prehistoric Race in Greek
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£1511 O 5
1889.
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Electrical Standards............ 75 0 0
ILE CETOLYSIS..<.-i000c00cec0ecreccees 20 0 O
Observations on SurfaceWater
TEMperabure: ...cesecvenseenees 30 0 0
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Methods of teaching Chemis-
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Voleanic Phenomena of Japan 25 0 0
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Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
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Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of
WW OH Ge ceesceesscnaweecestesauieee 15 0 0
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 0
lora Of China, ..........0s.00000s 25 0° 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 O
Physiology of Lymphatic
DY SUCHION crspctareientsrscccarects 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly
Slane cceewosestecstretea vesexs 100 0 0
Geology and Geography of
Atlas Range... ....ssssssceees 100 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents
in Estuaries by means of
Working Models ............ 100
North-Western Tribes of
Canadas ccnteapecst sh sscsenvenss 150
Characteristics of Nomad
Tribes of Asia Minor......... 30
Corresponding Societies ...... 20
Marine Biological Association
Bath ‘ Baths Committee’ for
further Researches
we eeeenee
(Si Dh MSM ia JS)
oS oooweo 3S
REPORT— 1893.
1890. £ 8. d.
Electrical Standards........... . 1217 0
HVC CUOLVSIS ernie nen siancnsaemcle 5 0 0
Hlectro-Optics........+ssrecseeeeee 50 0 O
Calculating Mathematical
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Volcanic and Seismological
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Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
International Standard for the
Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 O
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charge of Electricity on
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Oxidation of Hydracids in
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Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
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Circulation of Underground
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Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15 0 O
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Geological Photographs ...... 7 14 1k
Lias Beds of Northampton-
SUITC esos scaeeas so eases caeemceee 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Perade-
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Experiments with a Tow-net 4 3 9
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Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents
I HSGUANICS hes ascerssesrseeese 150 0 6
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£799 16 8
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Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Hlectrolysis..........0esseceoresnes 5 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of
SICH Ass los veniets sees seeds bees 10 0 0
Variations of Temperature in
ASIC « -picetsieieoelelesisisebessmeee 20 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological
PHENOMENA....0...seereveeerere 5 0 0
Discharge of Electricity from
POINTS cr vosemanteecceeseereberere 10 0 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar
SPECULUM Vise ececscececenv=-cen 50 0 0
International Standard for
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SECC] ree aceneceenenarheesere sete 10 0 0
£ 8. d.
Isomerie Naphthalene Deriva-
O17 BS) aocig dosage neBecnoBeOooRe Gone 25 0 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 25 0 0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17 10 0O
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
SSM tenene neces ts<coceeedsess00 10 0 0
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Photographs of Geological
TELGRGSbI cvcscscnescosscussctaecs 9 5 0
Lias Beds of Northampton-
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_ Registration of ‘Type-Speci-
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Investigation of Elbolton
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PUPA Niven cccccrccesssvveccessses 10 0 0
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Action of Light on Dyed
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Table at Naples Zoological
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Improving a Deep-sea Tow-
TOG cesseciseeceanes Eeevonawevaes 4050" 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
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Ccill
8. d.
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Zoology and Botany of West
Indiaiislands 2... <czsccesesee 100 0 0
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of Tropical Africa ......... .. 0 0
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North-Western Tribes of
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£864 10 O
(ee
1893.
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Meteorological Observations
on! Beni NeViS\.s.asessccovececae 150 0 0
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HMUNCHONS fsa senses .cseceees 15 0 0
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sity of Solar Radiation...... 2 8 6
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mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene De-
TIVALLVEH) war cueceeeceecetaaesad 20 0 0
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Shell-bearing Deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, &c. ...... 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland
RUS seccpse rocwectape esse Quen eey 10 0 0
Table at the Naples Zoological
Stavion! -.<secsvessevesetoseste 100 0 0
Table at the Plymouth Bio-
logical Laboratory ......... 30 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West
India Islands................... 50 0 0
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0 0
Physiological Action of
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Index of Genera and Species
OL Animal siseseesesesediuancdeece 20 0 0
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Climatology and Hydro-
graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 0
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ING ee cwaewandataacsssed eves e's 3° 7-0
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mains in Abyssinia ......... 25 0 0
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CanNRd By vec.sccddenssusceeemedss 100 0 O
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5 6
£907 1
civ REPORT—1893.
General Meetings.
On Wednesday, September 13, at 8 p.m., in the Albert Hall, Sir
Archibald Geikie, LL.D., D.Sc., For.Sec.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., resigned
the office of President to Professor J. S. Burdon Sanderson, M.A., M.D.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., who took the Chair, and delivered an
Address, for which see page 3.
On Thursday, September 14, at 8 p.., a Soirée took place at the
Castle.
On Friday, September 15, at 8.30 P.m., in the Albert Hall, Professor
Arthur Smithells, B.Sc., delivered a discourse on ‘ Flame.’
On Monday, September 18, at 8.30 p.m., in the Albert Hall, Professor
Victor Horsley, F.R.S8., delivered a discourse on ‘The Discovery of the
Physiology of the Nervous System.’
- On Tuesday, September 19, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the
astle.
On Wednesday, September 20, at 2.30 p.m., in University College, the
concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were
explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to Oxford. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, August 8, 1894. |
ADDRESS
BY
J. 8S. BURDON SANDERSON,
M.A., M.D., LU.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the University of Oxford,
PRESIDENT.
WE are assembled this evening as representatives of the sciences—men
and women who seek to advance knowledge by scientific methods. The
common ground on which we stand is that of belief in the paramount
value of the end for which we are striving, of its inherent power to make
men wiser, happier, and better; and our common purpose is to strengthen
and encourage one another in our efforts for its attainment. We have
come to learn what progress has been made in departments of knowledge
which lie outside of our own special scientific interests and occupations,
to widen our views, and to correct whatever misconceptions may have
arisen from the necessity which limits each of us to his own field of study ;
and, above all, we are here for the purpose of bringing our divided ener-
gies into effectual and combined action.
Probably few of the members of the Association are fully aware of
the influence which it has exercised during the last half-century and
more in furthering the scientific development of this country. Wide as
_ is the range of its activity, there has been no great question in the field
of scientific inquiry which it has failed to discuss; no important line of
investigation which it has not promoted ; no great discovery which it has
not welcomed. After more than sixty years of existence it still finds
itself in the energy of middle life, looking back with satisfaction to what
it has accomplished in its youth, and forward to an even more efficient
future. One of the first of the national associations which exist in different
|
countries for the advancement of science, its influence has been more felt
than that of its successors because it is more wanted. The wealthiest
i
;
B2
a
4 REPORT—1893.,
country in the world, which has profited more—vastly more—by science
than any other, England stands alone in the discredit of refusing the
necessary expenditure for its development, and cares not that other nations
should reap the harvest for which her own sons have laboured.
It is surely our duty not to rest satisfied with the reflection that
England in the past has accomplished so much, but rather to unite and
agitate in the confidence of eventual success. It is not the fault of
governments, but of the nation, that the claims of science are not recog-
nised. We have against us an overwhelming majority of the community,
not merely of the ignorant, but of those who regard themselves as edu-
cated, who value science only in so far as it can be turned into money ;
for we are still in great measure—in greater measure than any other—a
nation of shopkeepers. Let us who are of the minority—the remnant
who believe that truth is in itself of supreme value, and the knowledge of
it of supreme utility—do all that we can to bring public opinion to our
side, so that the century which has given Young, Faraday, Lyell, Darwin,
Maxwell, and Thomson to England, may before it closes see us pre-
pared to take our part with other countries in combined action for the
full development of natural knowledge.
Last year the necessity of an imperial observatory for physical
science was, as no doubt many are aware, the subject of a discussion in
Section A, which derived its interest from the number of leading
physicists who took part in it, and especially from the presence and active
participation of the distinguished man who is at the head of the National
Physical Laboratory at Berlin. The equally pressing necessity for a
central institution for chemistry, on a scale commensurate with the
practical importance of that science, has been insisted upon in this
Association and elsewhere by distinguished chemists. As regards
biology I shall have a word to say in the same direction this evening.
Of these three requirements it may be that the first is the most pressing.
If so, let us all, whatever branch of science we represent, unite our efforts
to realise it, in the assurance that if once the claim of science to liberal
public support is admitted, the rest will follow.
In selecting a subject on which to address you this evening I have
followed the example of my predecessors in limiting myself to matiters
more or less connected with my own scientific occupations, believing
that in discussing what most interests myself I should have the best
chance of interesting you. The circumstance that at the last meeting of
the British Association in this town, Section D assumed for the first time
the title which it has since held, that of the Section of Biology, suggested
to me that I might take the word ‘biology’ as my starting-point, giving
you some account of its origin and first use, and of the relations which
subsist between biology and other branches of natural science.
ADDRESS. 5
ORIGIN AND MEANING OF THE TERM ‘ BroLoGy.’
The word ‘ biology,’ which is now so familiar as comprising the sum
of the knowledge which has as yet been acquired concerning living
nature, was unknown until after the beginning of the present century.
The term was first employed by Treviranus, who proposed to himself as
a life-task the development of a new science, the aim of which should be
to study the forms and phenomena of life, its origin and the conditions
and laws of its existence, and embodied what was known on these subjects
in a book of seven volumes, which he entitled ‘ Biology, or the Philosophy
of Living Nature.’ For its construction the material was very scanty,
and was chiefly derived from the anatomists and physiologists. For
botanists were entirely occupied in completing the work which Linnzus
had begun, and the scope of zoology was in like manner limited to the
description and classification of animals. It was a new thing to regard
the study of living nature as a science by itself, worthy to occupy a place
by the side of natural philosophy, and it was therefore necessary to vindi-
cate its claim to such a position. Treviranus declined to found this claim
ou its useful applications to the arts of agriculture and medicine, con-
sidering that to regard any subject of study in relation to our bodily
wants—in other words to utility—was to narrow it, but dwelt rather
on its value as a discipline and on its surpassing interest. He commends
biology to his readers as a study which, above all others, ‘nourishes and
maintains the taste for simplicity and nobleness; which affords to the
intellect ever new material for reflection, and to the imagination an in-
exhaustible source of attractive images.’
Being himself a mathematician as well as a naturalist, he approaches
the subject both from the side of natural philosophy and from that of
natural history, and desires to found the new science on the fundamental
distinction between living and non-living material. In discussing this
distinction, he takes as his point of departure the constancy with which
the activities which manifest themselves in the universe are balanced,
emphasising the impossibility of excluding from that balance the vital
activities of plants and animals. The difference between vital and
physical processes he accordingly finds, not in the nature of the processes
themselves, but in their co-ordination; that is, in their adaptedness to
a given purpose, and to the peculiar and special relation in which the
organism stands to the external world. All of this is expressed in a pro-
position difficult to translate into English, in which he defines life as
consisting in the reaction of the organism to external influences, and
contrasts the uniformity of vital reactions with the variety of their
exciting causes.!
1 «Leben besteht in der Gleichférmigkeit der Reaktionen bei ungleichformigen
Einwirkungen der Aussenwelt.’—Treviranus, Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden
Natur, Gottingen, 1802, vol. i. p. 83.
6 REPORT—1893.
The purpose which I have in view in taking you back as I have done
to the beginning of the century is not merely to commemorate the work
done by the wonderfully acute writer to whom we owe the first scientific
conception of the science of life as a whole, but to show that this con-
ception, as expressed in the definition I have given you as its foundation,
can still be accepted as true. It suggests the idea of organism as that to
which all other biological ideas must relate. It also suggests, although
perhaps it does not express it, that action is not an attribute of the
organism but of its essence—that if, on the one hand, protoplasm is the
basis of life, life is the basis of protoplasm. Their relations to each
other are reciprocal. We think of the visible structure only in con-
nection with the invisible process. The definition is also of value as
indicating at once the two lines of inquiry into which the science has
divided by the natural evolution of knowledge. These two lines may be
easily educed from the general principle from which Treviranus started,
according to which it is the fandamental characteristic of the organism
that all that goes on in it is to the advantage of the whole. I need
scarcely say that this fundamental conception of organism has at all
times presented itself to the minds of those who have sought to under-
stand the distinction between living and non-living. Without going
back to the true father and founder of biology, Aristotle, we may recall
with interest the language employed in relation to it by the physiologists
of three hundred years ago. It was at that time expressed by the term
consensus partiwm—which was defined as the concurrence of parts in
action, of such a nature that each does quod swum est, all combining
to bring about one effect ‘as if they had been in secret council,’ but at
the same time constanti quadam nature lege.! Professor Huxley has
made familiar to us how a century later Descartes imagined to himself a
mechanism to carry out this consensus, based on such scanty knowledge
as was then available of the structure of the nervous system. The dis-
coveries of the early part of the present century relating to reflex action
and the functions of sensory and motor nerves, served to realise in a
wonderful way his anticipations as to the channels of influence, afferent
and efferent, by which the consensus is maintained; and in recent times
(as we hope to learn from Professor Horsley’s lecture on the physiology
of the nervous system) these channels have been investigated with
extraordinary minuteness and success,
Whether with the old writers we speak about consensus, with Treviranus
about adaptation, or are content to take organism as our point of departure,
it means that, regarding a plant or an animal as an organism, we concern
ourselves primarily with its activities or, to use the word which best ex-
presses it, its energies. Now the first thing that strikes us in beginning
to think about the activities of an organism is that they are naturally
' Bausner, De Consensu Partium Humani Corporis, Amst., 1556, Praef. ad lec-
torem, p. 4.
ADDRESS. 7
distinguishable into two kinds, according as we consider the action of
the whole organism in its relation to the external world or to other
organisms, or the action of the parts or organs in their relation to each
other. The distinction to which we are thus led between the internal
and external relations of plants and animals has of course always existed,
but has only lately come into such prominence that it divides biologists
more or less completely into two camps—on the one hand those who
make it their aim to investigate the actions of the organism and its parts
by the accepted methods of physics and chemistry, carrying this investi-
gation as far as the conditions under which each process manifests itself
will permit ; on the other those who interest themselves rather in con-
sidering the place which each organism occupies, and the part which it
plays in the economy of nature. It is apparent that the two lines of
’ inquiry, although they equally relate to what the organism does, rather
than to what it 7s, and therefore both have equal right to be included in
the one great science of life, or biology, yet lead in directions which
are scarcely even parallel. So marked, indeed, is the distinction, that
Professor Haeckel some twenty years ago proposed to separate the study
of organisms with reference to their place in nature under the designa-
tion of ‘ ecology,’ defining it as comprising ‘the relations of the animal
to its organic as well as to its inorganic environment, particularly its
friendly or hostile relations to those animals or plants with which it
comes into direct contact.’! Whether this term expresses it or not, the
distinction is a fundamental one. Whether with the cecologist we
regard the organism in relation to the world, or with the physiologist as
a wonderful complex of vital energies, the two branches have this in
common, that both studies fix their attention, not on stuffed animals,
butterflies in cases, or even microscopical sections of the animal or plant
body—all of which relate to the framework of life—but on life itself.
The conception of biology which was developed by Treviranus as far
as the knowledge of plants and animals which then existed rendered
possible, seems to me still to express the scope of the science. I should
have liked, had it been within my power, to present to you both aspects
of the subject in equal fulness; but I feel that I shall best profit by the
present opportunity if I derive my illustrations chiefly from the division of
biology to which I am attached—that which concerns the internal rela-
tions of the organism, it being my object not to specialise in either
direction, but, as Treviranus desired to do, to regard biology as part—
surely a very important part—of the great science of nature.
The origin of life, the first transition from non-living to living, is a
' These he identifies with ‘those complicated mutual relations which Darwin
designates as conditions of the struggle for existence.’ Along with chorology—the
distribution of animals—cecology constitutes what he calls Relations-Physiologie.
Haeckel, ‘Entwickelungsgang u. Aufgaben der Zoologie,’ Jenaische Zeitschr., vol. v.
1869, p. 353.
8 REPORT—1893.
riddle which lies outside of our scope. No seriously-minded person,
however, doubts that organised nature as it now presents itself to us
has become what it is by a process of gradual perfecting or advancee
ment, brought about by the elimination of those organisms which failed
to obey the fundamental principle of adaptation which Treviranus indi-
cated. Each step, therefore, in this evolution is a reaction to external
influences, the motive of which is essentially the same as that by which
from moment to moment the organism governs itself. And the whole
process is a necessary outcome of the fact that those organisms are most
prosperous which look best after their own welfare. As in that part of
biology which deals with the internal relations of the organism, the
interest of the individual is in like manner the sole motive by which
every energy is guided. Wemay take what Treviranus called selfish
adaptation — Zweckmissigkeit fiir sich selber—as a connecting link
between the two branches of biological study. Out of this relation
springs another which I need not say was not recognised until after the
Darwinian epoch—that, I mean, which subsists between the two evolu-
tions, that of the race and that of the individual. Treviranus, no less
distinctly than his great contemporary Lamarck, was well aware that
the affinities of plants and animals must be estimated according to their
developmental value, and consequently that classification must be founded
on development ; but it occurred to no one what the real link was between
descent and development; nor was it, indeed, until several years after the
publication of the ‘Origin’ that Haeckel enunciated that ‘biogenetic
law’ according to which the development of any individual organism is
but a memory, a recapitulation by the individual of the development of
the race—of the process for which Fritz Miller had coined the excellent
word ‘phylogenesis’; and that each stage of the former is but a transitory
reappearance of a bygone epoch in its ancestral history. If, therefore,
we are right in regarding ontogenesis as dependent on phylogenesis, the
origin of the former must correspond with that of the latter; that is,
on the power which the race or the organism at every stage of its
existence possesses of profiting by every condition or circumstance for its
own advancement.
From the short summary of the connection between different parts of
our science you will see that biology naturally falls into three divisions,
and these are even more sharply distinguished by their methods than by
their subjects; namely, Physiology, of which the methods are entirely
experimental ; Morphology, the science which deals with the forms and
structure of plants and animals, and of which it may be said that the
body is anatomy, the soul, development; and finally Gcology, which uses
all the knowledge it can obtain from the other two, but chiefly rests on
the exploration of the endless varied phenomena of animal and plant life
as they manifest themselves under natural conditions. This last branch
of biology—the science which concerns itself with the external relations of
ADDRESS. 9
plants and animals to each other, and to the past and present conditions
of their existence—is by far the most attractive. In it those qualities of
mind which especially distinguish the naturalist find their highest
exercise, and it represents more than any other branch of the subject
what Treviranus termed the ‘philosophy of living nature.’ Notwith-
standing the very general interest which several] of its problems excite at
the present moment I do not propose to discuss any of them, but rather
to limit myself to the humbler task of showing that the fundamental idea
which finds one form of expression in the world of living beings regarded
as a whole—the prevalence of the best—manifests itself with equal dis-
tinctness, and plays an equally essential part in the internal relations of
the organism and in the great science which treats of them—Physiology.
OricIn AND Score or Moprrn Purystioroey.
Just as there was no true philosophy of living nature until Darwin,
we may with almost equal truth say that physiology did not exist as a
science before Johannes Miiller. For although the sum of his numerous
achievements in comparative anatomy and physiology, notwithstanding
their extraordinary number and importance, could not be compared for
merit and fruitfulness with the one discovery which furnished the key to
so many riddles, he, no less than Darwin, by his influence on his suc-
cessors was the beginner of a new era.
Miller taught in Berlin from 1833 to 1857. During that time a
gradual change was in progress in the way in which biologists regarded
the fundamental problem of life. Miller himself, in common with
Treviranus and all the biological teachers of his time, was a vitalist, 7.e.,
he regarded what was then called the vis vitalis—the Lebenskraft—as
something capable of being correlated with the physical forces; and as a
necessary consequence held that phenomena should be classified or dis-
tinguished, according to the forces which produced them, as vital or
physical, and that all those processes—that is groups or series of phe-
nomena in living organisms—for which, in the then very imperfect know-
ledge which existed, no obvious physical explanation could be found,
were sufficiently explained when they were stated to be dependent on so-
called vital laws. But during the period of Miiller’s greatest activity
times were changing, and he was changing with them. During his long
career as professor at Berlin he became more and more objective in his
tendencies, and exercised an influence in the same direction on the men
of the next generation, teaching them that it was better and more useful
to observe than to philosophise ; so that, although he himself is truly
regarded as the last of the vitalists—for he was a vitalist to the last—his
successors were adherents of what has been very inadequately designated
the mechanistic view of the phenomena of life. The change thus brought
about just before the middle of this century was a revolution. It was not
a substitution of one point of view for another, but simply a frank aban-
10 REPORT—1893.
donment of theory for fact, of speculation for experiment. Physiologists
ceased to theorise because they found something better todo. May I try
to give you a sketch of this era of progress ?
Great discoveries as to the structure of plants and animals had been
made in the course of the previous decade, those especially which had
resulted from the introduction of the microscope as an instrument of
research. By its aid Schwann had been able to show that all organised
structures are built up of those particles of living substance which we
now call cells, and recognise as the seats and sources of every kind of
vital activity. Hugo Mohl, working in another direction, had given the
name ‘ protoplasm ’ to a certain hyaline substance which forms the lining of
the cells of plants, though no one as yet knew that it was the essential
constituent of all living structures—the basis of life no less in animals
than in plants. And, finally, a new branch of study—histology—founded
on observations which the microscope had for the first time rendered
possible, had come into existence. Bowman, one of the earliest and most
successful cultivators of this new science, called it physiological anatomy,'
and justified the title by the very important inferences as to the secreting
function of epithelial cells and as to the nature of muscular contraction,
which he deduced from his admirable anatomical researches. From struc-
ture to function, from microscopical observation to physiological experi-
ment, the transition was natural. Anatomy was able to answer some
questions, but asked many more. Fifty years ago physiologists had
microscopes but had no laboratories. English physiologists—Bowman,
Paget, Sharpey—were at the same time anatomists, and in Berlin
Johannes Miller, along with anatomy and physiology, tanght compara-_
tive anatomy and pathology. But soon that specialisation which, how-
ever much we may regret its necessity, is an essential concomitant of
progress, became more and more inevitable. The structural conditions
on which the processes of life depend had become, if not known, at least
accessible to investigation ; but very little indeed had been ascertained of
the nature of the processes themselvyes—so little indeed that if at this
moment we could blot from the records of physiology the whole of the
information which had been acquired, say in 1840, the loss would be diffi-
cult to trace—not that the previously known facts were of little value,
but because every fact of moment has since been subjected to experi-
mental verification. It is for this reason that, without any hesitation, we
accord to Miiller and to his successors Briicke, du Bois-Reymond, Helm-
holtz, who were his pupils, and Ludwig, in Germany, and to Clande
Bernard? in France, the title of founders of our science. For it is
1 The first part of the Physiological Anatomy appeared in 1843. It was concluded
in 1856.
2 It is worthy of note that these five distinguished men were nearly contempo-
raries : Ludwig graduated in 1839, Bernard in 1843, the other three between those
dates. Three survive—Helmholtz, Ludwig, du Bois-Reymond.
ADDRESS. lI
the work which they began at that remarkable time (1845-55), and which
is now being carried on by their pupils or their pupils’ pupils in England,
America, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, and even in that
youngest contributor to the advancement of science, Japan, that physio-
logy has been gradually built up to whatever completeness it has at
present attained.
What were the conditions which brought about this great advance
which coincided with the middle of the century ? There is but little
difficulty in answering the question. I have already said that the change
was not one of doctrine, but of method. There was, however, a leading
idea in the minds of those who were chiefly concerned in bringing it
about. That leading notion was, that, however complicated may be the
conditions under which vital energies manifest themselves, they can be
split into processes which are identical in nature with those of the non-
living world, and, as a corollary to this, that the analysing of a vital
process into its physical and chemical constituents, so as to bring these
constituents into measurable relation with physical or chemical standards,
is the only mode of investigating them which can lead to satisfactory
results.
There were several circumstances which at that time tended to make
the younger physiologists (and all of the men to whom I have just
referred were then young) sanguine, perhaps too sanguine, in the hope
that the application of experimental methods derived from the exact
scieuces would afford solutions of many physiological problems. One of
these was the progress which had been made in the science of chemistry,
and particularly the discovery that many of the compounds which before
had been regarded as special products of vital processes could be
produced in the laboratory, and the more complete knowledge which had
been thereby acquired of their chemical constitutions and relations. In
like manner, the new school profited by the advances which had been
made in physics, partly by borrowing from the physical laboratory various
improved methods of observing the phenomena of living beings, but
chiefly in consequence of the direct bearing of the crowning discovery of
that epoch (that of the conservation of energy) on the discussions which
then took place as to the relations between vital and physical forces ;
in connection with which it may be noted that two of those who (along
with Mr. Joule and your President at the last Nottingham meeting) took
a prominent part in that discovery—Helmholtz and J. R. Mayer—were
physiologists as much as they were physicists. I will not attempt even
to enumerate the achievements of that epoch of progress. I may, how-
ever, without risk of wearying you, indicate the lines along which research
at first proceeded, and draw your attention to the contrast between then
and now. At present a young observer who is zealous to engage in re-
search finds himself provided with the most elaborate means of investiga-
tion, the chief obstacle to his success being that the problems which have
12 REPORT—1893.
been left over by his predecessors are of extreme difficulty, all of the
easier questions having been worked out. There were then also difficul-
ties, but of an entirely different kind. The work to be done was in itself
easier, but the means for doing it were wanting, and every investigator
had to depend on his own resources. Consequently the successful men’
were those who, in addition to scientific training, possessed the ingenuity
to devise and the skill to carry out methods for themselves. The work
by which du Bois-Reymond laid the foundation of animal electricity
would not have been possible had not its author, besides being a trained
physicist, known how to do as good work in a small room in the upper
floor of the old University Building at Berlin as any which is now done
in his splendid laboratory. Had Ludwig not possessed mechanical apti-
tude, in addition to scientific knowledge, he would have been unable to
devise the apparatus by which he measured and recorded the variations
of arterial pressure (1848), and verified the principles which Young had
laid down thirty years before as to the mechanics of the circulation.
Nor, lastly, could Helmholtz, had he not been a great deal more than a
mere physiologist, have made those measurements of the time-relations of
muscular and nervous responses to stimulation, which not only afford a
solid foundation for all that has been done since in the same direction,
but have served as models of physiological experiment, and as evidence
that perfect work was possible and was done by capable men, even when
there were no physiological laboratories.
Each of these examples relates to work done within a year or two of
the middle of the century.! If it were possible to enter more fully on the
scientific history of the time, we should, I think, find the clearest evidence,
first, that the foundation was laid in anatomical discoveries, in which it
is gratifying to remember that English anatomists (Allen Thomson,
Bowman, Goodsir, Sharpey) took considerable share ; secondly, that
progress was rendered possible by the rapid advances which, during the
previous decade, had been made in physics and chemistry, and the partici-
pation of physiology in the general awakening of the scientific spirit
which these discoveries produced. I venture, however, to think that,
notwithstanding the operation of these two causes, or rather combinations
of causes, the development of our science would have been delayed had it
not been for the exceptional endowments of the four or five young experi-
menters whose names I have mentioned, each of whom was capable of
becoming a master in his own branch, and of guiding the future progress
of inquiry.
Just as the affinities of an organism can be best learned from its
development, so the scope of a science may be most easily judged of by
"The Untersuchungen iiber thierische Electricitéit appeared in 1848; Ludwig’s
researches on the circulation, which included the first description of the ‘kymo-
graph’ and served as the foundation of the ‘ graphic method,’ in 1847 ; Helmholtz’s
research on the propagation in motor nerves in 1851.
ADDRESS. 13
the tendencies which it exhibits in its origin. I wish now to complete
the sketch I have endeavoured to give of the way in which physiology
entered on the career it has since followed for the last half-century, by
a few words as to the influence exercised on general physivlogical theory
by the progress of research. We have seen that no real advance was
made until it became possible to investigate the phenomena of life by
methods which approached more or less closely to those of the phy-
sicist, in exactitude. The methods of investigation being physical or
chemical, the organism itself naturally came to be considered as a complex
of such processes, and nothing more. And in particular the idea of
adaptation, which, as I have endeavoured to show, is not a consequence
of organism, but its essence, was in great measure lost sight of. Not, I
think, because it was any more possible than before to conceive of the
organism otherwise than as a working together of parts for the good of
the whole, but rather that, if I may so express it, the minds of men were
so occupied with new facts that they had not time to elaborate theories.
The old meaning of the term ‘adaptation’ as the equivalent of ‘ design’ had
been abandoned, and no new meaning had yet been given to it, and con-
sequently the word ‘mechanism’ came to be employed as the equivalent of
‘process,’ as if the constant concomitance or sequence of two events was in
itself a sufficient reason for assuming a mechanical relation between them.
As in daily life so also in science, the misuse of words leads to miscon-
ceptions. To assert that the link between a and b is mechanical, for no
better reason than that 0b always follows a, is an error of statement, which
is apt to lead the incautious reader or hearer to imagine that the relation
between a and b is understood, when in fact its nature may be wholly
unknown. Whether or not at the time which we are considering, some
physiological writers showed a tendency to commit this error, I do not
think that it found expression in any generally accepted theory of life.
It may, however, be admitted that the rapid progress of experimental in-
vestigation led to too confident anticipations, and that to some enthusiastic
minds it appeared as if we were approaching within measurable distance
of the end of knowledge. Such a tendency is, I think, a natural result
of every signal advance. In an eloquent Harveian oration, delivered last
autumn by Dr. Bridges, it was indicated how, after Harvey’s great dis-
covery of the circulation, men were too apt to found upon it explanations
of all phenomena whether of health or disease, to such an extent that the
practice of medicine was even prejudicially affected by it. In respect of
its scientific importance the epoch we are considering may well be com-
pared with that of Harvey, and may have been followed by an undue
preference of the new as compared with the old, but no more permanent
unfavourable results have shown themselves. As regards the science of
medicine we need only remember that it was during the years between
1845 and 1860 that Virchow made those researches by which he brought
the processes of disease into immediate relation with the normal processes
14 REPORT—1893.
of cell-development and growth, and so, by making pathology a part of
physiology, secured its subsequent progress and‘its influence on practical
medicine. Similarly in physiology, the achievements of those years led
on without any interruption or drawback to those of the following gene-
ration; while in general biology, the revolution in the mode of regarding
the internal processes of the animal or plant organism which resulted
from these achievements, prepared the way for the acceptance of the still
greater revolution which the Darwinian epoch brought about in the views
entertained by naturalists of the relations of plants and animals to each
other and to their surroundings.
It has been said that every science of observation begins by going out
botanising, by which, I suppose, is meant that collecting and recording
observations is the first thing to be done in entering on a new field of
inquiry. The remark would scarcely be true of physiology, even at the
earliest stage of its development, for the most elementary of its facts
could scarcely be picked up as one gathers flowers in a wood. Kach of
the processes which go to make up the complex of Jife requires separate
investigation, and in each case the investigation must consist in first
splitting up the process into its constituent phenomena, and then deter-
mining their relation to each other, to the process of which they form
part, and to the conditions under which they manifest themselves. It
will, I think, be found that even in the simplest inquiry into the nature of
vital processes some such order as this is followed. Thus, for example,
if muscular contraction be the subject on which we seek information,
it is obvious that, in order to measure its duration, the mechanical work
it accomplishes, the heat wasted in doing it, the electro-motive forces
which it develops, and the changes of form associated with these phe-
nomena, special modes of observation must be used for each of them,
that each measurement must be in the first instance separately made,
under special conditions, and by methods specially adapted to the
required purpose. In the synthetic part of the inquiry the guidance of
experiment must again be sought for the purpose of discriminating
between apparent and real causes, and of determining the order in which
the phenomena occur. Even the simplest experimental investigations
of vital processes are beset with difficulties. For, in addition to the
extreme complexity of the phenomena to be examined and the un-
certainties which arise from the relative inconstancy of the conditions
of all that goes on in the living organism, there is this additional draw-
back, that, whereas in the exact sciences experiment is guided by well-
ascertained laws, here the only principle of universal application is that
of adaptation, and that even this cannot, like a law of physics, be taken
as a basis for deductions, but only as a summary expression of that
relation between external exciting causes and the reactions to which
they give rise, which, in accordance with Treviranus’ definition, is the
essential character of vital activity.
ADDRESS. 15
THe Speciric ENERGIES of THE ORGANISM.
When in 1826 J. Miiller was engaged in investigating the physiology
of vision and hearing he introduced into the discussion a term, ‘ specific
energy,’ the use of which by Helmholtz! in his physiological writings has
rendered it familiar to all students. Both writers mean by the word
energy, not the ‘ capacity of doing work,’ but simply activity, using it in
its old-fashioned meaning, that of the Greek word from which it is de-
rived. With the qualification ‘ specific’ it serves, perhaps, better than any
other expression to indicate the way in which adaptation manifests itself.
In this more extended sense the ‘specific energy’ of a part or organ—
whether that part be a secreting cell, a motor cell of the brain or
spinal cord, or one of the photogenous cells which produce the light
of the glowworm, or the protoplasmic plate which generates the dis-
charge of the torpedo—is simply the special action which it normally
performs, its norma or rule of action being in each instance the interest
of the organism as a whole of which it forms part, and the exciting cause
some influence outside of the excited structure, technically called
a stimulus. It thus stands for a characteristic of living structures
which seems to be universal. The apparent exceptions are to be found in
those bodily activities which, following Bichat, we call vegetative, because
they go on, so to speak, as a matter of course; but the more closely we
look into them the more does it appear that they form no exception to the
general rule, that every link in the chain of living action, however uniform
that action may be, is a response to an antecedent influence. Nor can it
well be doubted that, as every living cell or tissue is called upon to act in
the interest of the whole, the organism must be capable of influencing
every part so as to regulate its action. For, although there are some in-
stances in which the channels of this influence are as yet unknown, the
tendency of recent investigations has been to diminish the number of such
instances. In general there is no difficulty in determining both the
nature of the central influence exercised and the relation between it and
the normal function. It may help to illustrate this relation to refer to the
expressive word Ausléswng by which it has for many years been designated
by German writers. This word stands for the performance of function by
the ‘ letting off’ of ‘ specific energies.’ Carrying out the notion of ‘letting
off’ as expressing the link between action and reaction, we might com-
pare the whole process to the mode of working of a repeating clock (or
other similar mechanism), in which case the pressure of the finger on the
button would represent the external influence or stimulus, the striking
of the clock, the normal reaction. And now may I ask you to consider
in detail one or two illustrations of physiological reaction—of the letting
off of specific energy ?
' Handb. der physiologischen Optik, 1886, p. 233. Helmholtz uses the word in
the plural—the ‘energies of the nerves of specjal sense.’
16 REPORT— 1893.
The repeater may serve as a good example, inasmuch as it is, in
biological language, a highly differentiated structure, to which a single
function is assigned. So also in the living organism, we find the best,
examples of specific energy where Miller found them, namely, in the
most differentiated, or, as we are apt to call them, the highest structures.
The retina, with the part of the brain which belongs to it, together con-
stitute such a structure, and will afford us therefore the illustration we
want, with this advantage for our present purpose, that the phenomena
are such as we all have it in our power to observe in ourselves. In
the visual apparatus the principle of xormality of reaction is fully
exemplified. In the physical sense the word ‘light’ stands for ether
vibrations, but in the sensuous or subjective sense for sensations. The
swings are the stimulus, the sensations are the reaction. Between the
two comes the link, the ‘letting off,’ which it is our business to under-
stand. Here let us remember that the man who first recognised this
distinction between the physical and the physiological was not a bio-
logist, but a physicist. It was Young who first made clear (though his
doctrine fell on unappreciative ears) that, although in vision the external
influences which give rise to the sensation of light are infinitely varied,
the responses need not be more than three in number, each being, in
Miiller’s language, a ‘ specific energy’ of some part of the visual appa-
ratus. We speak of the organ of vision as highly differentiated, an
expression which carries with it the suggestion of a distinction of rank
between different vital processes. The suggestion is a true one; for it
would be possible to arrange all those parts or organs of which the
bodies of the higher animals consist in a series, placing at the lower end
of the series those of which the functions are continuous, and therefore
called vegetative ; at the other, those highly specialised structures, as, e.g.,
those in the brain, which in response to physical light produce physiolo-
gical, that is subjective, light ; or, to take another instance, the so-called
motor cells of the surface of the brain, which in response to a stimulus
of much greater complexity produce voluntary motion. And just as in
civilised society an individual is valued according to his power of doing
one thing well, so the high rank which is assigned to the structure, or
rather to the ‘specific energy’ which it represents, belongs to it by
virtue of its specialisation. And if it be asked how this conformity is
manifested, the answer is, by the quality, intensity, duration, and ex-
tension of the response, in all which respects vision serves as so good an
example, that we can readily understand how it happened that it was in
this field that the relation between response and stimulus was first
clearly recognised. I need scarcely say that, however interesting it
might be to follow out the lines of inquiry thus indicated, we can-
not attempt it this evening. All that I can do is to mention one or two
recent observations which, while they serve as illustrations, may perhaps
be sufficiently novel to interest even those who are at home in the subject.
ADDRESS. 17
Probably everyone is acquainted with some of the familiar proofs that
an object is seen for a much longer period than it is actually exposed to
view ; that the visual reaction lasts much longer than its cause. More
precise observations teach us that this response is regulated according to
laws which it has in common with all the higher functions of an organism.
If, for example, the cells in the brain of the torpedo are ‘let off’—
that is, awakened by an external stimulus—the electrical discharge,
which, as in the case of vision, follows after a certain interval, lasts a
certain time, first rapidly increasing to a maximum of intensity, then
more slowly diminishing. In iike manner, as regards the visual appa-
ratus, we have, in the response to a sudden invasion of the eye by light, a
rise and fall of a similar character. In the case of the electrical organ,
and in many analogous instances, it is easy to investigate the time rela-
tions of the successive phenomena, so as to represent them graphically.
Again, it is found that in many physiological reactions, the period of
rising ‘energy’ (as Helmholtz called it) is followed by a period during
which the responding structure is not only inactive, but its capacity for
energising is so completely lost that the same exciting cause which a
moment before ‘let off’ the characteristic response is now without effect.
As regards vision, it has long been believed that these general charac-
teristics of physiological reaction have their counterpart in the visual
process, the most striking evidence being that in the contemplation of a
lightning flash—or, better, of an instantaneously illuminated white disc !—
the eye seems to receive a double stroke, indicating that, although the
stimulus is single and instantaneous, the response is reduplicated. The
most precise of the methods we until lately possessed for investigating
the wax and wane of the visual reaction, were not only difficult to carry
out but left a large margin of uncertainty. It was therefore particularly
satisfactory when M. Charpentier, of Nancy, whose merits as an in-
vestigator are perhaps less known than they deserve to be, devised an
experiment of extreme simplicity which enables us, not only to observe,
but to measure with great facility both phases of the reaction. It is
difficult to explain even the simplest apparatus without diagrams ; you
will, however, understand the experiment if you will imagine that you
are contemplating a disc, like those ordinarily used for colour mixing;
that it is divided by two radial lines which diverge from each other at
an angle of 60°; that the sector which these lines enclose is white, the
rest black; that the disc revolves slowly, about once in two seconds.
You then see, close to the front edge of the advancing sector, a black
bar, followed by a second at the same distance from itself but much
fainter. Now the scientific value of the experiment consists in this, that
the angular distance of the bar from the black border is in proportion
to the frequency of the revolutions—the faster the wider. If, for
? The phenomenon is best seen when, in a dark room, the light of a luminous
spark is thrown on to a white screen with the aid of a suitable lens.
1893. 0
18 REPORT—1 893.
example, when the disc makes half a revolution in a second the dis-
tance is ten degrees, this obviously means that when light bursts into
the eye, the extinction happens one-eighteenth of a second after the
excitation.!
The fact thus demonstrated, that the visual reaction consequent on an
instantaneous illumination exhibits the alternations I have described, has
enabled M. Charpentier to make out another fact in relation to the visual
reaction which is, I think, of equal importance. In all the instances,
excepting the retina, in which the physiological response to stimulus has
a definite time-limitation, and in so far resembles an explosion—in other
words, in all the higher forms of specific energy, it can be shown experi-
mentally that the process is propagated from the part first directly acted
on to other contiguous parts of similar endowment. Thus in the simplest
of all known phenomena of this kind, the electrical change, by which the
leaf of the Dionwa plant responds to the slightest touch of its sensitive
hairs, is propagated from one side of the leaf to the other, so that in the
opposite lobe the response occurs after a delay which is proportional to
the distance between the spot excited and the spot observed. That in
the retina there is also such propagation has not only been surmised from
analogy, but inferred from certain observed facts. M. Charpentier has
now been able by a method which, although simple, I must not attempt
to describe, not only to prove its existence, but to measure its rate of
progress over the visual field.
There is another aspect of the visual response to the stimulus of light
which, if I am not trespassing too long on your patience, may, I think, be
interesting to consider. As the relations between the sensations of colour
and the physical properties of the light which excites them, are among the
most certain and invariable in the whole range of vital reactions, it is
obvious that they afford as fruitful a field for physiological investigation
as those in which white light is concerned. We have on one side
physical facts, that is, wave-lengths or vibration-rates; on the other,
facts in consciousness—namely, sensations of colour—so simple that
notwithstanding their subjective character there is no difficulty in
measuring either their intensity or their duration. Between these there
are lines of influence, neither physical nor psychological, which pass from
the former to the latter through the visual apparatus (retina, nerve,
brain). It is these lines of influence which interest the physiologist.
The structure of the visual apparatus affords us no clues to trace them
by. The most important fact we know about them is that they must be
at least three in number.
It has been lately assumed by some that vision, like every other
specific energy, having been developed progressively, objects were seen
1 Charpentier, ‘Réaction oscillatoire de la Rétine sous l’influence des excitations
lumineuses,’ Archives de Physiol., vol. xxiv. p. 541, and Propagation de Vaction
oscillatoire, &c., p. 362,
ADDRESS. 19
by the most elementary forms of eye only in chiaroscuro, that afterwards
some colours were distinguished, eventually all. As regards hearing it
is so. The organ which, on structural grounds, we consider to represent
that of hearing in animals low in the scale of organisation—as, e.g.,
in the Ctenophora—has nothing to do with sound,! but confers on its
possessor the power of judging of the direction of its own movements in
the water in which it swims, and of guiding these movements accordingly.
In the lowest vertebrates, as, e.g., in the dogfish, although the auditory
apparatus is much more complicated in structure, and plainly corresponds
with our own, we still find the particular part which is concerned in
hearing scarcely traceable. All that is provided for is that sixth sense,
which the higher animals also possess, and which enables them to judge
of the direction of their own movements. But a stage higher in the
vertebrate series we find the special mechanisms by which we ourselves
appreciate sounds beginning to appear—not supplanting or taking the
place of the imperfect organ, but added to it. As regards hearing,
therefore, a new function is acquired without any transformation or
fusion of the old into it. We ourselves possess the sixth sense, by which
we keep our balance and which serves as the guide to our bodily move-
ments. It resides in the part of the internal ear which is called the
labyrinth. At the same time we enjoy along with it the possession of the
cochlea, that more complicated apparatus by which we are able to hear
sounds and to discriminate their vibration-rates.
As regards vision, evidence of this kind is wanting. There is, so far
as I know, no proof that visual organs which are so imperfect as to be
incapable of distinguishing the forms of objects, may not be affected
differently by their colours. Even if it could be shown that the least
perfect forms of eye possess only the power of discriminating between
light and darkness, the question whether in our own such a faculty exists
separately from that of distinguishing colours is one which can only be
settled by experiment. As in all sensations of colour the sensation of
brightness is mixed, it is obvious that one of the first points to be deter-
mined is whether the latter represents a ‘specific energy’ or merely a
certain combination of specific energies which are excited by colours.
The question is not whether there is such a thing as white light, but
whether we possess a separate faculty by which we judge of light and
shade—a question which, although we have derived our knowledge of it
chiefly from physical experiment, is one of eye and brain, not of wave-
lengths or vibration-rates, and is therefore essentially physiological.
There is a German proverb which says, ‘Bei Nacht sind alle Katzen
grau.’ The fact which this proverb expresses presents itself experiment-
ally when a spectrum projected on a white surface is watched, while the
Verworn, ‘Gleichgewicht u. Otolithenorgan,’ Pfliiger’s Archiv, vol. 1. p. 423;
also Ewald’s researches on the Labyrinth as a Sense-organ (Ueber das Endorgan
des Nervus octavus, Wiesbaden, 1892).
c2
20 REPORT— 1893.
intensity of the light is gradually diminished. As the colours fade away
they become indistinguishable as such, the last seen being the primary
red and green. Finally they also disappear, but a grey band of light
still remains, of which the most luminous part is that which before was
green.! Without entering into details, let us consider what this tells us
of the specific energy of the visual apparatus. Whether or not the
faculty by which we see grey in the dark is one which we possess in
common with animals of imperfectly developed vision, there seems little
doubt that there are individuals of our own species who, in the fullest
sense of the expression, have no eye for colour; in whom all colour sense
is absent ; persons who inhabit a world of grey, seeing all things as they
might have done had they and their ancestors always lived nocturnal
lives. In the theory of colour vision, as it is commonly stated, no reference
is made to such a faculty as we are now discussing.
Professor Hering, whose observations as to the diminished spectrum
I referred to just now, who was among the first to subject the vision of
the totally colour-blind to accurate examination, is of opinion, on that
and on other grounds, that the sensation of light and shade is a specific
faculty. Very recently the same view has been advocated on a wide basis
by a distinguished psychologist, Professor Ebbinghaus.? Happily, as
regards the actual experimental results relating to both these main
subjects, there seems to be a complete coincidence of observation between
observers who interpret them differently. Thus the recent elaborate
investigations of Captain Abney * (with General Festing), representing
graphically the results of his measurements of the subjective values of
the different parts of the diminished spectrum, as well as those of the
fully illuminated spectrum as seen by the totally colour-blind, are in the
closest accord with the observations of Hering, and have, moreover, been
substantially confirmed in both points by the measurements of Dr. Konig
in Helmholtz’ laboratory at Berlin.‘ That observers of such eminence
as the three persons whom I have mentioned, employing different methods
and with a different purpose in view, and without reference to each
other’s work, should arrive in so complicated an inquiry at coincident
results, augurs well for the speedy settlement of this long-debated
question. At present the inference seems to be that such a specific
energy as Hering’s theory of vision postulates actually exists, and that
it has for associates the colour-perceiving activities of the visual appa-
ratus, provided that these are present; but that whenever the intensity
1 Hering, ‘ Untersuch. eines total Farbenblinden,’ Pfliiger’s Arch., vol. xlix., 1891,
. 563.
‘ 2 Ebbinghaus, ‘ Theorie des Farbensehens,’ Zeitschr. f. Psychol., vol. v., 1893, p. 145.
3 Abney and Festing, Colour Photometry, Part III. Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxiiis,
1891, p. 531.
4 Kénig, ‘Ueber den Helligkeitswerth der Spectralfarben bei verschiedener
absoluter Intensitit,’ Beitrage zur Psychologie, &c., ‘ Festschrift zu H. von Helmholtz,’
Siebzigsten Geburtstage,’ 1891, p. 309.
ADDRESS. 21
of the illumination is below the chromatic threshold—that is, too feeble
to awaken these activities—or when, as in the totally colour-blind, they
are wanting, it manifests itself independently ; all of which can be most
easily understood on such a hypothesis as has lately been suggested in
an ingenious paper by Mrs. Ladd Franklin,! that each of the elements of
the visual apparatus is made up of a central structure for the sensation
of light and darkness, with collateral appendages for the sensations of
colour—it being, of course, understood that this is a mere diagrammatic
representation, which serves no purposes beyond that of facilitating
the conception of the relation between the several ‘ specific energies.’
EXPERIMENTAL PsycHOLOGY.
Resisting the temptation to pursne this subject further, I will now ask
you to follow me into a region which, although closely connected with
the subjects we have been considering, is beset with greater difficulties—
the subject in which, under the name of Physiological or Experimental
Psychology, physiologists and psychologists have of late years taken a
common interest—a borderland not between fact and fancy, but between
two methods of investigation of questions which are closely related,
which here, though they do not overlap, at least interdigitate. It is
manifest that, quite irrespectively of any foregone conclusion as to the
dependence of mind on processes of which the biologist is accustomed to
take cognizance, mind must be regarded as one of the ‘specific energies’
of the organism, and should on that ground be included in the subject-
matter of physiology. As, however, our science, like other sciences, is
limited not merely by its subject but also by its method, it actually takes
in only so much of psychology as is experimental. Thus sensation,
although it is psychological, and the investigation of its relation to the
special structures by which the mind keeps itself informed of what goes
on in the outside world, have always been considered to be in the physio-
logical sphere. And it is by anatomical researches relating to the
minute Structure and to the development of the brain, by observation
of the facts of disease, and, above all, by physiological experiment,
that those changes in the ganglion cells of the brain and spinal cord
which are the immediate antecedents of every kind of bodily action have
been traced. Between the two—that is, between sensation and the
beginning of action—there is an intervening region which the physio-
logist has hitherto willingly resigned to psychology, feeling his incompe-
tence to use the only instrument by which it can be explored—that of
introspection. This consideration enables us to understand the course
which the new study (I will not claim for it the title of a new science,
regarding it as merely a part of the great science of life) has hitherto
1? Christine Ladd Franklin, ‘ Hine neue Theorie der Lichtempfindungen,’ Zeitschr.
fiir Psychologie, vol. iv., 1893, p. 211; see also the Proceedings of the last Psycho-
logical Congress in London, 1892.
22 REPORT—1893.
‘followed, and why physiologists have been unwilling to enter on it. The
study of the less complicated internal relations of the organism has
afforded so many difficult problems that the most difficult of all have
been deferred ; so that although the psycho-physical method was initiated
by E. H. Weber in the middle of the present century, by investigations '
which formed part of the work done at that epoch of discovery, and
although Professor Wundt, also a physiologist, has taken a larger share in
the more recent development of the new study, it is chiefly by psycho-
logists that the researches which have given to it its importance as a new
discipline have been conducted.
Although, therefore, experimental psychology has derived its methods
from physical science, the result has been not so much that physiologists
have become philosophers, as that philosophers have become experimental
psychologists. In our own universities, in those of America, and still
more in those of Germany, psychological students of mature age are to
be found who are willing to place themselves in the dissecting-room side
by side with beginners in anatomy, in order to acquire that exact know-
ledge of the framework of the organism without which no man can
understand its working. ‘Those, therefore, who are apprehensive lest the
regions of mind should be invaded by the insaniens sapientia of the
laboratory, may, I think, console themselves with the thought that the
invaders are for the most part men who before they became laboratory
workers had already given their allegiance to philosophy ; their purpose
being not to relinquish definitively, but merely to lay aside for a time,
the weapons in the use of which they had been trained, in order to learn
the use of ours. The motive that has encouraged them has not been any
hope of finding an experimental solution of any of the ultimate problems
of philosophy, but the conviction that, inasmuch as the relation between
mental stimuli and the mental processes which they awaken is of the
same order with the relation between every other vital process and its
specific determinant, the only hope of ascertaining its nature must lie in
the employment of the same methods of comparative measurement which
the biologist uses for similar purposes. Not that there is necessarily
anything scientific in mere measurement, but that measurement affords
the only means by which it can be determined whether or not the same
conformity in the relation between stimulus and reaction which we have
accepted as the fundamental characteristic of life, is also to be found in
mind, notwithstanding that mental processes have no known physical
concomitants. The results of experimental psychology tend to show
that it is so, and consequently that in so far the processes in question are
as truly functions of organism as the contraction of a muscle, or as the
changes produced in the retinal pigment by light.
I will make no attempt even to enumerate the special lines of inquiry
1 Weber’s researches were published in Wagner’s Handmérterbuch, I think, in
1849,
ADDRESS. 23
which during the last decade have been conducted with such vigour in
all parts of the world, all of them traceable to the influence of the
Leipzig school; but will content myself with saying that the general
purpose of these investigations has been to determine with the utmost
attainable precision the nature of psychical relations. Some of these
investigations begin with those simpler reactions which more or less
resemble those of an automatic mechanism, proceeding to those in which
the resulting action or movement is modified by the influence of auxiliary
or antagonistic conditions, or changed by the simultaneous or antecedent
action on the reagent of other stimuli, in all of which cases the effect
can be expressed quantitatively ; others lead to results which do not so
readily admit of measurement. In pursuing this course of inquiry the
physiologist finds himself as he proceeds more and more the coadjutor
of the psychologist, less and less his director; for whatever advantage
the former may have in the mere technique of observation, the things
with which he has to do are revealed only to introspection, and can be
studied only by methods which lie outside of his sphere. I might in
illustration of this refer to many recent experimental researches—such,
for example, as those by which it has been sought to obtain exact data
as to the physiological concomitants of pleasure and of pain, or as to the
influence of weariness and recuperation, as modifiers of psychological
reactions. Another outwork of the mental citadel which has been
invaded by the experimental method is that of memory. Even here it
can be shown that in the comparison of transitory as compared with
permanent memory—as, for example, in the getting off by heart of a
wholly uninteresting series of words, with subsequent oblivion and
reacquisition—the labour of acquiring and reacquiring may be measured,
and consequently the relation between them; and that this ratio varies
according to a simple numerical law.
I think it not unlikely that the only effect of what I have said may
be to suggest to some of my hearers the question, What is the use of
such inquiries? Experimental psychology has, to the best of my
knowledge, no technical application. The only satisfactory answer I
can give is that it has exercised, and will exercise in future, a helpful
influence on the science of life. Every science of observation, and each
branch of it, derives from the peculiarities of its methods certain ten-
dencies which are apt to predominate unduly. We speak of this as
specialisation, and are constantly striving to resist its influence. The
most successful way of doing so is by availing ourselves of the counter-
acting influence which two opposite tendencies mutually exercise when
they are simultaneous. He that is skilled in the methods of introspec-
tion naturally (if I may be permitted to say so) looks at the same thing
from an opposite point of view to that of the experimentalist. It is,
therefore, good that the two should so work together that the tendency
of the experimentalist to imagine the existence of mechanism where none
24 REPORT—1893.
is proved to exist—of the psychologist to approach the phenomena of
mind too exclusively from the subjective side—may mutually correct.and
assist each other.
PHOTOTAXIS AND CHEMIOTAXIS.
Considering that every organism must have sprung from a unicellular
ancestor, some have thought that unless we are prepared to admit a
deferred epigenesis of mind, we must look for psychical manifestations
even among the lowest animals, and that as in the protozoon all the
vital activities are blended together, mind should be present among them
not merely potentially but actually, though in diminished degree.
Such a hypothesis involves ultimate questions which it is unneces-
sary to enter upon: it will, however, be of interest in connection with
our present subject to discuss the phenomena which served as a basis for
it—those which relate to what may be termed the behaviour of unicellular
organisms and of individual cells, in so far as these last are capable of
reacting to external influences. The observations which afford us most
information are those in which the stimuli employed can be easily
measured, such as electrical currents, light, or chemical agents in
solution.
A single instance, or at most two, must suffice to illustrate the in-
fluence of light in directing the movements of freely moving cells, or, as
it is termed, phototaxis. The rod-like purple organism called by Engel-
mann Bacterium photometricum! is such a light-lover that if you place
a drop of water containing these organisms under the microscope, and
focus the smallest possible beam of light on a particular spot in the field,
the spot acts as a light trap and becomes so crowded with the little
rodlets as to acquire a deep port-wine colour. If instead of making his
trap of white light, he projected on the field a microscopic spectrum,
Engelmann found that the rodlets showed their preference for a spectral
colour which is absorbed when transmitted through their bodies. By
the aid of a light trap of the same kind, the very well-known spindle-
shaped and flagellate cell of Euglena can be shown to have a similar
power of discriminating colour, but its preference is different. This
familiar organism advances with its flagellum forwards, the sharp end of
the spindle having a red or orange eye point. Accordingly, the light it
loves is again that which is most absorbed —viz., the blue of the spectrum
(line F).
These examples may serve as an introduction to a similar one in
which the directing cause of movement is not physical but chemical.
The spectral light trap is used in the way already described; the or-
1 Engelmann, ‘ Bacterium photometricum,’ Onderzoek. Physiol. Lab. Utrecht, vol.
vii. p. 200; also ‘ Ueber Licht- u. Farbenperception niederster Organismen,’ Pfliiger’s
Arch., vol. xxix. p. 387.
ADDRESS. 25
ganisms to be observed are not coloured, but bacteria of that common
sort which twenty years ago we used to call Bacterium termo, and which
is recognised as the ordinary determining cause of putrefaction. These
organisms do not care for light, but are great oxygen-lovers. Conse-
quently, if you illuminate with your spectrum a filament of a confervoid
alga, placed in water containing bacteria, the assimilation of carbon and
consequent disengagement of oxygen are most active in the part of the
filament which receives the red rays (B toc). To this part, therefore,
where there is a dark band of absorption, the bacteria which want
oxygen are attracted in crowds. The motive which brings them together
is their desire for oxygen. Let us compare other instances in which the
source of attraction is food.
The plasmodia of the myxomycetes, particularly one which has been
recently investigated by Mr. Arthur Lister,! may be taken as a typical
instance of what may be called the chemical allurement of living proto-
plasm. In this organism, which in the active state is an expansion of
labile living material, the delicacy of the reaction is comparable to that
of the sense of smell in those animals in which the olfactory organs are
adapted to an aquatic life. Just as, for example, the dogfish is attracted
by food which it cannot see, so the plasmodium of Badhamia becomes
aware, as if it smelled it, of the presence of its food—a particular kind of
fungus. I have no diagram to explain this, but will ask you to imagine
an expansion of living material, quite structureless, spreading itself
along a wet surface; that this expansion of transparent material is
bounded by an irregular coast-line ; and that somewhere near the coast
there has been placed a fragment of the material on which the Badhamia
feeds. The presence of this bit of Sterewm produces an excitement at
the part of the plasmodium next to it. Towards this centre of activity
‘streams of living material converge. Soon the afflux leads to an ont-
growth of the plasmodium, which in a few minutes advances towards the
desired fragment, envelopes, and incorporates it.
May I give you another example also derived from the physiology of
plants? Very shortly after the publication of Engelmann’s observations
of the attraction of bacteria by oxygen, Pfeffer made the remarkable
discovery that the movements of the antherozoids of ferns and of mosses
are guided by impressions derived from chemical sources, by the allure-
ment exercised upon them by certain chemical substances in solution—
in one of the instances mentioned by sugar, in the other by an organic
acid. The method consisted in introducing the substance to be tested,
in any required strength, into a minute capillary tube closed at one end,
and placing it under the microscope in water inhabited by antherozoids,
which thereupon showed their predilection for the substance, or the
contrary, by its effect on their movements. In accordance with the
* Lister, ‘On the Plasmodium of Badhamia utricularis, &c.,’ Annals of Botany,
No. 5, June 1888.
26 REPORT—1893.
principle followed in experimental psychology, Pfeffer ' made it his object
to determine, not the relative effects of different doses, but the smallest
perceptible increase of dose which the organism was able to detect, with
this result—that, just as in measurements of the relation between stimulus
and reaction in ourselves we find that the sensational value of a stimulus
depends, not on its absolute intensity, but on the ratio between that
intensity and the previous excitation, so in this simplest of vital reagents
the same so-called psycho-physical law manifests itself. It is not, how-
ever, with a view to this interesting relation that I have referred to
Pfeffer’s discovery, but because it serves as a centre around which other
phenomena, observed alike in plants and animals, have been grouped.
As a general designation of reactions of this kind Pfeffer devised the
term Chemotaxis, or, as we in England prefer to call it, Chemiotaxis.
Pfeffer’s contrivance for chemiotactic testing was borrowed from the
pathologists, who have long used it for the purpose of determining the
relation between a great variety of chemical compounds or products, and
the colourless corpuscles of the blood. I need, I am sure, make no
apology for referring to a question which, although purely pathological,
is of very great biological interest—the theory of the process by which,
not only in man, but also, as Metschnikoff has strikingly shown, in
animals far down in the scale of development, the organism protects
itself against such harmful things as, whether particulate or not, are able
to penetrate its framework. Since Cohnheim’s great discovery in 1867
we have known that the central phenomenon of what is termed by
pathologists inflammation is what would now be called a chemiotactic
one; for it consists in the gathering together, like that of vultures toa
carcase, of those migratory cells which have their home in the blood
stream and in the lymphatic system, to any point where the living tissue
of the body has been injured or damaged, as if the products of dis-
integration which are set free where such damage occurs were attractive
to them.
The fact of chemiotaxis, therefore, as a constituent phenomenon of
the process of inflammation, was familiar in pathology long before it was
understood. Cohnheim himself attributed it to changes in the channels
along which the cells moved, and this explanation was generally accepted,
though some writers, at all events, recognised its incompleteness. But
no sooner was Pfeffer’s discovery known than Leber,? who for years had
been working at the subject from the pathological side, at once saw that
the two processes were of similar nature. Then followed a variety of
researches of great interest, by which the importance of chemiotaxis in
relation to the destruction of disease-producing microphytes was proved,
1 Pfeffer, Untersuch a. d. botan. Institute z. Tiibingen, vol. i., part 3, 1884.
2 Leber, ‘ Die Anhiufung der Leucocyten am Orte des Entziindungsreizes,’ &c.
Die Entstehung der Enztiindung, &c., pp. 423-464, Leipzig, 1891.
ADDRESS. 2F
that of Buchner! on the chemical excitability of leucocytes being
among the most important. Much discussion has taken place, as many
present are aware, as to the kind of wandering cells, or leucocytes,
which in the first instance attack morbific microbes, and how they deal
with them. The question is not by any means decided. It has, however,
I venture to think, been conclusively shown that the process of destruc-
tion is a chemical one, that the destructive agent has its source in the
chemiotactic cells—that is, cells which act under the orders of chemical
stimuli. Two Cambridge observers, Messrs. Kanthack and Hardy,” have
lately shown that, in the particular instance which they have investigated,
the cells which are most directly concerned in the destruction of morbific
bacilli, although chemiotactic, do not possess the power of incorporating
either bacilli or particles of any other kind. While, therefore, we must
regard the relation between the process of devitalising and that of
incorporating as not yet sufficiently determined, it is now no longer
possible to regard the latter as essential to the former.
There seems, therefore, to be very little doubt that chemiotactic cells are
among the agents by which the human or animal organism protects itself
against infection. There are, however, many questions connected with
this action which have not yet been answered. The first of these are
chemical ones—that of the nature of the attractive substance and that
of the process by which the living carriers of infection are destroyed.
Another point to be determined is how far the process admits of adapta-
tion to the particular infection which is present in each case, and to the
state of liability or immunity of the infected individual. The subject is
therefore of great complication. None of the points I have suggested
can be settled by experiments in glass tubes such as I have described to
you. These serve only as indications of the course to be followed in
much more complicated and difficult investigations—when we have to do
with acute diseases as they actually affect ourselves or animals of similar
liabilities to ourselves, and find ourselves face to face with the question
of their causes.
It is possible that many members of the Association are not aware of
the unfavourable—I will not say discreditable—position that this country
at present occupies in relation to the scientific study of this great sub-
ject—the causes and mode of prevention of infectious diseases. As
regards administrative efficiency in matters relating to public health
England was at one time far ahead of all other countries, and still re-
_ tains its superiority ; but as regards scientific knowledge we are, in this
subject as in others, content to borrow from our neighbours. ‘Those who
desire either to learn the methods of research or to carry out scientific
1 Buchner, ‘Die chem. Reizbarkeit der Leucocyten,’ &c., Berliner klin. Woch., 1890,.
No. 17.
? Kanthack and Hardy, ‘ On the Characters and Behaviour of the Wandering Cells
of the Frog,’ Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. lii. p. 267.
28 REPORT—1893.
inquiries have to go to Berlin, to Munich, to Breslau, or to the Pasteur
Institute in Paris to obtain what England ought long ago to have pro-
vided. For to us, from the spread of our race all over the world, the
prevention of acute infectious diseases is more important than to any
other nation. At the beginning of this address I urged the claims of
pure science. If I could, I should feel inclined to speak even more
strongly of the application of science to the discovery of the causes of
acute diseases. May I express the hope that the effort which is now
being made to establish in England an Institution for this purpose not
inferior in efficiency to those of other countries, may have the sympathy
of all present? And now may I ask your attention for a few moments
more to the subject that more immediately concerns us ?
CoNncLUsION.
The purpose which I have had in view has been to show that there
is one principle—that of adaptation—which separates biology from the
exact sciences, and that in the vast field of biological inquiry the end we
have is not merely, as in natural philosophy, to investigate the relation
between a phenomenon and the antecedent and concomitant conditions
on which it depends, but to possess this knowledge in constant reference
to the interest of the organism. It may perhaps be thought that this
way of putting it is too teleological, and that in taking, as it were, as
my text this evening so old-fashioned a biologist as Treviranus, I am
yielding to a retrogressive tendency. It is not so. What I have desired
to insist on is that organism is a fact which encounters the biologist at
every step in his investigations; that in referring it to any general
biological principle, such as adaptation, we are only referring it to itself,
not explaining it; that no explanation will be attainable until the con-
ditions of its coming into existence can be subjected to experimental
investigation so as to correlate them with those of processes in the non-
living world.
Those who were present at the meeting of the British Association at
Liverpool will remember that then, as well as at some subsequent meet-
ings, the question whether the conditions necessary for such an inquiry
could be realised was a burning one. This is no longer the case. The
patient endeavours which were made about that time to obtain experi-
mental proof of what was called abiogenesis, although they conduced —
materially to that better knowledge which we now possess of the con-
ditions of life of bacteria, failed in the accomplishment of their purpose.
The question still remains undetermined ; it has, so to speak, been ad-
journed sine die. The only approach to it lies at present in the inves-
tigation of those rare instances in which, although the relations between
a living organism and its environment ceases as a watch stops when it
ADDRESS. 29
has not been wound, these relations can be re-established—the process of
life re-awakened—by the application of the required stimulus.
I was also desirous to illustrate the relation between physiology
and its two neighbours on either side, natural philosophy (including
chemistry) and psychology. Asregards the latter I need add nothing
to what has already been said. As regards the former, it may be well
to notice that although physiology can never become a mere branch of
applied physics or chemistry, there are parts of physiology wherein
the principles of these sciences may be applied directly. Thus, in the
beginning of the century, Young applied his investigations as to the move-
ments of liquids in a system of elastic tubes, directly to the phenomena
of the circulation ; and a century before, Borelli successfully examined the
mechanisms of locomotion and the action of muscles, without reference to
any, excepting mechanical principles. Similarly, the foundation of our
present knowledge of the process of nutrition was laid in the researches
of Bidder and Schmidt, in 1851, by determinations of the weight and
composition of the body, the daily gain of weight by food or oxygen, the
daily loss by the respiratory and other discharges, all of which could be
accomplished by chemical means. But in by far the greater number of
physiological investigations, both methods (the physical or chemical and
the physiological) must be brought to bear on the same question—to co-
operate for the elucidation of the same problem. In the researches, for
example, which during several years have occupied Professor Bohr, of
Copenhagen, relating to the exchange of gases in respiration, he has
shown that factors purely physical—namely, the partial pressures of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood which flows through the pul-
monary capillaries—are, so to speak, interfered with in their action by the
“specific energy’ of the pulmonary tissue, in such a way as to render this
fundamental process, which, since Lavoisier, has justly been regarded as
one of the most important in physiology, much more complicated than we
for a long time supposed it to be. In like manner Heidenhain has proved
that the process of lymphatic absorption, which before we regarded as
dependent on purely mechanical causes—+.e., differences of pressure—is
in great measure due to the specific energy of cells, and that in various
processes of secretion the principal part is not, as we were inclined not
many years ago to believe, attributable to liquid diffusion, but to the same
agency. I wish that there had been time to have told you something of
the discoveries which have been made in this particular field by Mr.
Langley, who has made the subject of ‘specific energy’ of secreting-cells
his own. It is in investigations of this kind, of which any number of
examples could be given, in which vital reactions mix themselves up with
physical and chemical ones so intimately that it is difficult to draw the
line between them, that the physiologist derives most aid from what-
ever chemical and physical training he may be fortunate enough to
possess.
30 REPORT—1893.
There is, therefore, no doubt as to the advantages which physiology
derives from the exact sciences. It could scarcely be averred that they
would benefit in anything like the same degree from closer association
with the science of life. Nevertheless, there are some points in respect of
which that science may have usefully contributed to the advancement of
physics or of chemistry. The discovery of Graham as to the characters
of colloid substances, and as to the diffusion of bodies in solution through
membranes, would never have been made had not Graham ‘ ploughed,’ so
to speak, ‘ with our heifer.’ The relations of certain colouring matters to
oxygen and carbon dioxide would have been unknown, had no experiments
been made on the respiration of animals and the assimilative process in
plants ; and, similarly, the vast amount of knowledge which relates to the
chemical action of ferments must be claimed as of physiological origin.
So also there are methods, both physical and chemical, which were
originally devised for physiological purposes. Thus the method by which
meteorological phenomena are continuously recorded graphically, origi-
nated from that used by Ludwig (1847) in his ‘Researches on the Circula-
tion’ ; the mercurial pump, invented by Lothar Meyer, was perfected in
the physiological laboratories of Bonn and Leipzig; the rendering the
galvyanometer needle aperiodic by damping was first realised by du Bois-
Reymond—uin all of which cases invention was prompted by the require-
ments of physiological research.
Let me conclude with one more instance of a different kind, which
may serve to show how, perhaps, the wonderful ingenuity of contrivance
which is displayed in certain organised structures—the eye, the ear, or
the organ of voice—may be of no less interest to the physicist than to the
physiologist. Johannes Miiller, as is well known, explained the com-
pound eye of insects on the theory that an erect picture is formed on the
convex retina by the combination of pencils of light, received from
different parts of the visual field through the eyelets (ommatidia)
directed to them. Years afterwards it was shown that in each eyelet an
image is formed which is reversed. Consequently, the mosaic theory of
Miiller was for along period discredited on the ground that an erect
picture could not be made up of ‘upside-down’ images. Lately the
subject has been reinvestigated, with the result that the mosaic theory
has regained its authority. Professor Exner ! has proved photographically
that behind each part of the insect’s eye an erect picture is formed of
the objects towards which it is directed. There is, therefore, no longer
any difficulty in understanding how the whole field of vision is mapped
out as consistently as it is imaged on our own retina, with the difference,
of course, that the picture is erect. But behind this fact lies a physical
question—that of the relation between the erect picture which is photo-
graphed and the optical structure of the crystal cones which produce it—
' Exner, Die Physiologie der facettirten Augen von Krebsen u. Insecten, Leipzig,
1891.
ADDRESS. 31
a question which, although we cannot now enter upon it, is quite as
interesting as the physiological one.
With this history of a theory which, after having been for thirty
years disbelieved, has been reinstated by the fortunate combination of
methods derived from the two sciences, I will conclude. It may serve
to show how, though physiology can never become a part of natural
philosophy, the questions we have to deal with are cognate. Without
forgetting that every phenomenon has to be regarded with reference to
its useful purpose in the organism, the aim of the physiologist is not to
inquire into final causes, but to investigate processes. His question is
ever How, rather than Why.
May I illustrate this by a simple, perhaps too trivial, story, which
derives its interest from its having been told of the childhood of one of the
greatest natural philosophers of the present century? ' He was even
then possessed by that insatiable curiosity which is the first quality of
the investigator ; and it is related of him that his habitual question was
‘What is the go of it?’ and if the answer was unsatisfactory, ‘ What is
the particular go of it?’ That North Country boy became Professor
Clerk Maxwell. The questions he asked are those which in our various
ways we are all trying to answer.
1 Life of Clerk Maxwell (Campbell and Garnett), 1882, p. 28.
REPORTS —
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
|
REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
Corresponding Societies.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor R. Mrxtpoia (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hotmas (Secre-
tary), Mr. Francis Gatton, Sir Doveias Gatton, Sir Rawson
Rawson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Joun Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor T. G. Bonnuy, Mr. W. Wuitaker,
Mr. W. Torey, Professor E. B. Poutroy, Mr. Corusert Prex,
and Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram.
Tue Corresponding Societies Committee of the British Association beg
leave to submit to the General Committee the following report of the
proceedings of the Conference held at Edinburgh.
The Council nominated Professor Raphael Meldoia, F.R.S., Chair-
man, Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.8., Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes,
F.G.S., Secretary to the Conference. These nominations were confirmed
by the General Committee at the meeting held at Edinburgh on Wednes-
day, August 3. The meetings of the Conference were held on Thursday,
August 4, and on Tuesday, August 9, at 3.30, in the Justiciary Court.
The following Corresponding Societies, out of the sixty on the list,
nominated delegates to represent them at the Edinburgh meeting :—
Rey. H. H. Winwood, M.A.,
F.G.S.
Mr. Alexander Tate.
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club.
Belfast Natural History and Philosophi-
cal Society.
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club
Birmingham Natural History and Micro-
scopical Society.
Birmingham Philosophical Society .
Bristol ‘Naturalists’ Society
Burton-on-Trent Natural History and
Archeological Society.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society
Chester Society of Natural Science
Chesterfield and Midland Counties Insti-
tution of Engineers.
Mr. Wm. Gray, M.R.I.A.
Mr. Charles Pumphrey.
Mr. J. Kenward, F.S.A.
Prof, Sydney Young, D.Sc.
Mr. A. L. Stern, B.Sc.
Mr. T. H. Thomas.
Mr. A. O. Walker, F.L-S.
Mr. M. H. Mills, F.G.S.
D2
REPORT—1893.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural His-
tory Club.
Cumberland and Westmorland Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Literature
and Science.
Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club.
Hast Kent Natural History Society . -
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’
Societies.
Essex Field Club
Federated Institution of Mining Engi-
neers.
Glasgow, The Geological Society of.
Hants Field Club
Hertfordshire Natural History Society
and Field Club.
Inverness Scientific Society and Field
Club.
Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society.
Leeds Geological Association .
Liverpool Engineering Society
Liverpool Geographical Society
Liverpool Geological Society .
Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society.
Manchester Geographical Society
Manchester Geological Society ;
Midland Union of Natural History Socie-
ties.
North of England Institute of Mining
Engineers.
North Staffordshire Naturalists’
Club and Archeological Society.
Northamptonshire Natural History So-
ciety.
Paisley Philosophical Institution
Perthshire Society of Natural Science
Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society
Somersetshire Archeological and Natural
History Society.
Tyneside Geographical Society :
Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Archzo-
logists’ Field Club.
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club :
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic
Society.
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union .
Field
. Thos. Cushing, F.R.A.S.
. J. G. Goodchild, F.G.S.
. Morton G. Stuart, M.A.
Mr.
Mr.
A. S. Reid, M.A., F.G.S.
Robert Brown, R.N.
Mr.
Mr.
T. V. Holmes, F.G.S.
M. H. Mills, F.G.S.
Mr. James Barclay Murdoch.
Rey. A. G. Joyce.
Dr. John Morison, F.G.S.
Mr. John Horne, F.R.S.E.
Mr. P. M. C. Kermode.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr.
B. Holgate, F.G.S.
G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E-
Jas. Irvine, F.R.G.S.
G. H. Morton, F.G.S.
M. B. Slater, F.L.S.
Mr.
Mr.
Dr.
Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
Mark Stirrup, F.G.S.
T. Stacey Wilson, B.Sc.
Prof. J. H. Merivale, M.A.
Dr. J. T. Arlidge, M.A.
Mr. Beeby Thompson, F.G.S.
Mr. James Clark.
Mr. Henry Coates, F.R.S.E.
Mr. W. Watts, F.G.S.
Mr. E. Chisholm Batten, M.A.,
F.R.S.E.
Mr. G. E. T. Smithson.
Mr. W. Andrews, F.G.S.
Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
Mr. James W. Davis, F.G.S.
Rev. E. P. Knubley, M.A.
FIRST CONFERENCE, AUGUST 4, 1892.
The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Professor
R. Meldola (Chairman), Sir Douglas Galton, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Mr. E. B. Poulton, Mr. Cuthbert Peek, Dr. Garson, and Mr.
T. V. Holmes (Secretary).
The Chairman, after welcoming the delegates to the seventh Confer-
ence which had been held under the new rules of the Association, said
during the seven years of their existence they had, he ventured to think,
done some good work for the Association and for themselves. They
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 37
occupied now in relation to the Association very much the same position
as one of its Sectional Committees, and for that they were very largely
indebted to Sir Douglas Galton, who had very keenly watched their
proceedings, and had taken a great interest in them. The report of the
Committee was then submitted, and the different subjects which had
engaged attention during the year were dealt with under the heading
of the Association Sections to which they belong.
Section A.
The Chairman introduced the subject of temperature variations in
lakes, rivers, and estuaries.
Meteorological Photography.—Mr.-Clayden and Mr. Symons spoke of
the desirability of obtaining photographs illustrating damage by whirl-
winds and floods, and Mr. W. Watts (Rochdale) said that the society
he represented was taking up the subject. Mr. Symons mentioned the
Helm Wind of Crossfell, and the peculiar cloud accompanying it ; photo-
graphs of the latter would be useful. Mr. Watts stated that a difficulty
in photographing the effects of floods arose from the state of the weather
during their occurrence, and Mr. Cushing (Croydon) exhibited photo-
graphs of a recent thunderstorm. The Chairman then remarked that
Mr. Kenward (Birmingham), who was unable to be present, had sent a
letter stating that for some years in Birmingham meteorological observa-
tions had been made in the building called ‘ The Monument.’
Sxction B.
The Chairman mentioned the subject of the conditions of the atmo-
sphere in manufacturing towns, and Mr. Mark Stirrup (Manchester) and
Mr. Watts (Rochdale) said that observations and experiments were being
made thereon in their respective districts.
Srotion C.
Mr. De Rance (Section C) stated that the Eighteenth Report of the
Committee on Underground Waters had been read that morning; that
the Committee thought it should be reappointed, and that a volume
containing abstracts of the previous reports should be published. The
Committee on Coast Erosion hoped to conclude its labours next year.
The Committee on Erratic Blocks continued to do good work. The
local societies could do much to assist this committee by noting the
position of boulders, and by preserving them from destruction.
Mr. Watts (Rochdale) spoke upon the denudation of high-lying
drainage areas, and some observations he had made on the amount of
material brought down by flood waters, and the degree of protection
given by heather, grass, and peat. He was anxious that other districts
should take up this inquiry in order that comparisons might be possible.
In his district he had found that flood water, after a very heavy flood,
had yielded 900 grains of fine material to the gallon, the material mainly
consisting of leaves, fibres, seed spores, and little bits of peat.
Dr. H. R. Mill said that something had recently been done in Germany
to ascertain the amount of sediment in river water. He thought it very
38 REPORT—1893.
desirable that a series of observations should be made to determine the
relative values of woodlands and heather in protecting land, and was
inclined to suggest the formation of a committee for that purpose. Mr.
Watts said he would be glad to give information as to the method
followed in Rochdale.
Geological Photography.—Mr. Jeffs, Secretary to the Photographic
Committee, being absent, had asked Mr. Arthur 8. Reid (Hast Kent) to
speak about its work. Mr. Reid said that the number of the photographs
was about 700. He exhibited a specimen volume of photographs, and
explained the way in which they were mounted and bound. He thought
it important that some uniform plan of photographing geological subjects
should be adopted, and that the plates used should be orthochromatic or
isochromatic. The Committee had asked to be reappointed. He hoped
the delegates would try to make their societies active in this matter.
Mr. William Gray said that he thought the Belfast Naturalists’ Field
Club had its work fairly well represented by the photographs exhibited.
They had sent more at first because they then had them in stock; and
their quality had improved. They were also photographing antiquities,
and producing lantern-slides which were very valuable for educational
purposes. His society had an excellent collection of geological and
antiquarian lantern-slides which it would be delighted to place at the
service of any of the other societies, or of any member of the British
Association interested in educational work.
Dr. T. Stacey Wilson mentioned that the Birmingham Philosophical
Society had appointed a sub-committee for geological photography.
Mr. J. Barclay Murdoch, as Secretary to the Glasgow Geological
Society, said that his society had not sent in any photographs because it
had been found difficult to organise the work. He had, however, drawn
up a preliminary list of localities to be illustrated, and this list had been
circulated among the members, who were asked to return either photo-
graphs of the places named or information as to photographs of them
already existing. .
The Chairman recommended orthochromatic plates. They might be
more expensive, but they were decidedly preferable for geological photo-
graphs.
Section D.
The Chairman invited remarks on the destruction of native plants and
of wild birds’ eggs.
Disappearance of Native Plants—The Rey. E. P. Knubley (Yorks.
Nat. Union) alluded to the report presented to Section D on this
subject, which had been drawn up by Mr. D. E. Boyd. In it were men-
tioned some of the causes leading to the disappearance of native plants,
such as marine erosion, agricultural drainage, and the growth of towns
and villages. In addition to these influences were the formation of
herbaria, the exchange of botanical specimens, the removal of plants
into gardens, and the large numbers of ferns and other plants exposed
for sale; and there were great difficulties in the way of any attempts at
prohibitive legislation. Many plants had wholly or almost wholly dis-
appeared from the west of Scotland. Mr. Watts said that two or three
members of the Rochdale Society proposed to work at this subject.
Mr. Mark Stirrup had a short paper by Mr. Leo H. Grindon on the dis-
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 39
appearance of wild plants in the neighbourhood of Manchester. The
Chairman thought it might be read at the second Conference. Mr.
Cuthbert Peek remarked on the great difficulty of obtaining a conviction
in cases in which ferns and other wild plants had been taken from private
grounds.
Destruction of Wild Birds’ Eggs—The Rev. E. P. Knubley said terrible
damage had been done by the destruction of birds’ eggs. It was a serious
matter, but it was very difficult to know what to do in regard to it. For
instance, take the case of the great skua, which nested in the Shetland
Islands: in 1890 it is said that not a single chick was reared on the
whole of the Foula colony. Every egg was taken, and in 1891 all the
eggs of the first laying were taken by the inhabitants and sold to dealers.
Other rare birds which nested in the Shetland Islands were also perse-
cuted. He had it on good authority that last year not more than two or
three nests of the red-throated diver got off their young; and the black-
throated divers were not more fortunate. One shilling apiece was given
by dealers for the eggs of the red-throated diver, and 10s. a brace for
those of the black-throated diver. The whimbrels, which also nested on
the same islands, had been reduced to about twenty pairs, and were
likely to disappear. The red-necked phalarope was very much in the
same circumstances. The dealers gave a commission to a local man,
who was to get about 3d. a dozen for every egg collected of all sorts and
kinds. The local men in turn got the herd boys to sweep the country of
every egg they could lay hands on, big and little, and for these they got
about ld. a dozen. That was one way in which parts of Scotland had
been regularly swept, and that in spite of such protection as the owners
could afford. They had men who followed about strangers all day, but
the natives took the eggs at night. Then, again, he might mention
that he heard that in Edinburgh there was a gentleman who made it
his boast that he had over 100 eggs of the golden eagle. What was to
be done with a case of that kind? In some parts of England things
were not any better. The nesting stations of the lesser tern which
existed on the Fifeshire coast, the Lincolnshire coast, and at Spurn, in
Yorkshire, would shortly disappear altogether. The oyster-catcher and
the Arctic tern had practically ceased to nest on the Lincolnshire and
Yorkshire coasts, and the ringed plover was much scarcer than formerly.
The redshanks and greenshanks had in many parts also been persecuted
to the death. The nests of the bearded reedling, whose breeding station
in the British Islands was the Norfolk Broads, had been to his own
knowledge systematically poached for sale for a number of years. The
_ only hope seemed to him to be in the creation of a public feeling against
the extermination of these birds. It would be difficult to advocate any-
thing like legislation. The most practical plan he had seen was this—
that the Imperial Legislature should grant powers to the County Councils
to protect known nesting-places in their districts for certain months of
the year, say from April 1 to June 30. Such a plan would be simple,
and might be effective; but for one thing they should endeavour to do
all in their power to help the owners and occupiers of land to protect the
birds and their eggs during the breeding season. They might also see if
they could not enlist the aid of the gamekeepers, who, with the farmers
and proprietors, were beginning to find out that all birds were not their
enemies. Collectors and dealers should also be discouraged. Just as he
came there that day he had been told that 200 eggs of the stormy petrel
40 REPORT—18938.
had been taken from one island on the west coast of Ireland and given to
one dealer.
Mr. EK. B. Poulton (Oxford) said that if they discouraged the purchase
of eggs, the trade of the dealer would soon cease.
Mr. G. J. Symons said it was an old saying that there would be no
thieves if there were no receivers ; and possibly there would be no dealers
if there were no collectors. They should discourage as much as they
could this spoliation of the nests of rare birds.
Mr. Mills (Chesterfield) thought it would do good if some small recog-
nition were given to gamekeepers to assist in protecting the nests of
the birds.
The Chairman asked if it would not strengthen the hands of Mr.
Knubley if the meeting was to pass some resolution on the subject.
Sir Douglas Galton hoped any resolution of the kind would make an
appeal to egg-collectors.
Section H.
The Chairman remarked that last year there had been a discussion on
the cost and age of ordnance maps; also on the teaching of geography in
primary schools.
Sir Douglas Galton said that a departmental committee on the subject
of ordnance maps had been appointed, and he had been informed by Sir
Archibald Geikie that its report would soon be published, and that it
would be the means of removing many of the difficulties complained of.
It was, of course, no use discussing the matter before the publication of
the report.
Mr. Eli Sowerbutts did not expect much from this departmental
report, and had little information to offer about the teaching of geo-
graphy in schools, as he had not had a reply from a single society. But
there had been an examination about India in the upper schools of
Yorkshire, Cheshire, and Lancashire. Three hundred pupils only asked
for papers, and out of 103 who sat three passed. A Cheshire girl of
fourteen was first, a Yorkshire man of thirty-one second, and a Yorkshire
lad third. This examination amply demonstrated the extreme badness
of the teaching of geography in these schools. He would be glad if the
delegates would try and help them next year. The examination would be
in Yorkshire, and they would go back to the primary schools.
Section G.
Flameless Haplosives.— Professor Merivale said he had nothing to
report. The Durham strike had interfered with their arrangements, the
proposed laboratories having been utilised as stables.
Section H.
Dr. Garson reported that there had been no applications to the Com-
mittee last year for aid in connection with anthropological exploration.
He contended, however, that local bodies, when they meant to make such
explorations, should give them notice. Valuable hints could be given
them as to how they should proceed. Local committees intending to
explore ancient dwellings, burial places, &c., should communicate with
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4]
the Committee in aid of Anthropological Exploration, 3 Hanover Square,
London. General Pitt-Rivers was the chairman of this committee, and
no one could be better qualified to give advice as to the conduct of an
exploration. Local societies might also do useful work by the description
of specimens in local museums, accounts of which might be published in
their ‘ Proceedings’ for the information of workers dwelling elsewhere.
The Secretary, at the request of the Chairman, read an extract from
a letter of Mr. Kenward, of Birmingham, giving particulars of an anthro-
pometric laboratory established at Birmingham, like that of Mr. Francis
Galton at South Kensington.
SECOND CONFERENCE, AUGUST 9.
The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Professor
R. Meldola (Chairman) and Messrs. Symons, Whitaker, Cuthbert Peek,
Garson, Poulton, Rev. Canon Tristram, Sir Rawson Rawson, and
T. V. Holmes (Secretary).
The Chairman suggested that in future some subject in which the
delegates generally were interested, such as the management of local
museums, the relations of County Councils to technical instruction, or the
working of the Technical Education Acts, should be brought before the
Conference in the form of a short paper to serve as a basis of discussion.
This proposition met with general approval.
Mr. Symons mentioned that he had arranged with Mr. Griffith that
delegates on the first day of the meeting of the British Association
should be supplied with copies of the reports on subjects in which they
were interested. This would give them longer time than they had at
present to make themselves acquainted with the work which was being
done.
Section A.
Underground Waters.—Mr. Symons said that some remarks had been
made on the circulation of underground waters, and he wished that when
wells were sunk the temperature, as well as the depth, of the water
should be taken. It was very easily done, as they had only to send down
a thermometer in the bucket, and bring up the bucket full of water. If
such observations were made at the same hour of the day throughout the
year they would be of very considerable use. The depth of water in a
well should always be measured from the surface of the ground.
Mr. Whitaker said that it was also important that the variation in the
depth of water in a well should be recorded.
Secrion D.
Disappearance of Native Plants—Mr. Mark Stirrup read a letter
written by Mr. Leo Grindon dealing with the disappearance of native
plants during the last fifty years in the district within a radius of fifteen
miles round Manchester. The wide, uncultivated moorlands (remarked
Mr. Grindon) remained unchanged. Harsh and wiry grasses, a few ferns,
heather, whortleberry, and crowberry still renewed themselves perennially
there ; and in the flat country which had been and remained agricul-
42 REPORT— 1893.
tural or pastoral there was but little change. The changes which had
occurred were referable almost wholly to the enterprise and activity of
the landowners, who had converted peat-mosses and sandy wastes into
land profitable for agriculture or even for building purposes. Hence the
disappearance of Gentiana pneumonanthe and Osmunda, with other less
conspicuous moss and moor plants. However, in other quarters there is
still no lack of the cotton sedge, the Lancashire asphodel, and the Erica
tetralic. But the dye-polluted streams are forsaken by the forget-me-
nots and other water-loving plants, and many ponds within five or six
miles of the town have been drained or filled up, or converted into lakes
for the adornment of pleasure grounds. These changes have involved
the loss of such plants as the Stratiotes, the Myriophyllum, and various rare
sedges, the Carew elongata, for instance, once abundant. Fifty years ago
the little dells, locally called ‘cloughs,’ were noted for their curious
botany. Mere Clough, near Prestwich Mere, once grew in plenty the
Oalamagrostis lanceolata, Chrysosplenium alternifolium, Gewm rivale, and
various shade-loving carices. Now all are gone, partly through the
felling of the trees and drying of the soil, partly because the clough
being now a thoroughfare, much trampling down and destruction are
done by the reckless and unobservant.
Coming to the wilful and deliberate destruction of plants, Mr. Leo
Grindon remarked that the professed botanists and simple collectors of
specimens for the herbarium were but little to blame. The Manchester
flora could not be said to have ever included species existing scarcely
anywhere else, and the local botanists had therefore but little to answer
for. Hven the ‘Field Naturalists,’ who had been an organised body
more than thirty years, could not be charged with wasteful gathering.
Many of the members took home handfuls of wild flowers, but the plants
taken were such as would never be missed. By whom, then, was the
mischief done? The herb-doctors or ‘medical botanists’ had caused
much destruction of plants supposed to have medicinal value, such as the
Erythreea centaurium. They were often to be seen in the season returning
home with plants under their arms which had been pulled up by the
roots just as they were coming into bloom. Another destructive agency
was that of the dealers in roots for the garden. One of them had once
asked him to name a locality where he could dig up from 300 to 500 roots
of a certain rather favourite fern, but without obtaining a reply. Another
dealer brought with him a basket and trowel in order to bring away ‘all
there was’ from a particular spot, which was consequently not visited
that afternoon, the botanical guide of the party having become aware of
the dealer’s plan. Besides ferns, dealers dug up immense numbers of
primroses, cowslips, and oxlips, and had greatly diminished their num-
bers. Thus the mischief done to the local flora was partly due to the
progress of agriculture and manufactures and the increase in building,
partly to the rapacity of the dealers in ferns and other plants.
Mr. Mark Stirrup added that he could confirm Mr. Leo Grindon’s
remarks from his own experience of the disappearance of ferns and
primroses in the neighbourhood of Manchester within the last fifteen or
twenty years. In one case he remembered that a gentleman sent a horse
and cart to a certain spot where the Osmunda grew, and removed all the
specimens he could find.
Mr. Sowerbutts thought it would be well for field naturalists’ clubs
to keep the exact localities in which rare plants grew for their own
——-
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 43
information only. He thought that Mr. Leo Grindon was himself largely
responsible for the eradication of rare plants around Manchester, as he
had published a volume called ‘ Walks about Manchester ’ in which their
habitats were described.
Mr. Coates (Perthshire) said their naturalists’ field club, in publish-
ing accounts of excursions or notices in papers of rare plants, only indicated
generally where these were to be found; and Mr. W. Gray said that the
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club acted in a similar way.
As regards the extermination of native plants, Canon Tristram added
that the neighbourhood of Durham was once one of the richest botanical
districts in the north of England, but that during his lifetime some of the
most interesting species of plants, and also some of the most interesting
species of butterflies and moths, had been exterminated. The ‘ lady’s
slipper’ had disappeared. He had seen advertisements in the ‘Gardener’s
Chronicle’ cffering half a guinea for that plant, the advertisement
always stating where it was supposed to be obtainable. The late
Rowland Burton had remarked to him that the half-dozen plants of
‘lady’s slipper’ on his property cost him more to protect them than his
pheasants did. The butterfly, Hrebia blandina, was no longer to be found
in the county of Durham. The rarer orchids and the hart’s-tongue fern
were being exterminated in many districts, but public opinion had been
thoroughly efficient in the preservation of the ferns planted close to the
walks on the banks of the river at Durham, and he looked to the formation
of a public opinion as the best means of preserving plants elsewhere.
Field clubs should make their members feel that their first object was to
preserve, not to destroy.
Mr. Mark Stirrup said that the preservation of rarities was enjoined
by the Manchester societies. As regards the observations of Mr. Sower-
butts, he did not think the plants mentioned were such as the dealers
prized.
Preservation of Wild Birds’ Eggs.—The Rev. EH. P. Knubley (Leeds)
moved the following resolution, which was seconded by Mr. E. B.
Poulton (Oxford) and agreed to :—
‘The Conference of Delegates, having heard of the threatened extermi-
nation of certain birds, as British breeding species, through the destruction
of their eggs, deprecates the encouragement given to dealers by collectors
through their demands for British-taken eggs, and trusts that the
Corresponding Societies will do all that lies in their power to interest and
influence naturalists, landowners, and others in the preservation of such
birds and their eggs.’
On this subject Canon Tristram also spoke, and put in a strong plea
for the preservation of birds of prey, poimting to the case of the mice
plague in Dumfries and Lanark shires as a result of destroying the
balance of nature by wholesale killing of birds of prey. The resolution
brought forward by Mr. Kuubley was cordially adopted by the meeting.
Local Museums.—The Rev. Canon Tristram (Durham) next addressed
the delegates on the question of making their field clubs more useful.
He strongly advocated that these clubs should combine natural history,
archeology, and geology; and that their function should be, not to
destroy, but to preserve all that was rare and curious in a district.
Lately their field excursions in many places had been too much of picnic
parties. On the subject of local museums, the Canon argued that, as a
rule, these should only contain objects of local interest, and he suggested
44 REPORT—1893.
that an approach should be made to the County Councils in order to
get assistance for forming museums and keeping them in order. Many
museums had gone to utter decay from the want of an endowment.
Those at Newcastle, York, Manchester, Liverpool, and Norwich were all
endowed. On the other hand, that at Lynn, in Norfolk, for want of
an endowment was mouldering away. Local societies should try to pro-
mote interest in the local museum, so that they might raise an endow-
ment fund, by the help of wealthy residents and the County Council, in
order to keep a curator, without whom a museum was of little use.
Section H.
Proposed Bthnological Survey.—Mr. Brabrook said he was deputed by
the Committee of Section H to ask the approval and assistance of the
Corresponding Societies in the organisation of an Ethnological Survey of
the United Kingdom. The attempt to organise this survey was being
made by a committee of delegates from the Society of Antiquaries, the
Anthropological Institute, and the Folklore Society. These delegates
represented the various points of view of the societies electing them, and
he felt sure of the sympathy of the Corresponding Societies in this
movement. The matter was one which would not brook delay; every
year tended to inerease its difficulties, and if postponed much longer it
would become impossible to proceed at all. Several of the Corresponding
Societies had been working in this direction, and it would only be necessary
for them to follow the instructions which would be sent down to them by
the Hthnological Survey Committee when it began its labours. From
the reports of the Corresponding Societies he learnt that thirty-three
of them had been at work on this subject during the last eight years,
and that during that period 100 members of these societies had con-
tributed papers on it to the ‘ Proceedings.’ He would urge them, therefore,
to look at men from the three points of view indicated. He agreed with
the Rev. Canon Tristram that field clubs should include archzology
among their subjects of study. It was absurd to look at man merely
from the natural history point of view, and ignore his archeological
aspects.
Preservation of Ancient Remains——Mr. Whitaker said that in the
Hampshire district it had been found that a remonstrance against the
destruction of ancient remains usually had a good effect. Proprietors
often did not know the interest and value of antiquities on their estates,
but cared for them after they became aware of it. Certain Government
departments sometimes needed similar education. One of the best
Hampshire tumuli was almost destroyed recently in the making of a rifle
butt.
Mr. W. Gray remarked that, in Ireland, Government was very anxious
to preserve all monuments, and that the Naturalists’ Field Club of
Belfast not only did its best to keep them uninjured but also photo-
graphed them. He had pleasure in exhibiting some of these photographs,
copies of which might be obtained by anyone interested in geology or
archeology on application to the local secretary.
The Chairman was sure the Corresponding Societies would do their
best to assist Mr. Brabrook, and he would ask that gentleman if he
would point out in what way the societies could best help bim.
Mr. Brabrook said it was a little difficult to do so because the
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 45
material was so abundant. He had there the result of an archeological
survey of Kent and a scheme applicable to the county of Gloucester.
There were also the books prepared by the Anthropological Institute and
the Folklore Society. All these works gave instructions for working
in the way desired. But their bulk made it necessary that the Committee
should devise something smaller for the exploration, and that would be
the first of its labours. The Committee would then send a pamphlet
containing the needed suggestions to every Corresponding Society.
Railway Facilities —Mr. Sowerbutts thought better terms might be
obtained from the railway companies for delegates and others travelling
to meetings of the British Association. The Chairman and Mr. Symons
promised to represent the matter to the Council of the Association.
The Corresponding Societies Committee now have to report that in accord-
ance with this promise a strong committee of the Council was appointed,
on the motion of Professor Meldola, and a representation made to the
authorities at the Clearing House, but no concession could be obtained
beyond what is allowed by Traffic Regulation No. 30, viz., ‘Members are
allowed during a Meeting to take railway tickets at the town where the
Meeting is held at a single fare for the double journey to places within a
distance of fifty miles.’
The Committee recommend the retention of all the societies at
present on the list, with the exceptior of the Barnsley Naturalists’ and
Scientific Society, which had not filled in and returned the schedule at the
time of the Meeting of the Committee.
In order to make the publications of the Corresponding Societies
available for reference, the Committee decided to have them bound.
Accordingly Mr. Topley and Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary) were in-
structed to examine them and to select for binding some of the more
complete and valuable. Fifty-eight volumes have already been bound
and placed on the shelves of the Association. Others will be added from
time to time as the amount of the grant available for this purpose may
allow.
1893.
REPORT
46
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REPORT
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55
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
| G6S8T |
€68T |
6681
“ec
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‘TI
6881-988T
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G68T LON
bien! | 5s
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ToyUN O47 JO SUOTSTAT oy} 10
Sulrvoq sv sulvIy ou0JspuRg Jo SuULpUNoY oy,
* syoodmy peotsopoey Arey ur exoydsouryy oT,
* qseyjog 9e@ puNnoF FLT YSuy we Jo [[VYAG oy} UO
SHOOT JVI [VOT OFUT
SUOTIVSTYSOAUT 9} JO S}TNSoY JUIII 9 FO aMLOG
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a{deys
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S[VIOUT]T S}I WO So}ON VULOS
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prey ee pur ‘joodreary “yuLog
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: qoqeyooT JO soptnog peT[eav1y, OM,
pooymmoqySiaN s}t pur soperey ayy Jo ABoTOa4)
: * niog JO sedinosay [BIoUT]Y pur [BVoO 94L
F eoussremqng Teep) pesoddns ey,
uredg Jo sarg uory OUT,
puvlsuq Jo yJNog 913 Japun ssuey S}t pus
‘Quayx pues ‘UOTyIsog ‘UIST ‘aInyeN S}T + [BOD
‘OT Wd ‘oye, WeUION IopuexeTy : WeIome]{ Ul
ee Ole es ee
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REPORT—1893.
56
SOPTTOO VITYSYIOZ
on ur pe TOAOORTp Ayyua0er epodoryoerg oy} UO
SoINsvdyy WIND Ysa oy,
SVry oirysuo}dumey}4I0N
ay} JO Spog worpisuvry, oq9 YIOAM 0} poyutrodde
dOj}IMIUIOD MOTYBIOOSSW YSI}MUg 949 Jo yaxoday
FIOM Salva x
WARIS 87 pus 004} {UIUIO) Iap[Nog a1ysyx10 X oy,
; * syooy ATjuNO0D ayeT
YIOM 8.29
TAF 84} pue ayy TMAH IoplNog STTYsyIOX OUT,
* syooy ATjUNOD oYL'T PSTUSODI 07 MOTT
» ; : * BYYOO§ VAON FO SPLPVPION PUI,
: : * g[NpON suoJsuOIT snOoTaFITISsOT VW
pooyIinoqystaN ay} FO saimyvaijy [VoLsoyT
-004) oy} suryderoojoyg JO spoyjey{T oW0s UG
YsInquipy ye Sut
“1001, WOT}BIOOSSYW YSU Jo yxoday s ayesolaqd
; * a]BpLop[VN UI sLaplnog perowyy
WOTJVAVOXY S}I JO
qUNODDV UL WII ‘puNoUr-[[aYg UPSsoIpIy oT,
SULUUIM TY LVau
‘£IIEN?) VYYMOH UL pus ‘9pJsvpH puvplpanj Mvp
wou auoyspueg ur saqny, podeys-Q «eTNoeg
+ - SUINTANTTY Ioqjo pue spuvypnyy sarysdmepy
: : * purpraquing Jo sorg a}TyeUMAyy oq,
Iaysoyoury, wou ‘Aasroyy Woywoyy
ye AvIO Iapfnog IOMOT oY} WOT S[[eyS JO 4svyT
JOLASICY pue LoysayouRy, Jo syisodaq ousoor[g
-jsod 94} WOIF PoAaAtiop ST[aYG ouLIep_ UO sojoN
soTeM
SBCs era ‘feupsg JO FINO SppPeyrvop PUL
‘ “OUI UBSIOT JUNOTT
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: ; * aseyQ yoouury jo svray, oy,
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te TIT |TITAXXX|]* °* = * ‘00uq | “009 "HN “WV "YS8}88,TA0g
G68T}| &é ‘IIA : : qpusnor | * * ‘909 "Hl "N ‘U07.N
€681T} 60T €68T IOq | * “ “ . ‘“ “
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is 81 TIA ig ee Nate ‘+ "Q08sy "Toad spaerT
a 08 ie ‘ ? ‘sup, | "JSUT ‘OOSSY ‘UIT ‘“MUIOD
6681} TOF ‘TI ""20uq pun puoday | * *"O ‘1 IBN IS¥FLOT
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G68l} 69 ‘TIXX S : ‘ "SupLy, | * * "00G "08H “TOUR
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“ee ece “cc . . . “ce . e “
a 686 Bxall q ‘ ‘sup. | * 009 *[OOH) MOSSBT)
68T| I8T ‘Il 5 ; BOE Nr : * *O ‘a spue yy
S681 O8S ¢ . . . “ . . . “qsuy Paitin 'N
S681 906 TIXX . . . “ce . . “ “
G68T} 209 DSOX: j ; ket : * 00g "[Oey "qoury
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57
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
901 | ‘WAXXX|* ; * ‘00g | 909 "A 'N “V ‘ysqesmog | - * JOSIOUIOG JO sooty, yso10g ony, | ‘O ‘a ‘ueq\eq
pueloug jo e1op yy sso
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a 801 TAXX $3 | ‘Sup47 pwn puodayz | ‘dog *V‘O “AN ‘YRIS'N | ° ‘ : : * qaodary Teo1Sopoaxy | - - “q ‘oxreg
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PULT}IOOY U1oqyso M4 FO Sployfeoy oyy ur
punoj saoodg puv eiouar ay} JO 4sv'] v YT
‘OITYSIAY Ul JONYSICE YIP[IIN oy Jo sapeys
OUOJSOWIT'T TOMOT OYY UL punog vIozruLuTV.0,T
Snoroyuoqiey Jo dnoiy [Teus Be WoO sajoN
satoady puw viouey Jo 4SV] postaer & IIIA
‘pueljoog UloJsoM, JO Bywag Oy} UT punoy
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1893.
REPORT
58
——.
6LL
68ST 10g
S681
Z68L| F216 | G68-988T
G68L| 8F TIA
# gg ‘TUXX
“ 18 “
uy BLE ‘II
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18 68-988T
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59
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
GOST |
LLE
8Eg
16
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601
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L136
L81
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668T 100
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1893.
REPORT
60
6681
6681
G68T
S681
peyst]
“qd
BF EGRT 105
LOT ‘TII
101 TIA
G61 ‘TIL
OFT TA
60L 167
G66 «| Z68T 104
LIZ “1!
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SIs rf
GLE “A
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691 ‘L0T| ‘IA
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193 te
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REPORT—1893.
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‘(panu4Uor) XNOTOAONHLNY—'T UOroeg!
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION. 73
Lables connected with the Pellian Equation from the point where
the work was left by Degen im 1817.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor A. CayLEy, Dr. A. R. Forsytu, Professor
A. Longe, and Professor J. J. SyivesteR. (Drawn wp by
Professor CAYLEY.)
We have on the Pellian Equation Degen’s tables, the title of which is
‘Canon Pellianus sive Tabula simplicissimam equationis celebratissime
y’=azx"+1 solutionem pro singulis numeri dati valoribus ab 1 usque ad
1000 in numeris rationalibus iisdemque integris exhibens. Autore Carolo
Ferdinando Degen. Hafnie, apud Gerhardum Bonnierum, mpccoxvit. 8°.
Introductio, pp. v-xxiv. Tabula I. Solutionem equationis y?—a2?—1=0
exhibens, pp. 3-106. Tabula II. Solutionem xquationis y?—az?+1=0,
quotiescunque valor ipsius a talem admiserit, exhibens, pp. 109-112.’
The mode of calculation is explained in the Introduction, and illustrated
by the examples of the numbers 209, 173.
As to the first of these the entry in Table I. is
where the first line gives the expression of /209 as a continued frac-
tion, viz., we have
= 1 1 1 1 1 1 ie 1 1
Be ge Be ABe Oro Bebe | 20 Dear By
the denominators being 2, 5, 3, (2), 3, 5, 2, then 28, which is the double
of the integer part 14, and then again 2, 5, 3, (2), 3, 5, 2, and so on, the
parentheses of the (2) being used to indicate that this is the middle term
of the period.
The second row gives auxiliary numbers occurring in the calculation
of the first row and having a meaning, as will presently appear. Observe
that the 11 which comes under the (2) should also be printed in paren-
theses (11), but this is not done.
The process for the calculation of the 2, y is as follows:
209
14 1 0 ak
2 14 1 —- 13
5 29 2 + 5
3 159 Wil =o
(2) 506 35 + (11)
3 1171 81 - 8
5 4019 278 + 5
2 21266 1471 — 13
28 46551 3220 + J]
viz., writing down as a first column the numbers of the first row, and.
: beginning the second column with 1, 14 (14 the number at the head of
74 REPORT— 1893.
the first column), and the third column with 0, 1, we calculate the num-
bers of the second column, 29=2.14+1, 159=5.29-+14, 506=3.159+29,
&c., and the numbers of the third column in like manner, 2=2.1+0,
11=5.2+1, 35=3.11+2, &c.; and then writing down as a fourth column
the numbers of the second row with the signs +, — alternately, we have
a series of equations y?—aa*°=-+A, viz.,
1?— 209.0? =+ 1
14?— 209.1? =-13
29? — 209.2? =p
the last of them being
(46551)?—209(3220)?= + 1
this last corresponding as above to the value +1, and the numbers 46551
and 3220 being accordingly the y and # given in the fourth and third
rows of the table.
As to the second of the foregoing numbers, 173, the only difference is
that the period has a double middle term, viz., the entry in the Table I.
is
13,6,(1, L
- 1, 4, (13, 13)
173 190060
| 2499849
The first row gives the expression of / 173, viz., that is
/TERLAD teri 0 e elliae l
ae tye y+ 6s ea
the denominators being 6, 1, 1, 6, then 26 (the double of the integer part
13), and then again 6, 1, 1,6, and so on. In the second row I remark
that Degen prints the parentheses (13, 13) for the double middle term.
The process for the calculation of the z, y is similar to that in the
former case, viz., we have
173
13 1 0 +1
6 a 1 — 4
G 79 6 +13
1) 92 7 —13
6 171 13 + 4
26 1118 85 -i1
where the second and third columns begin 1, 13 and 0, 1 respectively,
and the remaining terms are calculated 79=6.13+1, 92=1.79+13, &c.,
and 6=6.1+0, 7=1.6+1, &c.; and then writing down as a fourth column
the terms of the second row with the signs +, — alternately, we have
17-173.07 =+4+ 1
13°-173.17 =-— 4
=+ 13
79? — 173.6?
the last equation being
(1118)?—173 (85)2=— 1
the term for the last equation being always in a case such as the present
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION. 75
one, not +1, but —1. The final numbers 1118, 85 are consequently
entered not in Table I., but in Table IT., viz., the entry in this table is
173 | hs
and thence we calculate the numbers y, w of Table I., viz., these are
2499849 =2.(1118)?+1
190060=2.1118.85
Generally Table II. gives for each value of a, comprised therein,
values of a, y, such that 7’=aa*—1, and then writing y,=2y?+1, z,=2ay,
we have
¥,° = (2aa? —1)? = 40° — 4aw?+1=a.4e7(aw?—1)+1=a07+1
so that 2,, y, are for the same value of a the values of x, y in Table I.
It is to be remarked that the heading of Table II. is not perfectly accu-
rate, for it purports to give for every value of a, for which a solution
exists, a solution of the equation y?=axz?—1. What it really gives is the
solution for each value of a for which the period has a double middle
term. But if a=a?+1, then obviously we have a solution y=a, z=1,
and for any such value of a the period has a single middle term, viz., the
entry in Table I. is
a +1 | a, (2a)
i
2a
207+1
and we in fact have
a+
a iy 0 +1
(2a) a 1 -—1
2a 207 +1 2a +1
that is
12-(a2+1)0? =+41
a—(e?+1)12 =-1
(2a? + 1)?—(a? +1) (2a)?= +1
The foregoing instances of the calculation of z, y in the case of the
numbers 209 and 173 suggest a table which may be regarded as an ex-
tended form of Degen’s tables ; viz., such a table, from a=2 to a=99, is.
as follows :
Specimen of extended form of Table in regard to the Pellian Equation.
x \y?—az?)| a x \y?—az?
Lan
bo
VY
Oem | &
“-~
Dee
we
Nee
1893.
REPORT
SPECIMEN OF EXTENDED FORM OF PELLIAN EQUATION TABLE—continued.
76
a
8 ate ret SH OD SH LD eS momo OO eeahke es a Ore eed aos ra OO HOD mE OIMO MAS mus
wo | Ee] tle b ert | treed tr te] tierce] tie] tre] tre] titre] ti teced | tit
>
& Onn CnnFNDOeAN CMA MMaN COmnHw Onn ono oOnw Cn Me H OnmN 19 oD onan
ri mAs ri N re
> mH mt H1n mo N19 eH otH OR ra SH OH rH =H 19 aio Mon! m9 00 Hm orhy HOH OKO rio 4
NO 1 eo oO mn wD N eon aant ec
care [|
“~~ “~ oa om “~~ “~~ “~~ “NN — “~
HA HAAN AO HAHAAAHO HHH tow woo 19 19 O 19 AN OO wonARANS nas
Ww YH ww ww a loaiionl Yes Ww pa — ce ws
ww
8 oO oa a oO H (Je) Lied ao fer) S
a a i) N nN nN i] Nn i] Gr)
n
g AoA a mate aaq aS ao ma sH OD OD SH AINA moO 4 aad aA rt 09 19 10 6 4
al aPellaee Se at soe an Il Ge + 1+ ae || ae all Grp ae ar iam dl ap cael eecte ar dh ae ap lL ow lbs |) et
>
a | onnam | Se one | onm | onan | On ANI | OnAcoH | oie | onw E os
=
> es acl aloo) aa m4 OD or) ak MO He HO mo HD mo H mato ath MHAMDHO
ce Lon! Ln | care in) ce eae
°N a “~ “~ r ean Y i ta “~ =
Anan Anas oc OD 6 SO on Cl SO Naess MANO mH co sH 00 00 sH =H 00 HARMAN
VY VY VY ww Ww “~~ Vw ~~ VY
3 Ea [e‘2) f=) il a on H 19 - (ea) for]
Ll re re | Lama re ec ei re
a
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION. ri
SPECIMEN OF EXTENDED FORM OF PELLIAN EQUATION TABLE—continued.
a y x ly—ax?| a y x |y?—ax®
31 5 1 O| + 1] 48 6 1 O| +1
1 5 it P—"6 1 6 L Wyo 7
1 6 1| +5 1 7 1/ +6
3 11 2) =—' 8 3 13 2|- 8
(5) 39 7| +2 1 46 7\ +9
3 206 37 | — 3 (5) 59 9|—2
1 657 118 | + 5 1) 341 52 | + 9
1 863 155 | — 6 3 400 61,| — 3
10 1520 273 | + 1 1 1541 235 | + 6
1 1941 296'|— 7
32 5 1 Oo} +1 12 3482 531 |} + 1
1 5 Li
(1) 6 1/+4]| 44 6 1 o| +1
1 11 2|-—7 1 6 di: ae 8
10 17 3p 1 1 7 1/+5
1 13 2) — 7%
33 5 1 0 | #4 (2) 20 3) + 4
1 5 {led | gee 1 53 8|-—7
(2) 6 il || eb 8} 1 73 11 | + 5
1 17 = 8 il 126 19 | — 8
10 23 AW eES 12 199 30); + 1
34 5 1 O| +1] 45 6 1 pers l
il 5 1|—-9 1 6 i ee 8)
(4) 6 1| +2 2 7 ee le:
1 29 5|—9 (2) 20 Spa bi
10 35 6} +1 2 47 pe tae
1 114 17|— 9
35 5 1 0 au ll 12 161 24 + 1
(1) 5 P10
e 10 6 lh (heed 46 6 1 Oo; +41
1 6 1 |} —10
a 1 o| +1 : i ral ie
(12) 6 ae 1 all 2 Pat
12 73 12 1a 1 34 Bt
2 61 9|— 5
(6) 156 23 | + 2
“4 o) ‘ races 2 997| 147 | — 5
is 37 REY 1 2150 317 | + 6
1 3147 464 | — 7
3 5297 Wl | + 3
39 6 1 OF ft |} 1 19038 | 2807 | —10
(4) 6 1 tl PRG 12 24335 | 3588 | + 1
12 25 4} 44
47 6 1 Oo; +1
40 6 1 O|+1 1 6 L | eal
(3) 6 1 |= 4 (5) 4 Lily #28
1 19 Sii+ 1] 1 41 6) |) =L1
aes ee . 12 48 7 | +1
41 6 i O| + 1]
?) 6 Li py MS 6 1 O41
2 13 2/ +5 (1) 6 tied
12 32 7) | 12 7 1] +
42 6 1 0| +11 50 7 1 O} +
(2) 6 i) 6 (14) 7 ie ot
12 13 Bel 1 14 99 14} +1
78
REPORT—1893.
SPECIMEN OF EXTENDED FORM OF PELLIAN EQUATION TABLE—continued.
g y x |y?—ax"| a y x \y?—ax?
51 iG 1 Oo; +41 (7) 23 Sin ap.
(7) if il | ae 2 169 921 + 5
14 50 A \\ see 1 361 47 | —10
14 530 65 heat
52 7 il Onlermat
4 7 Tp ||P 160 7 1 Oo}; +1
1 29 4| +9 1 7 Tey ieee irk
(2) 36 5| — 4 (2) 8 iM te
1 101 14) +9 1 23 $he|| aa til
4 137 19 \-— 93 14 31 4} +1
14 649 90| +1
61 FE 1 Ones ad
53 7 1 Oulert asl 1 7 = 12
3 7 iL |) Sed 4 8 1h) eras,
i) 22 Sy || eb 7/ 3 39 3, eer
1 29 AW |) ef 1 125 16/ +9
3 51 |) fe 2h 2 164 Gale ols
14 182 Bal) eT (2) 453 58 | + 5
1 1070 137 |"—<9
54 "4 1 || Se a 3 1523 195 | + 4
2 it | aks 4 5639 VOPA || Gee
1 15 Dale 9) 1 24079 3083 | +12
(6) 22 3/—2 14 29718 3805 | — 1
1 147 20| + 9
2 169 93) = 8 Il, 62 7 1 ‘0) |] ead
14 485 66 | + 1 1 7 p13
se (6) 8 Ale 2
55 7 1 O} + 1 1 55 7| —13
2 7 1 |)}— 6 14 63 Sala
(2) 15 Dislit ab
2 37 5|— 61] 63 7 1 Olle
14 89 12 || Sei (1) rf 1| -14
14 8 GPa
56 7 1 Dj) eat
(2) "6 fey | ncaa IGE 8 1 (Oaleeer al
14 15 Oo) eee ail (16) 8 1
—— 16 129 16
57 7 1 Oo} +41
1 i 5 P= 485266 8 1 Oneal
1 8 ib || 28 4 (8) 8 iL |e
(4) 15 Be= 8 16 65 Sale
1 68 Sf acta ve
1 83 11 — 8 67 8 1 (8) fe 1
14 151 20 + i 5 8 1 BPS)
2 41 5| + 6
58 "f i t) sea 1 90 hit || Sy.
1 if Ss) 1 131 16] +9
1 8 The eee (7) 221 Dy ease)
(!) 15 Dl eae re 1 1678 205 | + 9
1 23 By) re yy 1 1899 2325) 7
il 38 5| — 6 2 3577 437 | + 6
1 61 Siieeo 5 9053 1106 | — 3
14 99 133 4] Seal 16 48842 5967 | + 1
59 1 Over ain no8 8 1 Oo} +41
7 i= 10 (4) 8 ital be cA!
8 1/ +5 16 33 4} +1
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
79
OF EXTENDED FORM OF PELLIAN EQUATION TABLE—continued.
SPECIMEN
a y x \y?—ax?
69 8 1 Oo; +1
4 8 1; -5
3 25 Shae ok
1 83 10 | —11
(4) 108 13 | + 3
1 515 62 | —11
3 623 75 | +4
3 2384 297 | — 5
16 T7175 936 | + 1
70 8 1 Oo; +1
2 8 1| — 6}
1 Lyf 2/)/ +9
(2) 25 3) — 5
1 67 8/49
2 92 11 | — 6,
16 251 30; + 1
vel 8 1 Oo; +1
2 8 1|-7
2 ity 2) + 5
1 42 5 | —ll
(7) 59 aes
1 455 54 | —11
2 514 61 | + 5
2 1483 E76 |e
16 3480 413 | + 1
72 8 1 Oo; +1
(2) 8 1 boat
16 17 2);+41/]
73 8 1 Oo}; + 1
it 8 Li 9
1 9 1;+8
(?) 17 2;-—3
5 94 l1l/+ 3
1 487 57|— 8
1 581 68 | + 9
16 1068 125) — 1
74 8 1 Oo; +1
1 8 1} —10
,) 9 Se ey
1 17 2|—7
1 26 3 | +10
16 43 5} -—1
75 8 1 Oo; +1
1 8 1; -11
(1) 9 1| +6
1 17 2/—I11
16 26 3) 4+ 1
76 8 1 Oo; +41
1 8 1} -—12
2 9 ice b
a y x \y?—az?
a 26 3/- 8
1 35 4/49
5 61 7|-—3
(4) 340 39 |} + 4
5 1421 163 | — 3
1 7445 854] + 9
ul 8866 1017 | — 8
2 16311 1871 | + 5
1 41488 4759 | —12
16 57799 6630 | + 1
td, 8 i 0o|; +1
a 8 1 | -—138
3 9 1/+ 4
(2) 35 4/—7
2 79 9) + 4
1 272 31 |} —13
16 351 ZA git a
78 8 1 Oo; +1
1 8 1| —14
(4) 9 1/ +3
1 44 5 | —14
16 53 6/ +1
79 8 1 Oo; +1
1 8 1 | —15
(7) 9 ay ees = 2
1 71 8 | —15
16 80 9} 4+ 1
80 8 i Oo; +41
(1) 8 1} —16
16 9 i Vie ae
82 9 1 Oo; +1
(18) 9 1;- 1
18 163 18} +1
83 C) 1 Oo; +1
(9) 9 1 ea
18 82 9} +1
84 4) 1 Oo; +1
(6) 9 1/-38
18 55 6] +1
85 9 1 Oo; +1
4 9 1} —4
iG 37 4/ +9
1 46 5} —9
4 83 9) +4
18 378 41} - 1
86 9 1 Oo!|+t
3 9 ry} — 6
1 28 3 | +10
80
REPORT—1893.
SPECIMEN OF EXTENDED FORM OF PELLIAN EQUATION TABLE—continued.
a y x y?— ax?) a y x \y2—ax?
1 37 A ee 4 839 Salen ad!
1 65 "|| seul 1 3491 362 | —11
(8) 102 i |p 1 4330 449 | 4+ 7
1 881 95 | +11 || 1 7821 811 | —12
1 983 106 | — 7 18 12151 1260 | + 1
1 1864 201 | +10
3 2847 307 | — 5 94 9 1 0) ea
18 10405 Oo ot. 1 9 | 18
— 2 10 if Seee
87 9 1 Ol es a 3 29 Cia Rees
(3) 9 i le=36 1 97 10} +9
18 28 Se leceod 1 126 13 | —10
| 5 223 By | ete
88 9 1 Olle 1 1241 2G les
2 9 Ne ety (8) 1464 151 | + 2
1 19 2/49 i 12953 1336 | —15
(1) 28 gj ee 5 14417 1487 |e
1 47 || a0 1 85038 S771 | 10
2 15 fel lessens 1 99455 | 10258} + 9
18 197 i fee saa 3 1 84493 | 19029 | —-5
2 6 52934 | 67345 | + 6
1 14 90361 |1 53719 | —13
y 2 : q 3 18 21 43295 |2 21064 | + 1
(3) 19 A | se 155
3 66 7 See 95 9 1 Oo; +1
2 217 23} + 8 1 9 it naa
18 500 Bel (2) 10 IY iret
1 29 Sy aid
90 9 1 On eal 18 39 4/41
(2) 9 1 9
18 19 al || 96 9 1 0 1
1 9 aes
(3) 10 ihe] ace!
ue : 4 Le 1 39 al 4B
1 10 1 |) 09 18 49 5] + 1
5 19 a eG)
(1) 105 11 | +14 || 97 9 1 Ob le-enal
5 124 1B) PeETS 1 9 1] —16
1 725 16) | an9 5 10 il eee)
1 849 B91 sto 1 59 6: pedal
18 1574 N65c | =e at 1 69 Tiers
() 128 13) 299
~ 92 9 1 (iy ee | 1 197 20| + 9
1 9 1) Sai 1 325 §3|/ — 8
1 10 ih teen 1 522 63 | +11
2 19 2|_ 7 5 847 86 | =-3
(4) 48 Bleep: 1 4757 483 | +16
2 211 22| — 7 18 5604 5e9a|-— aa
1 470 ze ee)
1 681 Gly =| 498 9 1 Ouleaeeel
i8 1151 120 | + 1 1 9 Teaealr
(8) 10 tie pes
93 9 1 Onlecs a 1 89 94 17
1 9 it || Sa 18 99 10m seroe
1 10 ay |) eee
1 19 alesis) #99 9 1 Ou creel
4 29 3] + 4 (1) 9 iy ee
(6) 135 4 3| 25.93 18 10 ie | eerese
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION. 81
The meaning hardly requires explanation; for each number a we
have a series of pairs of increasing numbers, y, x, satisfying a series of
equations y?=a2?+b ; thus
a=14
oO) Ee ¥?—ax®
10 1-140 = 1
3 441 9-141 =—5
4 1 16—14.1 =+2
1 las) 121—14.9 =—5
15 4 225—14.16= +1
The following table, calculated under the superintendence of the
Committee, extends from a=1001 to a=1500 (square numbers omitted) ;
it is (with slight typographical variations) nearly but not exactly in the
form of Degen’ s Table I., the chief difference being that for a number a
having a double middle term, or of the form a?4+1 (such number being
further distinguished by an asterisk), the w, y entered in the table are the
solutions, not of the equation y?=ax?+1, but of the equation y?=az?—1.
As remarked above, if we have y?=ax?—1, then writing y,=2y?+1 and
#,=2ey, we obtain y,?=az,?+1.
Moreover, for each value of a, in the first line, the first term, which is
the integer part of ./a, is separated from the other by a semicolon,
and the 1, which is the corresponding first term of the second line, is
omitted.
The calculations were made by C. H. Bickmore, M.A., of New
College, Oxford: his values for « and y have been revised as presently
mentioned, but it has been assumed that his values for the periods and
subsidiary numbers (forming the first and second lines of each division of
the table) are accurate ; in fact, any error therein would cause the resulting
values of # and y to be wildly erroneous ; but (except in a single instance
which was accounted for) the errors in 2 and 4 y were in every case in a
single figure or two or three figures only.
The values of « and y were in every case examined by substitution in
the equation (y?=az?+1, or y?=az?—1, as the case may be) which
should be satisfied by them. These verifications were for the most part
made by A. Graham, M.A., of the Observatory, Cambridge. As already
mentioned, some errors were detected, and these have been, of course,
corrected. The values of fc given in the table thus satisfy i in every
case the proper equation y?=aa? +1, or y?=ax?—1; on the ground above
referred to it is believed that the ‘periods and subsidiary numbers are
also accurate.
It may be remarked, in regard to the verification of the equation
y’?=aa?+1 for large values of x and y, it is in practice easier and safer to
calculate az?+1, and then to compare the square root thereof with the
given value of y, than to further calculate the value of y?.
1893. G
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1893.
REPORT
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90
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110% 198 (x 1) @ € & ore & & *Z eve [RGOTL
66189 T (b) ‘GE “EE fg
O&67 (gt) ‘x ‘x ‘g £VE VOLT
ZOOTS 09ZT (z) ‘LE ‘1€ “br “Ez “gE “61 ‘ob *Z
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fa le Se a ee eee
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ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
IGL81 F1F (S1) ‘61 ‘bz ‘IE “SE ‘or ‘Ib ‘1z ‘6z
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09191 $989 (or) 9 4 2 9 6 % 2g ite | VOL
o> | $9226 6798 (€1 €1) ‘9 ‘6z ‘ox ‘Lb ‘a1 ee “LE |
% | goseg 146 (6S) @ % € aS a soe *S6IL
| G6FSL SELES ee (b) 6 “6E ‘gz ‘IE “EE “be ‘Lr “6E “bz ‘L “EL “OF ZEIT
& | $2868 19126 (nea 4 1 4 & € 4 % 6 1 ve} 66
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FZ°66 OF (9) @ 1 a a a € & eee | OLGT
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9910F OT (zz) 1 % € 4 % € | soe] GOT
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97082 T (s) % 6 € a se| 806T
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= 8
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rat (bs) % se | GOGL
GESFF TLEOS OFLZE SE8ST OGETS (Sz ‘Sz) ‘1z
G8ELL O&ZFF 609S8 9TFS8 TL (z %) %%
Sb ‘g “6S E ‘Sr “SE ‘ZE ‘Iz ‘ob “61 ‘gh S “6 ‘ob ‘Lz “SE “bz “G1 ‘og ‘L “Eb “bz “Sb x LOGT
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1893.
REPORT
98
pe ee ee eS ee ee Ne ae eee eee eet aoe en TE PS ee
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og (££) ‘1 146 | SGEl
ie a as ee Ee ee ee
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ZELFS GGFZI BS (+) ‘1% b 1 1 1 € & Z € eer soe | GEEL
G8S1s (E€) ‘b ‘So
219 (z) ‘or ‘1 § IGé1
68h (S) “bo
at (zt) ¢¢e | OGET
9ZES9 8FLFS IIII8 9% (gb) ‘St “6h ‘or ‘Er ‘Sr “6z ‘11 “HS “ZL “6 ‘eb ‘Sz Eb ‘g ‘Eq
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6FS (2) ‘zg
OT (g) ‘1 §€ SIéI
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08699 € (or ‘1% % a % % & soe} GIGLI
for)
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09992 (6) a gg se | 8S61
ge ip re en ahetiics, | 4
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= S9ZL9 O698L ZE98g (z) ‘6€ ‘1€ ‘gt Sz ‘of “6E “4 ‘oF “Sx “br ‘Zh «Gx ‘oS 6
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a ea
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og (1)
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1893.
REPORT
100
a a a a
09889 QLL (z) ‘€1 ‘Lz Sz €z “LE ‘oz
F636 13 (S€E)S % @ % 1 % se | ISGI
LOSSL & (TE TE) EGz Shr Tree
1082 (1 1) a & & & & £g¢ |xOGEL
OFZ88 9606 ZEFEO LEE9E Bb (Sr Sr) "1 € *g “LS “Sx ‘gh Ex ‘ob ‘Lz 6E ‘or “Sb ‘Lr ‘bz “LE Gz 6 ‘EG “Sb ‘bz
6926 9608 8Z00F 9ZEI9 Z (b %) % fer € 4% aaa € 1 Ee 1 & Le Cra ese ROVEL
1199 (bp) ‘€z
691 (41) € se | SPL
88162 6 (GS) eZnereeg
1696 (1) 6s ¢ sce} LV6T
GEL8F I1E699 68EtF (z) “Sb Sz ‘eb ‘11 SZP Sgt SS ‘LS ‘or “6 ‘Sh ‘zz ‘Iz
S8ZL8 SIEFO LECT (Gs) 1 9 6 a € ra ™ % ae € sse| IPGL
TP2PE OL (S) ‘ “6€ *1€ ‘oz
8Z9EI Z (br) Zr 6 Ǥse | PEL
66180 11080 STOLE (b) “SS €1 “1 “S “bh Sz “Eb ‘Q ‘11 ‘oz ‘Ez ‘ob ‘61
09809 09L9F 9TOT (ot) fr 1 & Bo € & & € ese) PHEL
FLETL T (zz) ‘£ ‘6 ‘gt
GLP (S) 6% € cee | Shel
Este) ate la ce Ret Se Se NES AG RR AOC Ua Oe eR
ISTST F (Ez) SxS (go Gear
OSLTT (z) « % Z& ss¢| GGL
Z80%6 GEE (SE SE) “g “61 “SE ZE Se “Or
0099 6 (x1 1) ge o & & & sse |x lVOL
Bee ee ee ee ee
6IL8F 8 (1£) 6 ‘bz ‘1b ‘G1
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Ooh Ener mtn ee ES
QLT (br)
g (s) <s¢| 686T
“Ayr
ei
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ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
66131 (91) ‘Si ‘z€ “6E
09¢ (6) % < & sce] PIGT
ne
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6969 9998T 9 (z) ‘SES ‘£r ‘br “6b ‘Ex ‘Ib ‘oz “Eb ‘Z “HE “LE ‘
SOLO ZIFLI (v6) Eb 1 bw oY FT fy Ge oy ese | GIGL
B89L9 606FS Z99FS (SE ‘SE) ‘er ‘Sz ‘o£ ‘Le ‘Ev “bv “6 ES ‘z1 E “SE “of
&ZL09 1909 F69 (r ) S @ a a % “1h § eq | ese |x LOGI
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ee eye karate ee ee ee ye Se
OI8ZE S&FI6 OFITT (z) ‘£1 ‘or ‘ES ‘11 “gf “1€ Sz “61 ‘ez ‘Lb S “HE
69018 ZEF86 Ig (SE) ‘9 ‘x ‘3 tr % E | ey Eye sce | BSGL
699F1 T (EE “€£) ‘oz 6 “EE
eeze (x 1) % Le se [x SS6L
ee en ee nee ee ee ae ae
66E10 I (£) ‘9S ‘Ex ‘zE
098% (zz) ‘1 <se}| LEGT
66926 & (v) ‘Sz ‘ob ‘Zr “1€ ;
SLOIT (41)% a1 € % se | 996T
688ZL GZ00F SITE (S) ‘9 “6b 6x ‘Sb “br ‘1z “11 6 “gb ‘Iz “Of
B8OLFE 99788 18 (pi) ‘Ir‘r % 1 % € | Za % ~& ese} GEOL
GOFZI € (z) ‘6b ‘1z ‘Sz ‘62
FEBOT (bf) 1% % % se | PS6L
ee ee ee We ee eee ee ee WEE i er ha
IG8sL 12 (4) % ‘Ib 6z ‘gz
OZE8L (On) EZ tattesctetccmrerte S961
hd ee i oe a eed ee
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08028 &6200 69606 (91) ‘1 SS % Eee & TF a EG y oy 4 ge soe | GSSL
1893.
REPORT
Nn
jo)
re
et. - — a
G8PSF GLOFF FI (11 ‘11) Ez ‘Lb “Er “6z ‘Li “bb “61 ‘2S
G8Zab LEFOF (9. {9) fe. Pelle SoS. E) pea 8 oe eZee
66198 SFIS 16sge (b) €9 S ‘be Sb L “Of “GE 6 “gz Gz ‘bz “EE “EE ‘oz “16
08920 LZFL6 TS6 (or) ‘1 f1% 4% 69 1 Le ee a ae & soe] ILEL
6667 (Sz) ‘gz ‘12 ‘oS F
OFT (z) z@ % « sse| GLOL
10800 Ig (gz) ‘€z ‘gE “Sz ‘or “6b ‘1 ‘zz “6b
OSLST QT (2) i %@ 9 1 € & | ss¢| PLGL
LO8¥#E 18980 FEF E8T (61) ‘gh 6 ‘Ex ‘bz ‘Ib ‘Zr ‘zE “OE “E ‘or ‘Le ‘be “IE “OE ‘g “Ez ‘gb
9LFI9 SQTZ9 FOTFL (ei tor ZG te, ar SE Sa Sas SES Sei ete er ote ae
LOT (bz) ‘Lv
Ms I se | GLGL
g
66168 (1£) ‘or ‘Ev ‘Sz ‘ov
066 (2) Om Sr eeenereesiGe IZG6L
TG9ET TLE8T 89 (S) 6 “PS ‘11 “6£ ‘of ‘6z ‘Ib ‘9 ‘69 “6£ ‘gz ‘Sb
SIF 19Z89 T (or) Gr GS x a Ire ot a se | OLEL
G1263 #E (dz) ‘oz 6 ‘1b “gz “SE ‘Le “bb
$9696 (2) € “Za a a & & sge} 69GL
6F8L0 68198 FZ (b) ‘19 ‘4 ‘ox ‘Ez ‘bb ‘11 ‘Ob ‘gr SLE ‘IE ‘ge ‘Eb
06F66 98869 (or) OG aS 1 E 1 I x oY ese} BIGT
ZIPFT 9929 (b1) € “LE “PE 6 ‘Lz 62 ‘eb
LEIgL QL (GS). SEgeta. Sn, Znicese Tere «cg LOGI
Q9F0F ZEeG (z) ‘SS ‘Sx ‘ob ‘41 “Sz EE “VE “Ez ‘Of ‘th
80L98 6PI (pe) € 2 € 2 1 1 % x x sge] I9GT
Reese eee 6. Sf ee ry ae i eee oe eed
66690 & (11) ‘gr ‘61 ‘IE ‘ob
0289 (9) & € % & ¢s¢}| GIST
|
103
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
d ‘$
ee an ee sce 0661
00616 FO80G ZL00E (SE ‘s€) ‘gl ‘e5 ‘s ‘ob ‘1€ ‘fe ccs ‘et ‘62 ‘th ‘8 ‘az ‘ov ‘61 ‘A ‘tg ; val
E98EE 6EIF6 9Es (uetSt ea) SFE Sr rr Ste ee ree Tetra cule iG eres et eee eae ie
Ee a a a rr ee eae ce
eat ee gee | 88é1
Be hme nn Oe eee eee
6 8 sse| L8CT
ember a ne eee iene ae
ono ee eee PEs
ee Wieiernae fone eho
i ae se | P8ZI
sey on Q SPOT E PLETE E se 998
OA ee et ee eee ee
SELLP a6 ere sa dave chiro
sis bet PEEL EL ES oss | Test
Beg oS a ee
orl | (cae ia SF el Ogee
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Gr Sor SES 6 ‘9 ‘6 <Gr.‘oS “nn ‘Sb fem Se tol: bt GeetoretrGuG etc Cb Er Cites
Ma Wi SR) A gle Se es Ome PT aa A Se 8
€F1
1893.
REPORT
104
a em +. Be ied TOOT
8088Z SETTL 80909 BEZFL F99G9 & (z) 6€ ‘€€
T9FIL LES9F EGSTS FIE9S LETOT (SE) 48a
‘bri ‘kel ar tur S289 “Er sre 46 “eS SEE “6x ‘er “Eb ‘nz “68 fon “E ‘6h “ez xz °Z S0ET
Wey Sy ae oh ES Seay fz 6 te De ie ean Mae Sh ee Eo pelics Keeton Hoe
ee? (9)
ral (z1) £9€ | GOEL
SIELI 3 (Sz ‘Sz) ‘6z *S
9209 (z ‘z) ‘ ‘br so¢ |x LOST
649 (v)
gI (gt) £ 9€ | OOST
998 (€)
1d (bz) £0€ | 6661
L6ZI (z)
98 (9£) £9€ | S6GL
9¢ (1)
I (zZ) £9€ |x L661
98 (04)
I (x1) <s¢| S66L
9631 (z) ‘69
98 (b€) «1 £S¢ | P6CL
£98 (€) ‘g9
¥G (zz) ‘1 <s¢| S6GT
19 (b) ‘Lo a
81 (gt) ‘1 §S¢ 6661
OLF80 YGFFL L898T OT6LE 6EESL 9E60L (z) ‘€€ ‘or ‘Sb ‘Ez ‘Lr “0S 6 “S1
LOGIG GE8FG O986L 16B08 SFLLZ FLET (Sf) 9 a & € I LY
‘Ih ‘gz ‘Sb E ‘zz ‘Sr “Of “11 ‘g “SS “EI “GE “OF “IE SLE ‘gr ‘Sz “HE “EE “Lz S ‘99 I66L
Sy sy sr U4 “e Sp ‘zg ‘9 STI I ‘Y Sd Sy Lg Sy se & Sr he 4 ry St ec¢
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ON THE PELLIAN
GIF9L 8% (gz) ‘61 ‘Sz ‘SE ‘ZE “TE «Ze ‘og
80999 (2): Eo fe: St Se ee ge). OLE
9FITT GL88 : (01) 6 65 ‘9 ‘Sr ‘ob ie
ISShL TG (4). G% & € toe] SIST
ae ee EE ee eee eee
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(gx)
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919 (41 ‘Z1)
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$$ EN OE DO
LEIgg (bv) “6€ ‘€€ ‘ox
LOFT (41) ‘t % % soe} GIET
02886 T (gf) ‘Sz ‘br “6b ‘Sx
S99 (t) eh ot | IT&T
12000 Ig@1 (or) ‘1b ‘6z “VE “IE “SE ‘oz ‘11 “br
B8E9G FE (CORPSES SF Ona SNCS wil ace oe | OST
C9ZZL OFLIO LIEO8 (41) “6 ‘2G ‘Si ‘SS ‘b ‘Iz ‘Sz “EE “o£ “6x “Sx “SE ‘gf ‘Er
FFOSE LIZZE 61ZZ (B). 66 LEST LEB ee py eG ee Ge
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a ee eee
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6890 T9T89 398 “OT 6% oer ae 4 ‘“Z so¢ |x90ET
a a ee ee
683 (6)
8 (3) ¢9¢ | GOST
aaa eae ee
938 (8)
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——— -Shw —eseesesS
a
_ eee
1893.
REPORT
106
ty ps TAs
LPPET epee ae 98 | SZST
698 (€) gfr Zz
$3099 (2) *xS ‘12 {x8
GLI (Se) ‘rz % so¢| LGET
Be ee 8 a
6FS6 (gz) ‘Sz ‘of
OL 3 (z)e Ser sa. we IGET
RENT Cee, eee a ee ir a a ee ee ee ee
281 (6z ‘6z)
g (z ‘z) £96 |*GOST
Go Dea) Joh a al IE ea ae TRE IO WE Lt et ee
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9S “Sr “ES ‘g ‘1z ‘Ez “Sb ‘zx “Sz ‘ob ‘Iz “bh ‘41 ‘SE “of ‘G1 ‘oz ‘dz ‘be ‘SE SEE ‘gz ache!
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TOFO9 98 (Zz) ‘ez ‘Lb 6 ‘gz ‘LE ‘Lz
0900 T (z) 2a Le 1 % sof | SOSL
T9866 (1€ ‘1£) ‘gE Zr ‘1 ‘gz
128 (x 1) 1% € & & £08 (ROGET
GEF96 LZ199 6ESTL 9B609 Eg (§ ‘S) ‘€€ 6 ‘ob “IE ‘Le ‘11 “Sr EP “be “G1 ‘ZE “EGE ‘or LE “EE “bz ‘6z ‘g ‘Sh ‘Sz IZeI
{2669 I196I LZ98E TE90L FT (br br) eh ss eo be 1 eh Se Eets E 1 1 fe & Qi w FOF |*
PS CeCe ee ee ee eee et OR es oa eee ry ae ee ee eee
601 (tz)
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hi a Pee EE Res ee Ny Se. Sel Ler Oe
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TIOIO FE (SE) ‘x. 42/ 41 “Er “2 4g SE 4OE 61ST
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FSSF6 19680 9669 61998 8ETE oe tag SIT
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TIGLE6 OLLOL L8ZFG LE (€) ‘Z ‘Ez ‘LS ‘Er ‘th ‘gz “6£ “61 ‘zi “6b ‘LI ‘gz “Iz LISI
OOST8 90E66 OSFEO T bz) ‘or € ‘411 be I 1 I © 6 ty KE fe SE FOE
US Ce ees ele Se nll Si Deg a ei ee
107
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
T0Z6E G680%Z O9EZL GSFIE ST (6) 5 "ZE E*Z Eo by ‘bz ‘gz 6 “GP ‘oz “GP *Zx ‘of ‘SE ‘Gr ‘oz ‘Sz ‘of #16 SE tee SP |
OZESF L9L98 FIEFL BE9E (tia 1 6G Ure oO C1 Ee Gt ae Ee ene Trél
TE966 L (v) ‘11 ‘ob ‘1€ ‘62 “bP
6S66L (St) fo. ‘a Tee OVEL
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FOTF . (GA) (Ge ST Grime Die HGls, 68éT
pee Se ea ae ern,
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P6IEL F (Zu) MOTE Zetec te In. SOF 8éél
LF9TE (4) ‘or ‘18 ‘9 ‘Lb ‘Ez “61 ‘zE ‘Iv
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96961 (g) ‘6€ ‘EE ‘oz 6 “SS ‘zr “Si “bb ‘Ez “bz “6E ‘Sz “Si “EE ‘ob
66966 sae id () ben Wate US Ge a tee iy Geek Li Gig Bitohs IEEl
FGIGF (o1) ‘11 ‘VE “6€
ae a a a es: CEsT
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99680 ee : (CAM GileGrs eaetry ip Us Coil M76) Gri Ose < Birohs, VSI
TIS16E SE6F9 GIO (1€) ‘1 ‘1b “6z “of ‘Lz “b ‘19 “6 ‘21 65 SE “of “LE
OFIFS 99103 06. (c) S % % % “rr ey te Fee |) Good
€L (9£)
4 (z) of | GSS
O0686L OLE06 1966 (z) ‘€S “61 ‘6b ‘or ‘ZE SSE “br “Eb ‘Sz tL SG SSE
LGLOT I8LE0 §L3 (SE)iry S286) Son Suet Pr Ceol rin case ISéI
6899F ZL (v1) “6€ ‘IE ‘Of ‘1b 6 “HE
GSIFE GA), i eR a A Ga Ch OgsT
G6F10 Z88E9 SFIF9 FOL (E) ‘11 “6€ ‘cE “Sz ‘bz ‘LE “62 ‘op ‘Gi “or “Ez ‘gh SS ‘10 ‘g ‘Ex “EE
9TIbE 60969 88S 61 zo 11 een 1 th hb % 1 Er Bs foe) SEET
1893.
REPORT
108
eres O696F GIST (Sz Sz) ‘EE ‘gE “Sr ‘ez “6.525 ‘or “EE ‘9! SS “Gr ‘QS
G19F6 EE0SL SE (2%) 1% % € “La Oo a1 € 1 fof |e PEEL
SEhZ8 62h (££) ‘g “6b ‘1z “LE ‘ZE ‘1€ “6E “or “LS
96989 IT (z) ‘ea % a4 a & & € 4 ¢o¢| SEET
SFGhT T (b) “6b ‘Ez ‘Lr ‘9S
LOTE (41) “% € Be 6ST
GLI9 (4) ‘g1 “S$
89T (o1) ‘€ ‘x 08 | TGgI
GTTOL F (Sz) ‘6z ‘6 ‘oS “61 “tS
POST (z) z “La % & ¢o¢| OGEL
1G629 90816 02 (61) ‘25S ‘Sq b ‘IE ‘oz “Ex Sz ‘1b ‘oz ‘ES
OFSFE O0SEE g (z) 1 €1 “ie € $ @ a z@ a fo¢| OPEL
G6LET LOGIE GEOT8 €90G (v) ‘Er ‘6€ ‘zE ‘Le ‘ex ‘Lb ‘1z ‘GE ‘gz ‘Eb “6 ‘o£ “LE ‘LZ “bg E ‘Ib ‘ZE ‘12 “2S )
QLEZ8 8Z8L9 SPITZ 9g (gress fe eS 1 fe ete Ge Any Mee re ee oe | ee
G899F 09 (z) ‘19 ‘11 ‘ob ‘Ez ‘ez 16
9149 T ($6) S 1 % @ 1 ¢o¢| LVET
G110G GOFE (z) ‘Sz ‘ob ‘2 ‘SS “br ‘Ez ‘oS
G9EG8 G6 (GE) "a. iro SONI <p “sigs 9VEI
L¥8F (S) ‘bz “6b
Zel (bi) «1 tot | G7éT
6r09 (b) ‘Lb Szgp |
g9T (Zr) Sa Sax. Sx coe | VST
8Z188 € (z) 6 ‘Ex ‘Eb ‘oz ‘Lb
T6901 (SE) rerseasa. Sr. Sx ‘oe | €rél
6601 (zz) ‘6€ ‘Lz ‘ob
0& (2) Sr Sr. Sx cae | 6VEl
09
1
THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
ON
89ST (z) ‘12
ie ($2) 1 soe | L98T
22266 8OFS6 SEZFI SEk68 19FSS GOLEO 164s (z) ‘SE ‘9 ‘LG “Er “6b ‘gr “61 “6E ‘of “LE “Gz ‘Iz ‘or ‘L
GFOFD EL8F9 SZIES 89FG OZITIG 48186 19 (gk) Son ie Sr Ey Sa bana hile reas eh OT
fof Seer te ov sor vr Se ey ne Sein Geen rongrOc “Ly eon 991
of am oe Gal mi es (Aaa el 2 Ges ee Rea antl 2 UNC ats C/A can omy Bie 9a Ch war Hof
T1293 (SE) ‘69
#89 (z) ‘41 ¢9¢ | GOET
T9993 901 (11) ‘Sz ‘Eb ‘gt “SS *§ “go
OSLL8 Z fo) 2 1 € & oop e? egg ePOSE
9BLIG FE (gS) “6 ‘Ez ‘9 ‘Lo
686 (1) 4 a1 ¢o¢ | SIET
L9GFB8 TOLET (z) ‘EE ‘br ‘6b ‘Lr “HE “6E *Z ‘99
8t0LZ ILE (98) Sey Ske Sr SE eth att eO) St Sige 69S
09ZSF 9899 QzEI (1€ ‘1£) ‘ob “Er G “1h “ZE “Ez “ob Sz ‘or ‘LI ‘g ‘So
6ZE8S FREE GE (1%) a S Sra & &@ a @ & & ea soe} LOST
69198 & (91) ‘6b ‘Si ‘6 ‘tg
GPL (€) 1 % Zar soe} OOET
OFO8F I8ZLT (gt) SSE °ZE “br “Sb ‘Ez “Gz “SE “VE ‘Zz ‘or ‘E9
T&68L 89F (€) *r. “a) Sh Sy “ese Sr 81 Son Som S08 6981
€Z866 66 (Caen wigs Weed C/A ating Udo)
FOFT8 (of) ‘2 1 S ¢o¢| SSET
IGEGL SFIt6 LEE6G SE (€z) *9£ “EE ‘6z “bh SE ‘Lo ‘b SEE ‘zr “Eb ‘Lz “bb ‘6 ‘LE ‘oF ‘11 ‘z1 ‘19
OF9F9 OSF9F EOESI 6 (2) aoa 9% & €2e% die 6 1 1 1 La 7 — & & soe | LEST
66L1F Z9GI6 T (b) ‘Sx ‘2S ‘11 ‘LS ‘g ‘Sz “bb ‘Ex ‘og
OLES6 BIBS (gt) a S 1 Be i & soe] ISET
68BES ST (S) ‘gz ‘rb ‘61 “br “6S
BES6r TOE a ¢ | SST
REPORT—1893.
110
|
——
Z829L SOLLE I8E0Y Z66LL EG6OF EFLEE F1G (Sr *St) ‘Ze ‘oz ‘19 *Z'*09 °6 “Sz “Sher “SE “6t *V
GOGLB FEI9Z GO9L9 FEE9L OLOL6 FELOL F (Pe): Sap Seren Gi Te Lace See ae ire alos
‘© ‘2G ‘tz ‘o£ SSE ‘Ez “6E ‘gz “Sh SG ‘Lr ‘12 ‘oz ‘Le ‘gz ‘Si ‘of ‘LE ‘Er ‘cI «I SET |
‘be sy & I fy fe Sy Sy Sy “I ‘bp “¢ ¢ Ly AMY A 2 ¢ ‘9 $Z¢
ra
T919 (oz) ‘6 ‘11
96889 6LISZ (2). Szet6r “Ze ve ‘Seor 62 ‘or
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ect (b “) sce |xSLET
LOFOL OOLZT F (£1) ‘€1 ‘2 6 “£6 ‘ox ‘Lb 61 “g
O8bZ9 IIIT () S @ Za € a € 6eze| LLET
(v) ‘SS ‘Zr ‘gz Sz Sze ‘1b SZ F
(20) are SSS Se eer Or | 9LET
6FZGE 8OES6 8 (11) ‘oz “6€ ‘Sz “61 “HE ‘6£ “6 ‘ob ‘Sz ‘9
ZEGEL OGOFS (9) za @ € 4 4 Lr @ erece| GLET
Oe a a a hee a ee
CFOSS SFPIE ST (€) ‘oz Eb ‘Sx “6x ‘eb Sz ‘br “LS “S
FLO68 ZOPIF (bz) ‘2 ab € 1 & % 1 Sr eze| VLET
64086 G91
GOGLE 89
G8EIS (LE “ZE)
LOTLG GLOBF YEOOT FE (bv) ‘61 ‘6b ‘zr ‘6z “bz ‘LE ‘IE ‘of ‘Lz ‘g ‘6S ‘6 “be ‘6h ‘E
OLET (z)
Le (1)
I (pz) ¢ze |KOLET
LE (zZ)
ce
eae
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ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
COST (z) “6b Sz
9e8 (of) rz ze | POST
por a ee ee eee
esgg (4) ‘bz
96 (or) € va | §6E1
i a a ga ee
LOST (91) ‘Ez
GF (*) € sce | G6ET
a ee eee ee eee ee eee
GOST8 06 (Ex) ‘SS ‘or ‘Ev ‘6z ‘gf ‘Sz ‘zz
GEPSF Z (*) ‘5 9 ‘x x a fe ¢ see} L6ST
ae a ee ee
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Z8SL0 9TS8E S9T9 (9) Eel rs Se Eines cL eG a ae ete | VOeL
Fa ee ee
G1696 9 (£) ‘r1€ ‘Ez Ev ‘oz
96L9T (bz) % i € see} 68ET
L089 29088 &8 (b) ‘Ez €1 ‘gz ‘Gz *g “19 ‘ZL ‘2S “61 5
98916 98606 @ LM Qi) NE weSe oe TOM 466 mm Se SIE QQCT
rn ee ee ee
ZPFOT ST (z) 6 ‘gr
L990 (4€)‘¢ % <ze| L8ET
i eS
G6E1G (zz) ‘1b “Sz ‘L1
GLg (o)yP is Se ee eae 98ET
Bo ee
66040 T (61 ‘61) ‘ob ‘6z ‘IP ‘gt
L613 (E €) a a & & ¢ze XG8EL
eS eee be eer een se anes me ss TOS ST
66611 (b) ‘ZS ‘Sr
G9F (41) 1 a P8el
8h6F6 ZI (9) “6b ‘Ez ‘12 ‘br
IG8Fe (11) % € § sze| S8ET
EE ee ee ee eee 2
LEZE0 O&T (z) ‘Ev ‘IE ‘9% ‘Ez ‘ob ‘Ex
Z8L6F € (of) 1 1 % @ 1 § see] G8ET
Oo
a ee = ae me: hak
TSL¢ (€) ‘LE ‘gf
001 (bz) 1 «1 £LE | LOVT |
QL (28)
Z (z) ae | 90FT
646 (S) ‘of
09 (br) ‘ el GOrT
SBF69 (€1) ‘9S “6 ‘SE ~
999T (b) 1 Le $l | POrT
QCLFL (gb) “61 “1 “bE
G66T 7) € 6 @ ese} SOFT
& | g0¢00 LET00 6 (1£ ‘1£) ‘zh “6 “6b ‘ez “EE ‘Ib ‘Qo *L “HS “Lt EE ZOFI
2 62008 6LE8F & (p Sas) Sr *2 re Ser Oe omicemarce %
GI0G8 96ZZT ST099 6LLES OT (£) SEZ Gr “SS *g “GE ‘SE ‘ox ‘11 ‘ob ‘EE ‘Se ‘62 ‘Ex ‘bz “6b SS ‘Iz ‘Zé I
ES GE6L6 FSLESE GIES SSIFF (tz) ‘Sony a ‘9 fx “o Sneer eee Ae are tore LE TOF
Ay
a | GFF (Sz) «1€
ma a (2) ‘e- £Lé | OOFT
0F960 ESFOF GE8LF 998L9 Zab (z) ‘Sx ‘gS € ‘or *1€ ‘gr ‘Eb ‘Gz ‘G1 ‘1b ‘Of “LE ‘Lz ‘6 ‘zg ‘S ‘9 “6a ‘Of
GPEIT OGFEO OLFFI OLIZE 6T (8) 1 eee € 1 eo 1 a 1 & La Sree @ le] 66ST
LEF99 8F (z) ‘19 Ez ‘61 “gf “EE ‘6z
FgT0E T (96) % € 1 & @ ¢2e} 86ST
ISE8h SEE09 T (11) ‘gz ‘1€ ‘Eb “b ‘L “bb “Oz SLE “gz
OFF99 G8ZP (9) ‘2 % & ‘grfor's x & @ ze] L681
TOG8F 969T (b) ‘Sz ‘gb SS ‘oe Sib ‘Le °
OkSOF SF (gt) ‘z 1 Sr & @ ELE | 9661
a TO0FS T (6) ‘11 “Sb ‘oz
= | ovee (g)9 1 4ee| F68T
Coe ny ee ee EE SS eee
113
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
608FS 6 (S) ‘6€ ‘o€ ‘rr “bz 1S
SEEss (Fr). ‘x 8Sr* Sor See are SOLS OGFI
OLLET (z) Sz ‘oS
688 (46) « ¢z¢} 6LFT
66888 (L ‘L) ‘Lb ‘oz 6b
01 (or Son), “Sr “E 6 ZE «SIFT
9E9FL ZOF9T (62 ‘6z) ‘6 ‘bo “E ‘or ‘Eb ‘Lz ‘gb
6Z8SL SEF (z ‘) ‘ZL eh a & | ce XLIPT
29089 % (g) ‘6b ‘Ez Sz “6E ‘gz ‘Lb
8989 (pg) @ “2 tir Am £261) VTE
$0066 063 (01) ‘61 ‘6h “br ‘Ib “IE “HE ‘SE “6z ‘ob
TG9g8 g (4) 28) oo oe oy et ae Ze)! GTVT
662GF O€90S LEZST (br) ‘Sb ‘Sz ‘Ex “oF ‘12 6 SS $9 ‘go ‘Ev ‘1€ fof ‘Sb
OISIL €8496 S8F (¥) “T SSKS OU ME Ne ey i a te A oe ec ze |) PLT
6F81E 18618 699F (6) ‘Ex “by ‘Le ‘Lb Sb ‘11 82S ‘Zr SZE *9f “61 ‘Zz “IE “bh
OFLOS FIZES FST (9) 6 % 2G Br GE ey) eee ee eon ee
€6€ST TLSIO T (b) ‘6z ‘zE ‘1b ‘tr SLi “61 “bh “Ez *zE “Eb
BIEFO EOLS (gt) 1 ": ‘9 he) or te er ee Pee
OSSIL OFFF (z) ‘1z ‘SE “QE “Sr ‘oF “6x “EE ‘eb
961% SIT (2) 1 1 & @ € & ¢ eze| TIFT
ISL (S1) ‘PE ‘Ib
02 (b) & & £ZE | OIFI
O8EES 90ZFF BSZ9F SE (Sz ‘Sz) ‘LE ‘z€ “GE “IE ‘ob “Lr “6b ‘OT ‘ag ‘2 “FQ S "9 ‘Ez ‘11 “SE ‘ob
LS ¢ Sy 6¢ 6 fy “PI 6 e 9 fy cy LAs; x60FT
LIG9IFV S6LOF FLFFG (Ze ener Gre ia Gir sy
ar el EE eee LR I tee ae 2 i ear
LLELG L8F0ZG T (v) ‘€9 6 ‘gz “EE “6E ‘or *Z “oF “6E
gue Pe | SOFT
62210 L1Z¢ (40) Sa) SGeSea ee See for er ee 87 E
a a ne orameenes a neem ne ee emer er | Ome cing See EE ESE lana
1893.
REPORT
114
PLES SLOLG (LE *Z£) ‘or “Er ‘1h ‘ZE “1 “Ev *Q “6S ‘11 “bo
LEZES EZGT (1%) & & & & & & ‘9% G oy Eze lRSSTL
16190 86199 LI (g) ‘Lr ‘bz “6b ‘L 6 ‘€z ‘z1 ‘Eq
€9299 6999 (6) ‘6 ‘% " ‘org € § © sge| CEPT
FZET (PS) ‘Er ‘zg
ge (1) & & ¢ze| LEFL
ITee1 (9z) ‘6z ‘br ‘19
Zoe (z) ‘z % & ze} OSFT
SI69L && (€z ‘€z) 18 “ ‘Sr ‘o9
0868 (z ‘z) % ‘gr ‘: ¢ze ROGPT
10FE (12) ‘4b ‘ot 6S
06 (z) @ € x on SérI
ZOL8T 6ELEG (Zr OzIVE Ze Geb omer Te ire tog
L6E0LF 18tG EAE eS ONS CSUN RN LA ne Se 8 EAS LGFI
GL609 86 (€z) ‘6€ ‘of ‘1b ‘Zr ‘oS ‘G1 ‘gr ‘LS
ZEI19 @ (2) a a & € a & € & eze| YOPT
TST (61) ‘9§
¥ (z) ‘1 ie GePl
T0000 ¢ (91) ‘Sz ‘bb ‘1 ‘Lb ‘oz ‘SS
OSZET (Be) Se ae Se" ree ieae er sae | Verl
80ZFO LE09L FIOST EZFIT OO8F ‘Lz ‘eb 61 ‘1z ‘ez 6 ‘g “EE “br LS ‘ZL ‘99 E ‘gt ‘11 ‘zh “IE “EE “QE ‘Iz “HS
6GL96 9299 TLIO OFLES LZT € gare b 1 6 be 9 1 a 1 T% o see} SEPT
16080 66TT (6) ‘br ‘61 ‘Lb ‘gt “6z ‘zz “£5
ZGLEL IE (QS € 4 € % @ 4 ve | Ger
T1086 (62) ‘oz ‘Ez ‘zs
09% (z) © % | Térl
115
SFSTS FLOLT SSOTF OST (2) ‘GE ‘LE ‘9 “Er “18 “gi ‘Le “HE ‘GE ‘Lt “HS “6 ‘Lb ‘oz “€ :
6001 G8EFL 6B8zF ¢ (26) re tee Sn Eg iy Gy ty ee te gel cee ee
a -
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Gy eae | SPPT
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6 (9£) ‘1 va | Grrl
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S| 666FS OFZS8 9OSFS SLFFT OTS (11) ‘2E ‘Sr fob CE “62'S ‘2G ‘or ‘18 ‘Sr “61 ‘gb ‘21 “Sb “bz ‘Sa ‘ob ‘Lz ‘9 6 “be ‘Es ‘el
& | odes FOTTE £9696 S86F9 Tes Qe br ae tr €1 bE 2 € ae ea ze 6ee bea see| IVPL
z | ISL (b) ‘12
Sor (£1) ‘ a OFT
a 096F9 0800 LISS6 LE8ZT (z) ‘SE ‘or ‘LZ ‘oS “Ez ‘gz ‘SE “LE ‘zz “6b ‘11 “€1 ‘gb “Sz “bi S ‘OL GeFT
= TZGISZ OT9LE LESS6 SEs WASNT se Ai io Ure Caer es ee ALE hd Ayo US) Rm raise Gey its
EB | eFL2e T8ZL0 969T (z) ‘14 € “€z ‘gt “ES 6 ‘gb ‘Lz ‘Lb ‘9 ‘69
| $9090 Sh6S0 BF (of) 1 es € 4 “2a a & G14 ele] SEFT
°
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OFOFD GOES 992 (bz) ra 1 % 1 for & & 6 4 6 sce | LEFT
66169 3 (¥) ‘SE ‘g ‘Lo
OF89 (gt) fe ‘gr $ZE 9EFL
9F066 6 _ (or) ‘1z ‘1€ “6 ‘99 E
81896 (4) € % “Za sce| GEPL
TE186 06999 LT (9) ‘Ee ‘Sr ‘Lb ‘ze “6E ‘1€ ‘gE ‘Sz ‘gz ‘EE ‘1b ‘or ‘So I
00269 §299F C0) le Saas A ee SPs Ge Gees mee ae en QmCofiencn De acy A FEF
6zgeT
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cnr: & see | OOPL
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18669 ZL8GZ FZI86 OZIFZ F699G (6) ttre SeGrte Gn) te te ten Sh oy fe hit a ty ser fil ke a
1096 OF9LZ BIOS (z) ‘L ‘zo 6 ‘1b ‘PE Ez ‘gb ‘Lr ‘6b ‘gt “IE ‘br
0FS9¢ 06888 8L (gf) ors “2 1% a € 1 Ee S tge | SEPT
€OL9E SC9TE Sol (1£) ‘or “Ez ‘4 “Ev *2€ “6z ‘g ‘11 ‘oS “EI CPL
GISO1 S86F6 BT (2) $ € ora 4 % 6% 1 S sge| LEP
I96F9 GF iz (91) ‘SS ‘6 ‘gh ‘Sz ‘ex
Gg868 T () & 2a @ tgndge| Sarl
FA POLES (9) ‘19 ‘11
& Bee (11) ‘1 ‘9 a ccrl
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& | GO8F9 SPILL S99FG FEESL GOTSO LE (Sethe) te, Sa "eto c
Fa fof ‘£1 ‘25 “b S1z “LE “o£ ‘Ez ‘bb ‘tz ‘2G ‘ZL ‘ex “6x ‘1G ‘zr ‘1b ‘EE ‘gz ‘Ex ‘EE ‘6 «6971
sr ¢ 1 ‘QI TRS OC kh mtr teeta Ge toy | 9 se by ¢ fy Sy &% ¢ yA *9 £ gf
18029 3 (b) ‘6€ ‘LE ‘g
8189 (gt) ‘I cr eGnaGs 6CVL
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10L06 99STE OFESB (28) A Oe ee he he ry Se Se Se £ gt
E6F18 8 (6 ‘6) ‘Sz ‘6h ‘9
€e610 T (9 ‘g) ‘@ ‘1 ‘ZI £g€ x0°F1
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00878 BL (g) > % a % Sr ige | OPFT
a ee
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Lond eee eee
117
ON THE PELLIAN EQUATION.
66EE6 Z6698 99% (€) ‘6S ‘or ‘ES ‘Er ‘g ‘1k “be “Eb Ez GE ‘zE “LE “Gz
OZZFI 9EL1Z6 9 (fz) SS. nS Os. Seb Tee tee er epee
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€ “6 GE “S €q ‘or ‘18 ‘tz ‘Lb ‘gr ‘SE ‘Ib ‘g ‘LZ “OF “Iz “Sx ES “HI “Sb ‘Lz
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1669 (S) ‘6h ‘oz
8&1 (br) 1 cae | OLFT
99209 2 (€1) ‘19 “Sz
9€86T (b) ‘rt ‘or © gt | 69FT
L¥ZGS GELFE ISZ9F OZ9ES L (b) “Eb €€ “be ‘Ih ‘Lz “6 ‘11 ‘LS ‘cI “LE “GE “gE “EE 61 “OF “6E “Ex “bz
9IGSE ZS6FO YEOSL ESSsT (1) CE “ei tee sgo Cie Ge ra é tz Gi SE Ming Big ie SiGe 89FT
| 96008 OF9 (z) ‘67 ‘Lz “gb TT oouce, =
POEL OT (if) 1 1 9 € € sat | LOFT
06S SET (Sz ‘Sz) ‘1b ‘oz ‘Zi ‘or ‘1€ ‘zz
8190 OF (2 za % % Y & & ogf |#OOVL
ZE6FS 69ZL0 ZB (1z ‘1z) “bz ‘6b 6 ‘98 “Cr ‘or ‘6£ “SE “bz “6E “1 ‘ob ‘Iz
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1893
REPORT.
118
GElPL 68ST (2) “te ‘ar “ot skp Sy “SE “er
83666 F (GE ke Sr Sry haa «ite aster: 98FI
6LOT (11) ‘o£ ‘Ib
83 (9) a sg¢| S8PhT
691 (4) ‘LE ‘ob
FP ((ai)) Sie sgt | PSPl
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GFOSE GE9FF OLGOL 8eG08 TP (42) € a1 1 ee € 19 be 4 1 ee 1 La § Ser 4 sgt | S8PT
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G (z) st | 68rl
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SOPT9 E1916 YPETO T (on), Sr SE Sr Somethin (ee eee ac eer Ours Gti eee *«L8PI
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120 REPORT—1893.
In connexion with the subject we have a paper, ‘A Table of the
Square Roots of Prime Numbers of the form 4m+1 less than 10000
expanded as Periodic Continued Fractions,’ by C. A. Roberts, with Intro-
duction and Explanation by Artemas Martin, the ‘Mathematical Magazine,’
vol. ii. (No. 7, for October 1892), pp. 105-120. This extends, in fact, to
numbers up to 10501, but only the denominators of the continued frac-
tions (that is, the first lines of Degen’s and the present table) are given:
thus the entry for 1009 is 31; 1, (3, 3).
The paper just referred to notices errors in Degen’s tables for the
numbers 853 and 929. For 853 the first line should be
29; 4; 1,5, 1, 2,4, 1, 1, 15, 19, (2, 2)
(15 instead of Degen’s 14). For 929 the first and second lines should be
30, alge 9. 8) 2: 7,. 5; (2, 2)
1, 29, 5, 40, 19, 16, 25, 8, 11, (23, 23)
The values of a, y in Table I. and those in Table II. (for the solution
of y?=ae?—1) are correct for each of the numbers 853 and 929.
On the Establishment of a National Physical Laboratory.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor OLIVER J. LODGE
(Chairman), Mr. R. T. GLAzEBRooK (Secretary), Lord KELVIN,
Lord Rayieicu, Sir H. E. Roscog, Professors J. J. THOMSON,
A. W. RicKer, R. B. Cuiirron, G. F. FirzGrraup, G. Carry
Foster, J. VirRIAMU JONES, A. SCHUSTER, and W. E. AYRTON.
THE Committee hoped to have been able to present a report dealing with
the work done at the Reichsanstalt in Berlin and the Bureau Inter-
national at Sévres. They have not, however, been able to prepare this
report in time for the meeting, and they desire to be reappointed to
continue their investigations.
The Best Means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observa-
tions.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
W. Grytts Apams (Chairman and Secretary), Lord KELvin,
Professors G. H. Darwin and G. Curystat, Mr. C. H, CarpMart,
Professor A. Scuuster, Mr. G. M. Warprie, Captain Creak, THE
AstronoMER Roya, Mr. Wituiam Exuis, and Professor A. W.
Ricker.
Tur Committee have considered and reported to the Admiralty on plans,
submitted to them by Mr. Gill, for a Magnetic Observatory at the Cape
of Good Hope. In conjunction with Mr. Gill, they have drawn up a
scheme embodying their recommendations as to its establishment and
maintenance, which has been laid before, and is under the consideration
of, the Admiralty.
The Committee desire to be reappointed, with the addition of Mr.
Charles Chree in the place of the late Mr. G. M. Whipple.
ON ELECTRO-OPTICS. 121
On Electro-optics.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. JouNn
KERR (Chairman), Mr. R. I’. GLazEBRooK (Secretary), Lord
KELvin, and Professor A. W. Ricker.
Tur Committee report that Dr. Kerr’s experiments have been continued,
and that he hopes shortly to have further results ready for publication.
Magnetic Work at the Falmouth Observatory.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. Howarp Fox, Professor A. W. RUCKER,
and Professor W. G. ADAMS.
Magnetical Observations.
[Made at the Falmouth Observatory, latitude 50° 9/0” N. and longitude
5° 4/ 35” W., height 167 feet above mean sea level, for the year 1892,
by Edward Kitto, Superintendent. ]
Tue results in the following tables, Nos. 1, 2, 3,4, are deduced from
the magnetograph curves which have been standardised by observations
of deflection and vibration. These were made with the collimator
magnet marked 66a, and the declinometer magnet marked 66c in the
unifilar magnetometer by Elliott Bros., of London. ‘Table No. 5 is
deduced from these observations.
The inclination was observed with the inclinometer by Dover, of
Charlton, Kent, No. 86, and needles 1 and 2, which are 34 inches in
length, the results of which appear in Table No. 6.
The declination and horizontal force values given in Tables 1 to 4
are prepared in accordance with the suggestions made in the fifth report
of the Committee of the British Association on Comparing and Reducing
Magnetic Observations.
The following is a list of the days during the year 1892 which were
selected by the Astronomer Royal as suitable for the determination of
the magnetic diurnal variations, and which have been employed in the
preparation of the magnetic tables :—
January . =, -2,' “Oy 20;-22530
February ee Oy he, lege
March . 10, 14, 17, 18, 28
April eo Gnd, 20, 22
May . 12, 13, 15, 23, 26
June ae oer et LAs 5
July Sos On 1S) 20)28
August . oe 4s 15, 19,30
September . 4, 5, 9, 12, 25
October . . 9,17, 23, 26, 28
November 8, LI, 12,.16;27
December 3, 9, 18, 26,27
122 REPORT—1893.
Taste I.—Hourly Means of Declination at the Falmouth
Five selected quiet Days in each Month ©
roe eg | ee | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | he: | 10 | 11 | Noon
Winter.
1892 |
Months , ' , , t , , |g , t ,
January . _ | 15:5} 15°3| 15°1| 15°0| 15-2} 15-4] 15°3| 14:9] 15:0] 16-4) 17:9
February . . | 138} 13:1] 13:2} 14:2| 13-8) 15°0| 14:9] 15:2] 15:2} 15°7| 17°6
March Ps | 14:5) 147] 14:8) 14:9] 15-3) 14:4] 13-4] 12:3} 12°8} 13°9 16°5
October . . | 10:5} 106! 10°5| 10°6| 10°9| 10°6| 10-4] 91] 84] 9:2) 11°9
November = 98| 10:1} 9:9} 10:2} 9:7} 97 93] 9:4! 87] 89] 101
December ‘ 9:4| 9:9] 9:71 10:0! 9:8) 9:3] 9:2] 9:2] 94] 106] 12-2
Means . . | 123] 12:3) 12-2] 12:1| 12°5| 12-4] 12:1] 11-7} 11°6| 12:5} 144
Summer.
1892
Months , , ' , ’ ’ , | UJ } ! , ’
April F . | 13°7| 13°3| 13:2} 12-9] 12°5| 12:2] 10°7| 9:6) 9:4) 11-4 14°4
May. ; . | 12°8| 129] 124] 11:7] 103] 89] 7:7] 7:7] 88] 11:5} 14:9
June 7 . | 12:1} 12:1] 12:1} 11-2) 9:5!) 7-4] 69) 7:0) 82) 11:0] 13-7
July : . | 11:3] 10:7] 10-4] 9:9] 82| 64] 58) 56) 64] 86] 11-4
August . . | 10:0] 10-4) 9:6] 9:3) 85] 71] 5:9] 5:8} 7:0} 10:0) 13:7
September .| 10:2} 9:9] 9:2] 91] 86} 79} 71) 69) 82) 11:6] 146
Means . . | 11-7] 11°6| 11:2] 11-4) 9:6] 8:3] 7:4] 71} 8:0] 10:7} 13:8 17:2 . ;
Taste II.—Solar Diurnal Range of the Falmouth
Hours | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | el | Noon
Summer Mean.
nd ,
+14
—1-0 | —2°8 ea | —5-0 | —5'3 | —4:4 | —17
Lot ' | ,
=0°7 | =0°8 | —1:2 |
ia
+48 ||
Winter Mean.
, |
+ 34 |
,
+0°7
, 1 , 4 , , ov , , | 4.
ital is | 18 | <1 -ie| io |—o0| even
Annual Mean.
lesa
\—11 —1:1 4
+41 |
Si
, | , , ’ , , , ,
—14 -153 | —20 a4 | —3°3 | —3-7 | —3'3 | —15 | +11
Nore.—When the sign is + the magne#}
ON THE MAGNETIC WORK AT THE FALMOUTH OBSERVATORY. 123
Observatory, determined from the Magnetoyraph Curves on
during the year 1892. (19° + West.)
Mele bey als |? | 8) |e] a0 | at | ada.
Winter.
' , , , , , , ’ , ' ,
21-2 | 199 | 188 |) 180} 173] 16:8] 15°8 | 15:5 | 15:1 | 15:0 | 15-2
206 | 20° | 20°71 | 181] 16:7] 16:8} 163] 15:4] 14:5] 142] 138 | 13°6
21°38 | 20°77 | 19:0} 171 | 161] 15:3 | 15:4] 148] 143] 15:2] 15-4
176 | 187 | 175) 156] 141 | 12:7] 11:9} 11:6] 11:3} 10:8] 105 | 101
13-4 | 13°9 | 13:1 | 12-7 | 11°9 | 11:1 | 10-7 | 10:4 9°8 97 9°5 9
146 | 13:7 | 13:3} 12:0 | 11:7 | 11°8] 10:9] 10:0 9°65 87 8:5 8
18:3 | 184] 17:5 | 160] 14:9 | 14:3] 13:7] 13:1 | 126 | 12:1} 12:1 | 12:2
Summer.
i? ’ ' ’ , ' ’ , ’ , , tf
199 | 20:1 | 188 | 17-4] 15:8 | 15:2 | 15:1 | 15:0] 146] 148 | 146 | 14:3
201 | 195} 18:0 | 16:2} 14:4 | 12:9 | 123] 12:6} 12°8 | 13:2] 13:0] 12:9
19-7 | 19:9 | 181 | 16:8] 15:3 | 14:0 | 13:0 | 12:7 | 12°6 | 12:9 | 12-6 | 12°5
173 | 185 | 176 | 15:3] 136 | 1271 | 115] 11:3} 11:6] 11:8 | 11:6] 116
192 | 185 | 16-4 | 13:6 | 11:5 | 105} 104] 103] 104] 106 | 101 9-4
186 | 179 | 160} 13:7 | 11:8 | 11:0} 10°9 | 106} 10:1] 10:5 | 105 | 10:0
HALO e | 17-5) Lb: | 13:7 | 12:6) 12:2 | 12-1 | 19:0), 12-3 |) 12-1) 11:8
Declination as derived from Table I.
me |e | 4 fe |e | 7 | 8 | 9 | fe [me
Summer Mean.
, ' , , U fa
’ ' Ul U , ,
—0:2 | —0°3 | —0-4 | —0-1 | —0°3 | —0°6
+67 | +6°7 | +51 | +3°1 | +13 | +02
Winter Mean.
, , ‘ ’ ' , ’ ’ , , Uy '
+46 | 447/438 | +23) 412 | +06 0-0 | —O°6 | —1:1 | —1°6 | —1°6 | —1°5
Annual Mean.
, , , , , , , , ’ , , '
+5°7 | +57 | 44:5 | +2-7 | +1:3 | +04 | —0-1 | —0°5 | —O°8 | —0°9 | —1:0 | —11
points to the west of its mean position.
124 REPORT— 1893. |
Taste III.—Hourly Means of the Horizontal Force! at Falmouth
(corrected for Tenvperature) on Five selected quiet Days in each
Hours . -|1f2fe]4{s5 [6 ]7 |s8 | 9 | 10] 1 [Xoo
Winter.
1892
Months
January 444 | 446 | 444 | 448 | 450 | 450 | 451 | 447 | 439 | 426 | 420 | 422
February . 410 | 408 | 404 | 405 | 407 | 406 | 413 | 413 | 407 | 397 | 385 | 385
March 430 | 432 | 433 | 434 | 436 | 438 | 433 | 427 | 417 | 407 | 402 | 401
October 452 | 454 | 455 | 455 | 456 | 457 | 457 | 449 | 435 | 425 | 422 | 420
November 460 | 460 | 463 | 464 | 465 | 467 | 466 | 462 | 453 | 447 | 445 | 445
December 452 | 453 | 453 | 456 | 457 | 460 | 461 | 457 | 452 | 444 | 442 | 440
Means 44] | 442 | 442 | 444 | 445 | 446 | 447 | 443 | 434 | 481 | 419 | 419
Summer. ,
1892
Months
April 462 | 460 | 460 | 460 | 459 | 458 | 455 | 450 | 438 | 427 | 425 | 430
May. 446 | 447 | 443 | 440 | 443 | 438 | 429 | 417 | 408 | 407 | 405 | 413
June 456 | 454 | 454 | 454 | 454 | 448 | 438 | 429 | 421 | 420 | 429 | 437
July. 453 | 449 | 448 | 447 | 445 | 440 | 435 | 429 | 419 | 412 | 409 | 410 |
August 456 | 454 | 455 | 453 | 452 | 451 | 444 | 432 | 417 | 411 | 411 | 420
September 460 457 | 458 | 458 | 457 | 454 | 446 | 436 | 427 | 423 | 425 | 439
Means 456 | 453 | 453 | 452 | 452 | 448 | 441 | 432 | 422 | 417 | 417 | 425
TaBLE [V.—Diurnal Range of the Falmouth Horizontal
Hours} 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | i | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | Noon
| +°00009 I+ 00006
+°00006 | +°00005
+°00005
| +°00001 | +'00002 | +°00002
+ 00s +0004 +o +0004 +0005 +c [+0000 | ooo |-coors |_-cose coves |o002
+*00004
+°00005
Summer Mean.
Winter Mean.
Annual Mean.
1 Approximate values,
+*00001 {10006 00s
+'00006 5 00007 +0009 |~oee |-oncs 000 |~o00e |
|
|
|
|
—00025 |-wocso 0030 |-ooes |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
NoTE.—When the sign is + th
ON THE MAGNETIC WORK AT THE FALMOUTH OBSERVATORY. 125
Observatory as determined from the Magnetograph Curves.
Month during the year 1892. 0:18000 + (C.G.S. units).
Winter.
429 | 435 | 438 | 441 | 442] 446] 448] 449] 448] 448] 450] 451
390 | 396} 402; 407} 410; 420] 415] 421 421 | 414] 417] 419
407 | 418 | 429 | 429; 427] 431 | 444] 444] 489] 440] 443] 443
431 | 438 | 440, 444] 447] 451] 454 | 458] 458] 459]! 459] 458
446 | 453 | 459 | 462] 465 | 465] 466] 467] 469) 469! 4671! 470
443 | 446 | 448 | 451 | 457] 458] 459] 460] 456 454] 4541 459
424 | 431 | 436 | 439] 441 | 445] 448] 450!] 449!| 447/ 448 449
Summer.
433 | 444 453 | 460] 459) 464] 465] 465 | 464] 467! 463] 462
421 | 430 | 440 | 447] 453) 454] 457) 453] 456] 454] 452] 459
442 | 449 | 456 | 454] 458] 462] 466] 467] 466] 466! 462]! 461
418 | 429; 440 | 447] 452} 458) 461] 460] 460] 456! 455] 454
431 | 439] 449) 456] 459 | 462 | 464 | 468] 468! 466 | 467] 463
450 | 457] 457 | 455] 455] 459] 465! 465 | 465] 462! 463 | 462
433 | 441 | 449 | 453] 456] 460] 463
463 | 463 | 462] 460] 4659
Force as deduced from Table III. (C.G.S. units.)
Peer er EE ll fm
Summer Mean.
SS
—00014 | 00000 | +0002 |+-v0006 | +-00009 | +0013 | +-oo0x |-o0018 [00016 | +-coo |+-0001s | +-oo01
Winter Mean.
— 00016 [+0000 [00 ‘00001 [+0000 | +-00008 | + 00008 [+-coo1| +0000 4-007 |+-oo0 + 00009
Annual Mean.
“00015 | 0000s | +0000 | +0000 | +-0000s | +-aoae |+-c0012 |+-00013 [coors |+-o00n [+ v0011 |+-o001
$$ $$ $$
reading is above the mean.
126
REPORT—1893,
Taste V.—Magnetic Intensity.
Falmouth Observatory, 1892.
C.G.S. Measure
1892
X or Horizontal Force Y or Vertical Force
January 0:18426 0°43691
February . 0°18405 0:43624
March 018444 0°43734
April 0°18435 0°43727
May 0°18448 0:43673
June 0°18465 0°43694
July . 0718453 0:43706
August 018447 0°43702
September 0718424 0°43683
October 0°18437 0°43689 .
November 0'18450 0°43691
December 0:18439 0:43619
Means . 018439 0°43686
TapLeE V1.—Observations of Magnetic Inclination.
Falmouth Observatory, 1892.
t
Month 10 aa Month Cee
‘ ° ‘ ie) ‘
January 29 67 94 July 28 67 7:8
. 30 67 67 ¥ 29 67 68
” 30 : 67 51
67 80
| 67 66
February 25 67 71
55 ‘ 67 7:8 August 27 67 61
+ 31 67 77
67 75
—————— 67 69
March 28 67 + =7:9 ————
a 29 67 9:0 September 28 - 67 73
Be 30 67 70 + 29 : 67 86
67 80 67 79
April 27 67 8-4 October 27 67 77
4) 29 67 80 e 28 67 67
BS 30 67 87 a 29 GTO EL
Of ees (i
May 27 67 6:2 November 25 67 66
- 28 67 =58 “A 26 67 +62
67 6:0 67 «64
June 28 67 74 December 21 67 61
» 29 67 73 » 22 67 47
; 30 67 57 = 23 67 46
67 68 67 51
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 127
Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards
for Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor Carey Foster (Chairman), Lord KELVIN,
Professors AyRTON, J. Perry, W, G. ApaMs, Lord RAYLEIGH, and
0. J. LopGE, Drs. Joun Hopkinson and A. MurrueaD, Messrs.
W. H. Preece and HerBert Taytor, Professor J. D. EVERETT,
Professor A. ScuusTeR, Dr. J. A. FLEMING, Professors G. F.
FirzGreraLp, G. CarystaL, and J. J. Taomson, Messrs. R. T.
GLazEBROOK (Secretary), W. N. Saaw, and T. C. Fitzpatrick,
Dr. J. T. Borromuey, Professor J. Viriamu Jones, Dr. G. JoHN-
STONE STONEY, Professor S. P. Tompson, and Mr. G. FORBES.
APPENDIX PAGE
I. Supplementary Report of the Electrical Standards Committee of the
Board of Trade . F 5 ; } A : i 5 A a
Il. Experiments on the Effects of the Heating produced in the Coils by the
Currents used in Testing. By R. T. GLAZEBROOK - . : d . 136
Ill. On Standurds of Low Electrical Resistance. By J. VIRIAMU JONES . 137
129
Tur work of testing resistance coils at the Cavendish Laboratory has
been continued. A table of the coils tested is given. They have
all been ‘ohms,’ as defined by the resolution of the Committee given in
their last report, and since adopted by the Board of Trade Committee on
electrical standards in the following form :—
The resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column
of mercury at the temperature of melting ice 14-4521 grammes in mass, of
a constant cross-sectional area, and of a length of 106°3 centimetres, may
be taken as 1 ohm. The relation between the B.A. unit and the ohm is
the following :—
1 B.A.U.='9866 ohm.
Taste I.
Ohms.
No. of Coil Value in Ohms Temperature
Nalder, 3717. , . . @, No.361 1-00025 177
Nalder, 3874 . . . @, No. 362 9:9926 14°-9
Nalder, 3059! . . . @, No. 326 1-00000 16°5
Nalder, 3638 . . . @, No. 363 100-000 17°2
Nalder, 3637 . . . @ No. 364 100000 17°-05
Walder, 3635 . .. - ¢, No. 365 1000:00 17°°3
Malder,s872 °°. ©, No. 366 9:9947 14°-9
Mealder,.3878 =. ¢, No. 367 99919 14°-8
Nalder, 4085 . . . ©, No. 368 “99889 14°-8
1 This coil had been tested before.
128 REPORT— 1893.
TABLE I,
OHMS—continued.
No. of Coil Value in Ohms Temperature
Nalder, 3263 : ¢, No. 369 99895 14°-2
Warden, 1866 , ¢, No. 370 1:00080 14°°5
Warden, 1918 : ¢, No. 371 100041 14°3
Nalder, 3715 4 ¢, No. 372 99944 13°5
Nalder, 3719 -, No. 373 ‘99907 13°-3
Nalder, 3720 . &, No. 374 -99898 1303
Nalder, 3633 ‘ G, No. 375 9:9910 15°-3
Nalder, 3876 ©, No. 376 99932 15°2
Nalder, 3981 No. 377 10-0001 15°7
Nalder, 4086 No. 378 ‘99978 15°9
Elliott,3038 . 4 4 No. 379 1:00054 18°-2
Elliott, 304 : kis No. 380 1:00052 18°-1
The resolutions adopted by the Committee at Edinburgh were com-
municated to the Electrical Standards Committee of the Board of Trade.
After consideration the Board of Trade Committee drew up an amended
report, in harmony with the Edinburgh resolutions, for presentation to
the President (see Appendix I.).
The resolutions were accepted at Edinburgh by Dr. von Helmholtz on
behalf of Germany, while in France an official committee decided last
June to adhere to the propositions of the Board of Trade. Austria and
Italy are connected by treaty with Germany for telegraph purposes, and
in consequence adopt the same units.
The Committee have learnt with pleasure from Mr. W. H. Preece,
one of the English delegates to the International Congress of Electricians
at Chicago, that the Congress has accepted a series of resolutions defining
the fundamental units practically identical with the Hdinburgh resolu-
tions.
Thus these resolutions have now been accepted as a basis for legisla-
tion throughout the British Empire, the whole of Western Europe, and
the United States of America.
The Committee are also informed that the Chicago Congress have
adopted the name ‘ Henry’ for the unit of self-induction ; while looking
with favour on this suggestion, they think it desirable to postpone definite
action until the official report of the Congress has been received.
In March last M. Mascart wrote to the Secretary asking the opinion
of the Committee as to a name for the standard of resistance defined at
Edinburgh. A circular letter was issued inviting members of the Com-
mittee to express their views on four names which had been suggested,
viz.: ‘International,’ ‘ Normal,’ ‘Etalion,’ or ‘Ohm de 1893.’ After
receiving replies to the circular from twelve members of the Committee,
the Secretary wrote to Professor Mascart to the effect that the number
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 129
of members who expressed a preference for the name ‘ International’ was
greater than the number declaring in favour of any other name, but that
he thought that the Committee would accept whichever of the first three
suggestions commended itself to the French Committee appointed to deal
with the matter.
During the year Dr. Muirhead has remeasured his standard condenser.
He now finds as the capacity of a condenser constructed twenty-three
years ago to represent ‘1 microfarad (B.A.U.) the value 09998 micro-
farad.
Tests have been made during the year on the l-ohm and 10-ohm
standards of the Association. These are still being continued. The
100-ohm and 1000-ohm standards have now been delivered, and the
tests will be shortly proceeded with. Some experiments were made as
to the amount of heating in the coils produced by the current used for
testing. These are detailed in Appendix II. Further valuable informa-
tion on this point is contained in Mr. Griffiths’ paper on ‘ The Value
of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.’ !
The Committee think it desirable that they should be in a position to
complete the set of resistance standards of the Association, and recom-
mend, therefore, that they be reappointed, with a grant of 251., that
Professor G. Carey Foster be Chairman, and Mr. R. T. Glazebrook
Secretary.
APPENDIX I.
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT OF THE HLECTRICAL STANDARDS COMMITTEE OF THE
Boarp oF TRADE.
To the Ricut Hon. A. J. Munpetua, M.P.,
President of the Board of Trade.
Subsequently to the presentation of our former report to Sir Michael
Hicks-Beach, in July 1891, we were informed that it was probable that
the German Government would shortly take steps to establish legal
standards for use in connection with electrical supply, and that, with a
view to secure complete agreement between the proposed standards in
Germany and England, the Director of the Physico-Technical Imperial
Institute at Berlin, Professor von Helmholtz, with certain of his assistants,
proposed to visit England for the purpose of making exact comparisons
between the units in use in the two countries, and of attending the meet-
ing of the British Association which was to take place in August in
Edinburgh.
Having regard to the importance of this communication it appeared
desirable that the Board of Trade should postpone the action recom-
mended in our previous report until after Professor Helmholtz’s visit.
That visit took place early in August, and there was a very full
discussion of the whole subject at the meeting of the British Association
in Edinburgh, at which several of our number were present. The meet-
ing was also attended by Dr. Guillaume, of the Bureau International des
Poids et Mesures, and Professor Carhart, of the University of Michigan,
1 Phil. Trans., 1893.
1893. K
130 REPORT—1893.
U.S.A., who were well qualified by their scientific attainments to represent
the opinion of their respective countries.
It appeared from the discussion that a few comparatively slight
modifications of the resolutions included in our previous report would
tend to secure international agreement.
An extract from the report of the Electrical Standards Committee of
the British Association embodying the results of this discussion was
communicated to us by the Secretary, and will be found in the appendix
to this report.
Having carefully reconsidered the whole question in view of this
communication, and having received the report of the sub-committee
mentioned in resolution 14 of our previous report, we now desire, for the
resolutions contained in that report, to substitute the following :—
RESOLUTIONS.
1. That it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the
measurement of electricity should be made and approved by her Majesty
in Council as Board of Trade standards.
2. That the magnitudes of these standards should be determined
on the electro-magnetic system of measurement with reference to the
centimetre as unit of length, the gramme as unit of mass, and the second
as unit of time, and that by the terms centimetre and gramme are meant
the standards of those denominations deposited with the Board of Trade.
3. That the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated
the ohm, and should have the value 1,600,000,000 in terms of the centi-
metre and second.
4, That the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a
column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice 14°4521 grammes in
mass of a constant cross-sectional area, and of a length of 106°3 centi-
metres, may be adopted as 1 ohm.
5. That a material standard, constructed in solid metal, should be
adopted as the standard ohm, and should from time to time be verified
by comparison with a column of mercury of known dimensions.
6. That, for the purpose of replacing the standard, if lost, destroyed,
or damaged, and for ordinary use, a limited number of copies should be
constructed, which should be periodically compared with the standard
ohm.
7. That resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted as
Board of Trade standards for multiples and sub-multiples of the ohm.
8. That the value of the standard of resistance constructed by a com-
mittee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in the’
years 1863 and 1864, and known as the British Association unit, may be
taken as ‘9866 of the ohm.
9. That the standard of electrical current should be denominated the
ampere, and should have the value one-tenth (0:1) in terms of the centi-
metre, gramme, and second.
10. That an unvarying current which, when passed through a solution
of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with the specification attached
to this report, deposits silver at the rate of 0:001118 of a gramme per
second may be taken as a current of 1 ampere.
11. That an alternating current of 1 ampere shall mean a current
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 131
such that the square root of the time average of the square of its strength
at each instant in amperes is unity.
12. That instruments constructed on the principle of the balance, in
which, by the proper disposition of the conductors, forces of attraction
and repulsion are produced, which depend upon the amount of current
passing, and are balanced by known weights, should be adopted as the
Board of Trade standards for the measurement of current, whether
unvarying or alternating.
13. That the standard of electrical pressure should be denominated
the volt, being the pressure which, if steadily applied to a conductor
whose resistance is 1 ohm, will produce a current of 1 ampere.
14, That the electrical pressure at a temperature of 15° Centigrade
between the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark’s cell,
prepared in accordance with the specification attached to this report, may
be taken as not differing from a pressure of 1-434 volt by more than
one part in one thousand.
15. That an alternating pressure of 1 volt shall mean a pressure
such that the square root of the time-average of the square of its value at
each instant in volts is unity.
16. That instruments constructed on the principle of Lord Kelvin’s
quadrant electrometer used idiostatically, and, for high pressures, instru-
ments on the principle of the balance, electrostatic forces being balanced
against a known weight, should be adopted as Board of Trade standards
for the measurement of pressure, whether unvarying or alternating.
(Signed) Courtenay Boy.e. KELVIN.
P. Carpew. W. H. Preece.
RAYLEIGH. G. Carry Foster.
R. T. GuazeBRoox. J. HopKrinson.
W. EH. Arron.
T, W. P. Buomerietp, Secretary.
November 29, 1892.
SPECIFICATION REFERRED TO IN ReEsoLuTion 10.
In the following specification the term silver voltameter means the
arrangement of apparatus by means of which an electric current is
passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water. The silver volta-
meter measures the total electrical quantity which has passed during the
time of the experiment, and by noting this time the time-average of the
current, or if the current has been kept constant the current itself, can
be deduced. ;
In employing the silver voltameter to measure currents of about
l ampere the following arrangements should be adopted. The kathode
on which the silver is to be deposited should take the form of a platinum
bowl not less than 10 centimetres in diameter, and from 4 to 5 centi-
metres in depth.
The anode should be a plate of pure silver some 30 square centimetres
in area and 2 or 3 millimetres in thickness.
This is supported horizontally in the liquid near the top of the solu-
tion by a platinum wire passed through holes in the plate at opposite
corners. To prevent the disintegrated silver which is formed on the
kK 2
#32 REPORT—1893.
anode from falling on to the kathode the anode should be wrapped
round with pure filter-paper, secured at the back with sealing- wax.
The liquid should consist of a neutral solution of pure silver nitrate,
containing about fifteen parts by weight of the nitrate to eighty-five parts
of water.
The resistance of the voltameter changes somewhat as the current
passes. To prevent these changes having too great an effect on the
current some resistance besides that of the voltameter should be inserted
in the circuit. The total metallic resistance of the circuit should not be
less than 10 ohms.
Method of making a Measurement.
The platinum bowl is washed with nitric acid and distilled water,
dried by heat, and then left to cool in a desiccator. When thoroughly
dry it is weighed carefully.
It is nearly filled with the solution, and connected to the rest of the
circuit by being placed on a clean copper support to which a binding
screw is attached. This copper support must be insulated.
The anode is then immersed in the solution, so as to be well covered
by it and supported in that position; the connections to the rest of the
circuit are made.
Contact is made at the key, noting the time of contact. The current
is allowed to pass for not less than half an hour, and the time at which
contact is broken is observed. Care must be taken that the clock used
is keeping correct time during this interval.
The solution,is now removed from the bowl and the deposit is washed
with distilled water and left to soak for at least six hours. It is then
rinsed successively with distilled water and absolute alcohol and dried in
a hot-air bath at a temperature of about 160° C. After cooling in a
desiccator it is weighed again. The gain in weight gives the silver
deposited.
To find the current in amperes this weight, expressed in grammes,
must be divided by the number of seconds during which the current has
been passed and by -001118.
The result will be the time-average of the current, if during the
interval the current has varied.
In determining by this method the constant of an instrument the
current should be kept as nearly constant as possible, and the readings
of the instrument taken at frequent observed intervals of time. These
observations give a curve from which the reading corresponding to the
mean current (time-average of the current) can be found. The current,
as calculated by the voltameter, corresponds to this reading.
SPECIFICATION REFERRED TO IN ReEsonurion 14.
Definition of the Cell.
The cell consists of zinc and mercury in a saturated solution of zine
sulphate and mercurous sulphate in water, prepared with mercurous
sulphate in excess, and is conveniently contained in a cylindrical glass
vessel.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 133
Preparation of the Materials.
1. The Mercury.—To secure purity it should be first treated with acid
in the usual manner and subsequently distilled in vacuo.
2. The Zinc.—Take a portion of a rod of pure redistilled zinc, solder
to one end a piece of copper wire, clean the whole with glass-paper,
carefully removing any loose pieces of the zinc. Just before making up
the cell dip the zinc into dilute sulphuric acid, wash with distilled water,
and dry with a clean cloth or filter-paper.
3. The Zine Sulphate Solution.—Prepare a saturated solution of pure
(‘pure recrystallised’) zinc sulphate by mixing in a flask distilled
water with nearly twice its weight of crystals of pure zinc sulphate, and
adding zinc oxide in the proportion of about 2 per cent. by weight of
the zinc sulphate crystals to neutralise any free acid.! The crystals
should be dissolved with the aid of gentle heat, but the temperature
to which the solution is raised should not exceed 30° C. Mercurous
sulphate treated as described in 4 should be added in the proportion of
about 12 per cent. by weight of the zinc sulphate crystals, and the solu-
tion filtered, while still warm, into a stock bottle. Crystals should form
as it cools.
4, The Mercurous Sulphate-—Take mercurous sulphate, purchased as
pure, and wash it thoroughly with cold distilled water by agitation in a
bottle; drain off the water and repeat the process at least twice.’ After
the last washing drain off as much of the water as possible.
Mix the washed mercurous sulphate with the zine sulphate solution,
adding sufficient crystals of zinc sulphate from the stock bottle to ensure
saturation, and a small quantity of pure mercury. Shake these up well
together to form a paste of the consistence of cream. Heat the paste,
but not above a temperature of 30° C. Keep the paste for an hour at
this temperature, agitating it from time to time, then allow it to cool;
continue to shake it occasionally while it is cooling. Crystals of zinc
sulphate should then be distinctly visible, and should be distributed
throughout the mass; if this is not the case add more crystals from the
stock bottle, and repeat the whole process.
This method ensures the formation of a saturated solution of zinc and
mercurous sulphates in water.
Contact is made with the mercury by means of a platinum wire about
No. 22 gauge. This is protected from contact with the other materials
of the cell by being sealed into a glass tube. The ends of the wire
project from the ends of the tube ; one end forms the terminal, the other
end and a portion of the glass tube dip into the mercury.
To set up the Cell.
The cell may conveniently be set up in a small test tube of about
2 centimetres diameter and 6 or 7 centimetres deep. Place the mercury
in the bottom of this tube, filling it to a depth of, say, 1-5 centimetre.
Cut a cork about °5 centimetre thick to fit the tube; at one side of the
cork bore a hole through which the zinc rod can pass tightly; at the
other side bore another hole for the glass tube which covers the platinum
wire; at the edge of the cork cut a nick through which the air can pass
1 See Notes.
134 REPORT—1893.
when the cork is pushed into the tube. Wash the cork thoroughly with
warm water, and leave it to soak in water for some hours before use.
Pass the zinc rod about 1 centimetre through the cork.
Clean the glass tube and platinum wire carefully, then heat the ex-
posed end of the platinum red-hot, and insert it in the mercury in the
test tube, taking care that the whole of the exposed platinum is covered.
Shake up the paste and introduce it without contact with the upper
part of the walls of the test tube, filling the tube above the mercury to a
depth of rather more than 2 centimetres.
Then insert the cork and zinc rod, passing the glass tube through the
hole prepared for it. Push the cork gently down until its lower surface
is nearly in contact with the liquid. The air will thus be nearly all ex-
pelled, and the cell should be left in this condition for at least twenty-
four hours before sealing, which should be done as follows :—
Melt some marine glue until it is fluid enough to pour by its own
weight, and pour it into the test tube above the cork, using sufficient to
cover completely the zinc and soldering. The glass tube should project
above the top of the marine glue.
The cell thus set up may be mounted in any desirable manner. It is
convenient to arrange the mounting so that the cell may be immersed in
a water-bath up to the level of, say, the upper surface of the cork. Its
temperature can then be determined more accurately than is possible
when the cell is in air.
In using the cell sudden variations of temperature should as far as
possible be avoided.
Notes.
The Zine Sulphate Solution.—The object to be attained is the pre-
paration of a neutral solution of pure zinc sulphate saturated with
ZnSO,,7H,0.
At temperatures above 30° C. the zinc sulphate may crystallise out in
another form; to avoid this 30° C. should be the upper limit of tempera-—
ture. At this temperature water will dissolve about 1°9 time its weight
of the crystals. If any of the crystals put in remain undissolved they
will be removed by the filtration.
The amount of zinc oxide required depends on the acidity of the solu-
tion, but 2 per cent. will, in all cases which will arise in practice with
reasonably good zinc sulphate, be ample. Another rule would be to add
the zine oxide gradually until the solution became slightly milky. The
solution when put into the cell should not contain any free zinc oxide; if
it does then, when mixed with the mercurous sulphate, zine sulphate and
mercurous oxide are formed ; the latter may be deposited on the zinc, and
affect the electro-motive force of the cell. The difficulty is avoided by
adding as described about 12 per cent. of mercurous sulphate before
filtration: this is more than sufficient to combine with the whole of the
zine oxide originally put in, if it all remains free; the mercurous oxide
formed together with any undissolved mercurous sulphate is removed by
the filtration.
The Mercurous Sulphate-——The treatment of the mercurous sulphate
has for its object the removal of any mercuric sulphate which is often
present as an impurity.
Mercuric sulphate decomposes in the presence of water into an acid
and a basic sulphate. The latter is a yellow substance—turpeth mineral—
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 135
practically insoluble in water: its presence at any rate in moderate quan-
tities has no effect on the cell. If, however, it is formed the acid sulphate
is formed also. This is soluble in water and the acid produced affects
the electro-motive force. The object of the washings is to dissolve and
remove this acid sulphate, and for this purpose the three washings
described in the specification will in nearly all cases suffice. If, however,
a great deal of the turpeth mineral is formed it shows that there is a
great deal of the acid sulphate present, and it will then be wiser to obtain
a fresh sample of mercurous sulphate rather than to try by repeated
washings to get rid of all the acid.
The free mercury helps in the process of removing the acid, for the
acid mercuric sulphate attacks it, forming mercurous sulphate and acid
which is washed away.
The cell may be sealed in a more permanent manner by coating the
marine glue, when it is set, with a solution of sodium silicate and leaving
it to harden.
APPENDIX.
August 12, 1892.
Dear Sir,—I am desired by the Electrical Standards Committee of
the British Association to communicate to the Electrical Standards Com-
mittee of the Board of Trade the enclosed extract from their report
made to the Association on August 9, 1892.
I remain, yours faithfully,
(Signed) R. T. GLazEBROOK,
Secretary, Electrical Standards Committee
of the British Association.
To Sir Tuomas Bromerietp,
Secretary, Electrical Standards Committee
of the Board of Trade.
EXrTrRact FROM THE Report OF THE ELECTRICAL STANDARDS COMMITEE OF
THE AssociATION, August 9, 1892.
The following resolutions were agreed to :—
1. That the resistance of a specified column of mercury be adopted as
the practical unit of resistance.
2. That 14-4521 grammes of mercury in the form of a column of
uniform cross-section 106°3 centimetres in length at 0°C. be the specified
column.
3. That standards in mercury or solid metal having the same resist-
ance as this column be made and deposited as standards of resistance for
industrial purposes.
4, That such standards be periodically compared with each other,
and also that their values be redetermined at intervals in terms of a
freshly set-up column of mercury.
It was further agreed that these resolutions be communicated to the
Electrical Standards Committee of the Board of Trade.
With regard to the units of current and electro-motive force it was
agreed that the number ‘001118 should be adopted as the number of
grammes of silver deposited per second from a neutral solution of nitrate
of silver by a current of 1 ampere, and the value 1:434 as the electro-
motive force in volts of a Clark cell at 15° C.
136 REPORT—1893.
Dr. von Helmholtz expressed his full concurrence in these decisions,
which are, as he informed the Committee, in accord with the reeommenda-
tions which have already been laid by the Curatorium of the Reichs.
anstalt, as well as by himself before the German Government.
APPENDIX II.
Experiments on the Effects of the Heating produced in the Coils by the
Currents used in Testing. By R. T. GLAzeBROOK.
Various circumstances (notably the experiments of Mr. Griffiths ')
had made it appear probable that the heating effect in the coils produced
by the current used in making the resistance test might be sufficient to
affect the results of the tests. Some experiments were made to examine
the point directly.
The resistance of a coil of 100 ohms (nominal value) was measured in
the usual way, z.e. by making a Wheatstone’s bridge of four coils whose
nominal values were ‘1, 10, 10, and 100 ohms. If the coils had been
accurate there would have been a balance ; as it was, one of the 10-ohm
coils needed to be shunted, and the adjustment was made by determining
the value of the shunt when no current passed through the galvanometer.
As the current in the battery circuit was increased by varying the
number of cells this shunt decreased in value, showing that the effect of
the heating was to produce an apparent diminution of the resistance of
the 1000-ohm coil. This, of course, is as would be anticipated ; for +? of
the current goes through the 1-ohm and one of the 10-ohm coils; the re-
maining ;; goes through the 10-ohm and the 100-ohm. The rise
of temperature will clearly be greatest in the first 10-ohm coil, and to
counterbalance the increase in resistance produced thereby it becomes
necessary to reduce the shunt.
The following readings were obtained :—
Current in Amperes Shunt in 1000 Ohms Correcting Factor
“05 35°5 1—-00028
‘09 32:5 “00031
12 230 00033
14 30°5 00033
15 29°5 “00034
The true value of the 100-ohm is given by taking the product of the
values of the two 10-ohm coils at the temperature of the observations,
dividing by the value of the l-ohm and multiplying by a factor repre-
senting the effect of the shunt.
During the above observations the temperatures remained steady,
the factor changed from 1—-00028 to 1— ‘00034. Thus the resistance of
the 100-ohm coil changed by ‘034—-028, or ‘006 ohm.
The apparatus was not sensitive with a smaller current; the effect,
1 Phil. Trans., 1893.
2 Only one observation at this current was made; the others are the mean of
several.
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 137
however, will vary as the square of the current; and, since trebling the
current produces so small a change, we may infer that the total effect is
itself small.
Another coil gave the following results :—
Current in Amperes | Shunt in 1000 Ohms | Correcting Factor
05 48 | 1—-000208
09 45 000222
12 | 43 | 000233
14 | 41 | 000244
i | |
000250
indicating a change in the measured resistance of ‘0042 ohm on 100
ohms,
It is clear, therefore, that the effect of heating is small, though appre-
ciable when currents approaching ‘15 ampere are used.
APPENDIX III.
On Standards of Low Electrical Resistance. By J. Viriamu JONES,
Principal and Professor of Physics in the University College, Cardiff.
The preparation of standards of low electrical resistance of from
‘001 to ‘0001 ohm seems to be a matter of some importance at the
present time. These standards are already in request among engineers,
and it becomes of interest to consider how they may best be measured to
a percentage accuracy comparable with that with which the standard ohm
is known.
Such standards of low resistance may be derived by potentiometer
methods from the standard ohm by a series of downward steps. But this
is from one point of view roundabout. The method of measuring the
ohm tbat seems in all its details most accurate is that of Lorenz. In
this method the ohm itself is derived from the measurement of a small
resistance. It is simply going up and down again to prepare from the
ohm so derived the required small resistance standards, and it is more
direct and more accurate to measure the latter directly in absolute
measure.
‘In Lorenz’s method a metallic disc’ is made to rotate in the mean
plane of a coaxial standard coil. Wires touching the centre and circumfer-
ence of the disc are led to the ends of the resistance to be measured,
and the same current is passed through this resistance and the standard
coil. The connections being rightly made, we may by varying either the
rate of rotation of the disc or the resistance measured so arrange matters
as to have no change of current in the circuit of the disc and wires joining
it to the ends of the resistance, when the direction of the current through
the resistance and the standard coil is changed. When this arrangement
is effected there is a balance between the electromotive force, due to the
motion of the disc in the magnetic field of the current in the standard
coil, and the difference of potential at the ends of the resistance, due to
138 REPORT—1898.
the current traversing it. If this adjustment be made we will say that
the apparatus is in an equilibrium position.’ !
If M=coefficient of mutual induction of standard coil and circum-
ference of disc,
n=rate of rotation of disc (number of revolutions per second),
R=resistance,
y=current through standard coil and resistance,
then in an equilibrium position
Mny=Ry,
or R=Mn.
I do not think that electricians have as yet realised the accuracy and
ease with which absolute measurements of resistance may be made by
this method. The absolute measurement involves measuring first the
coefficient of mutual induction of the standard coil and the circumference
of the rotating disc, and secondly the rate of rotation of the disc.
Now it lies well within the resources of modern mechanical engineer-
ing to make a standard coil and disc of dimensions known to an accuracy
considerably greater than 1 in 10,000, the coil being constructed of a
single layer of wire wound in a screw thread cut on a cylinder of large
diameter; and the measurement of the rate of rotation to equal accuracy
isa simple matter. There is difficulty in maintaining a rate of rotation
constant to this figure for four or five minutes, but with the closest
attention to the lubrication of all the bearings this also might be accom-
plished. Such constancy is well worth striving for, as the ease with
which measurements of resistance can be made by the method largely
depends upon it.
I do not propose on this occasion to enter into the details of the
method I have adopted in making the measurements, the results of which
I have now to bring before the Section. But it will perhaps be of
interest if I say a few words about the time-measurement.
In measuring a resistance we have to find the rate of rotation corre-
sponding to an equilibrium position. It is easiest in practice to determine
this by interpolation from two determined rates of rotation (near together,
and respectively slower and faster than the required rate) and the
galvanometer deflections corresponding to them, so that each determina-
tion of resistance involves two determinations of galvanometer deflection
and the rates of rotation corresponding to them.
In order that the galvanometer deflection may be obtained with
sufficient accuracy from a limited number of reversals (in my observations
the number has been almost uniformly thirty-three, taking about four
minutes in each case) the brush at the circumference of the disc needs
to be perforated and to be supplied with a constant stream of mercury.
Such a brush in its best condition almost entirely eliminates the continual
jerking of the galvanometer needle consequent on thermo-electric changes
at the point of contact of brush and disc. A multiplication of such
brushes at three or four points of the circumference would do this even
more completely.
During the four or five minutes’ run the rate of rotation is referred by
1 Vide Phil. Trans., 1891, A, p. 2, ‘On the Determination of the Specific Resistance
of Mercury in Absolute Measure.’
ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 139
a stroboscopic method to a suitable tuning-fork provided with riders and
maintained in vibration electrically. The observer at the fork can shunt
more or less current through the electromotor driving the disc, and in
this way maintains the rate of rotation as constant as he can. But
though the electrically maintained fork is useful for purposes of control
it cannot be relied on to give us the rate of rotation. Its vibration period
is not within my experience constant to the degree of accuracy required.
If stopped and set going again it may start with a period different
by several parts in 10,000. No previous determination of the period
of the fork can therefore be relied on to give us the rate of rotation,
though once started the fork goes sufficiently uniformly to give us a
means of control.
Accordingly it is necessary to measure the rate of rotation during
each run while the galvanometer observations are being made. The
rotating disc is, by means of an eccentric attached to its axle, made to
record its revolutions on the tape of a Bain’s electro-chemical telegraph
instrument side by side with the record of the standard clock. We have,
then, a time record exactly corresponding to the period of observation
of the galvanometer deflections. During the run the observer at the
galvanometer calls out the galvanometer readings, while the observer at
the tuning-fork controls the speed, and the Bain’s instrument records it.
I have made in this way a number of measurements during the
months of July and August of a standard resistance of approximately
0005 ohm, prepared last year by my assistant, Mr. Harrison, and a
student in my laboratory, Mr. Parker, with the following results :—
July 17, morning : : : 5 : : : ‘00050016
PP liiacathernoou) ©. . 5 ; 3 : E é ‘00050016
» 19, morning 7 - 5 2 . 3 -00050015
Aug. 2,afternoon . : : : : : ; “00050020
» 98, morning : A ‘ H ; é : -00050021
$y 4, 3 P 5 ‘ ‘ si is ‘00050016
no 4 athermnoon —: : : : : : : -00050013
» 5, morning é ; ; : : , ‘00050019
a ttt , : : : : ; ; . 00050021
» 9, afternoon . ; : : ; , c -00050018
Mean ‘ ; -00050017
The maximum divergence from the mean is ‘00000004, or about one
part in 12,000. Mr. Crompton has recently been issuing standards of
low resistance made of manganine sheets, and he was kind enough, at my
suggestion, to send me one for measurement towards the end of July.
It was prepared in his laboratory as a derivative from the Cambridge
ohm by means of his potentiometer. Its value so given was ‘00050175
at 23°C. Its temperature coefficient appears, from the measurements
made in Mr. Crompton’s laboratory, to be so small that we need hardly
consider it for our present purpose. My measurements of this standard
were as follows :—
July 29, morning ‘ : é : ; F f *00050219
RE TE) Ss MMe elle Ge cand Am, ~ +, Q00RDIEn
» 1, afternoon : 3 5 ‘ : 3 E -00050219
» 2, morning P . : 5 : ; 5 ‘00050226
Mean ‘ ; -00050222
which differs from Mr. Crompton’s value by something less than one part
140 REPORT—1893.
in 1000. Mr. Crompton’s resistance is a rectangular sheet of manganine,
and the potential terminals are two screws inserted at a suitable distance
apart in the median line. The screws are not soldered. I thought it
would be of interest to unscrew them, screw them up again, and re-
measure the resistance. The results were—
August 10, morning . Z : : ; é zy 00050328
, 10, afternoon . : : ¢ 5 : : *00050322
LO; 5 ; : : 3 : : ; 000503827
Mean : : "00050326
indicating a variation of about one part in 500. I unscrewed them again,
and after screwing them made a new measurement with the following
results :—
August 11, morning . : : : : : : 00050398
eae +5 : d : : - : : 00050403
Mean é : 00050401
which, compared with the first value ‘00050222, shows a variation of,
approximately, one part in 280.
We may therefore conclude that if an accuracy of th per cent. is
required of a standard so constructed its potential terminals ought not
to be meddled with after its resistance has been determined.
In making these measurements my direct object has been to obtain an
accurate and ready method of measuring standards of low resistance.
But I think something more than this comes out of them. It would be
possible in the light of our present experience to construct a Lorenz
apparatus considerably more accurate and easier to use than that in my
laboratory at Cardiff. Such an apparatus placed, let us suppose, in the
National Laboratory, of which we have heard a good deal at recent
meetings of the British Association, might with advantage be kept in
constant use, not only for the calibration of low resistances, but also as
embodying in concrete form a proper ultimate standard of electrical
resistance. We have not in our electrical standard legislation given full
credit to the mechanical engineer for what he can do for us; and I think
that a coefficient of mutual induction arranged, as in the Lorenz method,
so as to be easily combined with a time would afford a more satisfactory
standard of resistance than any wire coil or coils, and one easier to use
for purposes of ultimate reference than any mercury column.
The Application of Photography to the Elucidation of Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.—Third Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Mr. G. J. Symons (Chairman), Professor R. MxE.pona,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, and Mr. A. W. Cuaypen (Secretary). (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)
Your Committee beg to report that their work has progressed slowly
during the last year, though it has been greatly hindered by the appoint-
ment of their secretary as principal of the new Technical and University
Extension College at Exeter. The large amount of work involved in the
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 141
organisation of so novel a type of institution has left little opportunity
for carrying on the work of the Committee.
Having been thus obliged to postpone much of the work they hoped
to carry out, they have not drawn last year’s grant.
Nevertheless, considerable progress has been made. The number of
persons who have sent in their names as willing to contribute has been
added to, the photographs in your Committee’s collection have in-
creased from 361 to 467, and the objects of the Committee have again
been brought before some of the most important photographic societies.
The result is that the secretary is continually receiving letters asking
for directions for the photography of clouds, for the loan of lantern slides,
and general instruction, the furnishing of which your Committee consider
by no means the least usefal part of their functions.
A fairly exhaustive trial has been made of the comparative merits of
the Sandell plates, and slow plates of the photomechanical type; from
which it appears that the double film does not possess for cloud photo-
graphy any advantage over the older type of plate. Since also the
management of the latter after exposure is the easier, your Committee
adhere to the decision given last year, that the black glass mirror and
slow plate really provide the easiest means of securing good clond
pictures.
Attention must be drawn to the excellent pictures of clouds on the
High Alps which have been received from Mr. Greenwood Pim, who has
expressed his willingness to turn his attention to the photography of
high clouds.
With regard to cloud photographs generally, your Committee feel
that their collection already includes sufficiently good examples of all
the commoner varieties of cloud which are capable of being so repre-
sented, and therefore think that there is no scientific object to be served
in simply multiplying prints. Consequently, during the past year they
have not sought such contributions, but in soliciting aid have invited
observers to study especially the changes of high-level clouds. This is
a work of considerable difficulty, and there are probably few persons who
possess at once the requisite skill and sufficient leisure.
The records of cloud forms may thus be said to have been secured,
and the next question is, How may they be utilised ‘for the elucidation
of meteorological phenomena,’ ?
Upon what problems do they bear? This is easily answered. They
should give first the means of settling precisely what connection there
is between particular cloud forms and other atmospheric conditions,
and in the next place they should give a clue to the explanation of their
own forms.
In order to attack the first problem the great want is an efficient
cloud atlas of the higher clouds, such as was undertaken sdme time ago by
the International Committee. This atlas has not yet been published, and
init, moreover, it is proposed to arrange clouds under the names suggested
by Messrs. Hildebrandsson and Abercromby, a system which English
meteorologists have not yet adopted. Indeed, as your Committee have
observed in a previous Report, the system of nomenclature should follow
and not precede the study of the two problems stated.
The varieties of the lower clouds are pretty well understood; it is
with the higher clouds that all difficulties arise. Your Committee there-
fore suggest that they should be empowered to arrange for the publica-
142 REPORT—1893.
tion of a provisional cloud atlas, or one section of it, under the following
conditions. Divide all clouds into the three great groups, Cumulus,
Stratus, and Cirrus. Publish volumes dealing with each of these great
groups, not naming the subordinate varieties, but assigning merely num-
bers. Thus, supposing there are ten varieties of Cirrus—call them
No. 1, No. 2, &c.; then, if there are ten varieties of cirro-cumulus, let
these be numbered from eleven upwards.
It seems that if such an atlas were distributed to a number of ob-
servers who are in the habit of making eye-estimations of the quantity
of cloud, it would be quite easy for them to record also the numbers of
the respective types of cloud visible. Since these observations would be
made by meteorologists, and at the same time as records of temperature,
pressure, d&c., the results could not fail to be of real importance.
Again, a meteorologist armed with such an atlas would be able to
note changes of form from one type to another almost as well as the actual
photographer.
Lightning Photographs.
Not many new photographs of lightning have been received, but
they all agree with the others in the Committee’s collection in showing
what has been called the narrow ribbon structure. There has not yet
been any opportunity of ascertaining whether this structure is shown in
negatives on paper, but it is visible in negatives taken on thin films.
This fact confirms the opinion already expressed by your Committee,
that it represents the true form of a lightning flash. Moreover, it cannot
be caused by reflection from the back of the plate, because if so it would
be most evident in the brighter parts of the flash, whereas it is most
evident in the fainter; also, it would be more pronounced in the margins
of the plate than in the centre, and the apparent orientation of the
ribbon would vary according to the position on the plate. None of these
things are noticeable. The major thickness of the ribbon seems to set
itself in a particular direction, which is constant for all parts of a
branched or other flash, whatever may be the position of the image on
the plate. It is also not a whit more obvious in the margins of the
plate than in the centre. Lastly, it is almost invariably shown more or
less plainly ; why, then, should it be supposed to be due to some error of
observation ?
It has lately been suggested that it is produced by marginal deforma-
tion of the image. Let us put aside for a moment the fact that the
phenomenon is not marginal at all. Now, if a lens be used which will
not cover the plate properly, so that the margins are out of focus, or if
the camera be purposely put out of focus, it is quite true that the
image of an electric spark may be expanded into a broad ribbon. But
this is characterised by both the margins of the ribbon being brighter than
the centre, while in the true narrow ribbon structure, as shown by light- .
ning, the whole is equally bright, or one margin is bright and the other
the faintest part of the image. The explanation is clearly incorrect.
It may be useful here to draw a definite distinction between a light-
ning ‘ flash’ and a lightning ‘ discharge.’ Flashes last only a short time,
a mere fraction of a second, though probably a considerably larger frac-
tion than was at one time supposed. The eye is not conscious of any
variations of brilliancy during the flash, and a camera moving with con-
siderable velocity dues not resolve it into a number of components.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF METEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA. 143
Discharges may consist of a single flash, but they frequently consist
of a series of flashes following one another with considerable rapidity
along the same or related paths. The eye is often able to detect alterna-
tions of brilliancy during a discharge, and may resolve it, as a moving
camera will, into a series of flashes accompanied by a persistent luminosity,
which it has already been suggested is probably the flame of burning
nitrogen.
Last year your Committee referred to a photograph taken by Mr. Glew
at Brixton. This was taken in a camera the lens of which was attached
to the hammer of an electric bell and kept in oscillation during exposure.
The object was to deduce from the known rate of movement of the lens
the duration of the discharge. Unfortunately, however, there is nothing
to show in which direction the lens was travelling at the moment of each
component flash.
There is one very simple method by which it is quite possible to make
a rough measurement of the duration of a discharge. Let two observers,
A and B, agree that A shall carefully notice the seconds hand of his watch
while B looks at the sky to be sure that A does not confuse two separate
discharges. If the night is otherwise dark, A will see the hand only when
the face is illuminated by the lightning. The secretary to your Com-
mittee has, with the aid of Mrs. Clayden, made many such observations,
and has found that a lightning discharge often lasts as much as two or
three seconds, and may extend further, the longest time hitherto observed
being no less than seven seconds. During these times, though the
brightness of the light varied considerably, it was quite possible to watch
the hand moving steadily, and not in a series of jerks, as must have been
the case if the continuity of illumination had been an illusion due to per-
sistence of vision. In a similar way it is quite possible to follow the
movements of swaying tree-tops and other objects. It was noted with
some surprise that the light, as far as the eye can see, is often perfectly
steady for as much as a couple of seconds. Since beginning these observa-
tions not a single discharge has been noted of sufficient brevity to prevent
any movement of the watch hand from being seen.
Now, although such observations are rough, their bearing upon light-
ning photography is important.
An argument commonly advanced to prove that all photographs of
reduplicated flashes are due to movement of the camera is that the track
to be followed by successive flashes in a given discharge is marked out
by the first, which creates a path of minimum resistance in the form of a
partial vacuum.
But it seems to be forgotten how far this tube of rarefied air must
be moved, and how far the discharging point of the cloud (so to say)
may be displaced by the movement of the air. We know that the wind
is often quite strong during a thunderstorm,
Now, a movement of one mile an hour corresponds to 17:6 inches a
second.
Suppose, therefore, we take the first seven values of the Beaufort
scale and see how far such a tube of minimum resistance would be dis-
placed during the existence of a discharge.
Hence it appears that if a discharge lasts as long as three seconds, the
path of minimum resistance marked out by the first flash might be dis-
placed as much as fifty yards by a strong breeze. Moreover, since the
clouds would be moving at the same rate as the upper part of the vacuous
144 REPORT—1893,
Displacement in feet (discarding | Displacement
Force Miles per Inches fractions) in metres
Beaufort hour per
Beale Soe 1 sec. 2 secs. 3 secs. 1 sec.
0 3 or less 53 4 9 13 1:3
1 8 141 12 23 35 36
2 13 229 19 38 57 58
3 18 317 26 53 79 8-1
4 23 405 34 67 101 10°3
5 28 493 41 82 123 12°5
6 34 598 50 100 150 15:2
track, there would be no disturbance of its relation to the discharging
oint.
i It is frequently observed in photographs of reduplicated flashes that
the various components do not follow absolutely similar paths, and it is
often seen that the departure from similarity is near the ground.
Surely this is exactly what would be expected if the path of least
resistance were swept along as suggested. The movements of the wind
are not uniform, and the tube would frequently get bent or broken, such
an event being most probable to occur within reach of eddies from the
ground. It may be pointed out that the reduplicated flash photographed
by the secretary to your Committee in a stationary camera was taken at
right angles to that in which the storm and wind were travelling.
Movement of the camera or lens or plate would necessarily exaggerate
the reduplication where it might not otherwise have been detected, but
there can be no doubt that a single discharge often lasts for several
seconds, and therefore that any path of minimum resistance created by
the first component flash must be moved to an extent quite sufficient to
reveal the multiple structure to the eye and to the camera.
It seems, moreover, that the narrow ribbon structure may be attri-
buted to much the same cause.
In conclusion, your Committee have to state that their scheme of an
atlas of typical clouds cannot be carried out without considerable expen-
diture, and they suggest that they be reappointed with a grant of 501.
As they did not draw the 15/. voted last year, this is really an application
for only 351. for that which they believe would be a valuable piece of
work.
The Best Methods of Recording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation—Ninth Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir G. G. Sroxes (Chairman), Professor A. Scuuster, Mr. G.
JounstonE Sronzy, Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain W. pe W. Asnry,
Professor H. McLeop, and Mr. G. J. Symons. (Drawn up by
Professor McLEop.)
Dourine the last year Mr. Casella has constructed for the Committee a
thermometer with a lenticular bulb similar to that described in previous
Reports, but consisting of colourless instead of green glass. As stated in
the last Report, there are great difficulties in constructing an instrument
with a green-glass bulb, and it was believed that there would be little
ON THE INTENSITY OF SOLAR RADIATION. 145
difference in the readings obtained with a thermometer of ordinary white
lass.
; On May 22 three sets of observations were made, two with the green-
glass and one with the white-glass thermometer: those with the green
were made between X.17 and X.50 and between XI.35 and XI.53,
that with the white-glass instrument between XI.0 and XI.25.
The observed excesses of temperature of the green-glass thermometer
above the temperature of the case were 48°°3 F. and 49°°3. The observed
excess of the white glass was only 32°°8. The corresponding calculated
excesses obtained by the method described in the last Report were
respectively 50°29, 49°24, and 33°30.
It is thus seen that the white-glass bulb rises to about two-thirds of
the excess indicated by the green-glass bulb. This, however, is no dis-
advantage, for when the temperature of the insolation thermometer is
much above that of the case the simple law which for smaller excesses
connects the rate of cooling with the difference of temperatures is no
longer a sufficiently near approximation, and the reduction of the observed
results becomes more difficult.
As the simultaneous reading of the three thermometers is not an easy
operation, an attempt has been made to replace them by two thermo-
electric junctions. A copper disc, 20 mm. in diameter and about °75 mm.
thick, was soldered at its centre to a piece of iron wire. The wire was so
bent that when the centre of the disc opposite to the soldered joint is
exactly behind the hole in the copper cube, the other end of the wire
makes contact with the copper cube midway between the front and back.
To the edge of the disc a thin copper wire is soldered, which passes
through a glass tube in the central opening of the cube, and is thus insu-
lated from it. The experiment being only preliminary, the iron wire has
been fixed in a hole drilled in the copper plug which usually holds the
insolation thermometer, the glass tube carrying the insulated wire being
passed through the hole in the same plug. The other terminal from the
copper cube is made by fixing a piece of copper wire in the plug which
closes the hole of the case thermometer B in front of the cube. In a per-
manent instrument a binding screw should be attached to the cube in the
plane of the disc. To increase the absorption of heat by the copper disc,
it was blackened by being placed for a short time in sulphuretted
hydrogen. The black surface thus obtained does not, however, com-
pletely absorb the radiation, for, on throwing a beam of sunlight on it, it
is observed that some of the light is scattered. The surface thus obtained
may, in addition, be not permanent. ;
The terminals of the thermo-couples were connected to a reflecting
galvanometer of ‘97 ohm resistance, and the disc exposed to the rays of
the sun, the lens of the instrument being used. The deflection of the
galvanometer became steady after an exposure of from five to eight
minutes, whereas twenty minutes were required when the green-glass-
bulb thermometer was used.
In order to determine the value of the deflections a double thermo-
couple was made by soldering to two stout copper wires a bent piece of
thick iron wire. Close to the junctions delicate thermometers were tied,
and the apparatus was so arranged that the thermo-junctions and thermo.
meter bulbs could be plunged in test tubes containing paraffin oil: one
of these test tubes could be heated, and the connections were so made
as Be current produced by the heated junction opposed that from the
93. L
146 REPORT—1893.
actinometer. Whilst the disc in the actinometer was exposed to the solar
radiations, one of the thermo-junctions was heated, and when the galvano-
meter indicated that no current was flowing the thermometers were read.
In one case, in which a deflection of 172 divisions was obtained, the
current was balanced by a difference of temperature of the two junctions
of 8°27 C.
If an instrument of this kind could be made photographically self-
recording it would constitute an excellent sunshine-recorder, giving not.
only the time of the shining of the sun, but also a measure of its intensity.
An ordinary reflecting galvanometer would not be very suitable for this
purpose, for variations of the earth’s magnetism and the possible movement
of magnetic bodies in its neighbourhood would vitiate the results. An
instrument on the principle of the D’Arsonval galvanometer would be
more appropriate, but a few experiments made with such an instrument
have not given satisfactory results. Another source of error must be
mentioned, namely, the variation of the resistance of the long conducting
wires by changes of temperature. ‘No doubt all these difficulties might
be overcome in a properly appointed observatory.
On the Present State of our Knowledge of Electrolysis and Electro-
chemistry. Report by W. N. Saw and T. C. FitzpaTRIck.
Table of Hlectro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled by
T. C. Firzparricx.
The comparison of the numerical results of electrolytic observations
is rendered difficult from the fact that the data are scattered in various
periodicals and expressed by different observers in units that are not com-
parable without considerable labour. The following table has been
compiled with the object of facilitating the comparison.
In the table are included all the observations, as far as they are known
to the compiler, for the metallic salts and mineral acids; but amongst the
solutions of organic substances are not given all those for which Ostwald
has made observations, as it was thought that they would add unneces-
sarily to the size of the table. Observations for a number of additional
substances will be found in Ostwald’s papers in ‘Journal fiir Chemie,’
vols. Xxxi., xxxii., and xxxiii., and in the ‘Zeitschrift fir physikalische
Chemie,’ vol. i. With this restriction it is hoped that no important
observations have been omitted, and that in the reduction of results,
expressed in such varied units, the table is sufficiently free from mistakes
for it to be of service. The data included refer to the strength and
specific gravity of solutions, with the corresponding conductivities,
migration constants, and fluidities. The several columns are as follows :—
I. Percentage composition, 7.e. the number of parts by weight of the
salt (as represented by the chemical formula) in 100 parts of the solution.
II. The number of gramme molecules per litre, i.e. the number of
grammes of the salt per litre divided by the chemical equivalent in
grammes, as given for each salt.
III. The specific gravities of the solutions: in most cases the specific
gravities of the solutions are not given by the observers, and the numbers
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 147
given have been deduced from Gerlach’s tables in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir
analytische Chemie,’ vol. viii. p. 243, &e.
IV. The temperatures at which the solutions have the specific
grayities given in the previous column for the given strength of solution.
V. The conductivity, as expressed by the observer. In the cases in
which the observer has expressed his results for specific molecular con-
ductivity no numbers are given in this column.
_ VI. The temperature at which the conductivities of the solutions have
been determined.
VII. The temperature coefficient referred to the conductivity at 18°,
ba (i).
VIII. The specific molecular conductivity of the solutions at 18° in
terms of the conductivity of mercury at 0°; specific molecular conduc-
tivity is the ratio of the conductivity of a column of the liquid 1 centimetre
long and 1 square centimetre in section to the number of gramme
equivalents per litre.
In some few cases in which no temperature coefficients have been
determined the results have been given for the temperature at which
the observations were made.
The numbers given in the column are the values for the specific
molecular conductivity x 10%.
TX. This column contains the values for specific molecular conduc-
tivity at 18° in C.G.S. units: they are obtained from those in the previous
column by being multiplied by the value of the conductivity of mercury
at 0° in C.G.S. units. This factor is 1:063 x 10-5.
X. The migration constant for the anion ; for instance, in the case of
copper sulphate (CuSO,) for (SO,).
XI. The temperatures at which the migration constants have been
determined.
XII. The number of gramme molecules per litre, as defined for
column I1., for which the fluidity data are given in the following columns.
XIII. The finidity of the solutions of the strength given in the
previous column,
Most of the results given for the fluidity of solutions are expressed in
terms of the fluidity of water at the same temperature: to obtain the
absolute values for the solutions they have been multiplied by the
value for the fluidity of water at the given temperature. The values used
for this purpose have been taken from Sprung’s observations for the
viscosity of water given in ‘ Poggendorff’s Annalen,’ vol. clix. p. 1.
To obtain the values for fluidity in C.G.S. units the numbers in this
column must be multiplied by the factor *1019.
XIV. The temperature at which the solutions have the fluidity
given in the previous column.
XV. The temperature coefficient of fluidity at 18°, that is, i (2s).
18
XVI. In the last column are given the references to the various papers
from which the data are taken: against each reference will be found a
number, which appears also against the first of the data which haye been
taken from the paper in question.
nEPORT—1893.
148
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ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
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REPORT
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"GZ ‘d “IITX "JOA *7Du — | — = => Rat tela 089 == Si 0-0F& | 6-06) €1Z0-T Q. tL-F
“Up ‘pay jean ,| — | — — = =|, => esz 6&2 me steilt 8-F8L | 6-06) LEL0-T GG. 1-3
, —};-| - oa ee le ler — | 8L] +86 | %-08] 2900.1 ra 990-1
7 "062 =< =|) — |—| — | 988 | +88 — |8I} tse |%08] 9200-1 9290: eo
& ‘d ‘1 ‘Joa ‘a2wayp
a | ywhyg ing pfrsyos Bar| a | 009 | ae = a is a 3-6 | FO6I-T 9-8 0-93
I “WIZ ‘sniueyily 9| — | — =a. baa | ee ER O&F 9160-] 8T = 6-06] 891-1 0-§ 40-6
| —/-—| — — |—]|] — | 999 | 219 | 6Iz0-} gt — |&.02| 2F90-1 O-T 108
9 | ‘Ld “x79 ‘Toa 77 — ee — f[—| — | ser | pee |e2c0. er = 6-02| §120-1 g tL
2 -up ‘bbog ‘sunidg,| — | — =: SS Sa PES | ae or me |g = 0-61} S610-T Ses 8-3
a aor perl ramet | feeceel| ci reat ae aie Hes == 0-21} 8110-1 40% BLT
| *£L¢ ‘d-ta0'Toa"pow ee ee = =|) ote: | < mae — _|0-0T} $200.1 GI- 160-1
Bw | ey “bbor ‘outy| — |—| — <=") ee SBE. |? 8 =~ er — | 8-08] €900-1 T 968
==> leGee|Ge8 ODEs 609. | — = a -- 0-81] S900-T 160: LL
= 08 ‘d ‘t ‘Joa — |0z] 9¥6 qa |—| — | 606 | 998 eal: — | 08} 8100-1 20: PBF
a | ‘awaygywhy quant = 04) 896 genab— | =) |, G86, te LL8 iadale bl a 3-08] +000-T £0: 99.
a | eeyosnaz‘pyemyso.s| — | 06|.826 | eI. |—]| — | #96 | 206 | 9220-| ST = Sail Wis T0- 980
a | a = — TS ens 126 =), (Par ea = = 900. 190
es ‘TAXX — | 02 | 626 OLN— | =|) Wor.) aie — leap = —; — Z00- 110:
Q | 10a ‘bunogssarer a ——h— || — eon | aan Satie 12)! = =\| 100- 9800:
ex | 7 9p ‘poor, | 9tZ0-| 0%} 89 | F194] —| — | 9TOT | 996 = een = ao 9000: 1900:
B | BP sow ‘zuat,| 7E0-| 0G] 108 | saro}—]| — | L801 | 996 =e ey = =|) Pic = 8000: 2100-
3 [+Z0-| 06 | 3L8 8c-1] —| — | 9801 | 926 = ar = Aad! 1000- 98000:
‘961d | OFZO-| 06 | sT86 | 968. | —| — | Tg0T] O16 = ie = eb ae 90000: T9000:
% | AEX ‘Joa "youuy a Ne re =, Ne" PERU aoe aie a =| ae 60000- 11000-
‘Pam ‘yosneyoy,| — |—| — = M=\|) =) | PORDT ae eel ~~ tt | aa 10000. | $80000-
80-68 “ON®N ‘OTNOo[O][ SOMMIVIH JuoTeaAInby
‘ALVULIN WAIGOS
*TAXX — |— — ee | eo
‘JOA ‘bunogs.cajaq — |— — er | ee
Cf ae AN I
mul rab tars | hye een thar ea ecw |
_ = F-81| FE0-1 _ 90-F
ea = —" NG-81|! 929. | —— — | — == G81} 9910-1 == 86-T
= |= = — | | are 988 Se leit = 0-81! I$10-1 T 199-1
=== = — [9-81] 929.'| — — — |= — 9-81| 9200-T = L¥6:
= |= = — |—| — | 966 986 S| = 0-81} 0200-1 G0. GPS:
= = — — |—| — | 2201 | 996 al aT == = = €0- 109:
‘OF ‘d ‘a "Joa = |= — — 19.6 12729. | — = — |— = 9-6 | FOOT = €0F-
‘onuayo yshyg ung — | G2] eg01 OT] —| — | 180T | ZT0T | 12z0-] 8T = = a T0: he
piuyosaz “TOUSeM | — | 96| TLOT Cl — | iee0r | ses00 ale == == == 900. ZOT-
— |9@]| 9801 gz. | — | — | F2IT | ZLS01 == flee = = — 00: £0:
"E03 — | 42] se60t | szl }—] — | sil | 8901 ==) |e aad = = 100: LI0-
‘d ‘x1xxx] ‘[0A ‘70 Shiite tox — |—| — | 98IT]} 6901 —— aT oS tle 9000: ZOTO:
up ‘bbog JI .| — | — _ — |—| — | gFIT] 2L0T — 0ST == = = 6000+ ¥E00-
= |S —_ — |—J| — | 9FIT! 8201 ==" isi = = == 1000: L100.
‘G6 ‘d = |= — — |—]| — | Stir} ZLOT = |i == = = 90000: ZOT00:
; ‘TAXX ‘[OA "7DUUW — |— — — |—| — | TFIt] sor spe it = = = 20000: ¥8000-
= ‘pam ‘yosneryyoy ,| — | — — — |[—| — | 8FIT | 10801 —- Sih = = = 10000: 11000:
= 6-691 “ONSY ‘oNos[OP eMMNIH yusTeanby
| ‘HLVULIN UAATIS
is]
a ead, S| eg? )|) Seen —— [eeni| OeeS: | lpae eters 0-1 =
ey sn eae = a | CE 909 — | st 0-g0g | — = g. =
= Se laos = =| LO 799 — | 8 0-991 | — = GB. =
Sa = = We | A Sey 80L = |i chu G.88 = == SZI- —
= |= = = |) | ont PPL = 260 G.9F =) eee 9290: 82F-
acai | fa = | ete TA PLL — |S BFE = == Z1g0- FIZ.
| = — | —|-— | 998 O18 —- ln81 9-61 = = 9910: LOI:
= SS = i) be 088 G28 — |8r| gF9 = = 8200: geo.
Sb | = — |—]| — | 688 6&8 — |sr| 9ae a a 6800- 89Z0-
ae) ees == — | —"| -— 11006 FF8 — | 8I | 99-1 = = 96100: FE10-
"11g ‘d ‘ATXx "JOA
‘(solzes 49g) “boyy a dy ea ile aa Bees ae — |93{ 9:68 7 as ZIE0- FIs:
ma ‘qoyedaywa, | — |—| — Sea ee a — |93| 9-86 75. |e bene 9910: LOT:
== |= = — {—]| — | 088 = ee 1-96 — == 8100. 9g90-
"8 ‘d ‘I ‘Toa = |= — Sel 8906 = == dG 0-66 _ = 6£00- 89Z0-
‘armayp yshyg inf = — — |—| — | Fe86 = lad 0:20T | — = 96100: FE10-
Mesyorneg “PYBAIEO 1| — | — = mae 7d | eee = = 486i). eiPkOL . == 916000: 1900-
(oe) "6-89 “ONTT ‘ommoopoyy omurery quoyeamnby
= ‘HLVULIN WOIHLIT
169
CHEMISTRY.
ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-
ON
‘IG
‘d “ITX "Joa ‘ypu
“UV "PAM “TezINLy
‘OF ‘d ‘a ‘Toa
‘ayuay) “yshyg ung
Pisyospraz ‘IOUS M ¢
899 ‘d ‘xx ‘Joa
‘ounwoy, w pvo0¥ )
“2°P UAV “TUIWUOOTA ;
"1e ‘d ‘IX ‘JOA
‘DUUP “paral “SU0'T
989 ‘d ‘xx ‘Joa
‘ounwoy ip ‘pwooy 4
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‘996 ‘d ‘tr “Joa
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7).
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Sot ae eo | LOLOT
ECG || | ee ASO
GéT- |} — | — | GPOL
ceria | heap ise 000
See Ace al OG
or] —| — | 9se
Se | (a 1 een Ui
Gee |) a
ger. 1— | = | @e9
066
0&6
066
2 086
6LI
LLG
kets
107
6LF
egg
T¥G0:
9660:
8660:
LGG0-
S660:
9660:
81
g08
O18
OgL
St9
€6F
1 682
‘FS-COL “(ON)aG | ‘oMoeTOW ouuery yueyeamby
‘HALVULIN WAILLNOULS
— |—| — | zeor
— |—| — | zor
Se ee ei
Hee ert
— 10.02} szg.| —
= ae
— fogz #29. | —
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— 10.0 | see
— fogzl gag. |s 28Or
— || — | toot
— ooze. | —
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= t— 1) = ome
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— Iz11| sor | —
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066
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6660:
8660:
$1) lo BGboonl 81z0- |
8I
81
8I
8T
g¢¢00:
6ST00-
GOTO0:
48000-
O6F-F
666-4
OFZ-G
809-T
660-1
FGF:
6F600:
26000:
F000:
gF.000-
FOT-
I
620-
g0-
920.
STO0-
SOTO:
200:
€00-
gT00:
8000-
0-¢
0-€
L¥LEO-
FO9TO-
9L0T0-
81600-
0-96
0:96
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Tg0-
¢960-
9€ 10:
FF-09
I1-9§
€L-86
18-93
81-91
16-41
GLL-8
1893.
REPORT
170
‘98 ‘dea ‘TOA
‘auuay) “ysl ng
Pf uly OS 410F “IOUS z
“6FT
‘d ‘tA ‘JOA “qpwuy
‘Pam “yosneryyoy
“G3.
‘d ‘Myx ‘JOA ‘2vu
“UY “pm ‘[2Z4INIW ¢
‘gg ‘d *A ‘TOA
‘anmayy yshyg ung
Ursyospaz ‘IOUBCM
"18E ‘d‘TA0 "TOA "yvU
uy ‘bbog JIOWWH «
"989 ‘d ‘xx ‘[OA
‘outlay w 'pvooy 2
“22D WIV TUUOOTA ;
‘g6T ‘d
‘IAXX ‘JOA “20UUP
‘pam “Wosneyyoy ;
8&6
696
LFOT
OLOT
+V80L
L&
tg
8L
80T
OST
106
19%
gee
SEP
gL1g
899
GOT
Gat
681
9FG
STE
60F
Trg
869
€960-
T&é0-
G0E0-
$1360:
0g20-
0€Z0-
06<60-
LT60-
L160:
6160-
6120-
0-996
0:19F
0-F8¢
0-9TL
0-978
0-9F6
0-€86
0-976
0-818
0-1FS
10-F1€
50-28 “Gono © ‘atnoefoyY owe yuopeaAnby
G.
G6:
gGI-
6FOL
€90T
6LOT
‘ALVALIN WOALIDTVD
086
OOOT
z OTOL
T&ég
088
S66
TLOT
FPOL
8601
IZIT
SéIT
6SII
SOIT
OLTT
S8IT
S8II
ga)
868
018
196
686
Seol
FSOL
9901
FSOL
960T
OOTT
FIL
tPLIl
8T
81
8I
81
"72.0eT “CONea | ‘oMooTOW eMUINLH yueTeATaby:
‘HLVULIN WOATEVY,
0690.1
G090-T
9F10-T
§T10-T
0900-T
6900-1
171
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
‘9g ‘d "A ‘Toa
‘armayg yshyg ung
Zueyaspiagz ‘IOUBBM 5
‘P61
‘d ‘IUIAX ‘[OA "70u
“UP “PALA, ‘UBIYOLD z
“€6P
‘d ‘a "Toa ‘avwaygp
‘yshyg nf ifiuyas
-70Z = ‘UDAOYSLO AA _
‘9G ‘dl “INITX "Toa “ou
“UY “PIA “TeZ4IDIN +
"ye ‘d ‘a ‘TOA
‘gumaya yishyg inf
PUY ISNA ‘IOUBVM 5
"LLG ‘d ‘atxx ‘JOA
(serras WI¢) “boyz
Wd = ‘youyedzqa g
‘6FL
‘d ‘lA "TOA "2DWUy
‘Pam “osner[yoy 1
"93d “TIITX "JOA “77
“UV "PAM ‘PZIDW s
"TSE dad "OA "70U
uy “bbog ‘10H +
"LLG ‘d ‘TAXx ‘Toa
“soles qI¢) “boyy
8&6
LIOT
6gOL
s PLOT
TSOT
s GLOT
0-1
G.
gG-
GGI-
‘6-LIT
9G:
9GI-
‘FO-FL
“Fala SES 9TS S1¢0-| 81 0-08F
Sata | ecrameaial lies) 809 1660: | 81 0:0L6
See gee Ger TgL 9660:| 8I | «6-99
== ae ES 69L 6660: | 8T L-69
Se EE &68 0€Z0-| 8T G-6§
SN Se 06) 698 L660: | 81 L-8T
Sa |e ONG #68 €660-| 8I | 69-2
=. S66: G&6 FEG0:| 8ST | 196-E
ZEON) pO % ‘eMoopoyT ouutery quopeatnby
‘ILVULIN WAINGVO
rls Seg 009 = esr 0-006T
iN oe al Oe FF9 —— e3r 9-€b9
=a OGY 189 ae G-EF&
Nt a OU O&L ES F-G81
|) ae le hoe LtL wa al ¥-€6
oil) ama Bos 6LL ail S L-8F
<== h088 008 bate so 0-96
Sl See GIS T18 — | 8I | 289-61
=) ER Be g9g 10G0-| 81 0-960T
=~ poems called. StP T1Z0- | 81 0:068
i = 08g 9FG 91Z0-| 8I 0-949
cael | oie B14) 819 8160-| 81 | 10-60
“EQNS $ ‘oTNosTOPT otUMIVIH yueTeamMbiy
‘ALVULIN WOISANDVI
G8FI-T
F660-T
6670-T
6F60-T
REPORT—1893.
172
—|-| — OTe | on a ane — =| - 2000. | 94600:
eee iad Sse | oa SGT | Gal == 4S — = = 1000: GZ100-
"g6r ‘d = SS = a) 1 SE SOL — sei = — = 90000. | 982000.
TAXX "[OA "2DUUH Sania ae == et 0c) eee == isi — — | — Z0000- | 9#Z000-
‘pam ‘yqosneryyoy ;| — | — = Se ee sina ig All crit = — = 10000: | 861000-
‘69-331 “OIOM ‘eTNos[oW omuVIH yuepeammby
‘ALVAOTHO WOISSVLOg
Saris a a ie | fae | eee oe NIA =z a ere F996 as a 610: 696:
UG AN AEN | es = cee (ee ae, ck fae tA] (96 8-89€ > 7 99T0: oéT-
Pe tl ag 7 a GS os ge ae 0-TLE = F 8200- 990:
"gL ‘d ‘T "Joa Pe |e ae eet eal all LOOP, a eke 0-LL§ = = 6€00- €80-
‘ormayy yrshyey ing Fie || Sates Fa Seen gar | ae eae I reel ho g-18€ = ap g6100- g9T0-
IfesyospveZ “PyEMysQ , | — | — a ae | le Wee Oy = — | 961 188& = ag 916000: 6800:
0.48 “OIOH ‘eNos/O omer queyeanby
‘dI0y OIMOTHD
‘9g ‘d ‘a ‘Toa aan | fare = Seems] Soe || (OGG 916 L960: | 81 939 GT | 89€8-T LO¥-G 0-08
‘mayo yrshyg inf Rpm | ere aaa | ee ie © RUS 666 6960: | 81 19g ST | 8L96-T 066-T 0:96
Ycyospag ‘OUSeM s| — | 93} 66 OT ses) tae Pees PSs 0960-| 81 L8P GT | -1T O9F-T 0:06
— | 96] G6FOT OP ia | ae 1 SCOP 986 Tg60-} 81 10F ST | LZ9FT-1T 6F0:T 0-ST
‘Lg ‘d ‘rx ‘Toa — | 96 | PLOT GD | I ae eel tgp T9Z0:| 8T 10€ ST | L860-T €99- 0-0T
‘wuuy ‘pay ‘su0T,| — | 96] .9801 | 931. | —| — | 109 g9g 8860-| 8I | z6LT ST | 6FFO-T LI§: 0-¢
"689 ‘d “xx ‘[0A mama ti cat aa SPS Sa LOLS | SOTO | ee ae 74 ¥ g100- 8420:
‘OUrloy, YP “‘PvI0¥ ip |e ak Sa eC O20 at os oe a 92000- Q310-
“9p Yap “WurquedtA | — | — = NS = COOOL LE6Os | = Fe 7 = 64000: T800-
‘T-91 “CON)ad § ‘ofmoopoyy omer yuoyearnby
‘ALVULIN AvVaT
ae a Pes ee eee 90T €960-| 81 0-169 81 | FE09-T 089-9 £-8F
= aa i | al a (X24 691 8660-| 8T 0-18 8I | 689F-T 196-4 0-0F
ere ce = | (eral eeets 996 F1IGO-| 8T 0-168 8 | FoTE-T SHEE 0:08
ee. iba a aaah = || JLOF LLE G1G0-| 8T 0-€LL 81 | 9661-1 100-6 6-06
*6-LIT “CONDPO € ‘oTMooToPY oTUUANIH JuaTeAInD|
‘panuyjuoo—ALVALIN, WAINGV)
ri — meee et — oe ee a BTE0- 183:
a ‘oS Vs) — |=} — ae etal = — |}9) 798 |— | — 9910: SOFT:
= SSeS ee = Gea = 5-68 | — | = 8200: Z0L0-
‘eg ‘dt “Joa i id, |e pee eb = — 19%] 616 |— |— 6£00: TS€0-
‘aquaup'yshyqing | — |—| — P= | or 1 — 1/9) 26 |— |— 26100. | g92T0.
Ursyasnag pyemysg {| — |—| — — t=) = errs = = 196 $. 10-26 |—.|—| gp6000. | g2800.
87-06 “OLOFT ‘ernoooyy owuery yuoteamby
‘HLVAOTHD WAIHLIT
ia “QTd ‘tad ‘Toa "70 — |— = ae) let ee Net = ae nl eG L-66 = SE 61€0- Igé.
= up ‘bbog ‘Bsunidg,| — | — = — | = | Session = ra Go 8-96 =e — 99T0. g9T-
4 i — |— — — |—| = | 8tor = eee 9-86 = = 8100: GZ80.
a eee) ee PES ANE eye acuta g| Gor |—| — 6£00- STF0-
| ‘TS ‘d ‘tr ‘joa — |0¢]} 98g 666-€] — | — | 90IT = ——EGe yOhes|e— = S6100- 8020.
7 ‘auuayo yshyg ing, — | 06] gsz 6-6] — | — | S&IT as — | $6] 19-90T = = 926000. FOL.
& | styornez preys 11 — | og] tes |esitt—| — fs + ee ai sii = =
= "4-901 “OIOBN ‘eTnosTo7T SWIM quereaInby
3 ‘HLVEOTHD WaIdog
a
z —);-[{[ - Se eng = = a ZTE0- 88.
— |—; = iE (i IPR? ali ad i = 9910. I61-
I — |— == Se | aN SI Craig = = aa 8100: 960.
Ba —|-| — — t= |) = oar) — = 600: 8F0-
a — al gl Sel S| Se eee ai aaa 26100- 460.
& —j-| — Sah lh ee aoae ao = — | 926000. 310.
oOo
a a ee 4 | = |6re 66L | ZIZO. $-6T] F8E0-T g. £06-9
a we) — | —| oor | — — = eau) — 29-8
x = \|—)| = Sco | i Neti 136 — G-61| 2800-T T G1Z-T
° aly ee — | —|edor-\| — = = eral ca = 98.
— |}—| — Se |) en ee eae = a G0: 609.
98 ‘d ‘1 ‘10a ae |e = TT] =) (690T -|* 9007 = = €0- L19€
‘mayo yshyg inf cia ae <= — | —] — | OBIT] €80T | 6IZO. = 10 9261
Pruyosnaz ‘pyemjso ,| — | — — = eS | eS oer 890T > a 900- glo
oid Se cee oe ce hall ie —3 00- S20
*g1e "d ‘TA0 ‘TOA Oh = I a TTT = 100. 9Z6T
‘qouuy bbog 10430 ¢
REPORT—1893.
174
“086 IV
"Gg ‘d ‘T "OA
taymayy yshy gq inf
gfinyos1VaZ PYPMISO 1
"oGG Viz
"ag ‘d ‘1 ‘JOA
‘anuayg yshyg suf
Pf tyos pag PTBAISO 1
"ELE ‘d“TA0 “TOA "7D
-up ‘bbog ‘J10YWH «
09S IV z
"9g ‘d‘T ‘Joa
tanuayg yshyg inf
Jf oly osqaZ “PYBAISO 1
‘oGG TV iz
9 L ‘d ‘T ‘JO A
‘qnuayg yh inf
gf os pag ‘PYEMISO 1
— — — “yx — —
=—T—y — | oor | = lol 6 Tt oan 991.
ae toe) oes ESO Bn Bae Wee 6:86 — Te 8200: 680:
ca jae (eee OST aE fm 8G 9-10T ae i 6&00- STPO-
perme | Samah ei 061) ay = SG F-F01 = rT 6100: 8060-
See A omc eee, TA raed =| 8% LP-LOT — = 916000: FOTO:
‘SP-901 “OIOFT MoeToW oumery yuopeatuby
‘ELVUOTHOURG WALT
So S| Bea ESOL = HS 0-Z0T == = S1E0- 8€-
ie || tm of L a Te eG 6-SOT aia a 9STO0- 61:
= ile Se MOL = = eG 6-801 == a 8200- g60-
Se) se |p ae SORE = == age 8-O1T = == 6800: gL¥0-
=) its oe | ape = eat €-I1 = a S6T00- 8&60-
SP) SS" NSS = a= 86 LL9IT = = 926000: 6110.
6.221 “OTOEN So[NooTOTT eTMUTvIyH queyeamnby
‘aLVUOTHOURG WAIGOS
| | rama Hepsi (Oe = aie ms a fe = €&8:
2 |) RS SGE = Fan(s 1-081 == = GTE0- T&F:
Tat t, REGS at WS 8-F6L jig a 9ST0- 916:
eer |) men aeed oar Se WEG 6-661 aa a 8100: 80:
Seis |) = WSaiage i = || Ake 86ST Ka ae 6800: $90:
pita iy a OSL rag SANG F-9T a as 6100: L@0-
erties | | agua ieee the 4! aa — 1961] 18-661 ae eas 9246000: ggT0-
"69-881 “OIOM ‘eTnoepo ouMNTH yuopeamby
‘ALVAOTHOURG WAISSVLOgd
ae ee | oa ORS a = AIS G-19€ ae = S1&0- STé-
Gaeta 8668 qr ele $-69€ = za 9gT0- 9ST-
aren) ea | Sean |S ILy = = NG 0-816 = Te 8200: 810:
Sea te OGOF Ss Fy tts 8-F8E = = 6€00- 680:
=|) == . Ost = aa dG 0-168 = = g6T00- 96100-
Seam | armel fama FOGF = = aka 1 9-96€ ie = 916000: 91600:
‘9F-001 “OLOH ‘olnoapoy eurumery) quepeamby
‘dIoy olM01THOMEg
= ‘961 ‘d | ay =| ae | =a |= | — | seel| poet | —.| 81 ee S| < | 90000. | €&9000-
q ‘IAXX ‘JOA "2DUU! Fae || = Shi Bee gE ge ahaa = sme lt = Z0000- | #21000.
‘pam “yosneyyoy ;| — | — = =) ee rarer nee He = al eis 10000. | £80000:
‘91-18 “os*y © ‘ofnoajoyy omer yuoTeamby
‘ALVHdUTOS WOAISSVLOg
= ||c = =! f= |) =: || 8802 || BIBT = 1) RT 8-€19 | ST | OOTO-T a €99-1
= ee = XS = ee ADE 4) =) a1 ei 6-98 | ST | 8400-1 9T- gL.
eo == ee ber = 7 | =) B8e7e |} Bele | ees ae 9-911 | ST | 0200-1 80: 168:
5 = ae = | = | = | eege || ‘ceez a ie €-96 oy aa #0: 96T-
2) =e = = 4 8828 || Bees. |) =e; Ge 7'| cic 20. 860-
a
=| ae | eel cae =i 1 || bees = == | = raj! CMS = 6B-F9
S) = he = = =|, 88a || = ae Saar ee a Pat Gee ss 0-[F
5 ate ante = | = || ToL 099 == LSE ot GT | $686-T 0-0T €0-88
a 1Gt0:| 81 St-ce] — | — | OSST | OLaT =>) A — SI | FE9T-1 0-9 9-1
S GEFO-| SI | FE 8-08] — | PLT. | — Te Sl ee ae aa il = 69-ST
i. €Z40-| 81 | LE 86-62] — | — | 8991 | O9ST =" |< 7] ST | 1F60-1 0-8 PPE
a ‘ehg'd'mta‘joayu | Zog0-| ST | 98 LI-€3] — | — | S861 | OST = ee ot GT | $080-T 0-1 89L-F
a “UY “PAM “UBIZOIN ¢ | 69B0-| 8ST | O9T S080 — | 221. | oa a alt: 3 Foti | See = LF
-* GFZO-| SI | ts 6&-F1] — | — | 810 | 668T == Var =< GI | S¢T0-1 g. FIPS
a ‘OF 'd*A ‘JOA | 6FZO-| ST | FFE 19-01} — | 613. | — = =i ee as = te = 10:
ri | ‘opmaya-yrshyqing | 8980-| 81 | 19% | 8eF-L | — |2908- | — Ne =< Ne ae ell epee = 919.
bs | Pyospag ‘rouse »| 1EZ0-| 81 | 09 |e09-4|—| — | size] #e0e | — | et = ST | 1200-1 I 68F-
3 6F20-| 8ST | 992 [927-3] — | — | O66 | stea | — | BT — 3 | i) ad
& “TOP A "tA0 "Toa “yu — j=) = = T= \| = lees.) ener =e iMG = —— | €0 L¥T
io) -uy ‘bbog Jaro, | — | — = — [— | — | $80€ | 9986 | 92I0-| ST = = = 10 640
| — | _ = Yk= | => |tosTes|: iron = 18 = a = 900 F660
a ‘JAXX — | 81 | 298 OT] — | — | #H¥E | OFZE | 6STO-| ST — a — 600 8600
wm | Toa ‘bunogsiazaq Sl Bie GBR G- [— | — | Fe9e | 9gTes = ep mes cpt) l= 100 6400:
S |S =p ‘pwoyy = STi P16 96. | — =) ees) lepes «| — | -8T = ae 9000- #6200:
op aowayr “Ue ,| — | 8T| 126 |92l. | —| — | oste | osze | — | et aa 7) Se 2000 86000
else |e Tal Sal re ES Te = ileek os lets 1000: 6F000-
‘961 ‘d — |-—| — > eS Sa, ema a a Gy baa 90000. | #62000:
‘IAXX ‘[OA "2DUUy ee = IRF BO Gea 06 = ale ~~ aS = G0000- 860000-
‘pry ‘qosneiyqoy ,! — | — = Sah Se ae O Ts) MELEE al =F as ee T0000- 6#0000-
"980-6 “OS*H F ‘ofmoajoyy emu yuopeamby
REPORT— 1893.
176
+9
9
‘OST g9g
‘d ‘1A ‘JOA ‘youuy &h9
‘pay ‘Wosneyoy , GOL
210-99 “OS*CHN) © ‘arnoojoyy etTaUeIH queyeatnbyy
‘MLVHdINng WAINOWWY
Sp = — {—| — | F80T | OZ0T | $2Z0-| 8T = Se == 6600: 2980:
<= i = — |—]| — | 6SIT |] O6OL | TEZ0-} 8T = od =s 93800: 9820:
= |= _ — |—]| — | geet] OTL | 6820-| 8T = — — SST00- GgT0:
= |= — — |—! — | 982] OTZI | 2820.| ST = — = $8000: $100:
"Led ‘A "TOA = e= — — |—]| — | 62ST | cOSZI | 8&Z0-| 8T = — == #9000: gS¢00-
‘amayp yishyg ung
pmyospaz ‘IoUseM ,| — | — = — —| —"| 292 BSL —— fhscht 0-19§ |0-9T} ¢hEO-T Gg. G1G-F
== |i = ES 692 — '| SI 0-26 | 0-ST| G0Z0-T 63: LL%
"46% = _ — |—| — | 688 7E8 — | 81 0-IZE | 0-ST) ZOT0-1 SFI: 193-1
‘d 't ‘TOA ‘anwayQ = | — — — |—| — | 668 8h8 — | 81 0-901 |0-ST| 8800-1 GCI- 080-T
yrshiyg dns rfrsyas = | == — |[—] — | 096 806 — | 8I 9-99 0-ST| LF00-T GLO: -669:
-nay = ‘sntueyiIy,| — | — == — |—| — | 696 G16 — | 81] 20-2 0-91} 0F00-T 9290: oFo:
‘oT ‘d “x10 "TOA "77 | — — —| — | FIL 619 6020-| 8T = 0-$1| LL90-T 0-1 €9T-8
-uy ‘bbog ‘sunidg,| — |—| — — | —| eer | = = — |= = 0:21] 6&90-T 986 19-2
hii _— = lay 98h 81Z0-| ST == 0-91| SPS0-T g. C1G-F
17 a Sa — — |—| — | +96 168 — | 81 =z 0:ST| 6900-1 I 998
‘IMTAOX "TOA "77% iO Ge|eGRs OI] —| — | 6101 | 696 — | 8. = 0-1} 0800-T G0. FSF
-uy ‘bbog ‘FO y| — | 03] 826 g. }— | — | TL0L | 8001 — | 81 = 0-ST| 9100-1 €0- 193:
— |0¢| #96 gc. | — |+86r | — = — es = 9-9 | 0600-1 820: TPS:
"999 ‘d ‘xx ‘Joa — | 06 | .996 oztI- | — | — | L9IT | 8601 | $220-| 8T =o — = 10- 1180:
‘ournloy, vp “‘pvooV¥ ) ea = = — |—]| — | oat] Ostt = | SI = == == 900- $290:
-29p WIV UIJUIOTA s| — | 0Z | 9 888 OT} —| — | 9gat] I8It = |S = = = 200: PLO:
= |= = — |—]| — | sser| L021 — | 81 = = == 00: 1800.
‘TAXE = he == — |—| — | L6Z1 | 02eT — | 81 = = = 9000: €S00-
joa ‘hunogs.a,9q 9g20:| 02 | 198 606-11 — | — | 61ST | TPoT — | 8I = == = Z000: #1100:
4S ap =" pwoy FPS0-| 02 | s 916 sig. |— | — | 8csl |] G6FZT —— iT he = = 1000: 18000.
ap adowayy ‘Zuey z 2) & C e
‘9-18 “OSH § ‘eTMooTOT ouMMeIH yuoTeAMby
‘panuryjuoo—ALVHAIAG WAISSVLOd
177
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
“6g ‘d ‘A ‘TOA
‘amuaygyshyg inf
rayospaz ‘IOUSeM ,
“S63
‘d ‘tr ‘Toa ‘axwayg
‘yrshug inf pfrmyas
“20Z ‘SNIUSYIIV 9
"GT ‘d ‘x1jo ‘Toa ‘you
-uy ‘bbog ‘Bunidg .
“LLG d“1A0 ‘TOA “70u
“up “bbog ‘J10;41H
"889 ‘d ‘xx ‘Toa
‘ouwoy wp ‘pvo0y 4
"19P U24V “TUI{USOTA ¢
*IAXX
‘JOA ‘bunogswo2aq
RS ap = "pvay.)
ap alwowayy ‘auary ;
‘961 ‘d
‘TAXX [0A “2DUU
‘PAM “qosneryoy ;
"QT ‘'d ‘xI[9 [OA "ypu
uy ‘bbog ‘Bunidg ,
*TAXX
‘JOA ‘bunogssazag
WS 8p “pvoy
ap away ‘2uary z
ea (imam West Sts ot) | adit Staal OT — ee
ase I sreoTepre MARE = =| _s
S| Or | s00r 1 = er = atl Secs
=|. eee nae “| Oia? OLE OTe LTesT
= |) eae |S ores — |8f} O-+FST | 9T} Sgt0-1
= [Sail | eae | Pen ==. 1 (SOEs gag ST | 0300-T
=p i= |) pee |) ee =" 176i) ese pe oy ( Mie
SS | SCOR) Sue, | Faz: |an = QT | OGIT-T
— |—!| Te9.| — ee — |= = 6 | SE20-T
=) |) 1 eon | Gui l caconllner = QT | S190-T
— =| = | Wee." | dee | garouier = GT | LIg0-T
— |—|»re9-| — = came = 6 | 1810-1
OT —| = | Og | ex =a (ten =. 91 | 3900-1
2. | eee! gen.) | see me can a || et
9s | —| — | 088 | 828 | oFz0-| gt == a
gal. | — | — | 96 | 906 | OFz0-| ST = ed et
a | aml (ie I'l] O's Sn Ns = a
OLi—| = | aor | oe en OT oe Salt nes
== F—:| = | dear |) see Toei! = Soi eS
966-T] —| — | 8401] 6o00t | — | gt = ie
686. [— | — | Teor | oor | — | er a se
98% |} — | — | 660T| seot | — | gt = — Pe
== he 4 ROLE sg0t. ly 6n = S| nae
= L—| — Peet. dean) == eee == coalle eae
= t=] — | Tere reson 1 see 2x =o
"910-1L “OSEN F ‘olnoapoyy oumrery quepeamby
‘ALVHdITNAg WOIdOg
shall esses )-e8b ck sp60 = POT ile Lae ST | 98TO-T
Sc =. ot BOS ole Oe et ORT QT | $600-T
seaatee! Weemkt Oca aN — AOP | SOD GI | St00-T
we Bah es ae One — | Edge ST | 8100-1
hc tal el eo GLE €610-| 81 E866 oa oa
Se rel eS ly LIP G610-' 8T L806 ST | GE9L-T
9000-
6000:
T000-
90000-
60000:
T0000.
a.
GG
Q6I-
9690.
0-9
0-
Sgé-
G16:
TL0-
96F0-
GF LO:
TL00-
96400:
SF 100:
TL000-
96F000-
6¥ 1000:
TL0000-
REPORT—1893.
178
—! — | 9000. | 9800.
"61 ‘A “xI]O “Joa "70u €8z0-| 02 | #99 Roh) — |) | Baul | Zee secant i 1) om
-uy ‘bbog ‘Bunidg , | 89z0-| 06 | 29FL |[STL8- | — | — | GLOT | STOT set eel ee = 6000: 6100-
— |—| — — |—]| — | 6601 | *E0T eae 1/80 = a 1000- 9000:
‘961 ‘d — |-—-|] — = | = | OPE QeOr eee 2 Sloe sss 90000- 96000:
‘IAXK "[OA "20UU}7 — |— = SS Ga ae Ol See = = FF 60000: 61000:
‘pay ‘“qosnelgoy,! — | — = eh | Searle S00 | eo 75 v oF T0000: 90000-
‘980-09 “OS3IN ¥ ‘emmosTo]T oMUIeIH quoTeAtnby
‘ELVHAING WAISENDVN
= |= = — |—| — | 1e0t| o26 91 <= == = F¥E00- ELF0-
"699 ‘d ‘XxX ‘JOA — |— - — |—]| — | g201 |] OTOT SS i3iit = = = 69100- €9Z0-
‘OUoy, YP “PvIOF 2 S~ _— Tn OO — 480 aaa aaa ae 08000: FZ10-
jap Way “TayyUeDTA ;! — | — = i) a GSTS OG cae iz = —— 94000: TL00-
‘6-691 “OS*Sy © ‘ofnoopo emMEIH yusyeaAMby
‘ELVHAIAG WAATIS
= |= = — |—| — | goe 182 0FZ0:| 8T — = = 0-8 —.
rt ee = — |= | — | 01 98 LEZ0-| 8T — 9-81| QF#0-T 0-1 13S
‘gg ‘d ‘A ‘JOA =| = — |—/| — || 709 PLP 9820-| ST = ae = g. LG
‘aymayy yh ing = ee | tee — |—| 69-| — = a | ae +e 6ST- —
pfuoyosqvag ‘IOUSeM y| — | — = S| es 1¢9 = _ |) Git = = = I- Sta.
Cee == = || Weep | —= = = || =z — = 60: —
"C6Z = |= = — |—]| — | SPL TOL | (St = . = 0. 91
‘d ‘1 ‘JOA ‘aywayp — |0-98| 218 Ose! oe ESE GhL = eS = = = €0: GOT
‘yshyg ng prujas — |0-9¢| 196 ol — 7) — W088 SIs GPGO-| ST = ae = 10: Gg0-
paz “‘smueyIys| — |0-93| 920T oz. | — | — | 268 FS = Pat = a = 900- $¢0
— 10-92] ,690I | gal. |} —]| — | 16 688 = — | a = = i 00- TIO
‘008 =| = = — |'—| — | 996 906 — | 81 = = = 100. 9S00-
‘d ‘Mx ‘JOA "ypu — |— — — |—| — | 926 816 == || Bi — = = 9000: €00
-wy “parm ‘eyosuy ,) — |9-L1] s6TL OT} —| — | 966 1&6 == | eit = = = 000: T100
= |= = — |—| — | F00L | ¢t6 SS eae = == = 1000: ¢¢000
‘961 ‘d — || — = — |—!| — | 6001 | 0g6 — Pcie = = <= 90000- €¢000
‘IAXX "[OA "20UUW So | = — |—| — | 6001} 0og6 = | S81 — = = Z0000- 11000:
‘pam “Gosneyoy | — | — = = Hei! == || R007 | per6 ame eck = 7 = T0000. | ¢90000.
“909.99 “Os rT © ‘otnoojoyy emMUIVIN queTeanby
‘ALVHAIAS WOIHLIT
179
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
"€9G "d'x]0 ‘oA you
up ‘bbog ‘weyor ,
"G66
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“07 = =6‘sntueyiry ,
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"ggg ‘d‘ta0 "10a “gnu
up “bbog ‘fx10411TT ;
‘961 ‘d
‘TAXX "[OA "20UUR
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"ge ‘da ‘joa
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“S66
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“FOZ ‘SnIUOYIIY ¢
"B8E ‘d ‘TA0 ‘Toa "ypu
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‘60T ‘d ‘t ‘Toa
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T¥E0-
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116
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REPORT
180
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09-36€
18:93
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88-46
99-86
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69-36
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09:91
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69700-
98-€
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98-66
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181
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
‘P6F
‘d ‘a ‘JOA ‘anuayp
‘ywhy gy ung pfvuyos
“2207 ~=‘“WSAOYSIOAA ;
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“966
‘d ‘I ‘Joa ‘away
‘ywshyg mfpfrsyas
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‘96T
‘d ‘traox ‘[oa "70u
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"689 ‘d ‘xx ‘Toa
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6840+
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1893
REPORT
82
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46:66
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20:96
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80-9
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183
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
096 IV z
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185
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
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REPORT
188
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191
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192
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198
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Moyet || —|—| = | 2 PE) = lo |) Be 93| ¥69 |—}| — aT80- GFE:
BR | whsyosnaz ‘xoydoy s| — | oe] een =) | Mrcaedl emma 22)" = = Ila CLL 9910. QLI-
*o$GIVc| — | 96] 868 Ge le cee SO = = | is 9-FL =, = 8200: 9180-
‘OOT “d "t “joa — | 92] 068 G3. || — Inge = = sae Dae | 6800: 8EF0-
‘anuaya yrshyq inf aie 3 | 680T |e9Z1- | —| — | ate oe re e6s |—| — 26100: 6120:
Pouosqraz “premyso ,| — | — =) = 1698 = = |96 tL-18 = an: 926000- OTTO.
‘FO-1T ‘PNOOOH(HO)0*HO “Tnoe,oyy oummMery yuopeamby
‘ALVIOVT WAIdOG
Som ae |Pae =u aaa! soe iene = maallee 6:88 ag a G1E0- 00F-
fOSGHEVes} | a lhe == earn lemma 6] )AD(53 io == ae 6-16 = a 9ST0. 006-
= lee — = et) eR OOL =a Fy [926 8-6 == =e 8200- OoT-
"€OT ‘d ‘t ‘Joa = SS = Se Se DEO a ime (sks 9-16 = = 6£00- 0g0-
‘aymayg yrshyg inf i = a Aa al ae GOOD =k Tre eae 6-66 =e = 96100: 960:
PwyIspaz ‘P[eajso ,| — | — == lee GOL = ee 19-60T | — =e 916000. SZT0-
N ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-
"SL-821 “MOOOH(HO)O°HO ‘eTMoopoyY om yuapeamby
‘ALVLOVT WOISSVLOg
0
=» 93.) 728 1 Se | (os — €010-T | g. OGF-F
— Ssdcaleugue g |—| — | 8 — 6900-1 G3. 683-2
— ecraleert OT 9. f — | — | eGay — 9600:T | Sat. GZ1-T
"6FL ‘d “Tt ‘Toa — | 96} GSOIT begat }—| — | gat — —
| aan “yslhicr ang als — heigl imma
1893.
REPORT
202
"TLE ‘Cd ‘TA0 “TOA “29%
up “bbog ‘J104}1H 5
‘0g ‘d “Ttxx
‘Joa ‘anuyg ap
sayvUuUp ‘4oleq}IE_ ¢
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‘Joa ‘60noqs029q
aS 9p = ="pvey
ap alwwayy ‘Zue'y x
‘OST
‘d ‘IA ‘[OA “2pUU_
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‘6F ‘d ‘WIxx
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ap auowayy ‘ZUaT z
3 2 ee ne a a - * ia ie pes eee
— —_ |;> oo 80) — 0. 0 6-F6
Stas |e =a | PORE “ia — | 06 $:86
poet ee i Pei a ae inca L-S0T
=n he ||) “S198 EL ro — | 06 6 6-80L
So Uae |) a eae 982 Sar AP ASI 89€
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Se fo oll ee OG: 8F8 Tf SSh 901
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momma) | Sarena (3 am = cae Nee a
Se ea eee OR. 09 £060: | 8ST 696
aay | a Palin| 05 889 6060: | 81 889
Sa ae h aee IRSES 9FL F160: | 81 1 SL&
"EL-€8 “CHOOO) F ‘oMMos[oTY OMNI yueTearmby
‘ALVIVXO WAISSVLOg
om haa el) MBLe GE ms aa alee OIL
Ge) | eel ee ELL! ras == EUG 6IT
ae wh ee oe | ODT = = POG 861
en Se |) 2? EE == == 506 aa!
Seay a) at eae = asl OG s98T
Ssh sae §TL —|PSik 0:998
<a || Saale Pen 618 ae. || tl! L-616
ett cama ete Oats MOSOIT > lls €-T&1
| Pa Ral |p valica ere Sie 28-SL
Oat et USES = Se SIG L41
eee | eeara|| Mowe rete — GFIO- | 96 6-L1
Sa |e |-806 ee man eee 1:46
St) | Tegel Sere eth! = em al eto F:96
Sone ae WIESKSIE Se. oma |e L-0€
"gt “CHOOO) F ‘MooPO oumVrH yuetearuby
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203.
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
“oGG FV s
‘PP d xx
‘JOA ‘anuyg ap
savUUP “yoleuyqeg ;
‘ere ‘d
‘TIXEX ‘[OA ‘a2wayp
Inf "Mor “P[BAISO 1
“096 WV
‘68 “d ‘Wixx
‘OA ‘avy ap
sayvuup “4o[eyyteg z
‘org “d
“MXXX "[OA ‘away
nf “Mop “pTesqso ;
‘BSI ‘HOOO'H’O ‘eTNooToW[ ouUMVAH yuoeTeAInby
‘dINVY OLOZNAG
61g
€89
€96
PGGL
L98T
FrIG
8L
FIL
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666
60¢
GGP
L9G
LPL
€16
O&ZGL
1ST
181
sOVIG
8:06
0:66
FFP
26:09
06:9
06-2
S6-6
9-81
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9:56
tL-1E
Pea ys
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g9T0-T
€800-T
6F00-T
9100-T
Set lll
To:
900:
600:
T000-
9ST0-
8100-
6800:
6100.
916000:
887000.
¥¥G000-
GG:
GGT-
9690
G1E0-
99T0-
8200:
6€00-
S6100-
9Z6000-
884000-
F¥G000-
Gol:
190:
tFC0-
66100:
O6T:
960:
gLF0-
830:
6110.
96900.
86200.
OST.
gL0-
0€0-
9TO-
€00-
S100:
96-L
69-€
98-T
PEG:
89F-
PEs:
LIT:
g8g0-
6660-
9F10-
€100-
99€00-
68100:
REPORT—1893.
204
TIXXX ‘Joa ‘a2may9
"OGG TV z
‘ope “d
inf ‘nor ‘pP[eMAyso ;
‘096 IV s
"68 ‘d ‘1Ixx
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sayvuup “yojeyyleg z
‘ope 'd
*TIXXX “OA ‘a22Way)D
mf "nor “pleAyso ,
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‘08 ‘d “tIxx
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savuup “jojeyyteg z
pre
‘IIXXX "[OA ‘a2uway)
nf “Mor “pyerqso , |
ec
|
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iz 6GOT
'8S1 ‘HOOOCHO)'H’) ‘emmoopoyY ouUIBIH yuopeainby
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°
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699
F66
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816
| LI6L
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6€0T
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698
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030.
020:
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96
96
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96
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SET ‘HOOO(HO)'H') ‘eMosjoyy ouUeIy quopeamnby
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19-99
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‘dINV OVIAOTIVS
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916000-
884000:
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6£00-
96100.
926000:
884000-
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10:
g00-
9200:
100:
9ST0-
8100:
6800:
S6T00-
926000-
887000-
F¥G000-
205
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
rn
“oS Vz
"sre ‘d
‘IIXEX "OA ‘arwayD
inf "Nor “PTBA4SO {
09 Vz
"14E -d
*IIXXX "OA ‘a21Uay9
inf “MOL “PTRAISO 1
‘JOA
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6906
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93
93
96
6-86
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8-9F
19-49
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gog
169
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96
96
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|
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6816
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861
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689
94
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‘dI0V OIOZNAZOULINOHLYO
0) a a a
S6T00-
916000:
884000-
$¥6000-
99T0-
8200:
600:
g6100-
926000:
887000:
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G1&0-
9ST0-
8400:
6£00-
¢6100-
916000:
884000:
¥*G000-
T0-
900-
gz00-
100:
ZIE0-
9910:
8200:
9660:
69 10-
T800-
sOF00-
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6910:
T800-
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Téa:
096-
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g90-
SG€0-
6910:
1800:
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SéT-
690-
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916.
801:
1893.
REPORT
206
"683d TTX [OA "79%
“UP “PAM “TEYOSNyY »
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‘joa ‘bunoqs.iajag
SS 98 PROV)
ap aLwwayy ‘ZUa'T ¢
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*TITXXX "TOA ‘2UWayp
inf “Mor *pT[eM4so z
‘961 ‘d
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‘pai = “qosneiTqoyy 1
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ung “ano “PYRAISO 1
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nf “nop “PTEAASO 1
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|
— | 9681 | STLT
6E2 |) S= =
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GPL. | — s
= | GEDGA) P986r
— | PLIG | 8FCG
— | 6066 | 8206
— | 8966 | F616
— | 9166 | TI¥I@
— | $l66 | OFTS
— | §6o | OTS
— | $066 | 2106
— T10Z | G68L
— | S6ZT | 689T
—= | 29ST PLFT
== 868 9F8
=— | hel LLPL
‘HLVUGAH OISSVLOg
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— 1 9%6 ik
= |P2A97 a
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9G
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lel delet
— | 9F@T =
= SO9T a
ax 8106 cae
ca TES eS
— | F616 =
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9-13
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6:19
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9100-
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207
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
"PAU
plik -. &
‘gge ‘d
“MIXXX [OA ‘away
inf “dno “pyBA4soC ;z
‘OST
‘d ‘IA ‘Joa “youu
‘yosner[Tqoy |
|
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106
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198
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18ST
LELT
O6T
699
918
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88FI
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See le 0-906 | ST
Se SG L016 | —
= SG F-G1G | —
Sean tGG G16 | —
eG L916 | —
——t HG Late | —
at Melb 29-16 | —
69F0-| 8T 968T| ST
| 9960-| 8T 69GE | ST
T¥3d0:| SI P9GE | ST
1660: | 81 OZ0E | ST
6060: | 81 L¥¥FG | ST
6610-| 8T 88FI} QT
F6IO-! 8ST tLT8 | ST
‘F0-0F ‘HO®N “eTnoe [oy amMeIH YUoTVAIMbA
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F68T
8606
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0606
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6906
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se Aci! 98L | ST
cagey All OU 80% | ST
re ihe! 666 (| ST
a i tilt OTS | QT
5S ST CD) Bis i as
om le! 89-8 <a
i GS 6-866 al
cad G6 L-0&3 =
= SE 9-2E6 3
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= 9G 28-866 ral
€1Z0-| 8T a ST
40Z0-| 8T aad ST
HOH) UD eT
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£690: 8FG-
61€0- PG1-
9910- 6690:
8100: TT€0-
6600: SSTO0-
| $6100. L100:
| £26000: 98¢00-
OT 0
“G 6L-9T
F 18-§T
€ 89-01
G 996-2
‘T 868-E
q. F96-1
{38- LOF-F
GIF: 6GL6-G
906- 9FT-T
LEGT- Lg8-
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9T80- LOF-
F3F0- 8&6-
g €tL:3
GG. 988-1
GGT- 169:
9690- oge-
6TE0- GLT-
99T0- 9180.
8200: 8EF0-
06€00- 6120-
g6100- 60TO0-
926000- $900-
‘OT €8-66
686
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inf “NOP “PTBAISO ,
REPORT—1893.
"683d “HIx "TOA "7pUu
“UY PIA ‘TOYOSVYL y
‘IAXX
‘Toa ‘hunoqs.wazaq
WS 8p. prov)
ap alouwayy ‘ZUa'T 5
208
‘20-66 ‘HOVT ‘eTnosjoyy emery quepeamby
°
‘F0-0F ‘HO®N ‘oTMooTO]Y oMUMVIH yuoTeAINby
LLOT
me RA!
Se seek
—|Gsu8r
— || 668r
— | L66I
mh thelailt
— || Leer
— | ST6éT
F901 | Z0Z0:
G61 | 9610:
88ST | T610-
aa F610
‘ALVYdAH WOTHLIT
Te elt al
we eves!
> eval
ss | CONSE
= Epo
— | O€8T
Sans )| Meee
— | 688T
LES.) tae
mi ANTS)
008: | —
mae | Sui
== GOST
+ &P8- Sar
F6EL ia
6LST =
T69T =
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TLLT ie
6GLT Fy
O9LT oF
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‘panuyuooI—ALVEGAH OLAOg
96
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8-61
9-661
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6-206
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1-406
9190-T
9860-1
OSTO-T
T610-T
FL00-1
9900-1
6600-1
LE6Z-T
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FIG:
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LIT:
6090+
6180:
¥80-1
q.
986.
96.
GéT-
10) ©
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919-6
FLG-T
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986:
S6F-
209
ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY.
._. 2ersd = || = = = |=} = eeL 069 SRLS = = — 90000: | Z0T000-
(Mx 10k, ou ee | = |} == FPL 00L radi s = oe = 20000: | #§0000-
Pam “qosneqoy,;| — | — = = ake s6¢ | 1099 SSeS — = = T0000: | 210000. &
‘FO-LT “HN ‘eno (OW emmy yuaTeAIMbA
“VINOWAYV
= |= = | | hey aac Seale 9a 9-061 | — = 6180: SIT:
096 Vz) — | — = aii | fs ie tlie oT hoa 6-006 | — = 9910: 9190:
4 = |= = — || ete => = ge €-606 | — = 8200- 8820:
peat d = |= = a | le ial Cals = a oe F-§16 | — = 6£00: FFTO-
HPEEE "JOA ‘ope = |= = || —") |) (OS = = kor #913 | — = G6100- 6100:
inf “inor “pyeaysg ,| — | — = —— || 4] = eer = = ioe 1G816 | — = 916000: 9600:
‘ze “(HO)eO ¢ ‘eIMosToW ouMMeLIH queteAMby
‘ALVACAH WAIITVOD
at —_ — 1—| — | tz0z — — |Z L061 | — — 6290: BLE:
See ial Jos = =e al oa0e = ea 9-961 | — = B1€0: 681:
ts Nh |) = | = = ||] = |) eae = == |e G-208 | — = 9STO- SF60-
— |— = S| | Sete] en I Elche “= | hs 0-608 | — = 8200: GL¥O-
198 “d Seal Pe = Sa | | eee Beta Nes = || Khe agit || — = 6800: 9820:
“HIXEX [OA ‘away | ae aa || eH lets = = |i ee Sele | — — G6 L00- S110:
ing “Mor ‘pyeayso ,} — | — = S| a Mitte = — |g 13-608 | — = 916000- 6200:
"EL.09 “CHO)aS § ‘ofMospo emmy yusTeamnby
‘ALVUGAH WAILNOULY
Pps es esse: Se |) hee — jae i ele oe: ga: ae
mae || ee = SY | ee = — | 9% 6-81 | — = GZI- =
— | =e Sa I aioe a = ee €-361 | — = 9290: Gea:
— tr S|) Se ee =e == |) eg 0-106 | — ad 61g0- 99%:
ee | ae = ee sched ze = |e €013 | — = 9ST0- €&I-
— — — — — — G6ZS — _ Gs 6-916 | — =e 8200- ¢990-
198 ‘d = | = = S| | eee = == ee TECH = 6g00- S880: log
eek eee) = ks <= pee | | lee <= eS 8-616 | — — S6T00- 9910- |
inf “dmor “pyesysQ ,{ — | — We —: [los legoue — =, le 1F816 | — = 916000: €800- [4
‘2-98 “CHO)ea F ‘omMospo]Y eummery yuopeamby
- ‘aLVUGAH WAlyg
REPORT—1893.
210
“98 91V:| — |— car = ge
sats | tig Sa = Teg = :
09g ‘d — |— = ales | sOee me oan alee 8-49 me 1 6800: ra)
“TIXEE ‘TOA 90way) — |— — —— | — 006 =e =) HAS L-48 = = S6100- 1900-
inf “snore “pyeayso,| — | — == = s/s — BP = — |96! 10-80T = = 926000: 90600-
‘FO-TS “HN'HO ‘NOs POW SuUTETH JuepeArnby
| ‘TNIWVIAHLG
|
Ss ee a Se = =] = 1 S2 = = “ide 9F-T = z g. 98:
— |-— _ SS, | rd = NGG OL-3 = = 93. SGF-
—|j-}| —- — |—| — | ze = — ee) TOe at GCI: BIS
=| — |—| — | o — — | ce|. 284 = eae $290: 9OT-
a Wes = ee Nee |r] 99 aad se ese §1-9 —< sas G10: £90:
— |— = a alle G6 a ae 1:8 = ae 9910. 9920.
ee | = ld ce GEl ar = ae FOL = = 8L00- 6 10-
= || a = Fi 68T a — 1382 6-L1 = <= 6600- 9900.
| a = ti en FLG =F — | 19% 8-96 = = S6100- €§00-
—|-| - — |]—| — |seee} — — |9¢| 2oze |—]| — | 926000 ¢9T00-
—|-| - — |—| — {es g — | ST re s/s ‘OT ox
—|-—| —- — |]-—| — |92 | +2 — | SI 7 =| = g ST
ee il = eal lore e-€ — 588i aa 9T | 9216 ‘§ 63-9
= 2d — am = = 6-8 r8 — ST == 9T | 8666 ‘T TL-T
ea (ER SF ance (amr all ees ales GI fl = 5 a Q. G8.
aie | Ae oy, ae | aan ea €§ 1é == Wet i cae am I LI-
—_ =— — = —_ — OF eF _ SI ms = = co- 80-
= |= = == | = 69 0g a al 480: T = a 60: TSO:
= = | oe 86 G6 — ieiail FP 3 ae TO: L10
‘oS FV sc) = | — = = i_=—| = EEL 9IT ap} esl TR —s aa 900- 0} (0)
= |= = = = = G03 O6T ae [ent au ar a 600: F800
“gece ‘d =— |= — = | re OLE 096 a> | 8i mT = =a 100: L100:
*TITXXX "JOA ‘92W9Y == == —— | | a ee 1g€ O&€ lh tet im =x = 9000 G0100
ung ‘nope ‘pyemyso z| — | — = = |= | T&é¢ 00g — je = = = 6000 ¥£000
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214 REPORT—1893.
Investigation of the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan. Thirteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of
the Rt. Hon. Lord KeELvin, Professor W. G. Apams, Mr. J. T.
BotrtoMuey, Professor A. H. GREEN, Professor C. G. KNoTT,
and Professor JoHN MILNE (Secretary). (Drawn wp by the
Secretary.)
Tue Gray-Mitne SrIsmoGRAPH.
THe first of the above seismographs, constructed in 1883, partly at
the expense of the British Association, still continues to be used as the
standard instrument at the Central Observatory in Tokio.
I am indebted to Mr. K. Kobayashi, the Director of the Observatory,
for the following table of its records :—
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at the Central Meteorological Observatory in Tokio
between May 1892 and April 1893.
Maximum Maximum
Period and | Period and
Amplitude of |Amplitude of
; ical | Nature
No. | Month } Date Time Duration Direction Homa Wee of
Shock
secs. | mm. | secs. | mm.
1892.
H. M. 8S. M. S. |
1,241 Ve 3 1 18 53 a.m. 1 3 E.-W. og 02 a= — slow
1,242 “5 5 3 10 49 P.M. — — feeble —_ — _
1,248 is 11 6 48 51 a.m. 0 45 W.N.W.-E.S.E. | 0:1 0:2 slijght quick
1,244 os 12 2 36 54 P.M. — slight _ = = =
1,245 a8 18 741 1PM, _ — very slight _ —_ =
1,246 = 20 7 17 42 aM. _ _— very slight _ _ =
1,247 3 24 9 110 PM. _— — very slight _— _ —
1 248) VI. 3 4 23 46 AM. — — slight _ _ _
1,249] ,, » | 7 987A] 730 | ESE-W.N.W.| 20 284 | 08 | aa{} TOS,
1,250 o 3 135 OPM. — _ slight _ _ _
1,251 s 5 110 3 PM. — -= very slight _ _— _—
1,252 = 8 9 312 a.m. _ — slight — — _—
1,253] ,, 10 252 44 a.M. = = slight = esd =
1,254 ~ 15 0 45 33 P.M. = — slight _ = —
1,255 = 19 737 +O pM. — — slight — — _—
1,256 is 28 | 11 29 36 pM. = = slight =H) = =
1,257 x 30 6 13 20 P.M. — = slight = | =
1,258} VII. 3 1 9 26a.m. _— _ very slight | — — _
1-250] mee 5 7 20 56 P.M. = = slight —- | — =
1,260 9 6 2 58 16 a.m 1 30 E-W. slight _ _— slow
1261| ,, 20 310 6 A.M 130 | NN.W-SSE. | 09 0:4 =— |= .
1,262 ae > 6 11 10 a.m. 3 20 N.N.W.-S8.8.E. | 0°8 07 -- —
1,263 = <3 8 29 41 A.M. _ — very slight _ _ _—
1,264 » ” 11 31 44 a.m. 10 S.-N. slight —_ — slow
’ e very
1,265 Pe ey 2 9 52 P.M, 2 30 S.-N. slight = —{ slow.
1,266 * 21 0 56 46 A.M. — _ very slight — _ —
1,267 eS 23 9 19 39 P.M. — = slight = _ _
1,268 Xe 24 0 11 21 a.m. = = slight =e =
1269} ,, 26 9 22 25 a.m. = = very slight | — | — —
1,270 sy 27 10 20 42 a.m. 1 30 N.N.W.-S.S.E. | 08 08 very | slight} slow
1,271 ms 29 | 7 0 3PM. = a slight a =
1,272} VIII. 20 2 29 29 a.m. — — slight _ —_ _—
1,278 28 | 1019 1 PM. 1 30 E-W. slight _ —_ slow
1,274] IX. 4 10 7 43 a.m. _ _ very slight _ _ _—
1,275 y 7 5 41 57 am, 3 20 S.E.-N.W. 17 ld _ — slow
- oo -—e = «
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 215
CATALOGUE OF HARTHQUAKES—continued.
Maximum | Maximum
Period and | Period and
Amplitude of |Amplitude of
Horizontal Vertical | Nature
No. | Month | Date Time Duration Direction Motion Motion of
hoe:
secs. | mm. | secs, | mm.
H. M. 8. M. S.
1,276| IX. 11 9 31 47 P.M —_ — very slight — _ —
N77 | 55 13 | 11 29 42 p.m 2 0 | ESE-W.N.W.] 04° 26 | 03 | 03 | quick
1,278 ‘A 15 2 57 28 P.M _ _ very slight — — —
16979.| "|, 17 | 11 51 40 a.m ~ — very slight | — | — me
1,280| 18 1 34 17 aM = = very slight | — | — =
1,281 - 1 2 6 314M os _— very slight — — —_
1,282 a 3 9 21 36 AM a _ very slight _ — —
1,283 “ 6 0 50 32 a.m — _ very slight | — — J
1,284 - 7 0 23 37 A.M — _— very slight as — —
1,285 a 8 1 35 54 P.M 0 20 E-W. 03 0-2 _— — | quick
1,286 s 14 7 54 46 P.M _— _— very slight — — —
1,287 = 19 053 9 PM _ = very slight _ = —
1,288 oF 21 7 28 26 P.M — _ slight — — —
1,289 = 22 7 954 PM — _ slight —_— —_— —_—
1,290 s 25 | 10 11 38 pM = — slight — — _
U30T). A 5. 27 31 4PM = = slight ed =
1,292) XI. 5 1 48 53 A.M, 0 40 E.-W. 1:2 04 _— i slow
wos | 15 |} 11 6 2pm. = = feeble ie as
1,294 s 16 4 25 44 P.M _ _ feeble _ _ _
1,295 o 21 | 10 37 53 PM. 2 30 8.E.-N.W. 03 07 0-2 | 02 | quick
1,296} XII. 6 3 30 22 a.m —_ — slight — — =
YA aaa |) See EE ET N.S. 10 06 — | — | slow
1,298 a e 71 9PM 1 30 S.-N. slight — — -
1,299 3 9 8 1 lam 1 30 S.E.-N.W. 0-4 slilght quick
1,300 a » | 10 43 57am 2 40 E.S.E.-W.N.W. | 15 15 — — slow
1,301 = 10 | 10 0 464.m a — slight — — —
1,302 aa 11 1 34 39 A.M. 2 30 W.S.W.-E.N.E. | 1:1 itil ~ — slow
1,303 + 12 2 56 57 P.M — _— very slight _ — —;
1,304 iu 24 2 12 31 P.M. _ — slight _ _ —
1893.
1,305 18 3 0 35 25 P.M. 1 30 N.W.-S.E. 0:5 0°6 04 0:2 quick
1,306] —,, 8 | 54027PM.} 230 | W.N.W-ES.E./ 03 35 | 03 | 0-9 a
1,307 + 16 | 10 37 18 pM — = very slight | — — —
1,308 5 20 8 10 21 A.M. — _ slight _ —_ —
1,309 a 23 1 7 52 PM — _ slight _— _ _
1,310 11 6 46 31 a.m 10 E-W. slight — — | quick
1,311 5 17 7 13 594M 0 50 E.-W. 3 0°6 slijght a
1,312 a 19 1 39 52 A.M _ _ very slight _ — _—
1,313 “A 21 248 34.M. — _— very slight _ _ —
1,314) III. 6 8 52 18 4.M 3 20 E.S.E.-W.N.W. | 0°6 ey 03 | O02 | quick
1,315 re 17 9 6 314M 1.20, E-W. 0-2 03 slilght =
1,316 + 24 5 4 52am 3 30 N.E.-S.W. 13 0-6 — — slow
1,317 2” 26 7 47 21 PM — _ very slight — — —_—
1,318 ch 3 8 27 52 P.M — — very slight _ — —
1319; Iv. 7 33 11 A.M. — E-W. slight _ — —
1,320 3 5 1 8 46 P.M. IN0 E,-W. slight — — | quick
1,321 = 9 821 6PM. _— E.-W. slight _— — —
1,322 3 19 | 11 22 26 pm — _ slight — = —
On THE Movements or HorizontaL PENDULUMS.
In a report to this Association in 1881 reference was made to the
observation of earth-tremors which it was thought might be connected
with the occurrence of earthquakes. The analysis of records obtained
during succeeding years showed that the surmise was without foundation.
In 1883 an account was given of experiments with various forms of
tromometers and delicate levels. The Report for 1884 contained further
notes on the observations of earth-pulsations and earth-tilting. In 1885
216 REPORT—1893.
an instrument was described which gave a continuous record of tremors
and deflections of the vertical, and reference was made to earth-waves
which had a period of from fifteen to sixty minutes. The Reports for
1887 and 1888 formulated certain laws respecting the occurrence of earth
tremors or pulsations. Full accounts of all this work have been published
in the ‘ Transactions of the Seismological Society.’ Last year I described
to this Association a method for the investigation of earth-pulsations and
earth-tilting, which consisted in making a continuous photographic record
of the spots of light reflected from mirrors carried by two horizontal
pendulums. These pendulums, which swing in planes at right angles to
each other, are each made from a piece of aluminium wire, 60 mm. in
length, tipped with a needle point resting in an agate cup. This is held
in a horizontal position by means of a quartz fibre. When adjusted so
that the period of swing is from five to six seconds, I find that a deflection
of the spot of light upon the recording film of 1 mm. with one instrument
corresponds to a tilting of 0°54”, and with the other instrument of 0°68”.
The distance of the lamp and film from the mirrors, which are arranged
to swing one above the other, is 3 feet.
When describing this instrament in 1892 I referred to it as being
new. In this I was mistaken, as similar arrangements have been used in
Potsdam and other places by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz (see ‘ Der.
Ksl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher,’ Band LX.
No. 1). In Japan the primary object of the observations was to obtain
continuous records of earth-waves (tremors), with the result that with
these records the records of other phenomena like those of earth-tilting
were found. In Potsdam the cycle of observations was reversed, the
primary object being to record small changes in the vertical, with the
unavoidable result that distant earthquakes, tremors, and other phenomena
were also recorded.
The pendulums I have used have been exceedingly light, and intended
to follow the movements impressed upon them by a succession of earth-
wayes.
The pendulums of Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz were comparatively heavy,
and were adjusted to move with periods of from twelve to eighteen
seconds.
The results obtained in December and January last are described in
detail in the ‘ Seismological Journal,’ whilst that which has been done
between February and April is briefly as follows :—
Daily Tilting.
Almost every day the records show that the spots of light have been
displaced in a direction which would correspond with a displacement
should the N.E. or N.N.E. side of the column on which the pendulums
stand be gently raised, and then gently but rather more quickly lowered.
Occasionally the tilting is from the north, the pendulum in the meridian
which records the east and west motion remaining stationary.
The movement commences about 7 P.M., and continues steadily up to
about 7 or 8 A.M. From this to about 10 a.m. there is a quick return
to the normal position, where it remains until evening. The amount of
tilting which would produce these deflections is from 2” to 10’. The
average, as shown in the diagram, is about 4’.
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 217
Fia. 1.—Average daily N.E.-S.W. tilting of a stone column in Tokio, February
and March 1893.
a
Nonf 2345 678 9WMHWN?i 23 ¢ 5 6 7 8 F 10 lNom
The following table is a comparison of the movements observed by
Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz and those observed in Tokio :—
Movements of Pendulums Wilhelmshaven Potsdam Teneriffe Tokio
Completion of Easterly move- 2 P.M. 3.30 P.M. 3 to 4 P.M. 7 P.M.
ment (EH. sunk)
Completion of Westerly move- 4or 5 AM. 8 A.M. 9 A.M. 8 A.M,
ment (E. risen)
Amplitude of motion . . . | 1/44 to 4-32 0/14 to 113 | 0/95 to 0/04 4’ to 10”
Effects of Changes in Temperature.
The tests which have been applied to determine the effects produced
by a change in temperature have been severe. After closing all doors a
stove which stands about 3 feet distant from the 8.W. corner of the
column has been lighted, and the temperature raised, for example, from
49° F. to 85° F. This took three hours, and during this time the corner
of the column became sensibly warm to the hand. All was then allowed
to cool. The effect as shown upon the photographic trace and partly
by other instruments upon the column was that about half-an-hour after
lighting the fire the N.H. side of the column very quickly sank, indicating
a tilting from S.W. to N.E. of 2”. After this it sank until an amplitude
of 6’ was reached. Here itremained for several hours, and then gradually
rose. This, it will be observed, is a result that can be obtained by a
change of temperature of 36° F.
Undoubtedly temperature effects exist in the records I have taken ; but
as it has often happened that the change in temperature during twenty-
four hours inside my observatory has not been more than 4° F., while
the daily movements have exceeded that which I obtain by a change of
36° F., I cannot attribute the movements I observe to fluctuations in
atmospheric temperature in the vicinity of the column.
To determine how far slow and regular changes in temperature may
modify the diagrams will be a subject for future investigation.
218 REPORT—1893.
Barometrical Effects.
On the soft, marshy ground near Wilhelmshaven, Dr. von Rebeur-
Paschwitz observes that a change in the vertical of +’ corresponds to a
change of 1 mm. in barometrical pressure ; in fact, the district behaves as
if it were the vacuum chamber of an aneroid. In Tokio the effects are
not so pronounced, yet in many instances a N.N.H. tilting has corre-
sponded with a rise in the barometer. On two or three days when the
barometrical changes have been small the daily movements have been
small, but there are other instances where the daily movement has
continued and the barometer has been steady. In the smaller movements,
and in the few cases where the direction of one component of the daily
movement has been reversed, there does not appear to be any connection
with the barometer.
Mr. T. Wada, of the Meteorological Observatory, tells me that the daily
maximum and minimum barometrical changes vary with the season, the
yearly average being as follows :—
_ Minimum Maximum | Minimum Maximum
H. M. H. M. | H. M. H. M.
For North Japan. 54) eos SS 9 OAM. 2 5PM. ce ct i
For South Japan. een AG. 9 24M. | 3 2PM. | 10 1PM.
Those which are italicised are the most pronounced. In winter there
are two other periods, viz. :—
_ Minimum Maximum
H. M. H. M.
For North Japan . A - . 0 5AM, 2 3AM.
For South Japan. - : 5 O 5AM. 1 7AM.
I have not observed any change accompanying these periods.
Possible Relationship with Magnetic Movements.
The relationship between the movements of the pendulums and the
daily changes in magnetic declination suggests the idea that the pheno-
mena which are being observed are not altogether unconnected with
magnetic influences.
In Tokio the declination is farthest west about 2 p.m., and farthest
east at 8 a.M.; that is to say, when the magnetic needle is farthest
east the north end of a north south boom of my instrument is farthest
west. That the movements of the horizontal pendulums and those of a
magnetic needle take place at the same time but in opposite directions
has also been observed by Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz in Potsdam and
Wilhelmshaven. In my instrument the pivot, which is a steel needle point
8 mm. in length, is pivoted at its southern end.
Geological Structure and Direction of Movements.
A very significant fact, possibly connecting the observed movements
with geological structure, is that the N.E. or N.N.E. direction of tilting
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 2]9%
is at right angles to a well-defined axis of rock crnmpling, which shows
itself in the N.W. to S.H. strike of the mountains some thirty miles
distant, and which line of folding probably continues beneath the plain of
Tokio.
Another point not to be overlooked is that the direction of earth-
quake motion across the Tokio plain is in the majority of cases also at.
right angles to the direction of mountain strike. During the next
summer I shall endeavour to instal horizontal pendulums on the rocks
themselves, one of them parallel to the dip and the other at right angles
to this direction.
Irregular Movements.
It often happens that superimposed upon the daily wave there are
sinuosities with amplitudes of 1” or 2’, These appear to be chiefly
marked on the east and west components of the diagrams. They have
periods of from three to six hours, and generally occur as a sinking
during the early morning or between midnight and 8 or 9 A.., at which
time the east is usually rising.
On February 17, March 24 and 26, small earthquakes occurred with
these sinkings, after which the normal rise was continued. Other earth-
quakes, which, however, were too small to be measured by ordinary
seismographs, were not accompanied by such changes. Before the
earthquake of March 6, which probably was of local origin, the spots of
light had moved off the scale as if by an abnormally large sinking on the
N.H. side. This was at 8.45 p.m. on March 5. I therefore do not know
what happened immediately before the shaking, which took place at
8.52 a.M. next morning.
Harth-waves or Earth-pulsations.
(Tremors or Microseismic Disturbances.)
On February 17, 18, and 19 there was a large and well-marked storm
of tremors. The barometer did not fall to any remarkable extent, the
lowest I noted being 29:7 in. While the movements were continuing
the east side of the column was depressed about 2”, and the daily wave
did not show itself. With other tremor-storms, which were, however,
smaller, the daily wave has been unaffected.
Earthquakes.
From the list of earthquakes at the commencement of this report it
will be seen that during the months of February and March nine earth-
quakes were recorded at the Central Observatory in Tokio. Five of
these were measurable by seismographs. Seven out of the nine were
recorded at the University Laboratory, which is about 1} mile distant
from the central station. Owing to certain of these having occurred -
when there had been a temporary interruption in the taking of records—
as, for example, when changing a film—-it is only possible that three of
the seven disturbances should have been photographically recorded.
These records are remarkable for their smallness, apparently showing
that, although there had been a sensible motion of the ground, the
mirrors had either remained practically at rest, or else they had not been.
moving for a sufficiently long period of time to produce an impression on.
the film. As the films, which were prepared for me by Professor W. K.
220 REPORT—1893.
Burton, are particularly sensitive, I am inclined to the opinion that there
was less tilting accompanying these earthquakes than there is in the
waves which constitute a tremor-storm ; in fact, the earthquakes which
only produced deflections of 2 mm. were elastic tremors, while so-called
tremors which may produce deflections of 25 mm. are earth-waves.
These observations led me to note the effects produced upon a film
when the mirrors had been caused to swing by placing my finger upon
the iron bed-plate which acts as their support. The result was that
either a band about 12 mm. in length was produced or else the trace
was blurred, and at the blurr a permanent deflection of about 3 mm. was
recorded.
As a result of these experiments I conclude that in all cases where
lines are invariably opposite to each other in both components, and
are seen as transverse markings in the traces, such lines indicate that
the mirrors have been swinging, and the question arises, whether these
are due to undulations from distant earthquakes or whether they are
due to undulations which, if they were continuous, would constitute a
tremor-storm.
If they are tiltings due to distant earthquakes, then on several occa-
sions as many as fourteen of these disturbances have been noted in
twenty-four hours. On other days the normal lines are unbroken.
Comparing the photographic traces with the list of 101 earthquakes
which were felt in Japan during the month of February, it is seen that
only the large ones, like numbers 54 and 61, have been recorded on the
film. The traces, however, show that there have been many large dis-
turbances which do not coincide in time with earthquakes noted on the
list. It is possible that these may coincide with disturbances which had
their origin in other countries, or, what is more likely, with disturbances
originating beneath the bed of the Pacific, where, from what we know,
seismic activity is at least as great as it is upon the land. An alternative
suggestion is that they are the result of movements similar in character
to those which constitute a tremor-storm; but whether these are to be
attributed to sudden but gentle bendings of rocky strata, or whether
their origin is to be sought for amongst causes which are more complex,
is for the present a subject about which we are hardly justified in
attempting to formulate an hypothesis.
Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz in Germany has observed fourteen earth-
quakes—if all of these really are earthquakes—in eleven months. One
of them corresponds in time to the great disturbance of October 28, 1891,
when Central Japan was devastated.
Possible Connecticn between these Observations and other Phenomena.
Assuming that with appliances similar to those used by Dr. von Rebeur-
Paschwitz, or to those used in Japan, records of distant earthquakes may
be noted, then it would be possible in England, or any other country, not
only to note unfelt local disturbances, but also to record, at least, very
many of the large disturbances which occur throughout the world.
The importance of such records in determining the velocity with
which earth-waves are propagated, or, as was suggested by Lord Kelvin,
the determination of elastic constants for the earth’s crust, and in solving
other problems, is apparent.
Already the observations on earth-tilting seem to have gone sufficiently
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN, 221
far to demand serious attention from practical astronomers. There are
many reasons for believing that earth pulsations or undulations have a
connection with the escape of fire-damp, and they do not appear to be
wholly unconnected with the behaviour of certain physical instruments.
For example, as the result of a long series of observations made with an
Oertling and a Bunge balance, it seems that there are times when it
would be impossible to carry out any delicate weighing operations.
The more important results obtained from the observation of these
balances were as follows :
1. The Oertling, which was a light assay balance, moved more than
the Bunge.
2. [t was seldom that either of the balances was absolutely at rest.
3. During a day the pointer of the Oertling usually crept through
half a division of the ivory scale.
4, Although when caused to swing the period of the Oertling was
41 seconds, it would sometimes be found performing complete swings
with periods varying between 17 and 60 seconds. Slower motions might
take 50 minutes.
5. It was often observed that both balances would start from rest
simultaneously and in the same direction.
6. Periods of disturbance usually occurred with tromometric disturb-
ances, but both balances have often been found moving when tremors
were not observable, when the weather was calm and the barometer high,
while they have been absolutely at rest during a heavy gale and the
barometer at 29-2 inches.
7. The oscillations are not always about the same zero, and the zero
for the pointer sometimes changes within a few minutes.
A detailed account of the above observations is given in the ‘ Seismo-
logical Journal,’ vol. i.
The Earth-waves of Harthquakes.
From the observations of many who have experienced a large earth-
quake we may be certain that at such times the surfaces of alluvial
plains have been thrown into a series of undulations. During these dis-
turbances, from observations on the behavionr of fluids in vessels, the
water in ponds, the irregular and erratic swinging of seismographs, and
the character of the resulting records, it is also clear that undulatory,
wave-like motions have taken place.
On the occasion of the great earthquake of October 28, 1891, knowing
that bracket and conical pendulum seismographs had been tilted, in the
Twelfth Report to the Association calculations were given of the
maximum slopes of the earth-waves which had caused these movements.
Although these calculations may have been interesting on account of
their novelty, because any arrangement like a heavy horizontal pendulum
when quickly tilted is likely to overswing the point corresponding to that
which it would take if the movement had been very slow, serious objec-
tions may be raised to the accuracy of the results which were obtained.
This consideration led me to devise an angle-measurer in which errors of
this description are not likely to occur. It consists of a balance-beam,
each arm of which carries a heavy weight so adjusted that the system
has but feeble stability. When the stand carrying this is tilted in the
plane of the arm, the arm remains horizontal, while a vertical pointer
222 REPORT—1893.
projecting downwards, as in an ordinary balance, is relatively deflected
through an angle corresponding to the tilt. This pointer moves a hori-
zontal lever, at the outer extremity of which a sliding needle writes its
record on a smoked-glass plate. Two such pieces of apparatus at right
angles to each other, writing on the same surface, constitute a complete
instrument.
In one apparatus the balance-arm with its weights is replaced by
a heavy metal disc, supported in a vertical plane by knife edges at its
centre.
Already one or two earthquakes have been recorded, and as these are
the first written records of earth-waves, a portion of one of them is here
reproduced :—
Fig. 2.
Tt shows the E. and W. tilting during a small portion of an earth-
quake which occurred at 5.40 P.M. on January 8, 1893. The numbers
indicate successive seconds, from which we see that the period of the
waves varied from } to } second. The average angular deflection was
about 2’ 40”, and the smallest about 1’ 30”.
The movement continued over at least 20 seconds, dying out with
hardly perceptible waves having periods of about + second. The N. and
S. component of tilting was exceedingly small. The direction in which
the waves were propagated was approximately E.N.H. to W.S.W.
Inasmuch as tilting apparently occurs whenever we have vertical
motion, an unpleasant conclusion—which, however, is not expressed for
the first time—is that all the records hitherto published in Japan where
vertical motion has been recorded are of but little value. Not only may
the horizontal motion have been exaggerated, but the records of vertical
motion have also suffered distortion, this being greatest when the arm of
the lever seismograph has been parallel to the direction of the wave-
slope. The disturbances in which the vertical component has been
marked form about 10 per cent. of what should be our most important
records.
What we require to know, for example, as an assistance in investi-
gations relating to construction is the configuration, dimensions, and
rapidity of recurrence of these earth-waves.
The varying slope of the waves, their period, and their direction of
advance, may be measured by the apparatus described.
As an attempt to measure the vertical component of these waves, four
lever seismographs have been arranged with their arms at 45° to each
other, it being assumed that the record from the instrument with its arm
most nearly at right angles to the direction of the advancing wave will
be the one which will most closely measure the vertical motion.
Another possible method of measuring this element of earthquake
motion would be to avoid errors consequent on tilting by arranging a
vertical lever seismograph on gimbals.
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 223
Gyroscopes as adjuncts to the solution of these problems have not
hitherto proved themselves successful.
On the assumption that the earth-waves in alluvium were harmonic
in character and symmetrical in form, in the Report for 1892 it was shown
that they might be 20 feet in length; and, knowing their length and
period, the velocity of propagation was determined. Even should these
waves have lengths several times this amount, some knowledge of their
form might be obtained by simultaneously measuring the difference
in movement between, say, the heads of a line of stakes at right angles to
the direction of the advancing waves and different points of a wire or rod
parallel to such a line, but only held in position at its two extremities.
I am led to mention these latter experiments as indications of the
important problems which seismologists have yet before them.
List oF HARTHQUAKES RECORDED IN JAPAN IN FEBRUARY 1893.
The list of earthquakes appended to this section of the Report is given
as an example of a catalogue which might be compiled from the material
which since 1885 has been accumulating at the Central Meteorological
Observatory in Tokio.
The approximate centre of a disturbance is indicated by its latitude
and longitude, while the energy of the disturbance may approximately be
deduced from the figures which show in geographical miles the diameter
of the area shaken.
Hitherto investigations respecting seismic activity, the periodicity of
earthquakes, &c., have been based upon catalogues where only the nwmber
of shocks have been recorded, and where the disturbances of one seismic
area have been inextricably mixed with those from another.
With a catalogue like the one suggested it would be possible to investi-
gate the rate at which seismic activity is decreasing or increasing either
in a given area or in Japan as a whole, giving values to the shocks pro-
portional to the area they had shaken. It would assist us in determining
whether there is any relationship between the frequency of earthquakes
in neighbouring areas. Inasmuch as many earthquakes seem to be the
result of sudden fractures or yieldings taking place during the process of
rock-crumpling, it does not seem unlikely that the relief of strain along
one axis should be altogether without effect upon neighbouring axes
where folding may also be in operation. One interesting investigation of
the records of a district which has very kindly been made by Mr. F.
Omori has been to plot the shocks which succeeded the great disturb-
ance of 1891 as a curve, the co-ordinates of which are equal intervals of
time and the number of shocks occurring during these intervals.
It will be remembered that the immediate cause of the disturbance
was the formation of a large fault which can be traced some forty or fifty
miles, together with several minor faults. During the seven months
which followed the great shock no less than 3,000 shocks were recorded.
How many have been recorded up to date has not been calculated, but
from the appended list for the month of February, that is sixteen months
after the first shock, sixty-two disturbances were noted.
The curve representing this decrease in activity closely approximates
to a rectangular hyperbola, which now, with an average of two shocks
per day, is becoming asymptotic. a
With the law of decrease deduced from these records Mr. Omori
224 REPORT—1 893.
calculates that it will take about thirty years for the district to regain its
original stability. The records for the Kumamoto earthquake, which took
place in July 1889, show a like result, but with a rate of decrease
directly proportional to the intensity of, or the area shaken by, the primary
disturbance.
One curious fact connected with the extinction of the Nagoya earth-
quake is that the district of greatest visible faulting, where valleys were
compressed and mountains were lowered, seems to have reached a fair
state of quiescence, while the most active settlement, or the district where
an extension of faulting is now taking place, is at the S.H. extremity of
the main line of original disturbance—a few miles N.E. from Nagoya in
Niwa-gun (N. lat. 35° 20’, and E. long. 136° 50’).
Not only would the publication of the catalogue here indicated furnish
material very much better than that which has been hitherto attainable
for the continuation of investigations like those made by Perrey, Mallet,
and other seismologists, but we should have materials for investigations
which would be entirely new.
Earthquakes recorded in Japan in February 1893.
Position of centre |Diameter
} | of area.
Hoa Day. aime Latitude Longitude taken tans
N E. F
NE miles |
H. M.
1 1| 2 42 a.m. 35:20 | 137-0 5 N. of Nagoya.
2] ,| 6 43 A.M. 35°40 | 137-0 3 oo AS
3| , | 2 45 PM. 35°5 137°0 3 shes 5
455) e021 35°30 | 137-10 3 N.E. of ,,
5 2/10 34M, 35°30 137:10 3 » Nagoya.
6| ,,| 11 42 P.M. 34:40 | 132-30 70 S.W. Nipon, Akiken,
7/| 3{ 11 304m. 3450 | 132°25 3 3 3 ss
8| , | 5 20PM. 35°20 | 136-50 20 N. of Nagoya.
One) de 20h Mt, 34°50 | 136:30 3 N. of Ise.
10| , | 8 34P.M. 35:20 | 137-0 3 N. of Nagoya.
ALS Geiss) (9%30\ Pam, 35°20 | 137-0 3 ee, si
12 iss 2 34:0 132°10 3 8.W. Nipon.
13| 4] 4 55 PM. 35°20 | 136-10 3 W. of Gifu.
14) 5 |} 10 34 P.M. 36°45 | 138-0 3 Central Nipon.
15] 6] 1 15am. 35:0 132°50 3 S.W. Nipon.
16] ,,| 7 55 PM. 35°0 132°50 3 . a
17 NOs 29d Pes. 36:25 | 140:0 30 N. of Tokio.
18,| 5, | 9.57 PM. 35-0 132°50 3 8.W. Nipon.
19); 7} 2 9AM. 35:10 | 136-50 40 Nagoya.
20) , | 9 52 P.M. 35°20 | 136-50 20 N. of Nagoya.
21} 8| 313 a.M. 35:20 | 137-0 10 Oy :
22 | , | 4 54 A.M. 43:20 | 145°30 3 N.E. Yezo, Nemuro.
23 | ,| 5 40 A.M. 35°30 | 137:0 20 N.W. Nagoya.
24] , | 10 10 A.M. 35:10 | 136°50 10 S.W. os
25 | || 2 24.2. 34:20 | 133°50 3 N. Shikoku.
26 | , | 10 OP.™. 35°30 | 137-20 3 N.W. Nagoya.
27); 9) 1 15am. 35°20 | 13650 40 N. of on
28] , | 1 374.M. 35°20 | 136°50 3 cae, D
29| , | 5 304M, 37°25 | 138-50 3 Central Nipon, Echigo.
BO) |e5>,|. 1. Ore 35°10 | 136°50 3 Nagoya.
31 | 10) O 30 4.M. 35:20 | 136°40 10 N. of Nagoya.
32 | 8 53 A.M. 35:20 | 136°40 10 Se 4
33 | 11] 6 48 a.m. 36:20 | 140°30 20 N.W. of Tokio.
36:10 | 137:20 3 Fukui Ken.
ist)
r=
oO
rs
oO
b>
=
ON THE EARTHQUAKE AND VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 225
HARTHQUAKES—continued.
Position of centre | Diameter
of area
No. | Day Time Tietindte Wonettude oars le Remarks
| N. miles
H. M.
35) 11)| 9 20A.mM 35°20 | 137:0 3 N. of Nagoya.
36r| *;, 6 20 P.M 375 137:20 3 Fukui Ken.
BT | 55 8 42 PM 35°30 | 137-0 3 N. of Nagoya.
88 | 12) 0 20Pm 375 137°20 3 Fukui Ken.
BO) 2 36°5 138°10 3 Suwo, Central Nipon.
AOi|- 55 5 55 P.M 35°30 | 137:0 3 N. of Nagoya.
41 | 13 6 42 AM 35°20 136°50 10 of on 5
42 |, | 732am. | 35:30] 137-0 3 Seca ate
43|,, | 8 50am 35°30 | 137:0 3 es)
44 | 14 6 5AM 39°40 141°30 3 N. Nipon, Nambu.
45 | ,, | 11 104m 35°30 | 137-0 3 N. of Nagoya.
46 3 11 20 P.M 35°30 136°50 10 99 ”
47|15| 2 104m 35°30 | 136°50 10 aa 9
48 | , | 8 304m. | 35:30 | 136°50 3 apc naltge
49 | ,, | 10 43 a.m 35°30 | 137-20 3 N.W. of ,,
560/16) 7 43 Am 35°30 | 136°50 3 IN oasttss
51 2 1 OPM 35°30 136°50 3 ” mo”
Be. ss 910PM 35°30 137:10 15 INEWiese ss
53 | 17 5 45 A.M 35°40 136-50 3 ING eee neers
54] 5 7 15 AM 35°30 | 139°30 50 Central Nipon, near Tokio.
Bee ss 7 35 AM 35:20 | 137-0 5 N. of Nagoya.
56 | ,, 7 55 A.M 35:20 | 137-0 3 “5h >
57 me 0 46 P.M 35°20 137-0 3 9099 ”
58 |-18; 3 1am 36°20 | 136-50 3 N.W. of ,,
59 | , 7 56 P.M 35°50 137:0 3 Ni teecouis
60; 19; 2 lam 36°20 | 140°30 3 N.W. of Tokio.
61 | ,, 157PM 35:0 137-30 20 W. of Nagoya.
62 | ,, 3 36 P.M 34:30 | 133-50 3 Tnland Sea.
63 | ,, 8 26 P.M 34:50 | 132°5 3 S.W. Nipon.
64 | ,, 2 35:0 1350 100 Only felt at three places on a
N.W.-S.E. line.
65)|" 5; 8 42 P.M 34:30 | 133°0 150 S.W. Nipon, Shikoku, to centre
of Kiushiu.
66; , |} 10 1PM 35°50 | 132°50 3 8.W. Shikoku.
67 | , | 11 OPM 34:10 | 132°10 3 S.W. Nipon.
68 | , | 11 55P.mM 35°20 | 137:0 3 N. of Nagoya.
69 | 20; 1 OAM 34:0 132°30 40 S.W. Nipon and W. Shiko-
ku.
ON) 5 2 8AM 35°20 | 137:0 3 N. of Nagoya.
GS 5 2AM 34:20 | 132°30 3 8. Nipon.
72), | 10 55am 34:50 | 133-20 10 A ss
sels, 8 12 PM 33°20 131°30 3 Kiushiu.
TAS 9 30 P.M 35°50 | 135730 3 Wahayama.
foie. | LL OPM 35:20 | 137:0 3 N. of Nagoya.
76; , | 11 OPM 37°20 | 139-40 3 Central Nipon.
77 | 21) 2 48am 36:0 138-0 60 Central Nipon, Kofu.
78 |! 55 2 48 AM 35:20 | 137-0 120 Gifu.
BOD 55 2 52 AM 36°30 | 14010 3 N. of Tokio.
80'/ », 5 33 AM 40-0 141-0 160 N. Nipon.
cell a (es 6 40 P.M 31:65 | 131:30 3 W. Kiushiu.
82] » 8 52 P.M 35:20 | 137-0 3 N. of Nagoya.
83 | ,, | 10 37 pM 35:20 | 137:0 70 aaa .
84) 22] 3 7AM 35:20 , 137-0 3 pair “
85 | ,, 6 55 AM 35:20 137:0 3 Pa ”»
861, 9 21 P.M 34:30 | 132°0 3 §. Nipon.
1893. Q
226 REPORT—1893.
EARTHQUAKES—continued.
Position of centre | Diameter
’ of area
No. | Day Time Latitude [Lenevende oe = Remarks
miles
H. M.
Si le22.)| | OAT PM 35:20 | 137-0 3 N. of Nagoya.
88 | 23 2 37:0 140°40 60 N. and §. on coast, N. of
Tokio.
318) |] op 8 40 A.M. 35°10 | 136-50 3 W. of Nagoya.
SOR ss; by 1O-P oe 35°20 | 137-0 40 ING -
OL aes 8 30 P.M. 37:40 | 139°50 3 N. Nipon.
92 | 24] 4 50 A.M. 35:20 | 137-0 3 N. of Nagoya.
SEM sp 5 14 A.M. 35:20 | 137:0 3 Perry, +
SEE | op 5 OPM. 35:20 | 137-0 3 aes -
95 | 25 | O 40 A.M. 35°30 | 137°20 3 an >
96 | ,, 7 38 A.M. 35°30 | 136°50 10 Bia Pe
SHE 8 20 A.M. soi80 | Lare20 3 Suess a
98 | ,, 5 14 P.M. 35°20 | 137-0 3 095 es
99 | 26 | 11 20 p.m. 35:20 | 137:0 3 er ~
100 | 27 | 4 504.M. 35:20 | 137:0 3 — .
101 | 28 | 11 56 P.M. 35:20 | 137-0 3 oris -
Nove.—The reason that the diameter of the area shaken by many shocks is given
as three miles is because the shock was only recorded at one place, and from inves-
tigations on areas disturbed by small shocks this number may be taken as approxi-
mately correct (see ‘ On a Seismic Survey made in Tokio, Zvans. Seis. Soc., vol, x.).
OVERTURNING AND F'RACTURING OF MASONRY AND OTHER COLUMNS.
Tn the Twelfth Report (1892) it was stated that the form of a wall or
pier which, rather than snapping at its base, would, when subjected to
horizontal reciprocating motion, be as likely to snap at any one horizontal
section as at any other had been determined.
A brick building with walls approximating to this form has been
designed and built “by Professor K. Tatsumo on the University com-
pound. Mr. C. A. W. Pownall, M.I.C.E., has constructed brick piers
for the bridges on the Usui Pass, some of which are 110 feet high with
similar sections.
An experiment relating to overturning which is in progress is to
determine the relationship between the dimensions of a body and the
amplitude of motion which will fail to overturn the same, no matter how
short the period of motion may be.
PUBLICATION OF A SEISMOLOGICAL JOURNAL.
In consequence of many persons who took an active interest in
seismology having left Japan, because work which formerly found a place
in the publication of the Seismological Society now finds a place else-
where, and for other reasons, the Seismological Society, which between
1880 and 1892 had published sixteen volumes, ceased its existence. As
a certain amount of work still continues in order to bring this before
those who are interested in seismology, a seismological journal has been
published and the first volume already issued.
ON THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SPECTROSCOPY. 227
Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor H. McLrop (Chairman), Professor W. C. RoBerts-
AustTEN (Secretary), Mr. H. G. Manan, and Dr. D. H. NaGeEt.
THE collection and verification of titles of papers on spectroscopy have
been continued during the past year, and it is expected that another
instalment will be ready for printing at the next meeting.
Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Commvittee, consisting
of Lord RayLeicH (Chairman), Lord KELVIN, Professor CAYLEY,
Professor B. Price, Mr. J. W. L. GuaisHer, Professor A. G.
GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, and Professor A. LopGE
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of calculating Tables of
certain Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, of taking
steps to carry out the Calculations, and to publish the results in
an accessible form.
Tue first Report of the Committee was in 1889 (at Newcastle-on-Tyne),
when they published tables of [,(x) for integral values of from 0 to 11,
from z=0 to 6:0, at intervals of 0°2; I,(w) being defined by
ae at
—7rn Lea he ae”
pet aC) = 55,1 a eee }.
The present tables of I,(z) are from z=0 to 5:100, at intervals of -001,
and are given to nine decimal places, the last figure being approximate.
They have been calculated by means of Taylor’s Theorem, the successive
derived functions being obtained by use of the formula
d
agin(®) oS $(Tn=1 Sie Ti+) ?
and of the formule derivable from this by successive differentiations.
The values of these derived functions were checked by double cal-
culation of the values of I,(z) halfway between those given in the 1889
table; thus, for example, 1,(2°3) was calculated as I,(2°2+0'1) and also
as 1,(2°4—0:1). This important check confirmed at the same time the
values of I,(7) which were given in the 1889 table, so that certainly the
tables now given are free from any systematic error. When the present
tables were finished, accidental errors were discovered and corrected by
taking ont first and second differences, and then, finally, the printed tables
were checked by continuous addition of the first differences on Edmond-
son’s calculating machine. It is confidently hoped, therefore, that the
tables are free from serious error.
Tables of I,(z) have also been calculated, and are in a forward state,
but are not quite ready for printing this year.
It is proposed to have the tables republished in book form when com-
Q 2
228 REPORT—1893.
plete, together with tables of J,(x), to six decimal places. It will be
noticed that the march of I,(«) in the present table is such that interpo-
lation by first differences only will give accurate results to six decimal
places. It is proposed to preface the book of tables with a short account
of the History, Theory, and Applications of the Bessel Functions, drawn
up by Professor A. G. Greenhill.
The Committee are adding to the present Report a short table of
J.(z/i). If desired, a table of J,(z/ 7) from «=0 to 6:0 at intervals of 0°2,.
for integral values of n from 0 to 11, could be published next year.
The Committee have expended the grant of 15/., and desire reappoint-
ment, with a further grant of 15/.
The Secretary has some copies of the 1889 Report, and will have some
of the present Report, which he will be pleased to forward to anyone wish-
ing to make use of the tables before their republication in book form.
His address is, Englefield Green, Surrey.
The Committee wish to point out an error in the 1889 Report. The
differential equation of which I, is one solution has a wrong sign before
its third term ; it should be
The work of calculation has been much hindered by faults in the
Edmondson’s calculating machine which was bought by the Committee.
It has been returned to the maker several times, and has never been
entirely satisfactory. Latterly the greater part of the work has been
done on Professor McLeod’s machine, which he is always kindly ready to
lend.
Jo(avi) Jo(wvi)
zr zx
Real part Coefficient of i Real part Coefficient of 7
0:0} +1:000 000 000 Nil 3:0} —0:221 380 250 | —1:937 586 785
0:2} +0°999 975 000 | —0:009 999 972 || 3:2) —0°564 376 430 | —2-101 573 388
04) +0:999 600 004 | —0:039 998 222 ||} 3:-4/ —0-968 038 995 | —2:235 445 750
0°6 | +0:997 975 114 | —0:089 979 750 || 3°6) —1:435 305 322 | —2°319 863 655
0°8| +0:993 601 138 | —0°159: 886 230 || 3:8} —1-°967 423 273 | —2°345 433 061
1:0| +0:984 381 781 | —0:249 566 040 || 4:0| —2°563 416 557 | —2°292 690 323
1:2| +0°967 629 156 | —0°358 704 420 || 4-2) —3:219 479 832 | —2:142 167 987
1:-4| +0940 075 057 | —0:486 733 934 || 44| —3°928 306 622 | —1:872 563 796
16 | +0897 891 139 | —0°632 725 677 || 46) —4°678 356 937 | —1:461 036 836
1:8] +0°836 721 794 | —0:'795 261 955 | 4:8| —5-453 076 175 | —0°883 656 854
| ||—
2:0| +0:751 734 183 | —0-972 291 627 i 5:0 | —6'230 082 479 | —0°116 034 382
te
2:2| +0°637 690 457 | —1:160 969 944 | 5-2| —6-980 346 403 | +0865 839 727
2°4| +0°489 047 772 —1:357 485 476 || 5-4) —7-667 394 351 | +2°084 516 693
2°6| +.0°300 092 090 | —1:556 877 774 || 5°6| —8:246 575 962 | +3:559 746 593
2°8} +0:065 112 108 | —1:752 850 564 || 5:8| —8-664 445 263 | +5°306 844 640
= + = = |
3:0} —0°221 380 250 | —1°937 586 785 || 6:0 | —8858 315 966 | +7334 746 541
| a a ET
— ewe ae
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 229
a
z I, Difference Ss Ie Difference
-000 Nil 500,000 050 | 0-025 007 814 500,477
001 0:000 500 000 500,001 051 0:025 508 291 500,498
002 0:001 000 001 1 052 0:026 008 789 517
003 0-001 500 002 2 053 0:026 509 306 537
004 0:002 000 004 4 054 0:027 009 843 556
005 0:002 500 008 6 055 0:027 510 399 579
“006 0:003 000 014 7 ‘056 0:028 010 978 599
-007 0:003 500 021 11 057 0:028 511 577 619
008 0:004 000 032 14 058 0:029 012 196 642
‘009 0:004 500 046 17 "059 0:029 512 838 664
010 0:005 000 063 20 ‘060 0:030 013 502 686
‘O11 0:005 500 083 25 061 0:030 514 188 710
012 0:006 000 108 29 062 0:031 014 898 732
013 0:006 500 137 35 063 0:031 515 630 157
014 | 0-007 000 172 39 064 0:032 016 387 780
‘015 | 0-007 500 211 45 065 0:032 517 167 805
016 0:008 000 256 51 ‘066 0:033 017 972 829
‘017 0:008 500 307 58 “067 0-033 518 801 855
018 0:009 000 365 64 068 0:034 019 656 880
‘019 0:009 500 429 71 069 0:034 520 536 905
020 0:010 000 500 79 ‘070 | 0-035 021 441 932
021 0:010 500 579 87 ‘071 0:035 522 373 960
022 0:011 000 666 94 072 0:036 023 333 986
023 0:011 500 760 104 073 0:036 524 319 501,013
024 0:012 000 864 113 074 0:037 025 332 042
025 0:012 500 977 122 075 0:037 526 374 069
026 0:013 001 099 131 ‘076 0:038 027 443 097
027 0:013 501 230 142 ‘077 0-038 528 540 127
-028 0:014 001 372 152 078 0:039 029 667 156
029 0-014 501 524 163 ‘079 0:039 530 823 186
‘030 0:015 001 687 175 -080 0:040 032 009 215
031 0:015 501 862 186 ‘081 0:040 533 224 246
032 0:016 002 048 198 082 0:041 034 470 277
033 0:016 502 246 211 083 0:041 535 747 308
034 0017 002 457 223 084 0:042 037 055 340
“035 0:017 502 680 236 “085 0:042 538 395 371
036 0:018 002 916 250 086 0:043 039 766 404
037 0:018 503 166 264 087 0:043 541 170 436
038 0:019 003 430 277 ‘088 0:044 042 606 469
“039 0:019 503 707 293 089 0-044 544 075 502
‘040 0:020 004 000 308 ‘090 0:045 045 577 538
041 0:020 504 308 323 ‘091 0:045 547 115 570
042 0:021 004 631 338 092 0:046 048 685 605
043 0:021 504 969 355 093 0:046 550 290 640
044 0:022 005 324 371 094 0:047 051 930 677
045 0:022 505 695 390 095 0:047 553 607 710
046 0:023 006 085 405 ‘096 0:048 055 317 748
047 0:023 506 490 423 097 0:048 557 065 782
048 0:024 006 913 441 098 0:049 058 847 821
049 0-024 507 354 460 099 0:049 560 668 858
050 0:025 007 814 477 ‘100 0:050 062 526 896
REPORT—1893.
0-075 211 135
os Iz Difference x Ic Difference
100 0-050 062 526 | 501,896 | +150 0-075 211 135 504,254
101 0:050 564 422 932 || -151 0:075 715 389 310
102 0:051 066 354 971 152 0:076 219 699 369
103 0:051 568 325 502,009 153 0-076 724 068 424
104 0:052 070 334 050 "154 0:077 228 492 483
105 0:052 572 384 089 "155 0-077 732 975 542
106 0:053 074 473 129 "156 0-178 237 517 600
107 0:053 576 602 168 “157 0:078 742 117 659
108 0:054 078 770 210 158 0-079 246 776 718
109 0:054 580 980 250 159 0-079 751 494 778
110 0:055 083 230 290 160 0-080 256 272 838
‘111 0:055 585 520 333 ‘161 | 0-080 761 110 900
112 0:056 087 853 375 162 0:081 266 010 961
113 0:056 590 228 418 163 0:081 770 971 505,022
114 0:057 092 646 461 164 0:082 275 993 084
115 0:057 595 107 504 165 0:082 781 O77 145
116 0-058 097 611 547 166 0:083 286 222 208
“LT 0:058 600 158 590 167 0-083 791 430 271
118 0:059 102 748 637 168 0:084 296 701 333
119 0:059 605 385 680 169 0-084 802 034 398
120 0:060 108 065 725 ‘170 | 0-085 307 432 462
121 0:060 610 790 771 Gi iral 0:085 812 894 527
122 0:061 113 561 817 172 0-086 318 421 590
"123 0:061 616 378 862 173 0-086 824 O11 656
124 0:062 119 240 909 ‘174 0-087 329 667 721
125 0:062 622 149 957 175 0:087 835 388 788
126 0:063 125 106 503,004 176 0-088 341 176 854
127 0:063 628 110 051 Bred 0-088 847 030 920
128 0:064 131 161 101 178 0-089 352 950 989
129 0:064 634 262 148 79 0:089 858 939 506,054
130 0:065 137 410 196 180 0-090 364 993 122
“131 0:065 640 606 247 181 0:090 871 115 191
132 0:066 143 853 294 "182 | 0-091 377 306 259
133 0:066 647 147 347 183 0-091 883 565 328
134 0-067 150 494 396 184 0:092 389 893 398
135 0:067 653 890 447 185 0:092 896 291 468
136 0:068 157 337 498 186 0:093 402 759 537
137 0068 660 835 552 ‘187 0:093 909 296 608
138 0:069 164 387 600 188 0:094 415 904 679
139 0:069 667 987 652 189 0:094 922 583 749
140 0:070 171 639 707 190 0-095 429 332 821
141 0:070 675 346 760 191 0-095 936 153 894
"142 0-071 179 106 813 192 0-096 443 047 967
143 0-071 682 919 867 193 0:096 950 014 507,039
144 0-072 186 786 921 194 0:097 457 053 112
145 0:072 690 707 975 195 0.097 964 165 185
146 0°073 194 682 504,030 196 0-098 471 350 258
147 0-073 698 712 084 197 0:098 978 608 334
148 0:074 202 796 142 198 0:099 485 942 409
149 0:074 706 938 197 a199 0:099 993 351 483
0:100 500 854
559
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
231
Ic Diflerence x Ie Difference
0100 500 834 | 507,559 250 | 0-125 979 109 | 511,817
0°101 008 393 | 507,635 251 | 0-126 490 926 | 511,912
0-101 516 028 710 252 | 0-127 002 838 | 512,008
0°102 023 738 786 253 | 0-127 514 846 102
0-102 531 524 865 254 | 0-128 026 948 199
0-103 039 389 942 255 | 0-128 539 147 296
0:103 547 331 | 508,019 256 | 0-129 051 443 393
0°104 055 350 097 257 | 0-129 563 836 490
0-104 563 447 175 258 | 0-130 076 326 588
0-105 071 622 256 259 | 0-130 588 914 685 _
0-105 579 878 333 ‘260 | 0-131 101 599 782
0-106 088 211 413 261 | 0-131 614 381 883
0-106 596 624 494 262 | 0-132 127 264 983
0-107 105 118 573 -263 | 0:132 640 247 | 513,082
0°107 613 691 654 264 | 0-133 153 329 181
0108 122 345 736 265 | 0:133 666 510 282
0-108 631 O81 818 266 | 0-134 179 792 383
0°109 139 899 899 267 | 0-134 693 175 482
0°109 648 798 981 -268 | 0-135 206 657 585
0-110 157 779 | 509,064 269 | 0-135 720 242 688
0-110 666 843 148 270 | 0-136 233 930 790
0-111 175 991 231 271 | 0-136 747 720 891
0-111 685 222 314 272 | 0-137 261 611 995
0-112 194 536 398 ‘273 | 0-137 775 606 | 514,100
0-112 703 934 484 274 | 0:138 289 706 201
0-113 213 418 567 275 | 0138 803 907 305
0°113 722 985 654 276 | 0-139 318 212 412
0°114 232 639 740 277 | 0-139 832 624 517
0-114 742 379 825 ‘278 | 0:140 347 141 621
0-115 252 204 912 279 | 0-140 861 762 727
0-115 762 116 998 280 | 0-141 376 489 834
0-116 272 114 | 510,086 281 | 0-141 891 323 939
0-116 782 200 174 282 | 0-142 406 262 | 515,046
0-117 292 374 262 283 | 0-142 921 308 155
0°117 802 636 350 284 | 0°143 436 463 262
0-118 312 986 439 285 | 0-143 951 725 371
0°118 823 425 528 286 | 0-144 467 096 478
0-119 333 953 617 287 | 0-144 982 574 587
0°119 844 570 707 288 | 0:145 498 161 696
0°120 355 277 798 289 | 0-146 013 857 806
0-120 866 075 889 290 | 0-146 529 663 917
0-121 376 964 980 -291 | 0-147 045 580 | 516,027
0-121 887 944 | 511,071 292 | 0-147 561 607 137
0°122 399 015 164 293 | 0-148 077 744 248
0-122 910 179 256 294 | 0-148 593 992 360
0°123 421 435 349 295 | 0-149 110 352 472
0°123 932 784 440 296 | 0-149 626 824 585
0-124 444 294 535 297 | 0-150 148 409 697
0-124 955 759 628 -298 | 0-150 660 106 810
0°125 467 387 722 299 | 0-151 176 916 924
0-125 979 109 817 300 | 0-151 693 840 | 517,038
232 REPORT— 1893.
x Ix Difference x Iz Difference
300 0°151 693 840 517,038 *350 0-177 693 400 523,232
301 0°152 210 878 153 BBL 0178 216 632 523,365
302 0152 728 031 267 352 0°178 739 997 499
“303 0°153 245 298 382 353 0-179 263 496 635
304 0°153 762 680 497 B54 0-179 787 131 770
“305 0154 280 177 612 “B55 0:180 310 901 906
306 0°154 797 789 729 "356 0°180 834 807 524,041
307 0°155 315 518 846 “B57 0°181 358 848 177
*308 0:155 833 364 964 358 0:181 883 025 314
“309 0°156 351 328 518,081 359 0182 407 339 450
“310 0'156 869 409 197 “360 0-182 931 789 589
311 0'157 387 606 317 361 0183 456 378 725
312 07157 905 923 434 362 0°183 981 103 865
313 0158 424 357 555 363 0184 505 968 525,003
314 0°158 942 912 673 "364 0:185 030 971 143
315 0:159 461 585 793 “365 0185 556 114 281
“316 0°159 980 378 914 366 0186 081 395 420
317 0°160 499 292 519,034 367 07186 606 815 563
318 0-161 018 326 155 "368 0°187 132 378 701
319 0'161 537 481 275 369 0°187 658 079 843
320 0°162 056 756 399 370 07188 183 922 985
321 0:162 576 155 520 371 0:188 709 907 526,126
322 0163 095 675 641 372 0°189 236 033 269
323 0163 615 316 766 373 0°189 762 302 410
324 0:164 135 082 890 374 0-190 288 712 556
325 0164 654 972 520,011 375 0190 815 268 697
“326 0165 174 983 137 376 07191 .341 965 841
327 0165 695 120 260 377 0191 868 806 985
328 07166 215 380 386 378 07192 395 791 527,130
329 0166 735 766 512 379 0°192 922 921 275
“330 0'167 256 278 636 380 07193 450 196 421
331 0-167 776 914 | 763 “381 0-193 977 617 566
B32 0168 297 677 887 +382 0°194 505 183 712
333 0'168 818 564 521,018 +383 0195 032 895 859
334 0169 339 582 142 +384 07195 560 754 528,006
335 0-169 860 724 270 “385 0-196 088 760 154
336 0:170 381 994 399 386 07196 616 914 299
337 0°170 903 393 527 387 0:197 145 213 450
338 0-171 424 920 656 “388 0-197 673 663 598
339 0-171 946 576 785 “B89 07198 202 261 TAT
340 0:172 468 361 914 “390 07198 731 008 896
341 0:172 990 275 522,044 391 07199 259 904 529,046
342 0-173 512 319 175 392 0°199 788 950 196
343 0-174 034 494 305 393 0:200 318 146 347
344 0-174 556 799 438 394 0200 847 493 498
345 0175 079 237 568 “395 0°201 376 991 648
346 0:°175 601 805 700 “396 0:201 906 639 800
347 0°176 124 505 832 397 0:202 436 439 952
348 0-176 647 337 965 398 0:202 966 391 530,106
349 0-177 170 302 523,098 399 0:203 496 497 259
“350 0-177 693 400 232 400 0:204 026 756 411
2 ——— Lr rl rr tt™~—‘<S~;z2z
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
233
x Iz Difference x Le Difference
400 | 0-204 026 756 | 530,411 ‘450 | 0-230 743 570 | 538,592
‘401 | 0204 557 167 | 530,566 ‘451 | 0-231 282 162 767
‘402 | 0-205 087 733 720 452 | 0-231 820 929 940
403 | 0-205 618 453 874 ‘453 | 0-232 359 869 | 539,116
404 | 0-206 149 327 | 531,028 454 | 0-232 898 985 292
405 | 0-206 680 355 1s4 ‘455 | 0-233 438 277 466
‘406 | 0-207 211 539 340 456 | 0-233 977 743 643
407 | 0-207 742 879 497 ‘457 | 0-234 517 386 819
‘408 | 0-208 274 376 654 458 | 0:235 057 205 996
409 | 0-208 806 030 810 459 | 0-235 597 201 540,172
-410 | 0-209 337 840 | 967 460 | 0-236 137 373 350
‘411 | 0-209 869 807 | 532,124 ‘461 | 0-236 677 723 529
412 | 0-210 401 931 284 -462 | 0-237 218 252 707
‘413 | 0-210 934 215 441 463 | 0:237 758 959 886
-414 | 0-211 466 656 600 ‘464 | 0-238 299 845 | 541,065
‘415 | 0-211 999 256 760 465 | 0-238 840 910 945
‘416 | 0-212 532 016 921 466 | 0-239 382 155 425
‘417 | 0-213 064 937 | 533,080 467 | 0-239 923 580 605
‘418 | 0-213 598 017 949 -468 | 0-240 465 185 786
419 | 0-214 131 259 | 401 ‘469 | 0-241 006 971 967
“420 | 0-214 664 660 563 ‘470 | 0-241 548 938 | 542,149
421 | 0-215 198 223 724 ‘471 | 0-242 091 087 331
492, | 0-215 731 947 887 472 | 0-242 633 418 514
423 | 0-216 265 834 | 534,049 473 | 0-243 175 932 697
424 | 0-216 799 883 213 474 | 0-248 718 629 881
425 | 0-217 334 096 376 ‘475 | 0-244 261 510 | 543,064
426 | 0-217 868 472 540 ‘476 | 0-244 804 574 248
‘427 | 0-218 403 012 705 ‘477 | 0-245 347 822 431
-498 | 0-218 937 717 868 478 | 0-245 891 253 618
429 | 0-219 472 585 | 535,033 479 | 0-246 434 871 803
430 | 0:220 007 618 199 ‘480 | 0:246 978 674 989
‘431 | 0-220 542 817 365 “481 | 0-247 522 663 | 544,175
-432 | 0-221 078 182 531 482 | 0-248 066 838 362
-433 | 0-221 613 713 698 -483 | 0-248 611 200 548
434 | 0-222 149 411 865 ‘484 | 0-249 155 748 737
435 | 0-222 685 276 | 536,033 485 | 0-249 700 485 925
436 | 0-223 221 309 199 ‘486 | 0-250 245 410 | 545,111
‘437 | 0-223 757 508 369 ‘487 | 0-250 790 521 302
438 | 0-224 293 877 537 ‘488 | 0-251 335 823 489
439 | 0-224 830 414 707 -489 | 0-251 881 312 681
440 | 225 367 121 875 ‘490 | 0-252 426 993 869
‘441 | 0-225 903 996 | 537,046 491 | 0-252 972 862 | 546,060
442 | 0-226 441 041 215 -492 | 0-253 518 922 252
443 | 0-226 978 256 387 -493 | 0-254 065 174 441
444 | 0-297 515 643 558 494 | 0-254 611 615 634
445 | 0-228 053 201 730 ‘495 | 0-255 158 249 825
446 | 0-228 590 931 901 -496 | 0-255 705 074 | 547,018
-447 | 0-229 128 832 | 538,073 ‘497 | 0-256 252 092 211
‘448 | 0-229 666 905 247 498 | 0-256 799 303 403
449 | 0-230 205 152 418 -499 | 0-257 346 706 598
-450 | 0-230 743 570 592 ‘500 | 0-257 894 304 793
Oo eS EEE EE ee ee ae eee ee
234 REPORT—1 893.
Ix Difference x Iz Difference
‘500 | 0-257 894 304 | 547,793 550 | 0-285 530 329 | 558,029
501 | 0:258 442 097 987 551 | 0-286 088 358 | 558,245
‘502 | 0-258 990 084 | 548,182 ‘552 | 0:286 646 603 459
503 | 0:259 538 266 375 -553 | 0-287 205 062 676
504 | 0-260 086 641 572 B54 | 0-287 763 738 894
505 | 0:260 635 213 770 555 | 0-288 322 632 | 559,109
506 | 0-261 183 983 965 556 | 0-288 881 741 328
507 | 0-261 732 948 | 549,162 557 | 0-289 441 069 546
508 | 0-262 282 110 359 558 | 0-290 000 615 763
509 | 0-262 831 469 5B7 559 | 0:290 560 378 982
510 | 0:263 381 026 155 560 | 0-291 120 360 | 560,202
‘511 | 0:263 930 781 954 561 | 0-291 680 562 422
‘512 | 0-264 480 735 | 550,153 562 | 0-292 240 984 642
+513 | 0:265 030 888 353 563 | 0:292 801 626 862
514 | 0265 581 241 554 564 | 0-293 362 488 | 561,084
‘515 | 0:266 131 795 753 565 | 0-293 923 572 304
516 | 0:266 682 548 954 566 | 0:294 484 876 527
517 | 0-267 233 502 | 551,153 ‘567 | 0:295 046 403 750
518 | 0267 784 655 357 568 | 0:295 608 153 971
519 | 0-268 336 012 559 569 | 0-296 170 124 | 562,194
520 | 0-268 887 571 762 570 | 0:296 732 318 419
‘521 | 0-269 439 333 963 571 | 0:297 294 737 642
522 | 0-269 991 296 | 552,167 ‘B72 | 0:297 857 379 866
523 | 0:270 543 463 371 ‘573 | 0-298 420 245 | 563,091
524 | 0-271 095 834 574 574 | 0:298 983 336 317
525 | 0271 648 408 779 ‘575 | 0-299 646 653 542
526 | 0:272 201 187 983 576 | 0-300 110 195 768
‘527 | 0-272 754 170 | 553,190 577 | 0°300 673 963 995
‘528 | 0273 307 360 396 ‘578 | 0-301 237 958 | 564,229
529 | 0-273 860 756 602 ‘579 | 0-301 802 180 449
‘530 | 0-274 414 358 808 580 | 0-302 366 629 677
‘531 | 0-274 968 166 | 554,014 581 | 0:302 931 306 905
‘532 | 0-275 522 180 223 582 | 0-303 496 211 | 565,134
‘533 | 0:276 076 403 430 583 | 0-304 061 345 363
534 | 0:276 630 833 639 584 | 0304 626 708 593
535 | 0:277 185 472 847 585 | 0:305 192 301 823
536 | 0-277 740 319 | 555,057 586 | 0-305 758 124 | 566,053
537 | 0-278 295 376 265 587 | 0:306 324 177 283
538 | 0-278 850 641 476 ‘588 | 0-306 890 460 515
539 | 0-279 406 117 686 589 | 0:307 456 975 TAT
540 | 0279 961 803 898 ‘590 | 0-308 023 722 978
‘541 | 0-280 617 701 | 556,107 591 | 0308 590 700 | 567,211
542 | 0281 073 808 321 ‘592 | 0-309 157 911 445
543 | 0-281 630 129 533 593 | 0:309 725 356 677
544 | 0-282 186 662 744 594 | 0-310 293 033 912
545 | 0-282 743 406 957 595 | 0-310 860 945 | 568,146
546 | 0-283 300 363 | 557,171 596 | 0-311 429 091 381
‘547 | 0:288 857 534 384 ‘597 | 0-311 997 472 616
548 | 0-284 414 918 598 598 | 0:312 566 088 851
549 | 0-284 972 516 813 599 | 0-313 134 939 | 569,087
550 | 0-285 630 329 | 558,029 600 | 0:313 704 026 323
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
235
x Iz | Difference | x Ie Difference
600 | 0313 704 026 | 569,323 650 | 0-342 468 895 | 581,701
601 | 0:314 273 349 | 669,561 | ‘651 | 0:343 050 596 | 581,960
602 | 0-314 842 910 798 652 | 0°343 632 556 | 682,219
603 | 0315 412 708 | 570,035 653 | 0-344 214 775 478
604 | 0315 982 743 274 654 | 0344 797 253 739
605 | 0316 553 017 512 655 | 0345 379 992 | 583,000
606 | 0-317 123 529 751 656 | 0-345 962 992 261
‘607 | 0-317 694 280 991 657 | 0°346 546 253 522
608 | 0318 265 271 | 571,231 658 | 0-347 129 775 784
609 | 0-318 836 502 471 || -659 | 0-347 713 559 | 584,046
610 | 0°319 407 973 712 || 660 | 0:348 297 605 308
611 | 0:319 979 685 952 -661 | 0-348 881 913 572
612 | 0:320 551 637 | 572,194 662 | 0349 466 485 835
613 | 0°321 123 831 437 -663 | 0:350 051 320 | 585,099
614 | 0:321 696 268 679 664 | 0:350 636 419 365
615 | 0°322 268 947 921 665 | 0351 221 784 629
616 | 0:322 841 868 | 573,166 ‘666 | 0351 807 413 895
617 | 0°323 415 034 410 667 | 0:352 393 308 | 586,160
618 | 0-323 988 444 654 ‘668 | 0°352 979 468 428
619 | 0324 562 098 899 669 | 0:353 565 896 694
620 | 0325 135 997 | 574,143 670 | 0:354 152 590 960
621 | 0-325 710 140 388 ‘671 | 0:354 739 550 | 587,228
622 | 0:326 284 528 635 672 | 0°355 326 778 498
623 | 0:326 859 163 882 673 | 0°355 914 276 765
624 | 0327 434 045 | 575,128 “674 | 0-356 502 041 | 588,033
625 | 0:328 009 173 375 675 | 0:357 090 074 304
626 | 0328 584 548 624 676 | 0357 678 378 573
627 | 0-329 160 172 871 677 | 0358 266 951 845
628 | 0:329 736 043 | 576,120 678 | 0358 855 796 | 589,115
629 | 0-330 312 163 369 679 | 0°359 444 911 386
630 | 0°330 888 532 619 680 | 0°360 034 297 657
631 | 0-331 465 151 869 || “681 | 0-360 623 954 931
632 | 0:332 042 020 | 577,119 682 | 0361 213 885 | 590,203
633 | 0:332 619 139 369 | “683 | 0-361 804 088 476
634 | 0338 196 508 620 || -684 | 0-362 394 564 749
635 | 0333 774 128 873 685 | 0:362 985 313 | 591,022
‘636 | 0°334 352 001 | 578,125 686 | 0363 576 335 297
637 | 0:334 930 126 378 687 | 0364 167 632 573
638 | 0°335 508 504 630 688 | 0364 759 205 848
639 | 0336 087 134 884 689 | 0:365 351 053 | 592,123
‘640 | 0:336 666 018 | 579,138 690 | 0365 943 176 399
641 | 0-337 245 156 393 691 | 0:366 535 575 677
642 | 0337 824 549 646 692 | 0-367 128 252 954
643 | 0-338 404 195 902 693 | 0:367 721 206 | 593,231
644 | 0338 984 097 | 580,159 694 | 0:368 314 437 508
645 | 0339 564 256 414 695 | 0-368 907 945 788
646 | 0-340 144 670 670 ‘696 | 0369 501 733 | 594,067
647. | 0-340 725 340 927 697 | 0:370 095 800 346
648 | 0-341 306 267 | 581,185 || -698 | 0-370 690 146 625
649 | 0:341 887 452 443 || -699 | 0-371 284 771 906
650 | 0342 468 896 701. || +-700 | 0-371 879 677 | 695,187
236 REPORT—1893.
x Ie Difference z Ir Difference
‘700 | 0:371 879 677 | 595,187 ‘750 | 0-401 992 463 | 609,808
‘701 | 0:372 474 864 | 595,469 ‘751 | 0:402 602 271 | 610,113
‘702 | 0:373 070 333 750 ‘752 | 0-403 212 384 417
103 | 0:373 666 083 | 596,031 ‘753 | 0-403 822 801 723
‘704 | 0:374 262 114 314 ‘754 | 0-404 433 624 | 611,029
‘705 | 0-374 858 428 597 ‘755 | 0-405 044 553 335
‘706 | 0°375 455 025 882 ‘756 | 0:405 655 888 641
‘707 | 0-376 051 907 | 597,165 ‘757 | 0:406 267 529 948
‘708 | 0:376 649 072 449 ‘758 | 0-406 879 477 | 612,255
‘709 | 0-377 246 521 734 759 | 0-407 491 732 564
‘710 | 0-377 844 255 | 598,019 760 | 0-408 104 296 872
‘711 | 0378 442 274 305 ‘761 | 0-408 717 168 | 613,181
‘712 | 0-379 040 579 592 ‘762 | 0-409 330 349 491
‘713 | 0-379 639 171 879 ‘763 | 0-409 943 840 801
‘714 | 0-380 238 050 | 599,166 ‘764 | 0-410 557 641 | 614,110
‘715 | 0-380 837 216 452 ‘765 | 0-411 171 751 421
‘716 | 0-381 436 668 740 ‘766 | 0411 786 172 733
‘717 | 0:382 036 408 | 600,029 ‘767 | 0-412 400 905 | 615,046
‘718 | 0:382 636 437 319 ‘768 | 0-413 015 951 356
‘719 | 0383 236 756 608 ‘769 | 0:413 631 307 668
‘720 | 0-383 837 364 898 ‘770 | 0:414 246 975 983
‘721 | 0:384 438 262 | 601,188 ‘771 | 0-414 862 958 | 616,297
‘722, | 0385 039 450 478 ‘772, | 0-415 479 255 610
‘723 | 0:385 640 928 770 ‘773 | 0-416 095 865 925
‘724 | 0:386 242 698 | 602,062 ‘774 | 0-416 712 790 | 617,239
‘725 | 0:386 844 760 354 ‘775 | 0-417 330 029 557
726 | 0-387 447 114 647 ‘776 | 0417 947 586 871
‘727 | 0388 049 761 940 ‘777 | 0-418 565 457 | 618,188
‘728 | 0388 652 701 | 603,233 ‘778 | 0-419 183 645 504
‘729 | 0:389 255 934 527 ‘779 | 0-419 802 149 822
‘730 | 0°389 859 461 822 ‘730 | 0-420 420 971 | 619,140
‘731 | 0:390 463 283 | 604,116 ‘781 | 0-421 040 111 458
-732 | 0:391 067 399 412 ‘782 | 0-421 659 569 177
‘733 | 0°391 671 811 708 ‘783 | 0-422 279 346 | 620,097
‘734 | 0°392 276 519 | 605,005 784 | 0-422 899 443 417
‘735 | 0°392 881 524 301 ‘785 | 0-423 519 860 736
‘736 | 0:393 486 825 598 786 | 0:424 140 596 | 621,057
‘737 | 0:394 092 423 897 ‘787 | 0-424 761 653 379
‘738 | 0:394 698 320 | 606,194 ‘788 | 0-425 883 032 701
739 | 5:395 304 514 493 ‘789 | 0:426 004 733 | 622,022
‘740 | 0:395 911 007 792 ‘790 | 0-426 626 755 345
‘741 | 0-396 617 799 | 607,091 ‘791 | 0-427 249 100 668
‘742 | 0-397 124 890 391 ‘792, | 0:427 871 768 992
‘743 | 0:397 732 281 692 ‘793 | 0:428 494 760 | 623,315
‘744 | 0:398 339 973 994 794 | 0-429 118 075 640
‘745 | 0-398 947 967 | 608,295 ‘795 | 0:429 741 715 966
‘746 | 0-399 556 262 597 ‘796 | 0-430 365 681 | 624,291
‘747 | 0-400 164 859 899 ‘797 | 0-430 989 972 616
‘748 | 0-400 773 758 | 609,201 ‘798 | 0-431 614 588 944
‘749 | 0-401 382 959 504 ‘799 | 0:432 239 532 | 625,270
“750 0°401 992 463 808 -800 0-432 864 802 598
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
237
z Iz Difference x Ir Difference
‘800 | 0-432 864 802 | 625,598 ‘850 | 0-464 555 845 | 642,585
“801 | 0:433 490 400 | 625,926 ‘851 | 0-465 198 430 | 642,938
802 | 0-434 116 326 | 626,254 852 | 0-465 841 368 | 643,291
‘803 | 0-434 742 580 583 ‘853 | 0-466 484 659 645
804 | 0:435 369 163 912 ‘854 | 0-467 128 304 999
805 | 0-435 996 075 | 627,242 855 | 0-467 772 303 | 644,353
806 | 0-436 623 317 571 ‘856 | 0-468 416 656 707
‘807 | 0-437 250 888 904 ‘857 | 0-469 061 363 | 645,063
808 | 0:437 878 792 | 628,234 ‘858 | 0-469 706 426 418
809 | 0-438 507 026 567 859 | 0:470 351 844 715
‘810 | 0-489 135 593 898 ‘860 | 0:470 997 619 | 646,132
‘811 | 0-439 764 491 | 629,231 ‘861 | 0-471 643 751 489
812 | 0-440 393 722 565 ‘862 | 0-472 290 240 847
813. | 0:441 023 287 898 ‘863 | 0-472 937 087 | 647,204
‘814 | 0-441 653 185 | 630,233 864 | 0-473 584 291 563
‘815 | 0-442 283 418 567 865 | 0-474 231 854 922
‘816 | 0:442 913 985 901 866 | 0-474 879 776 | 648,282
817 | 0-443 544 886 | 631,237 867 | 0-475 528 058 643
818 | 0-444 176 123 573 868 | 0-476 176 701 | 649,004
819 | 0-444 807 696 911 869 | 0:476 825 703 364
820 | 0-445 439 607 | 632,248 870 | 0-477 475 069 725
821 | 0-446 071 855 584 ‘871 | 0-478 124 794 | 650,089
822 | 0-446 704 439 923 ‘872 | 0:478 774 883 451
823 | 0-447 337 362 | 633,262 873 | 0-479 425 334 814
824 | 0-447 970 624 599 ‘874 | 0-480 076 148 | 651,178
825 | 0-448 604 223 941 ‘875 | 0-480 727 326 542
826 | 0-449 238 164 | 634,281 ‘876 | 0-481 378 868 906
827 | 0-449 872 445 620 ‘877 | 0-482 030 774 | 652,272
828 | 0-450 507 065 961 878 | 0-482 683 046 638
829 | 0-451 142 026 | 635,303 879 | 0-483 336 684 | 653,004
830 | 0-451 777 329 646 880 | 0-483 988 688 371
831 | 0-452 412 975 986 ‘881 | 0-484 642 059 738
832 | 0-453 048 961 | 636,330 882 | 0-485 295 797 | 654,105
‘833 | 0-453 685 291 673 ‘883 | 0-485 949 902 473
834 | 0-454 321 964 | 637,018 884 | 0-486 604 375 843
835 | 0-454 958 982 362 ‘885 | 0-487 259 218 | 655,212
‘836 | 0:455 596 344 707 ‘886 | 0-487 914 430 582
837 | 0-456 234 051 | 638,052 887 | 0-488 570 012 952
838 | 0:456 872 1038 398 888 | 0-489 225 964 | 656,322
839 | 0-457 510 501 744 ‘889 | 0-489 882 286 693
840 | 0-458 149 245 | 639,091 ‘890 | 0-490 538 979 | 657,066
‘841 | 0:458 788 336 439 ‘891 | 0-491 196 045 438
842 | 0-459 427 775 786 ‘892 | 0-491 853 483 810
843 | 0-460 067 561 | 640,135 ‘893 | 0:492 511 293 | 658,184
844 | 0-460 707 696 483 894 | 0-493 169 477 559
845 | 0-461 348 179 833 895 | 0:493 828 036 932
846 | 0-461 989 012 | 641,183 ‘896 | 0:494 486 968 | 659,306
847. | 0-462 680 195 533 897 | 0-495 146 274 681
848 | 0-463 271 728 883 898 | 0-495 805 955 | 660,058
849 | 0-463 913 611 | 642,934 899 | 0-496 466 013 435
850 | 0-464 555 8465 585 ‘900 | 0-497 126 448 811
238 REPORT—1893.
x Ia Difference x Iz Difference
900 | 0-497 126 448 | 660,811 ‘950 | 0-530 639 310 | 680,309
‘901 | 0-497 787 259 | 661,188 ‘951 | 0-531 319 619 | 680,712
‘902 | 0-498 448 447 566 ‘952 | 0-532 000 331 | 681,116
‘903 | 0-499 110 013 945 ‘953 | 0-532 681 447 520
‘904 | 0-499 771 958 | 662,323 ‘954 | 0°533 362 967 925
‘905 | 0:500 434 281 703 955 | 0-534 044 892 | 682,330
‘906 | 0:501 096 984 | 663,082 956 | 0-534 727 222 737
‘907 | 0501 760 066 464 ‘957 | 0-535 409 959 | 683,143
‘908 | 0-502 423 530 844 ‘958 | 0-536 092 102 549
‘909 | 0-503 087 374 | 664,225 ‘959 | 0-536 776 651 957
‘910 | 0:503 751 599 608 ‘960 | 0:537 460 608 | 684,365
‘911 | 0-504 416 207 990 ‘961 | 0-538 144 973 774.
‘912 | 0:505 081 197 | 665,372 ‘962 | 0-538 829 747 | 685,183
913 | 0:505 746 569 756 ‘963 | 0:539 514 930 592
‘914 | 0-506 412 325 | 666,141 964 | 0-540 200 522 | 686,003
‘915 | 0:507 078 466 525 ‘965 | 0:540 886 525 413
‘916 | 0-507 744 991 910 ‘966 | 0541 572 938 824
‘917 | 0-508 411 901 | 667,295 967 | 0-542 259 762 | 687,235
‘918 | 0:509 079 196 682 968 | 0-542 946 997 647
‘919 | 0509 746 878 | 668,068 969 | 0-543 634 644 | 688,061
‘920 | 0510 414 946 456 ‘970 | 0-544 322 705 475
‘921 | 0511 083 401 842 ‘971 | 0:545 011 180 885
‘922 | 0511 752 243 | 669,230 972 | 0-545 700 065 | 689,303
‘923 | 0:512 421 473 619 ‘973 | 0:546 389 368 717
‘924 | 0-513 091 092 | 670,010 ‘974 | 0-547 079 085 | 690,133
‘925 | 0-513 761 102 400 ‘975 | 0547 769 218 548
926 | 0-514 431 502 787 ‘976 | 0-548 459 766 964
‘927 | 0-515 102 289 | 671,179 ‘977 | 0:549 150 730 | 691,383
‘928 | 0:515 773 468 571 ‘978 | 0549 842 113 799
‘929 | 0516 445 039 962 ‘979 | 0:550 583 912 | 692,217
‘930 | 0:517 117 001 | 672,354 ‘980 | 0-551 226 129 636
‘931 | 0-517 789 353 746 ‘981 | 0:551 918 765 | 693,056
932 | 0-518 462 101 | 673,141 982 | 0:552 611 821 474
933 | 0-519 135 242 535 983 | 0:553 305 295 896
‘934 | 0-519 808 777 929 ‘984 | 0-553 999 191 | 694,316
‘935 | 0:520 482 706 | 674,324 985 | 0:554 693 507 737
‘936 | 0:521 157 030 718 ‘986 | 0-555 388 244 | 695,168
‘937 | 0-521 831 748 | 675,115 ‘987 | 0-556 083 402 583
‘938 | 0522 506 863 510 988 | 0556 778 985 | 696,004
‘939 | 0:523 182 373 909 ‘989 | 0-557 474 989 498
940 | 0-523 858 282 | 676,306 990 | 0-558 171 417 851
‘941 | 0524 534 588 703 ‘991 | 0-558 868 268 | 697,277
‘942 | 0-525 211 291 | 677,102 -992 | 0°559 B65 545 702
‘943 | 0:525 888 393 502 ‘993 | 0-560 263 247 | 698,125
‘944 | 0526 565 895 899 994 | 0°560 961 372 5B
‘945 | 0°527 243 794 | 678,302 995 | 0561 659 927 979
946 | 0527 922 096 701 ‘996 | 0:562 358 906 | 699,408
‘947 | 0:528 600 797 | 679,103 ‘997 | 0-563 058 314 834
‘948 | 0°529 279 900 504 ‘998 | 0563 758 148 | 700,264
‘949 | 0-529 959 404 906 999 | 0-564 458 412 692
‘950 | 0:530 639 310 | 680,309 1000 | 0-565 159 104 | 701,122
|
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 239
o Iz Difference ze Ir Difference
1-000 | 0-565 159 104 | 701,122 1-050 | 0-600 752 614 | 723,292
1-001 | 0-565 860 226 | 701,552 1:051 | 0601 475 906 | 723,750
1:002 | 0566 561 778 981 1:052 | 0-602 199 656 | 724.208
1003 | 0567 263 759 | 702,413 1:053 | 0-602 923 864 668
1-004 | 0-567 966 172 845 1:054 | 0603 648 532 | 725,126
1:005 | 0568 669 017 | 703,277 1:055 | 0-604 373 658 585
1:006 | 0-569 372 294 709 1056 | 0-605 099 243 | 726,046
1:007 | 0-570 076 003 | 704,142 1-057 | 0605 825 289 508
1:008 | 0-570 780 145 577 1:058 | 0-606 551 797 969
1:009 | 0:571 484 722 | 705,011 1:059 | 0-607 278 766 | 727,430
1010 | 0-572 189 733 444 || 1-060 | 0608 006 196 895
“L011 =| 0572 895 177 882 || 1-061 | 0-608 734 091 | 728,356
1-012 | 0-573 601 059 | 706,317 | 1-062 | 0-609 462 447 819
1:013 | 0-574 307 376 754 1:063 | 0-610 191 266 | 729,286
1-014 | 0-575 014 130 | 707,191 1:064 | 0-610 920 552 750
1015 | 0575 721 321 628 | 1-065 | 0-611 650 302 | 730,215
1016 | 0-576 428 949 | 708,066 | 1:066 | 0-612 380 517 681
1017 | 0-577 137 015 506 1-067 | 0613 111 198 | 731,149
1018 | 0-577 845 521 944 1-068 | 0-613 842 347 614
1-019 | 0-578 554 465 | 709,382 1:069 | 0614 573 961 | 732,082
1:020 | 0-579 263 847 825 1:070 | 0-615 306 043 552
1-021 | 0°579 973 672 | 710,267 || 1-071 | 0-616 038 595 | 733,019
1:022 | 0-580 683 939 706 || 1-072 | 0-616 771 614 491
1:023 -| 0-581 394 644 | 711,148 || 1-073 | 0-617 505 105 959
1-024 | 0:582 105 792 592 || 1-074 | 0-618 239 064 | 734,432
1:025 | 0582 817 384 | 712,035 || 1-075 | 0-618 973 496 900
1-026 | 0-583 529 419 477 | 1-076 | 0-619 708 396 | 735,373
1-027 | 0584 241 896 923 | 1-077 | 0-620 443 769 846
1028 | 0-584 954 819 | 713,367 || 1-078 | 0-621 179 615 | 736,317
1:029 | 0:585 668 186 811 || 1079 | 0621 915 932 792
1-030 | 0:586 381 997 | 714,259 || 1-080 | 0-622 652 724 | 737,266
1-031 | 0:587 096 256 705 || 1-081 | 0-623 389 990 740
1-032 | 0587 810 961 | 715,151 1:082 | 0:624 127 730 | 738,217
1-033 | 0:588 526 112 599 || 1083 | 0-624 865 947 692
1034 | 0589 241 711 | 716,048 || 1-084 | 0-625 604 639 | 739,167
1:035 | 0-589 957 759 495 1:085 | 0626 343 806 645
1036 | 0590 674 254 944 1-086 | 0627 083 451 | 740,122
1:037 | 0-591 391 198 | 717,395 1087 | 0627 823 573 600
1:038 | 0-592 108 593 845 || 1-088 | 0-628 564173 | 741,079
1039 | 0-592 826 438 | 718,296 1089 | 0-629 305 252 558
1:040 | 0-593 544 734 747 1:090 | 0-630 046 810 | 742,038
1:041 | 0:594 263 481 | 719,201 1:091 | 0630 788 848 518
1:042 | 0-594 982 682 651 1:092 | 0-631 531 366 999
1-043 | 0:595 702 333 | 720,105 1:093 | 0-632 274 365 | 743,481
1-044 | 0:596 422 438 560 1:094 | 0-633 017 846 963
1:045 | 0597 142 998 | 721,011 1-095 | 0-633 761 809 | 744,445
1:046 | 0-597 864 009 468 1:096 | 0-634 506 254 930
1:047 | 0°598 585 477 923 1:097 | 0635 251 184 | 745,413
1-048 | 0599 307 400 | 722,378 1:098 | 0-635 996 597 896 |
1:049 | 0-600 029 778 836 1:099 | 0636 742 493 | 746,383
1050 | 0600 752 614 | 723,292 1100 | 0637 488 876 869
——— eee
REPORT—1893.
az le Difference . x Izv Difference
1100 | 0-637 488 876 | 746,869 || 1-150 | 0-675 439 326 | 771,897
1101 | 0-638 235 745 | 747,354 || 1151 | 0-676 211 223 | 772,413
1:102 | 0:638 983 099 839 || 1152 | 0-676 983 636 929
1:103 | 0-639 730 938 | 748,329 || 1:153 | 0-677 756 565 | 773,447
1104 | 0-640 479 267 817 || 1:154 | 0-678 530 012 964
1:105 | 0-641 228 084 | 749,303. || 1:155 | 0-679 303 976 | 774,482
1:106 | 0:641 977 387 794 1:156 | 0-680 078 458 | 775,000
1107 | 0°642 727 181 | 750,282 || 1-157 | 0-680 853 458 522
1:108 | 0-643 477 463 775 +|| 1:158 | 0-681 628 980 | 776,039
1109 | 0-644 228 238 | 751,265 || 1-159 | 0-682 405 019 563
1110 | 0-644 979 503 755 || 1-160 | 0-683 181 582 | 777,081
1111 | 0-645 731 258 | 752,248 || 1:161 | 0°683 958 663 605
1112 | 0-646 483 506 740 +|| 1:162 | 0-684 736 268 | 778,127
1113 | 0-647 236 246 | 753,233 || 1163 | 0-685 514 395 649
1114 | 0-647 989 479 728 || 1164 | 0-686 293 O44 | 779,174
1115 | 0-648 743 207 | 754,221 || 1:165 | 0-687 072 218 698
1:116 | 0-649 497 428 117 | 1:166 | 0-687 851 916 | 780,222
1:117 | 0-650 252 145 | 755,212 || 1-167 | 0-688 632 13 TAT
1118 | 0-651 007 357 709 || 1-168 | 0-689 412 885 | 781,274
1-119 | 0-651 763 066 | 756,204 || 1:169 | 0-690 194 159 801
1120 | 0-652 519 270 702 ~+'|| 1170 | 0-690 975 960 | 782,329
“1-121 | 0653 275 972 | 757,200 1171 | 0-691 758 289 855
1:122 | 0-654 033 172 699 || 1:172 | 0-692 541 144 | 783,384
1123 | 0-654 790 871 | 758,198 || 1:173 | 0-693 324 528 914
1124 | 0-655 549 069 697 1174 | 0-694 108 442 | 784,443
1:125 | 0-656 307 766 | 759,197 1175 | 0-694 892 885 974
1126 | 0:657 066 963 698 1:176 | 0-695 677 859 | 785,504
1:127 | 0°657 826 661 | 760,200 1177 | 0-696 463 363 | 786,036
1128 | 0-658 586 861 703 1178 | 0-697 249 399 569
1:129 | 0-659 347 564 | 761,205 1179 | 0-698 035 968 | 787,100
1130 | 0-660 108 769 706 1:180 | 0-698 823 068 635
1131 | 0-660 870 475 | 762,212 | 1181 | 0-699 610 703 | 788,170
1:132 | 0:661 632 687 715 1:182 | 0:700 398 873 703
1:133 | 0-662 395 402 | 763,222 1:183 | 0-701 187 576 | 789,239
1:134 | 0-663 158 624 727 1:184 | 0-701 976 815 115
1:135 | 0-663 922 351 | 764,233 1185 | 0:702 766 590 | 790,311
1:136 | 0-664 686 584 738 1186 | 0:703 556 901 849
1:137 | 0-665 451 322 | 765,247 1:187 | 0-704 347 750 | 791,385
1:138 | 0-666 216 569 755 1:188 | 0-705 139 135 924
1:139 | 0-666 982 324 | 766,264 1:189 | 0-705 931 059 | 792,465
1140 | 0-667 748 588 773 1190 | 0:706 723 524 | 793,008
1141 | 0-668 515 361 | 767,281 1:191 | 0-707 516 527 544
1142 | 0-669 282 642 794 1192 | 0-708 310 071 | 794,084
1:143 | 0-670 050 436 | 768,302 1193 | 0-709 104 155 626
1:144 | 0-670 818 738 817 1194 | 0-709 898 781 | 795,168
1145 | 0-671 587 555 | 769,327 1:195 | 0:710 693 949 709
1146 | 0-672 356 882 840 1:196 | 0-711 489 658 | 796,254
1:147 | 0-673 126 722 | 770,354 1197 | 0-712 285 912 799
1148 | 0-673 897 076 868 1198 | 0-713 082 711 | 797,343
1:149 | 0-674 667 944 | 771,382 1:199 | 0:713 880 054 888
15150 | 0-675 439 326 897 1-200 | 0-714 677 942 | 798,433
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
241
or Iz Difference x Iz Difference
1200 | 0-714 677 942 | 798,433 1-250 | 0-755 281 420 | 926,532
1:201 | 0-715 476 375 | 798,980 1:251 | 0:756 107 952 | 827,110
1:202 | 0-716 275 355 | 799,628 1:252 | 0756 935 062 690
1:203 | 0-717 074 883 | 800,075 1:253 | 0-757 762 752 | 828,270
1:204 | 0-717 874 958 623 1:254 | 0-758 591 022 849
1:205 | 0-718 675 681 | 801,172 1:255 | 0-759 419 871 | 829,431
1:206 | 0-719 476 753 722 1:256 | 0-760 249 302 | 830,012
1:207 | 0-720 278 475 | 802,272 1:257 | 0-761 079 314 594
1:208 | 0-721 080 747 823 1:258 | 0761 909 908 | 831,177
1:209 | 0-721 883 570 | 803,374 1:259 | 0-762 741 085 761
1-210 | 0-722 686 944 927 1260 | 0:763 572 846 | 832,346
“1-211 | 0-723 490 871 804,480 1-261 | 0-764 405 192 931
1:212 | 0-724 295 351 | 805,033 1:262 | 0-765 238 123 | 833,514
1:213 | 0:725 100 384 586 1:263 | 0-766 071 637 | 834,100
1:214 | 0-725 905 970 | 806,140 1:264 | 0-766 905 737 688
1:215 | 0-726 712 110 697 1:265 | 0-767 740 425 | 835,277
1:216 | 0-727 618 807 | 807,254 1-266 | 0-768 575 702 864
1-217 | 0-728 326 061 808 1:267 | 0-769 411 566 | 836,453
1-218 | 0-729 133 869 | 808,366 1268 | 0-770 248 019 | 837,040
1-219 | 0-729 942 235 925 1:269 | 0-771 085 059 632
1-220 0:730 751 160 809,483 1:270 0-771 922 691 838,223
1-221 | 0:731 560 643 | 810,042 1271 | 0-772 760 914 815
1:222 | 0-732 370 685 600 1:272 | 0-773 599 729 | 839,406
1:223 | 0-733 181 285 | 811,162 1:273 | 0-774 439 135 998
1-224 | 0-733 992 447 723 1:274 | 0-775 279 133 | 840,592
1:225 | 0-734 804170 | 812,284 1:275 | 0-776 119 725 | 841,186
1:226 | 0-735 616 454 846 1:276 | 0-776 960 911 782
1-227 | 0-736 429 300 | 813,410 1:277 | 0-777 802 693 | 842,377
1:228 | 0:737 242 710 973 1:278 | 0-778 645 070 972
1-229 | 0-738 056 683 | 814,536 1:279 | 0-779 488 042 | 843,568
1:230 | 0-738 871 219 | 815,104 1:280 | 0-780 331 610 | 844,166
1:231 | 0:739 686 323 666 1:281 | 0-781 175 776 765
1-232 | 0-740 501 989 | 816,233 1:282 | 0-782 020 541 | 845,364
1-233 | 0:741 318 222 800 1:283 | 0-782 865 905 961
1:234 | 0-742 135 022 | 817,368 1:284 | 0-783 711 866 | 846,561
1:235 | 0-742 952 390 935 1:285 | 0-784 558 427 | 847,164
1-236 | 0-743 770 325 | 818,504 1:286 | 0°785 405 591 765
1-237 | 0-744 588 829 | 819,073 1:287 | 0:786 253 356 | 848,366
1:238 | 0-745 407 902 643 1:288 | 0787 101 722 969
1:239 | 0-746 227 545 | 820,213 1:289 | 0:787 950 691 | 849,572
1:240 | 0-747 047 758 785 1:290 | 0-788 800 263 | 850,176
1-241 | 0:747 868-543 | 821,357 1-291 | 0-789 650 439 781
1:242 | 0-748 689 900 930 1:292 | 0-790 501 220 | 851,387
1243 | 0-749 511 830 | 822,503 1:293 | 0-791 352 607 992
1:244 | 0-750 334 333 | 823,076 1:294 | 0792 204 599 | 852,599
1:245 | 0-751 157 409 651 1:295 | 0:798 057 198 | 853,206
1:246 | 0-751 981 060 | 824,225 1:296 | 0-793 910 404 814
1:247 | 0752 805 285 802 1:297 | 0-794 764 218 |. 854,423
1:248 | 0-753 630 087 | 825,378 1:298 | 0-795 618 641 | 855,032
1:249 | 0-754 455 465 955 1:299 | 0:796 473 673 641
1:250 | 0-755 281 420 | 826,532 1300 | 0:797 329 314 | 856,253
BR
242 REPORT—1893.
a Iz Difference x Ix Difference
1:300 | 0-797 329 314 | 856,253 1350 | 0-840 904 230 | 887,659
1301 | 0:798 185 567 | 856,865 1351 | 0-841 791 889 | 888,304
1-302 | 0-799 042 432 | 857,476 1:352 | 0:842 680 193 949
1:303 | 0-799 899 908 | 858,089 1353 | 0-843 569 142 | 889,597
1:304 | 0:800 757 997 703 1:354 | 0844 458 739 | 890,244
1:305 | 0801 616 700 | 859,317 1355 | 0:845 348 983 895
1:306 | 0:802 476 017 931 1:356 | 0-846 239 878 | 891,541
1:307 | 0-803 335 948 | 860,547 1357. | 0-847 131 419 | 892,192
1:308 | 0-804 196 495 | 861,164 1:358 | 0-848 023 611 843
1:309 | 0-805 057 659 779 1359 | 0-848 916 454 | 393,495
1310 | 0-805 919 438 | 862,397 1:360 | 0-849 809 949 | 894,147
“1311 | 0-806 781 835 | 863,015 1361 | 0-850 704 096 799
1312 | 0-807 644 850 633 1:362 | 0:851 598 895 | 895,453
1313 | 0-808 508 483 | 864,254 1:363 | 0-852 494 348 | 896,108
1:314 | 0-809 372 737 875 1364 | 0:853 390 456 761
1:315 | 0-810 237 612 | 865,493 1:365 | 0-854 287 217 | 897,417
1316 | 0-811 103 105 | 866,117 1366 | 0-855 184 634 | 898,073
1317. | 0-811 969 222 738 1:367 | 0:856 082 707 732
1318 | 0-812 835 960 | 867,362 1368 | 0-856 981 439 | 899,388
1:319 | 0-813 703 322 985 1:369 | 0-857 880 827 | 900,045
1:320 | 0-814 571 307 | 868,610 1370 | 0-858 780 872 707
1321 | 0815 439 917 | 869,234 1:371 | 0:859 681 579 | 901,367
1322 | 0:816 309 151 859 1-372 | 0-860 582 946 | 902,025
1323 | 0817 179 010 | 870,486 1:373 | 0-861 484 971 687
1:324 | 0818 049 496 | 871,113 1:374 | 0-862 387 658 | 903,349
1:325 | 0-818 920 609 742 1375 | 0-868 291 007 | 904,012
1:326 | 0-819 792 351 | 872,368 1376 | 0:864 195 019 676
1:327 | 0-820 664 719 999 1377 | 0-865 099 695 | 905,341
1-328 | 0-821 587 718 | 873,627 1:378 | 0-866 005 036 | 906,005
1:329 | 0-822 411 345 | 874,258 1:379 | 0-866 911 041 669
1:330 | 0:823 285 603 890 | 1380 | 0867 817 710 | 907,336
1331 | 0-824 160 493 | 875,522 1381 | 0-868 725 046 | 908,004
1:332 | 0-825 036 015 | 876,154 1:382 | 0-869 633 050 670
1:333 | 0:825 912 169 786 1:383 | 0870 541 720 | 909,340
1:334 | 0-826 788 955 | 877,422 1:384 | 0-871 451 060 | 910,008
1:335 | 0:827 666 377 | 878,057 1:385 | 0-872 361 068 678
1:336 | 0:828 544 434 689 1386 | 0:873 271 746 | 911,349
1337 | 0-829 423 123 | 879,328 1:387 | 0874 183 095 | 912,020
1:338 | 0:830 302 451 962 1:388 | 0:875 095 115 693
1339 | 0-831 182 413 | 880,602 1:389 | 0-876 007 808 | 913,364
1:340 | 0-832 063 015 | 881,238 1:390 | 0-876 921 172 | 914,040
1341 | 0-832 944 253 879 1:391 | 0-877 835 212 712
1342 | 0-833 826 132 | 882,516 1:392 | 0-878 749 924 | 915,387
1:343 | 0-834 708 648 | 883,157 1:393 | 0-879 665 311 | 916,063
1:344 | 0-835 591 805 799 1:394 | 0-880 581 374 740
1:345 | 0-836 475 604 | 884,439 1:395 | 0881 498 114 | 917,416
1:346 | 0-837 360 043 | 885,082 1396 | 0-882 415 530 | 918,095
1:347 | 0-838 245 125 724 1:397 | 0:883 333 625 772
1348 | 0-839 130 849 | 886,369 1:398 | 0884 252 397 | 919,458
1349 | 0-840 017 218 | 887,012 1:399 | 0-885 171 850 | 920,131
1:350 | 0-840 904 230 659 ~‘|| 1-400 | 0-886 091 981 813
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
243
Difference
as Ir Difference a Ir
1-400 | 0-886 091 981 | 920,813 1-450 | 0-932 981 780 | 955,788
1-401 | 0-887 012 794 | 921,495 1-451 | 0-933 937 568 | 956,507
1:402 | 0-887 934 289 | 922,176 1-452 | 0-934 894 075 | 957,226
1:403 | 0-888 856 465 859 1:453 | 0-935 851 301 946
1-404 | 0-889 779 324 | 923,542 1:454 | 0-936 809 247 | 958,666
1-405 | 0890 702 866 | 924,998 1:455 | 0-937 767 913 | 959,388
1:406 | 0-891 627 094 913 1-456 | 0-938 727 301 | 960,111
1:407 | 0-892 552 007 | 925,597 1:457 | 0-939 687 412 834
1-408 | 0-893 477 604 | 926,284 1458 | 0-940 648 246 | 961,559
1-409 | 0:894 403 888 972 1-459 | 0-941 609 805 | 962,282
1410 | 0-895 330 860 | 927,660 1-460 | 0-942 572 087 | 963,008
1-411 | 0-896 258 520 | 928,349 1-461 | 0-943 535 095 732
1-412 | 0:897 186 869 | 929,039 1:462 | 0:944 498 827 | 964,462
1-413. | 0-898 115 908 728 1:463 | 0-945 463 289 | 965,189
1-414 | 0:899 045 636 | 930,418 1-464 | 0-946 428 478 917
1-415 | 0-899 976 054 | 931,112 1:465 | 0-947 394 395 | 966,648
1:416 | 0:900 907 166 802 1-466 | 0:948 361 043 | 967,374
1-417 | 0-901 8388 968 | 932,498 1:467 | 0-949 328 417 | 968,108
1-418 | 0-902 771 466 | 933,190 1-468 | 0-950 296 525 838
1-419 | 0-903 704 656 884 1-469 | 0-951 265 363 | 969,572
1:420 | 0-904 638 540 | 934,581 1-470 | 0-952 234 935 | 970,304
1421 | 0905 573 121 | 935,277 1-471 | 0-953 205 239 | 971,039
1:422 | 0906 508 398 973 1-472 | 0-954 176 278 773
1-423 | 0-907 444 371 | 936,670 1-473 | 0-955 148.051 | 972,506
1-424 | 0-908 381 041 | 937.370 1-474 | 0-956 120 557 | 973,244
1-425 | 0-909 318 411 | 938,069 1-475 | 0-957 093 801 981
1:426 | 0-910 256 480 767 1:476 | 0-958 067 782 | 974,720
1-427 | 0-911 195 247 | 939,469 1:477 | 0-959 042502 | 975,457
1-428 | 0-912 134 716 | 940,171 1-478 | 0-960 017 959 | 976,196
1-429 | 0-913 074 887 871 1:479 | 0-960 994 155 937
1-480 | 0°914 015 758 | 941,575 1:480 | 0:961 971 092 | 977,678
1-431 | 0-914 957 333 | 942,978 1-481 | 0:962 948 770 | 978,420
1-432 | 0-915 899 611 982 1:482 | 0-963 927 190 | 979,160
1-433 | 0-916 842 593 | 943,689 1-483 | 6964 906 350 905
1-434 | 0-917 786 282 | 944,393 1:484 | 0-965 886 255 | 980,647
1-435 | 0-918 730 675 | 945,099 1-485 | 0-966 866 902 | 981,393
1-436 | 0-919 675 774 808 1-486 | 0-967 848 295 | 982,140
1-437 | 0-920 621 582 | 946,515 1-487 | 0-968 830 435 883
1-438 | 0-921 568 097 | 947,293 1-488 | 0-969 813 318 | 983,633
1-439 | 0-922 515 320 935 1:489 | 0-970 796 951 | 984,379
1-440 | 0-923 463 255 | 948,645 1-490 | 0971 781 330 | 985,129
1441 | 0-924 411 900 | 949,353 1:491 | 0-972 766 459 876
1-442 | 0-925 361 253 | 950,068 1:492 | 0-973 752 335 | . 986,629
1-443 | 0-926 311 321 7719 1-493 | 0-974 738 964 | 987,379
1-444 | 0927 262 100 | 951,493 1-494 | 0-975 726 343 | 988,131
1445 | 0:928 213 592 | 952,206 1:495 | 0-976 714 474 881
1-446 | 0-929 165 799 921 1-496 | 0977 703 355 | 989,637
1-447 | 0-930 118 720 | 953,636 1:497 | 0-978 692 992 | 990,390
1-448 | 0-931 072 356 | 954,353 1:498 | 0-979 683 382 | 991,145
1449 | 0-932 026 709 | 955,071 1-499 | 0-980 674 527 901
1450 | 0-932 981 7x0 | 788 1500 | 0-981 666 428 | 992,657
ee
R 2
244 REPORT—1893.
x Iz Difference x Iz Difference
1:500 0-981 666 428 992,657 1:550 1-032 242 518 | 1,031,498
1-501 0:982 659 O85 993,416 1551 1:033 274 016 | 1,032,296
1°502 0983 652 501 994,173 1:552 1:034 306 312 | 1,033,095
1:503 0-984 646 674 931 1°553 1:035 339 407 893
1:504 0:985 641 605 995,691 1:554 1:036 373 300 1,034,693
1505 0:986 637 296 996,451 1:555 1:037 407 993 1,035,495
1506 0:987 633 747 997,212 1:556 1:038 443 488 1,036,295
1-507 0-988 630 959 975 1:557 1039 479 783 1,037,098
1-508 0:989 628 934 998,737 1:558 1:040 516 881 901
1-509 0-990 627 671 999,499 1-559 1:041 554 782 1,038,706
1-510 0:991 627 170 1,000,266 1560 1:042 593 488 1,039,511
1511 0992 627 436 1,001,031 1561 1-043 632 999 1,040,317
1512 0'993 628 467 796 1562 | 1:044 675 316 1,041,122
1513 0:994 630 263 1,002,563 1:563 1:045 714 438 930
1-514 0:995 632 826 1,003,330 1564 1:046 756 368 1,042,738
1515 0:996 636 156 1,004,099 1:565 1:047 799 106 1,043,547
1516 0°997 640 255 868 1566 1:048 842 653 1,044,357
1517 0:998 645 123 1,005,639 1:567 1:049 887 010 1,045,169
1518 0:999 650 762 1,006,409 1-568 1:050 932 179 980
1519 1:000 657 171 1,007,180 1569 1:051 978 159 1,046,792
1-520 1:001 664 351 953 1570 1:053 024 951 1,047,604
1521 1002 672 304 1,008,726 1571 1:054 072 555 1,048,419
1522 1:003 681 030 1,009,498 1:572 1:055 120 974 1,049,235
1523 | 1:004 690 528 1,010,275 1573 1:056 170 209 1,050,051
1524 1:005 700 803 1,011,049 1574 1:057 220 260 866
1525 1:006 711 852 826 1575 1:058 271 126 1,051,683
1526 1:007 723 678 1,012,605 1576 1:059 322 809 1,052,502
1527 1:008 736 283 1,013,382 1577 1:060 375 311 1,053,322
1528 1:009 749 665 1,014,159 1-578 1-061 428 633 1,054,140
1529 1010 763 824 941 1579 1:062 482 773 962
1-530 1011 778 765 1,015,720 1580 1:063 537 735 1,055,784
1531 | 1-012 794 485 | 1,016,500 || 1:581 | 1-064 593 519 | 1,056,605
1532 | 1-013-810 985 | 1,017,285 || 1:582 | 1-065 650 124 | 1,057,429
1:533 | 1-014 828 270 | 1,018,066 || 1:583 | 1-066 707 553 | 1,058,254
1534 | 1-015 846 336 850 || 1584 | 1-067 765 807 | 1,059,078
1535 | 1-016 865 186 | 1,019,632 || 1:585 | 1-068 824 885 905
1536 | 1-017 884 818 | 1,020,421 || 1586 | 1-069 884 790 | 1,060,731
1:537 | 1-018 905 239 | 1,021,205 || 1587 | 1:070 945 521 | 1,061,558
1538 | 1:019 926 444 992 || 1588 | 1:072 007 079 | 1,062,386
1539 | 1-020 948 436 | 1,022,780 || 1:589 | 1:073 069 465 | 1,063,216
1540 1:021 971 216 1,023,570 1:590 1:074 132 681 1,064,047
| 1-541 1-022 994 786 | 1,024,357 || 1:591 1:075 196 728 877
1542 | 1-024 019 143 | 1,025,148 || 1592 | 1-076 261 605 | 1,065,708
1543 | 1:025 044 291 939 || 1693 | 1:077 327 313 | 1,066,542
1-544 1:026 070 230 1,026,730 1594 1:078 393 855 1,067,374
1545 1:027 096 960 1,027,523 1595 1:079 461 229 1,068,210
1:546 1:028 124 483 1,028,319 1:596 1:080 529 439 1,069,044
1547 1:029 152 802 1,029,109 1:597 1081 598 483 880
1-548 1030 181 911 906 1:598 1:082 668 363 1,070,717
1:549 1031 211 817 1,030,701 || 1:599 1:083 739 080 1,071,555
1,031,498 1-600 1:084 810 635 1,072,393
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
245
z Iv Difference x Iz Difference
1:600 | 1-084 810 635 | 1,072,393 | 1-650 | 1-139 475 574 | 1,115,429
1601 | 1-085 883 028 | 1,073,233 | 1-651 | 1-140 591 003 | 1,116,312
1602 | 1-086 956 261 | 1,074,074 || 1-652 | 1-141 707 315 | 1,117,195
1:603 | 1-088 030 335 914 || 1-653 | 1-142 824 510 | 1,118,081
1:604 | 1-089 105 249 | 1,075,756 || 1654 | 1-143 942 591 967
1:605 | 1-090 181 005 | 1,076,600 || 1:655 | 1-145 061 558 | 1,119,854
1:606 | 1-091 257 605 | 1,077,442 | 1-656 | 1-146 181 412 | 1,120,741
1:607 | 1-092 335 047 | 1,078,288 || 1-657 | 1-147 302 153 | 1,121,630
1:608 | 1-093 413°335 | 1,079,133 || 1-658 | 1-148 423 783 | 1,129,519
1:609 | 1-094 492 468 979 ||-1-659 | 1-149 546 302 | 1,123,410
1610 | 1-095 572 447 | 1,080,826 | 1:660 | 1-150 669 712 | 1,124,300
1611 | 1-096 653 273 | 1,081,675 || 1:661 | 1-151 794 012 | 1,125,192
1612 | 1-097 734 948 | 1,082,523 || 1-662 | 1-152 919 204 | 1,126,087
1:613 | 1-098 817 471 | 1,083,373 || 1:663 | 1-154 045 291 981
1614 | 1-099 900 844 | 1,084,223 | 1-664 | 1:155 172 272 | 1,127,874
1615 | 1-100 985 067 | 1,085,076 | 1:665 | 1-156 300 146 | 1,128,770
1616 | 1-102 070 143 928 | 1:666 | 1-157 428 916 | 1,129,688
1617 | 1-103 156 071 | 1,086,781 || 1-667 | 1-158 558 584 | 1,130,565
1618 | 1-104 242 852 | 1,087,635 || 1-668 | 1-159 689 149 | 1,131,460
1619 | 1-105 330 487 | 1,088,490 || 1:669 | 1-160 820 609 | 1,132,364
1620 | 1-106 418 977 | 1,089,346 || 1:670 | 1-161 952 973 | 1,133,263
1621 | 1:107 508 323 | 1,090,202 || 1-671 | 1-163 086 236 | 1,134,163
1622 | 1-108 598 525 | 1,091,060 || 1-672 | 1-164 220 399 | 1,135,066
1623 | 1/109 689 585 918 || 1-673 | 1-165 355 465 969
1624 | 1-110 781 503 | 1,092,779 || 1-674 | 1-166 491 434 | 1,136,872
1625 | 1-111 874 282 | 1,093,638 || 1-675 | 1-167 628 306 | 1,137,779
1:626 | 1-112 967 920 | 1,094,499 || 1-676 | 1-168 766 085 | 1,138,683
1627 | 1-114 062 419 | 1,095,361 || 1-677 | 1-169 904 768 | 1,139,590
1628 | 1-115 157 780 | 1,096,223 || 1-678 | 1-171 044 358 | 1,140,498
1629 | 1-116 254 003 | 1,097,088 || 1-679 | 1-172 184 856 | 1,141,405
1630 | 1-117 351 091 952 || 1-680 | 1-173 326 261 | 1,142,314
1631 | 1-118 449 043 | 1,098,818 || 1681 -| 1-174 468 575 | 1,143,226
1632 | 1-119 547 861 | 1,099,683 || 1-682 | 1-175 611.801 | 1,144,136
1633 | 1-120 647 544 | 1,100,551 || 1:683 | 1:176 755 937 | 1,145,049
1634 | 1-121 748 095 | 1,101,419 || 1-684 | 1-177 900 986 962
1635 | 1:122 849 514 | 1,102,290 || 1-685 | 1:179 046 948 | 1,146,877
1636 | 1-123 951 804 | 1,103,157 || 1-686 | 1-180 193 825 | 1,147,790
1637 | 1-125 054 961 | 1,104,029 | 1-687 | 1-181 341 615 | 1,148,706
1:638 | 1-126 158 990 900 | 1688 | 1182 490 321 | 1,149,623
1639 | 1:127 263 890 | 1,105,774 | 1-689 | 1-183 639 944 | 1,150,542
1640 | 1:128 369 664 | 1,106,646 || 1:690 | 1-184 790 486 | 1,151,459
1-641 | 1-129 476 310 | 1,107,521 || 1691 | 1-185 941 945 | 1,152,379 _
1642 | 1-130 583 831 | 1,108,395 |} 1-692 | 1-187 094 324 | 1,153,299
1:643 | 1-131 692 226 | 1,109,271 || 1-693 | 1-188 247 623 | 1,154,220
1644 | 1-132 801 497 | 1,110,148 || 1-694 | 1-189 401 943 | 1,155,143
1645 | 1-133 911 645 | 1,111,027 || 1-695 | 1-190 556 986 | 1,156,066
1646 | 1-135 022 672 905 || 1-696 | 1-191 713 052 990
1647 | 1-136 134 577 | 1,112,785 || 1-697 | 1-192 870 042 | 1,157,915
1648 | 1-137 247 362 | 1,113,666 || 1-698 | 1-194 027 957 | 1,158,840
1649 | 1-138 361 028 | 1,114,546 || 1-699 | 1-195 186 797 | 1,159,768
1650 | 1-139 475 574 | 1,115,429 || 1:700 | 1-196 346 565
1,160,695
REPORT—1893.
& Iz Difference ce Ix Difference
1-700 | 1-196 346 565 | 1,160,695 || 1-760 | 1-255 537 513 | 1,208,290
1-701 | 1-197 507 260 | 1,161,625 || 1-751 | 1-256 745 803 | 1,209,265
1-702 | 1-198 668 885 | 1,162,554 || 1-752 | 1-257 955 068 | 1,210,243
1-703 | 1-199 831 439 | 1,163,486 || 1-753 | 1-259 165 311 | 1,211,228
1-704 | 1-200 994 924 | 1,164,417 || 1-754 | 1-260 376 534 | 1,212,202
1-705 | 1-202 159 341 | 1,165,349 || 1-755 | 1-261 588 736 | 1,213,182
1-706 | 1-203 324 690 | 1,166,282 || 1-756 | 1-262 801 918 | 1,214,160
1-707 | 1-204 490 972 | 1,167,217 || 1-757 | 1-264 016 078 | 1,215,145
1-708 | 1-205 658 189 | 1,168,152 || 1-758 | 1-265 231 223 | 1,216,128
1-709 | 1-206 826 341 | 1,169,088 ||| 1-759 | 1-266 447 351 | 1,217,112
1710 | 1-207 995 429 | 1,170,026 || 1-760 | 1-267 664 463 | 1,218,097
L711 | 1-209 165 455 963 || 1-761 | 1-268 882 560 | 1,219,083
1-712 | 1210 336 418 | 1,171,902 || 1-762 | 1-270 101 643 | 1,220,069
1713 | 1-211 508 320 | 1,172,848 |) 1-763 | 1-271 321 712 | 1,221,059
1714 | 1-212 681 163 | 1,173,782 || 1-764 | 1-272 542 771 | 1,222,047
1715 | 1-213 864 945 | 1,174,727 || 1-765 | 1-273 764 818 | 1,223,036
1-716 | 1-215 029 672 | 1,175,667 || 1-766 | 1-274 987 854 | 1,224,029
1-717 | 1-216 205 339 | 1,176,611 || 1-767 | 1-276 211 883 | 1,225,020
1-718 | 1-217 381 950 | 1,177,567 || 1-768 | 1-277 436 903 | 1,226,013
1719 | 1-218 559 507 | 1,178,502 | 1-769 | 1-278 662 916 | 1,227,007
1720 | 1-219 738 009 | 1,179,449 || 1-770 | 1-279 889 923 | 1,228,001
1721 | 1-220 917 458 | 1,180,397 || 1-771 | 1-281 117 924 997
1-722 | 1-222 097 855 | 1,181,344 || 1-772 | 1-282 346 921 | 1,229,995
1723 | 1-223 279 199 | 1,182,294 || 1-773 | 1-283 576 916 | 1,230,993
1-724 | 1-224 461 493 | 1,183,245 || 1-774 | 1-284 807 909 | 1,281,991
1-725 | 1-225 644 738 | 1,184,195 || 1-775 | 1-286 039 900 | 1,232,991
1-726 | 1-226 828 933 | 1,185,148 || 1-776 | 1-287 272 891 | 1,233,992
1-727 | 1-228 014 081 | 1,186,101 || 1:777 | 1-288 506 883 | 1,234,994
1-728 | 1-229 200 182 | 1,187,056 || 1-778 | 1-289 741 877 | 1,235,997
1-729 | 1-230 387 238 | 1,188,011 || 1-779 |. 1-290 977 874 | 1,237,000
1730 | 1-231 575 249 966 || 1-780 | 1-292 214 874 | 1,238,006
1731 | 1-232 764 215 | 1,189,923 || 1-781 | 1-293 452 880 | 1,239,011
1-732 | 1-233 964 138 | 1,190,882 || 1-782 | 1-294 691 891 | 1,240,018
1-733 | 1-235 145 020 | 1,191,841 || 1-783 | 1-295 931 909 | 1,241,026
1-734 | 1-236 336 861 | 1,192,801 || 1-784 | 1-297 172 935 | 1,242,084
1-735 | 1-237 529 662 | 1,193,761 || 1-785 | 1-298 414 969 | 1,243,045
1-736 | 1-238 723 423 | 1,194,723 || 1-786 | 1-299 658 014 | 1,244,055
1-737 | 1-239 918 146 | 1,195,686 || 1-787 | 1-300 902 069 | 1,245,068
1-738 | 1-241 113 832 | 1,196,650 || 1-788 | 1-302 147 137 | 1,246,079
1-739 | 1-242 310 482 | 1,197,614 || 1-789 | 1-303 393 216 | 1,247,094
1-740 | 1-243 508 096 | 1,198,581 || 1-790 | 1-304 640 310 | 1,248,109
1741 | 1-244 706 677 | 1,199,546 || 1-791 | 1-305 888 419 | 1,249,125
1-742 | 1-245 906 223 | 1,200,516 || 1-792 | 1307 137 544 | 1,250,141
1-743 | 1-247 106 738 | 1,201,483 || 1-793 | 1-308 387 685 | 1,251,159
1-744 | 1-248 308 221 | 1,209,452 || 1-794 | 1:309 638 844 | 1,252,178
1-745 | 1-249 510 673 | 1.203423 | 1-795 | 1-310 891 022 | 1,253,198
1-746 | 1-250 714 096 | 1,204,395 | 1-796 | 1-312 144 220 | 1,254,219
1-747 | 1-251 918 491 | 1,205,366 || 1-797 | 1:313 398 439 | 1,255,240
1-748 | 1-253 123 857 | 1,206,340 || 1-798 | 1-314 653 679 | 1,256,264
1-749 | 1-254 330 197 | 1,207,316 | 1-799 | 1-315 909 943 | 1,257,287
1-750 | 1-255 537 513 | 1,208,290 || 1800 | 1317 167 230 | 1,258,313
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
247
& Ix Difference x Ir Difference
1:800 1:317 167 230 | 1,258,313 1-850 1381 359 709 | 1,310,868
1-801 1-318 425 543 | 1,259,338 1-851 1:382 670 577 | 1,311,948
1-802 1:319 684 881 | 1,260,366 1-852 1°383 982 525 | 1,313,026
1:803 1:320 945 247 | 1,261,393 1-853 1°385 295 551 | 1,314,105
1-804 1:322 206 640 | 1,262,422 1:854 1:386 609 656 | 1,315,187
1805 1:323 469 062 | 1,263,452 1:855 1:387 924 843 | 1,316,268
1-806 1:324 732 514 | 1,264,483 1-856 1389 241 111 1,317,351
1:807 1:325 996 997 | 1,265,515 1:857 1:390 558 462 | 1,318,437
1:808 1327 262 512 | 1,266,549 1-858 1:391 876 899 | 1,319,520
1-809 1-328 529 061 | 1,267,583 1:859 1-393 196 419 | 1,320,607
1810 | 1-329 796 644 | 1,268,618 | 1860 | 1-394 517 026 | 1,321,694
1-811 1-331 065 262 | 1,269,653 1-861 1395 838 720 | 1,322,782
1-812 1:332 334 915 | 1,270,690 1862 1:397 161 502 | 1,323,872
1-813 1:333 605 605 | 1,271,729 1:863 1:398 485 374 | 1,324,964
1-814 1:334 877 334 | 1,272,769 1-864 1:399 810 338 | 1,326,054
1-815 1:336 150 103 | 1,273,808 1:865 1-401 136 392 | 1,327,147
1-816 1:337 423 911 1,274,850 1:866 1-402 463 539 | 1,328,241
1-817 1:338 698 761 | 1,275,892 1:867 1-403 791 780 | 1,329,336
1:818 1:339 974 653 | 1,276,935 1-868 1:405 121 116 | 1,330,431
1:819 1:341 251 588 | 1,277,980 1-869 1:406 451 547 | 1,331,529
1:820 1-342 529 568 | 1,279,024 1-870 1:407 783 076 | 1,332,626
1-821 1:343 808 592 | 1,280,071 1-871 1-409 115 702 | 1,333,725
1-822 1:345 088 663 | 1,281,118 1-872 1-410 449 427 | 1,334,826
1-823 1:346 369 781 1,282,168 1-873 1-411 784 253 | 1,335,927
1-824 1347 651 949 | 1,283,217 1-874 1-413 120 180 | 1,337,030
1-825 1:348 935 166 | 1,284,267 1:875 1-414 457 210 | 1,338,131
1:826 1:350 219 433 | 1,285,319 1-876 1:415 795 341 | 1,339,236
1:827 1:351 504 752 | 1,286,371 1-877 1-417 134 577 | 1,340,344
1:828 1-352 791 123 | 1,287,425 1-878 1-418 474 921 | 1,341,449
1-829 1:354 078 548 | 1,288,479 1-879 1-419 816 370 | 1,342,557
1-830 1355 367 027 | 1,289,535 || 1-880 1-421 158 927 | 1,343,666
1-831 1356 656 562 | 1,290,593 1:881 1-422 502 593 | 1,344,775
1-832 1:357 947 155 | 1,291,650 1-882 1-423 847 368 | 1,345,887
1-833 1:359 238 805 | 1,292,709 1-883 1-425 193 255 | 1,346,999
1:834 1:360 531 514 | 1,293,768 1-884 1:426 540 254 | 1,348,113
1:835 1:361 825 282 | 1,294,829 1-885 1:427 888 367 | 1,349,226
1-836 1:363 120 111 | 1,295,893 1-886 1:429 237 593 | 1,350,341
1:837 1:364 416 004 | 1,296,955 1:887 1:430 587 9384 | 1,351,460
1:838 1:365 712 959 | 1,298,018 1-888 1:431 939 394 | 1,352,575
1:839 1:367 010 977 | 1,299,084 1-889 1-433 291 969 | 1,353,694
1:840 1:368 310 061 | 1,300,149 1-890 1-434 645 663 | 1,354,814
1:841 1:369 610 210 1,301,217 1891 1-436 000 477 1,355,935
1:842 1:370 911 427 | 1,302,285 1-892 1:437 356 412 | 1,357,056
1:843 1:372 213 712 | 1,303,354 1:893 1:438 713 468 | 1,358,180
1:844 1:373 517 066 | 1,304,426 1-894 1:440 071 648 | 1,359,305
1:845 1:374 821 492 | 1,305,496 1:895 1-441 430 953 | 1,360,429
1:846 1:376 126 988 | 1,306,569 1-896 1-442 791 382 | 1,361,555
1:847 1:377 483 557 | 1,307,641 1:897 1-444 152 937 | 1,362,683
1:848 1:378 741 198 | 1,308,717 1-898 1:445 515 620 | 1,363,812
1:849 1:380 049 915 | 1,309,794 1:899 1:446 879 432 | 1,364,941
1850 1:381 359 709 | 1,310,868 1-900 1-448 244 373 | 1,366,071
REPORT—1893.
a I,z Difference x Ie Difference
1-900 | 1-448 244 373 | 1,866,071 || 1-950 | 1-517 956 370 | 1,424,038
1901 | 1-449 610 444 | 1,367,204 || 1:951 | 1-519 380 408 | 1,425,296
1:902 | 1-450 977 648 | 1,368,337 || 1:952 | 1:520 805 634 | 1,426,415
1:903 | 1-452 345 985 | 1,369,470 || 1:953 | 1-522 232 049 | 1,427,606
1:904 | 1-453 715 455 | 1,370,606 |] 1-954 | 1-523 659 655 | 1,428,798
1:905 | 1:455 086 061 | 1,371,742 || 1:955 | 1-525 088 453 | 1,429,991
1:906 | 1-456 457 803 | 1,372,879 || 1:956 | 1-526 518 444 | 1,431,186
1-907 | 1-457 830 682 | 1,374,018 |] 1-957 | 1-527 949 630 | 1,432,380
1-908 | 1-459 204 700 | 1,375,159 || 1:958 | 1-529 382 010 | 1,433,577
1:909 | 1-460 579 859 | 1,376,298 || 1:959 | 1-530 815 587 | 1,434,775
1-910 | 1-461 956 157 | 1,377,440 || 1960 | 1-532 250 362 | 1,435,973
1-911 || 1-463 333 597 | 1,378,582 || 1961 | 1-533 686 335 | 1,437,173
1:912 | 1-464 712 179 | 1,379,728 |) 1:962 | 1-535 123 508 | 1,438,374
1:913 | 1-466 091 907 | 1,380,873 || 1:963 | 1-536 561 882 | 1,439,576
1914 | 1-467 472 780 | 1,282,019 || 1:964 | 1-538 001 468 | 1,440,781
1:915 | 1-468 854 799 | 1,383,166 || 1-965 | 1-539 442 239 | 1,441,985
1:916 | 1-470 237 964 | 1,384,315 || 1:966 | 1-540 884 224 | 1,443,190
1917 | 1-471 622 279 | 1,385,464 || 1:967 | 1-542 327 414 | 1,444,397
1-918 | 1-473 007 743 | 1,386,615 || 1:968 | 1-543 771 811 | 1,445,607
1:919 | 1-474 394 358 | 1,387,767 || 1:969 | 1:545 217 418 | 1,446,815
1:920 | 1-475 782 125 | 1,388,919 || 1:970 | 1-546 664 233 | 1,448,023
1921 | 1-477 171 044 | 1,390,074 || 1-971 | 1:548 112 256 | 1,449,237
1:922 | 1-478 561 118 | 1,391,229 || 1-972 | 1-549 561 493 | 1,450,461
1:923 | 1-479 952 347 | 1,392,386 || 1:973 | 1-551 011 944 | 1,451,663
1:924 | 1-481 344 733 | 1,393,543 || 1-974 | 1-552 463 607 | 1,452,878
1:925 | 1-482 738 276 | 1,394,703 || 1:975 | 1-553 916 485 | 1,454,096
1:926 | 1-484 132 979 | 1,395,862 || 1-976 | 1-555 370 581 | 1,455,313
1:927 | 1-485 528 841 | 1,397,023 || 1:977 | 1-556 825 894 | 1,456,531
1:928 | 1-486 925 864 | 1,398,184 || 1:978 | 1558 282 425 | 1,457,751
1:929 | 1-488 324 048 | 1,399,347 || 1:979 | 1:559 740176 | 1,458,972
1:930 | 1-489 723 395 | 1,400,513 || 1-980 | 1:561 199 148 | 1,460,195
1:931 | 1-491 123 908 | 1,401,677 || 1:981 | 1-562 659 343 | 1,461,419
1-932 | 1-492 525 685 | 1,402,844 || 1-982 | 1-564 120 762 | 1,462,643
1:933 | 1-493 928 429 | 1,404,012 || 1:983 | 1-565 588 405 | 1,463,868
1-934 | 1-495 332 441 | 1,405,181 || 1:984 | 1-567 047 273 | 1,465,096
1:935 | 1-496 737 622 | 1,406,350 || 1:985 | 1-568 512 369 | 1,466,325
1:936 | 1-498 143 972 | 1,407,522 || 1-986 | 1:569 978 694 | 1,467,552
1:937 | 1-499 551 494 | 1,408,694 || 1:987 | 1-671 446 246 | 1,468,783
1:938 | 1-500 960 188 | 1,409,867 |] 1:988 | 1-572 915 029 | 1,470,015
1:939 | 1-502 370 055 | 1,411,041 || 1:989 | 1-574 385 044 | 1,471,249
1:940 | 1503 781 096 | 1,412,218 |) 1-990 | 1-575 856 293 | 1,472,483
1941 | 1-505 193 314 | 1,413,396 || 1991 | 177 328 776 | 1,473,718
1:942 | 1-506 606 710 | 1,414,573 || 1:992 | 1-578 802 494 | 1,474,955
1:943 | 1:508 021 283 | 1,415,751 || 1-993 | 1-580 277 449 | 1,476,193
1:944 | 1-509 437 034 | 1,416,931 || 1:994 | 1-581 753 642 | 1,477,431
1:945 | 1:510 853 965 | 1,418,113 || 1:995 | 1-583 231 073 | 1,478,670
1-946 | 1512 272 078 | 1,419,296 || 1:996 | 1-584 709 743 | 1,479,912
1:947 | 1-513 691 374 | 1,420,480 || 1-997 | 1-586 189 655 | 1,481,156
1:948 | 1-515 111 854 | 1,421,665 || 1:998 | 1-587 670 811 | 1,482,400
1:949 | 1-516 533 519 | 1,422,851 || 1-999 | 1-589 153 211 | 1,483,644
1:950 | 1517 956 370 | 1,424,038. || 2-000 | 1:590 636 855 | 1,484,890
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 249
Lx Difference xr Iz Difference
2050 1666 433 299 1,548,758
1:667 982 057 | 1,550,067
1593 607 882 | 1,487,386 || 2052 | 1-669 532 124 | 1.551.380
1595 095 268 | 1,488,636 | 2053 | 1-671 083 504 | 1,552,688
1596 583 904 | 1,489,887 | 2:054 | 1-672 636 192 | 1,554,004
1598 073 791 | 1,491,139 || 2-055 | 1-674 190 196 | 1,555,316
1599 564 930 | 1,492,393 | 2-056 | 1-675 745 512 | 1,556,631
1-601 057 323 | 1,493,647 || 2-057 | 1-677 302 143 | 1,557,949
1602 550 970 | 1,494,902 | 2-058 | 1-678 860 092 | 1,559,266
1-604 045 872 | 1,496,161 | 2-059 | 1-680 419 358 | 1,560,586
1605 542 033 | 1,497,418 | 2-060 | 1-681 979 944 | 1,561,906
1-607 039 451 | 1,498,678 || 2-061 | 1-683 541 850 | 1,563,227
1-608 538 129 | 1,499,938 || 2.062 | 1-685 105 077 | 1,564,551
1610 038 067 | 1,601,201 || 2-063 | 1-686 669°628 | 1,565,875
1-611 539 268 | 1,502,463 || 2-064 | 1-688 235 503 | 1,567,201
1-613 041 731 | 1,503,728 || 2.065 | 1-689 802 704 | 1,568,527
1-614 545 459 | 1,504,994 || 2-066 | 1-691 371 231 | 1,569,856
1-616 050 453 | 1,506,261 || 2.067 | 1-692 941 087 | 1,571,184
1-617 556 714 | 1,507,528 || 2-068 | 1-694 512 271 | 1,572,615
|
1590 636 855 | 1,484,890 |
1592 121 745 | 1,486,137 |
to
i=)
or
=i
1-619 064 242 | 1,508,797 | 2-069 | -1-696 084 786 | 1,573,849
1-620 573 039 | 1,510,068 || 2-070 | 1-697 658 635 | 1,575,179
é eek ed sea oh ee
1-622 083 107 | 1,511,340 | 2071 | 1-699 233 814 | 1,576,516
1-623 594 447 | 1,512,613 | 2-072 | 1-700 810 330 | 1,577,851
1-625 107 060 | 1,513,887 || 2-073 | 1-702 388 181 | 1,579,188
1626 620 947 | 1,515,162 || 2:074 | 1-703 967 369 | 1,580,527
1-628 136 109 | 1,516,440 || 2:075 | 1-705 547 896 | 1,581,866
1-629 652 549 | 1,517,717 || 2-076 | 1-707 129 762 | 1,583,207
1631 170 266 | 1,518,995 || 2-077 | 1-708 712 969 | 1,584,549
1-632 689 261 | 1,520,276 |) 2-078 | 1-710 297 518 | 1,585,892
1-634 209 537 | 1,521,558 || 2-079 | 1-711 883 410 | 1,587,238
1-635 731 095 | 1,522,841 || 2-080 | 1-713 470 648 | 1,588,584
1-637 253 936 | 1,524,125 || 2-081 | 1-715 059 232 | 1,589,931
1-638 778 061 | 1,525,409 |] 2-082 | 1-716 649 163 | 1,591,279
1640 303 470 | 1,526,696 || 2-083 | 1-718 240 442 | 1,592,630
1-641 830 166 | 1,527,985 || 2:084 | 1-719 833 072 | 1,593,981
1-643 358 151 | 1,529,275 || 2-085 | 1-721 427 053 | 1,595,333
1-644 887 426 | 1,530,564 | 2-086 | 1-723 022 386 | 1,596,689
1-646 417 990 | 1,531,854 | 2-087 | 1-724 619 075 | 1,598,042
1-647 949 844 | 1,533,148 || 2-088 | 1-726 217 117 | 1,599,399
1-649 482 992 | 1,534,442 || 2-089 | 1-727 816 516 | 1,600,757
1-651 017 434 | 1,535,737 |) 2-090 | 1-729 417 273 | 1,602,116
1652 553 171 | 1,537,034 || 2091 | 1-731 019 389 | 1,603,477
1-654 090 205 | 1,538,331 | 2-092 | 1-732 622 866 | 1,604,838
1-655 628 536 | 1,539,631 || 2:093 | 1-734 227 704 | 1,606,201
1-657 168 167 | 1,540,931 || 2-094 | 1-735 833 905 | 1,607,566
1-658 709 098 | 1,542,232 | 2:095 | 1-737 441 471 | 1,608,930
1660 251 330 1,543,535 2-096 1:739 050 401 1,610,298
|
|
1661 794 865 1,544,839 | 2-097 1:740 660 699 1,611,667
1663 339 704 1,546,144 | 2-098 1:742 272 366 1,613,036
1664 885 848 1,547,451 |; 2:099 1743 885 402 1,614,408
a r
1-666 433 299 | 1,548,758 || 2100 | 1:745 499 810 | 1,615,779
250 REPORT—1 893.
xv Ir Difference x Iz Difference
2-100 1:745 499 810 | 1,615,779 || 2°150 1:827 997 461 1,686,095
2101 1-747 115 589 1,617,152 2-151 1:829 683 556 1,687,535
2:102 1748 732 741 1,618,528 2°152 1831 371 O91 1,688,978
27103 1:750 351 269 1,619,903 27153 1:833 060 069 1,690,421
2104 1-751 971 172 1,621,282 2°154 1834 750 490 1,691,867
2105 1753 592 454 1,622,660 27155 1836 442 357 1,693,313
2°106 1:755 215 114 1,624,040 2°156 1838 135 670 1,694,761
2°107 1:756 839 154 1,625,421 2°157 1839 830 431 1,696,210
2-108 1758 464 575 1,626,805 2°158 1841 526 641 1,697,662
27109 1-760 091 380 1,628,187 || 2°159 1°845 224 303 1,699,112
2:110 1761 719 567 1,629,574 || 2°160 1844 923 415 1,700,565
2111 1763 349 141 | 1,630,961 | 2-161 1:846 623 980 | 1,702,022
2-112 1:764 980 102 | 1,632,349. || 2-162 1:848 326 002 | 1,703,476
2-113 1-766 612 451 | 1,633,738 || 2-163 | 1-850 029 478 | 1,704,935
2-114 1:768 246 189 | 1,635,130 || 2-164 1:851 734 413 | 1,706,394
2-115 1-769 881 319 | 1,636,520 || 2-165 | 1-853 440 807 | 1,707,854
2116 | 1:771 517 839 | 1,637,915 || 2-166 1:855 148 661 | 1,709,316
2117 1:773 155 754 | 1,639,309 || 2:167 | 1-856 857 977 | 1,710,778
2-118 1:774 795 063 | 1,640,706 || 2-168 1:858 568 755 | 1,712,245
2119 | 1:776 435 769 | 1,642,102 || 2-169 1:860 281 000 | 1,713,709
2120 | 1-778 077 871 | 1,643,501 || 2170 | 1-861 994 709 | 1,715,176
2°121 1-779 721 372 1,644,903 2171 1863 709 885 1,716,645
2°122 1781 366 275 1,646,302 2°172 1865 426 530 1,718,116
2/123 1-783 012 577 1,647,706 || 2-173 1867 144 646 1,719,587
27124 1784 660 283 1,649,111 27174 1:868 864 233 1,721,061
2°125 1786 309 394 1,650,515 2-175 1870 585 294 1,722,634
2°126 1:787 959 909 651,923 2176 1-872 307 828 1,724,011
2:127 1789 611 852 {653,332 2177 1874 031 839 1,725,487
27128 1791 265 164 ,654,740 2178 1875 757 326 1,726,965
27129 56,151 2-179 1877 484 291 1,728,447
2130 | 1:794 576 055 | 1,657,564 || 2180 | 1-879 212 738 | 1,729,928
27131 1-796 233 619 358,977 || 2181 1880 942 666 1,731,409
27132 1-797 892 596 ,660,391L 27182 1:882 674 O75 1,732,895
2133 1799 552 987 1,661,809 27183 1884 406 970 1,734,382
2°134 1801 214 796 1,663,226 2°184 1°886 141 352 1,735,866
2°135 1802 878 022 1,664,645 2185 1887 877 218 1,737,355
2:136 1804 542 667 1,666,065 2186 1889 614 573 1,738,848
2:137 1806 208 732 1,667,487 2°187 1:891 353 421 1,740,336
27138 1807 876 219 1,668,912 27188 1893 093 757 1,741,831
2139 | 1°809 545 131 1,670,334 2189 1894 855 588 1,743,324
2140 1811 215 465 1,671,761 2°190 1896 578 912 1,744,819
27141 1°812 887 226 1,673,188 |} 2:191 1898 323 731 1,746,317
2142 1814 560 414 1,674,616 2°192 1:900 O70 048 1,747,816
2143 1816 235 030 1,676,047 2°193 1901 817 864 1,749,315
2°144 1817 911 O77 1,677,477 27194 1-903 567 179 1,750,817
2145 1819 588 554 1,678,911 2-195 1905 317 996 1,752,320
2°146 1821 267 465 1,680,345 2196 1-907 O70 316 1,753,823
2147 1822 947 810 1,681,780 2-197 1908 824 139 1,755,329
2148 1824 629 590 1,683,216 2°198 1910 579 468 1,756,837
27149 1826 312 806 1,684,655 27199 1912 336 305 1,758,346
2°150 1827 997 461 1,686,095 2°200 1914 094 651 1,759,854
1,6
1,6
1,6
1:792 919 904 1,6
1,6
1,6
1,6
OOOO —<_ ee
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
251
x Ir Difference xr Ir Difterence
2-200 | 1-914 094 651 | 1,759,854 || 2250 | 2-003 967 457 | 1,837,218
2201 | 1-915 854 505 | 1,761,367 | 2251 | 2-005 804 675 | 1,838,803
2-202 | 1-917 615 872 | 1,762,879 || 2252 | 2-007 643 478 | 1,840,390
2-203 | 1-919 378 751 | 1,764,393 || 2-253 | 2-009 483 868 | 1,841,978
2-204 | 1-921 143 144 | 1,765,910 | 2-254 | 2-011 325 846 | 1,843,568
2-205 | 1-922 909 054 | 1,767,427 || 2255 | 2-013 169 414 | 1,845,159
2-206 | 1-924 676 481 | 1,768,945 || 2-256 | 2-015 014 573 | 1,846,751
2-207 | 1-926 445 426 | 1,770,466 | 2257 | 2-016 861 324 | 1,848,346
2-208 | 1-928 215 892 | 1,771,987 || 2258 | 2-018 709 670 | 1,849,942
2-209 | 1-929 987 879 | 1,773,509 | 2-259 | 2-020 559 612 | 1,851,539
2210 | 1-931 761 388 | 1,775,034 || 2-260 | 2-022 411 151 | 1,853,137
2211 | 1-933 536 422 | 1,776,561 || 2-261 | 2024 264 288 | 1,854,738
9212 | 1-935 312 983 | 1,778,088 | 2262 | 2-026 119 026 | 1,856,340
2-213 | 1-937 091 071 | 1,779,616 || 2-263 | 2-027 975 366 | 1,857,943
9-214 | 1-938 870 687 | 1,781,147 || 2-264 | 2-029 833 309 | 1,859,547
2215 | 1-940 651 834 | 1,782,678 || 2-265 | 2-031 692 856 | 1,861,154
9-216 | 1-949 434 512 | 1,784,210 || 2-266 | 2-033 554 010 | 1,862,762
2217 | 1-944 218 722 | 1,785,747 || 2:267 | 2-035 416 772 | 1,864,372
9-218 | 1-946 004 469 | 1,787,283 || 2-268 | 2-037 281 144 | 1,865,983
2-219 | 1-947 791 752 | 1.788.820 || 2-269 | 2-039 147 127 | 1,867,595
2-220 | 1-949 580 572 | 1,790,359 || 2-270 | 2-041 014 722 | 1,869,208
2-221 | 1-951 370 931 | 1,791,899 | 2271 | 2-042 883 930 | 1,870,824
2-922 | 1-953 162 830 | 1.793.441 || 2-272 | 2-044 754 754 | 1,872,442
9223 | 1-954 956 271 | 1.794,985 | 2-273 | 2-046 627 196 | 1,874,061
2-294 | 1-956 751 256 | 1,796,530 || 2-274 | 2-048 501 257 | 1,875,681
2-295 | 1-958 547 786 | 1,798,077 || 2275 | 2-050 376 938 | 1,877,302
2296 | 1-960 345 863 | 1,799,623 | 2276 | 2-052 254 240 | 1,878,925
2-297 | 1-962 145 486 | 1,801,173 || 2277 | 2-054 133 165 | 1,880,549
2-228 | 1-963 946 659 | 1,802,724 || 2278 | 2-056 013 714 | 1,882,176
9-229 | 1-965 749 383 | 1,804,277 | 2279 | 2-057 895 890 | 1,883,805
2-230 | 1-967 553 660 | 1,805,830 || 2280 | 2-059 779 695 | 1,885,434
2-231 | 1-969 359 490 | 1,807,385 | 2281 | 2-061 665 129 | 1,887,064
2-232 | 1-971 166 875 | 1,808,943 | 2-282 | 2-063 552 193 | 1,888,697
2-233 | 1-972 975 818 | 1,810,501 || 2283 | 2-065 440 890 | 1,890,332
2-234 | 1-974 786 319 | 1,812,060 || 2:284 | 2-067 331 222 | 1,891,967
2-235 | 1-976 598 379 | 1,813,621 || 2-285 | 2-069 223 189 | 1,893,604
2-236 | 1-978 412 000 | 1,815,184 || 2-286 | 2-071 116 793 | 1,895,242
2-237 | 1-980 227 184 | 1,816,748 || 2-287 | 2-073 012 035 | 1,896,883
2-238 | 1-982 043 932 | 1.818314 || 2-288 | 2-074 908 918 | 1,898,525
2-239 | 1-983 862 246 | 1.819.881 || 2.289 | 2-076 807 443 | 1,900,168
2-240 | 1-985 682 127 | 1,821,448 || 2-290 | 2-078 707 611 | 1,901,813
2241 | 1-987 503 575 | 1,823,020 || 2291 | 2-080 609 424 | 1,903,461
2-242 | 1-989 326 595 | 1,824,592 || 2292 | 2-082 512 885 | 1,905,109
2-243 | 1-991 151 187 | 1,826,165 || 2-293 | 2-084 417 994 | 1,906,757
2-244 | 1-992°977 352 | 1,827,739 || 2-294 | 2-086 324 751 | 1,908,409
2245 | 1-994 805 091 | 1,829,315 || 2295 | 2-088 233 160 | 1,910,062
2-246 | 1-996 634 406 | 1,830,891 | 2:296 | 2-090 143 222 | 1,911,715
2247 | 1-998 465 297 | 1,832,472 || 2-297 | 2-092 054 937 | 1,913,372
2:248 | 2-000 297 769 | 1,834,053 || 2-298 | 2-093 968 309 | 1,915,030
2-249 | 9-002 131 822 | 1,835,635 || 2-299 | 2-095 883 339 | 1,916,689
2-250 | 2-003 967 457 | 1,837,218 || 2300 | 2-097 800 028 | 1,918,349
SSS a a a nEEEERE REESE GREE
252 REPORT—1893.
I,z Difference r Ix Difference
800 028 1,918,349 2°350 2:195 784 977 2,003,423
718 377 1,920,011 | 2351 | 2197 788 400 2,005,164
638 388 1,921,675 || 2°352 2-199 793 564 2,006,909
560 063 1,923,341 || 2°353 2:201 800 473 2,008,656
483 404 1,925,007 2-354 2:203 809 129 2,010,404
408 411 1,926,677 2°355 2°205 819 533 2,012,152
335 088 1,928,347 2°356 2:207 831 685 2,013,903
263 435 1,930,018 2°357 2°209 845 588 2,015,657
193 453 1,931,690 2°358 2°211 861 245 2,017,412
125 143 1,933,367 2°359 2213 878 657 2,019,168
058 510 1,935,043 2°360 2:215 897 825 2,020,925
993 553 1,936,720 2°361 2:217 918 750 2,022,685
930 273 1,938,400 2°362 2°219 941 435 2,024,445
868 673 1,940,083 2°363 2°221 965 880 2,026,209
808 756 1,941,765 2°364 2°223 992 089 2,027,973
750 521 1,943,449 2°365 2°226 020 062 2,029,739
693 970 1,945,135 || 2°366 2°228 049 801 2,031,507
639 105 1,946,823 2°367 2:230 081 308 2,033,277
585 928 1,948,512 2°368 2°232 114 585 2,035,048
534 440 1,950,202 2369 2°234 149 633 2,036,820
484 642 1,951,895 2370 2°236 186 453 2,038,595
436 637 | 1,953,589 |) 2°371 | 2-238 225 048 | 2,040,371
390 126 | 1,955,285 || 2372 | 2-240 265 419 | 2,042,150
345 411 | 1,956,982 || 2373 | 2-242 307 569 | 2,043,928
302 393 | 1,958,681 || 2374 | 2-244 351 497 | 2,045,709
261 074 | 1,960,382 || 2375 | 2-246 397 206 | 2,047,494
221 456 | 1,962,084 || 2-376 | 2-248 444 700 | 2,049,276
183 540 | 1,963,788 || 2:377 | 2-250 493 976 | 2,051,064
147 328 | 1,965,493 || 2:378 | 2-252 545 040 | 2,052,853
112 821 | 1,967,200 || 2-379 | 2-254 597 893 | 2,054,641
080 021 | 1,968,908 |) 2380 | 2-256 652 534 | 2,056,433
048 929 1,970,618 2381 2:258 708 967 2,058,225
O19 547 1,972,330 2°382 2°260 767 192 2,060,021
991 877 1,974,044 2383 2°262 827 213 2,061,816
965 921 1,975,759 2°384 2°264 889 029 2,063,616
941 680 1,977,475 2°385 2°266 952 645 2,066,415
919 155 1,979,194 2°386 269 018 060 2,067,216
2-2
898 349 | 1,980,914 || 2-387 | 2-271 085 276 | 2,069,020
9-978
2-2
879 263 1,982,636 2°388 154 296 2,070,825
73
861 899 1,984,358 2°389 275 225 121 2,072,632
846 257 1,986,083 2°390 2-277 297 753 2,074,439
832 340 | 1,987,810 || 2391 | 2-279 372 192 | 2,076,250
820 150 | 1,989,538 || 2392 | 2-281 448 442 | 2,078,063
809 688 | 1,991,269 || 2393 | 2-283 526 505 | 2,079,876
800 957 | 1,992,998 || 2394 | 2-285 606 381 | 2,081,690
793 955 | 1,994,731 |) 2395 | 2-287 688 071 | 2,083,508
788 686 | 1,996,467 || 2396 | 2-289 771 579 | 2,085,326
785 153 | 1,998,204 || 2397 | 2-291 856 905 | 2,087,146
783 357 | 1,999,939 || 2-398 | 2-293 944 051 | 2,088,969
783 296 | 2,001,681 || 2399 | 2-296 033 020 | 2,090,793
784 977 2,003,423 2°400 2°298 123 813 2,092,618
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
253
x Ie Difference x Iz Difference
2-400 | 2-298 123 813 | 2,092,618 || 2-450 | 2-405 027 363 | 2,186,129
2401 | 2-300 216 431 | 2,094,446 || 2-451 | 2-407 213 492 | 2,188,045
2-402 | 2-302 310 877 | 2,096,274 || 2-452 | 2-409 401 537 | 2.189.962
92-403 | 2-304 407 151 | 2,098,104 || 2-453 | 9-411 591 499 | 2,191,881
2-404 | 2306 505 255 | 2,099,938 || 2-454 | 2-413 783 380 | 2,193,803
2-405 | 2-308 605 193 | 2,101,772 || 2-455 | 92-415 977 183 | 2,195,726
2-406 | 2310 706 965 | 2,103,608 || 2-456 | 2-418 172 909 | 2,197,649
2407 | 2312 810 573 | 2,105,445 || 2-457 | 2-420 370 558 | 2,199,576
2-408 | 2314 916 018 | 2,107,285 || 2-458 | 2-422 570 134 | 2,201,505
2-409 | 2-317 023 303 | 2,109,126 || 2-459 | 9-424 771 639 | 2.203.436
2-410 | 2319 132 429 | 2,110,969 || 2-460 | 2-426 975 075 | 2,205,367
2-411 | 2321 243 398 | 2,112,814 || 2-461 | 92-429 180 442 | 2,207,301
2-412 | 2-393 356 212 | 2,114,660 || 2-462 | 2-431 387 743 | 2,209,236
2-413 | 2-325 470 872 | 2,116,508 || 2-463 | 2-433 596 979 | 2,211,173
2:414 | 2327 587 380 | 2,118,357 || 2-464 | 2-435 808 152 | 2,213,112
2-415 | 2:329 705 737 | 2,120,209 || 2-465 | 2-438 021 264 | 2,215,055
2416 | 2-331 825 946 | 2,122,063 ||. 2-466 | 2-440 236 319 | 2,216,997
2-417 | 2-333 948 009 | 2,123,919 || 2-467 | 2-442 453 316 | 2,218,941
2-418 | 2-336 071 928 | 2,125,775 || 2-468 | 2-444 672 257 | 2,220,887
2419 | 2-338 197 703 | 2,127,633 || 2-469 | 2-446 893 144 | 2,299,837
2-420 | 2340 325 336 | 2,129,493 || 2-470 | 2-449 115 981 | 2,924,786
2421 | 2-342 454 829 | 2,131,357 || 2-471 | 2-451 340 767 | 2,226,738
2-492 | 2-344 586 186 | 2,133,220 || 2-472 | 2-453 567 505 | 2,298,695
2-493 | 2-346 719 406 | 2,135,086 || 2-473 | 2-455 796 200 | 2,230,648
2424 | 2-348 854 492 | 2,136,953 || 2:474 | 2-458 026 848 | 2,232,607
2425 | 2-350 991 445 | 2,138,822 || 2-475 | 2-460 259 455 | 2.934.564
2-496 | 2-353 130 267 | 2,140,692 || 2-476 | 92-462 494 019 | 2,236,526
2-497 | 2-355 270 959 | 2,142,565 || 2-477 | 2-464 730 545 | 2,938,491
2498 | 2-357 413 524 | 2,144,440 || 2-478 | 92-466 969 036 | 2,240,453
2-429 | 2359 557 964 | 2,146,317 || 2-479 | 2-469 209 489 | 2,949,493
2-430 | 2:361 704 281 | 2,148,194 || 2480 | 2-471 451 912 | 2,244,390
2-431 | 2-363 852 475 | 2,150,074 || 2-481 | 2-473 696 302 | 2,246,360
9-432 | 2-366 002 549 | 2,151,956 || 2-482 | 2-475 942 662 | 2.948.333
2-433 | 2:368 154 505 | 2,153,840 || 2-483 | 2-478 190 995 | 2.250.309
2-434 | 2370 308 345 | 2,155,725 || 2-484 | 2-480 441 304 | 2,262,984
2-435 | 2:372 464 070 | 2,157,611 || 2-485 | 2-482 693 588 | 2.254.260
2436 | 2:374 621 681 | 2,159,500 || 2-486 | 2-484 947 848 | 2,256,241
2-437 | 2-376 781 181 | 2,161,390 || 2-487 | 2-487 204 089 | 2,258,994
2-438 | 2:378 942 571 | 2,163,282 || 2-488 | 2-489 462 313 | 2'260,208
2-439 | 2°381 105 853 | 2,165,176 || 2-489 | 2-491 722 521 | 2,962,191
2440 | 2:383 271 029 | 2,167,073 || 2-490 | 2-493 984 712 | 2,264,179
2-441 | 2-385 438 102 | 2,168,971 || 2-491 | 2-496 248 891 | 2,266,168
2442 | 2-387 607 073 | 2,170,869 || 2-492 | 92-498 515 059 | 2,268,160
2443 | 2389 777 942 | 2,172,769 || 2-493 | 2-500 783 219 | 2,270,153
2-444 | 2-391 950 711 | 2,174,674 || 2-494 | 2-503 053 372 | 2,272,149
2-445 | 2:394 125 385 | 2,176,580 || 2.495 | 2:505 325 521 | 2.974.144
2446 | 2-396 301 965 | 2,178,484 || 2-496 | 2-507 599 665 | 2,976,142
2447 | 2398 480 449 | 2,180,393 || 9-497 | 2-509 875 807 | 2,278,143
2448 | 2-400 660 842 | 2,182,304 || 2-498 | 2:512 153 950 | 2,280,146
2449 | 2-402 843 146 | 2.184.217 || 2-499 | 2-514 434 096 | 2.289.150
2450 | 2-405 027 363 | 2,186,129 || 2:500 | 2-516 716 246 | 2,284,156
254 REPORT— 1 893.
x Le Difference x Iz Difference
2500 | 2516 716 246 | 2,984,156 || 2°550 | 2-633 421 351 | 2,386,908
2501 | 2°519 000 402 | 2,286,164 || 2551 | 2-635 808 269 | 2,389,012
2-502 | 2521 286 566 | 2,288,174 || 2-552 | 2-638 197 271 | 2,391,193
2-503 | 2523 574 740 | 2,290,185 || 2:553 | 2-640 588 394 | 2,393,998
2504 | 2°525 864 925 | 2,292,199 | 2-554 | 2-642 981 622 | 2,395,339
2505 | 2°528 157 124 | 2,294,215 || 2555 | 2-645 376 961 | 2,397,452
2506 | 2°530 451 339 | 2,296,233 || 2-556 | 2-647 774 413 | 2,399,568
2507 | 2-532 747 572 | 2,298,252 || 2-557 | 2-650 173 981 | 2,401,683
2508 | 2535 045 824 | 2,300,274 || 2558 | 2°652 575 664 | 2,403,801
2509 | 2537 346 098 | 2,302,296 || 2-559 | 2-654 979 465 | 2,405,924
2510 | 2539 648 394 | 2,304,321 || 2560 | 2-657 385 389 | 2,408,047
2511 | 2°541 952 715 | 2,306,349 || 2561 | 2-659 793 436 | 2,410,169
2512 | 2544 259 064 | 2,308,378 || 2562 | 2-662 203 605 | 2,412,297
2513 | 2:546 567 442 | 2,310,408 || 2563 | 2-664 615 902 | 2,414,496
2514 | 2:548 877 850 | 2,312,441 || 2564 | 2-667 030 328 | 2,416,555
2515 | 2551 190 291 | 2,314,476 | 2:565 | 2-669 446 883 | 2,418,689
2516 | 2°553 504 767 | 2,316,512 || 2566 | 2-671 865 572 | 2,420,824
2517 | 2-555 821 279 | 2,318,551 || 2567 | 2-674 286 396 | 2,422,959
2518 | 2-558 139 830 | 2,320,591 |) 2568 | 2-676 709 355 | 2,425,099
2519 | 2560 460 421 | 2,399,634 || 2569 | 2-679 134 454 | 2/497.240
2520 | 2°562 783 055 | 2,324,678 | 2570 | 2-681 561 694 | 2,429,382
2521 | 2565 107 733 | 2,326,724 || 2571 | 2-683 991 076 | 2,431,526
2522 | 2-567 434 457 | 2,328,772 | 2572 | 2-686 422 602 | 2,433,673
2523 | 2569 763 229 | 2,330,822 | 2573 | 2-688 856 275 | 2,435,823
2524 | 2572 094 051 | 2,332,875 | 2574 | 2-691 292 098 | 2,437,972
2525 | 2574 426 926 | 2,334,997 | 2575 | 2-693 730 070 | 2,440,127
2526 | 2876 761 853 | 2,336,985 | 2576 | 2696 170 197 | 2,442,280
2527 | 2-579 098 838 | 2,339,041 || 2577 | 2-698 612 477 | 2,444,438
2528 | 2-581 437 879 | 2,341,101 | 2578 | 2-701 056 915 | 2,446,595
2529 | 2-583 778 980 | 2,343,163 | 2579 | 2-703 503 510 | 2,448,759
2530 | 2586 122 143 | 2,345,227 || 2580 | 2-705 952 269 | 2,450,920
2531 | 2°688 467 370 | 2,347,292 | 2581 | 2-708 403 189 | 2,453,084
2532 | 2690 814 662 | 2,349,360 | 2582 | 2-710 856 273 | 2,455,253
2533 | 2-593 164 022 | 2,351,429 || 2-583 | 2-713 311 626 | 2,457,420
|
2584 | 2595 515 451 | 2,353,499 | 2:584 | 2-715 768 946 | 2,459,592
2535 | 2:597 868 950 | 2,355,575 | 2585 | 2-718 228 538 | 2,461,765
2536 | 2600 224 525 | 2,357,648 | 2586 | 2-720 690 303 | 2,463,941
25387 | 2602 582 173 | 2,359,727 || 2587 | 2-793.154 244 | 2,466,118
2538 | 2-604 941 900 | 2,361,805 | 2588 | 2-725 620 362 | 2,468,297
2539 | 2607 303 705 | 2,363,887 || 2589 | 2-728 088 659 | 2,470,478
2540 | 2-609 667 592 | 2,365,969 | 2590 | 2730 559 137 | 2,472,661
2541 | 2-612 033 561 | 2,368,055 | 2591 | 2-733 031 798 | 2,474,846
2542 | 2614 401 616 | 2,370,142 || 2:592 | 2.735 506 644 | 2,477,035
2543 | 2-616 771 758 | 2,372,231 || 2:593 | 2-737 983 679 | 2,479,294
2544 | 2-619 143 989 | 2,374,321 || 2:594 | 2-740 462 903 | 2,481,415
2545 | 2621 518 310 | 2,376,414 || 2595 | 2-742 944 318 | 2/483,609
2546 | 2623 894 724 | 2,378,508 || 2596 | 2745 427 927 | 2/485,805
2547 | 2-626 273 232 | 2,380,609 || 2:597 | 2-747 913 732 | 2,488,002
| 2548 | 2-628 653 841 | 2,382,705 || 2598 | 2-750 401 734 | 2,490,202
2549 | 2-631 036 546 | 2,384,805 || 2599 | 2-752 891 936 | 2,492,405
| 2550 | 2-633 421 351 | 2,386,908 || 2-600 | 2-755 384 341 | 2,494,607
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
x lez Difference x Ix Difference
2-600 | 2-755 384 341. | 2,494,607 || 2650 | 2-882 858 180 | 2,607,486
2601 | 2:757 878 948 | 2,496,814 || 2651 | 2-885 465 666 | 2,609,798
2-602 | 2-760 375 762 | 2,499,022 || 2-652 | 2-888 075 464 | 2,612,112
2-603 | 2-762 874 784 | 2,501,233 || 2-653 | 2-890 687 576 | 2,614,428
2-604 | 2:765 376 017 | 2,503,445 |) 2-654 | 2893 302 004 | 2,616,746
2-605 | 2-767 879 462 | 2,505,659 || 2655 | 2-895 918 750 | 2,619,069
2-606 | 2-770 385 121 | 2,507,874 || 2656 | 2-898 537 819 | 2,621,390
2-607 | 2-772 892 995 | 2,510,095 || 2657 | 2-901 159 209 | 2,623,716
2-608 | 2775 403 090 | 2,612,314 || 2-658 | 2-903 782 925 | 2,626,042
2-609 | 2:777 915 404 | 2,514,537 || 2659 | 2-906 408 967 | 2,628,373
2610 | 2-780 429 941 | 2,516,761 || 2-660 | 2-909 037 340 | 2,630,703
2611 | 2-782 946 702 | 2,518,989 |) 2-661 2:911 668 043 | 2,633,039
2-612 | 2-785 465 691 | 2,521,217 || 2662 | 2-914 301 082 | 2.635.373
2613 | 2-787 986 908 | 2,523,449 || 2663 | 2:916 936 455 | 2,637,712
2-614 | 2-790 510 357 | 2,525,681 || 2664 | 2-919 574 167 | 2,640,053
2-615 | 2:793 036 038 | 2,527,916 || 2-665 | 9-929 214 220 | 2.642.395
2-616 | 2:795 563 954 | 2,530,156 || 2-666 | 2-924 856 615 | 2.644.739
2617 | 2-798 094 110 | 2,532,393 || 2667 | 2-927 501 354 | 2,647,086
2618 | 2-800 626 503 | 2,534,634 || 2-668 | 2-930 148 440 | 2,649,438
2619 | 2:803 161 137 | 2,536,880 || 2669 | 2-932 797 878 | 2,651,787
2620 | 2805 698 017 | 2,539,124 || 2-670 | 2-935 449 665 | 2,654,139
2621 | 2-808 237 141 | 2,541,372 || 2°671 | 2-938 103 804 | 2,656,497
2-622 | 2810 778 513 | 2,543,622 || 2672 | 92-940 760 301 | 2,658,855
2623 | 2813 322 135 | 2,545,874 || 2673 | 2-943 419 156 | 2,661,215
2-624 | 2-815 868 009 | 2,548,129 || 2-674 | 2-946 080 371 | 2,663,577
2625 | 2-818 416 138 | 2,550,384 || 2-675 | 2-948 743 948 | 2,665,941
2626 | 2820 966 522 | 2,552,643 || 2676 | 2-951 409 889 | 2,668,310
2627 | 2:823 519 165 | 2,554,903 || 2-677 | 2-954 078 199 | 2,670,678
2628 | 2:826 074 068 | 2,557,166 || 2678 | 2-956 748 877 | 2,673,050
2629 | 2:828 631 234 | 2,559,432 || 2.679 | 2-959 421 927 | 2,675,422
2630 | 2-831 190 666 | 2,561,698 || 2680 | 2-962 097 349 | 2,677,798
2631 | 2°833 752 364 | 2,563,967 | 2681 | 2-964 775 147 | 2,680,177
2-632 | 2836 316 331 | 2,566,239 || 2-682 | 2-967 455 324 | 2,682,557
2633 | 2:838 882 570 | 2,568,512 || 2683 | 2-970 137 881 | 2,684,940
2-634 | 2-841 451 082 | 2,570,787 || 2684 | 2-972 s22 821 | 2,687,324
2635 | 2844 021 869 | 2,573,063 || 2685 | 2-975 510 145 | 2.689.711
2636 | 2°846 594 932 | 2,575,344 || 2°686 | 2-978 199 856 | 2,692,100
2637 | 2:849 170 276 | 2,577,627 || 2°687 | 2-980 891 956 | 2,694,490
2638 | 2-851 747 903 | 2,579,910 || 2688 | 2-983 586 446 | 2,696,885
2-639 | 2-854 327 813 | 2,582,196 | 2°689 | 92-986 283 331 | 2,699,282
2640 | 2:856 910 009 | 2,584,484 | 2690 | 2-988 982 613 | 2,701,679
2641 | 2-859 494 493 | 2,586,775 || 2691 | 2-991 684 292 | 2,704,080
2642 | 2:862 081 268 | 2,589,067 |) 2692 | 2-994 388 372 | 2,706,482
2643 | 2:864 670 335 | 2,591,362 | 2°693 | 2-997 094 854 | 2,708,887
2644 | 2-867 261 697 | 2,593,659 || 2694 | 2-999 803 741 | 2,711,294
2645 | 2-869 855 356 | 2595,958 || 2695 | 3-002 515 035 | 2,713,704
2646 | 2872 451 314 | 2,598,260 || 2696 | 3-005 228 739 | 2,716,115
2-647 | 2-875 049 574 | 2,600,562 || 2:697 | 3-007 944 854 | 2,718,529
2648 | 2877 650 136 | 2,602,868 || 2:698 | 3-010 663 383 | 2,720,947
2-649 | 2-880 253 004 | 2,605,176 || 2-699 | 3-013 384 330 | 2,723,364
2650 | 2-882 858 180 | 2,607,486 || 2°700 | 3-016 107 694 | 2,725,784
|
256 REPORT—1893.
x Iz Difference c Ir Difference
2-700 3°016 107 694 2,725,784 || 2°750 3°155 410 139 2,849,759
2-701 3:018 833 478 2,728,207 2°751 3158 259 898 2,852,299
2°702 3°021 561 685 2,730,634 2°752 3161 112 197 2,854,841
2-703 3°024 292 319 2,733,061 2°753 3°163 967 038 2,857,385
2°704 3:027 025 380 2,735,490 || 2°754 3°166 824 423 2,859,932
2-705 3°029 760 870 2,737,923 || 2-755 3169 684 355 2,862,479
2-706 3'032 498 793 2,740,356 || 2°756 3172 546 834 2,865,051
2°707 3:035 239 149 2,742,794 | 2-757 3°175 411 865 2,867,585
2-708 3°037 981 943 2,745,232 2-758 3°178 279 450 ee en
2°709 3°040 727 175 2,747,675 || 2°759 3°181 149 591 2,872,699
2710 | 3-043 474 850 | 2,750,118 || 2-760 | 3-184 022 290 | 2,875,259
6
2-711 3046 224 968 2,752,562 2-761 3°186 897 549 2,877,823
2-712 3°048 977 530 2,755,011 2°762 3°189 775 372 2,880,388
2°713 3°051 732 541 2,757,462 2763 3192 655 760 2,882,956
2-714 3054 490 003 2,759,914 2°764 3°195 538 716 2,885,526
2-715 3°057 249 917 2,762,370 || 2°765 37198 424 242 2,888,099
2-716 3°060 012 287 2,764,827 2°766 3°201 312 341 2,890,674
2-717 3062 777 114 2,767,286 || 2-767 3°204 203 015 2,893,252
2-718 3-065 544 400 2,769,748 2-768 3°207 096 267 | 2,895,832
2-719 3068 314 148 2,772,214 || 2-769 3°209 992 099 2,898,414
2-720 3°071 086 362 2,774,679 2770 | 3:212 890 513 | 2,900,999
2-721 3-073 861 041 2,777,147 eae 2771 | 3-215 791 512 | 2,903,586
2-722 3076 638 188 2,779,619 || 2-772 3218 695 098 2,906,177
2-723 3°079 417 807 2,782,093 2-773 | 3:221 601 275 2,908,768
2°724 3°082 199 900 2,784,569 || 2:774 3°224 510 043 2,911,362
2°725 3°084 984 +469 2,787,045 2-775 3:227 421 405 2,913,959
2°726 3°087 771 514 2,789,527 2-776 3230 335 364 2,916,559
2°727 3°090 561 041 2,792,010 2777 3°233 251 923 2,919,161
2-728 3°093 353 051 2,794,495 2°778 3°236 171 084 2,921,765
2-729 3°096 147 546 2,796,982 2779 3°239 092 849 2,924,370
2730 | 3-098 944 528 | 2,799,472 || 2-780 | 3-242 017 219 | 2,926,980
2731 | 3-101 744 000 | 2,801,964 || 2-781 | 3-244 944 199 | 2,929,593
2-732 | 3-104 545 964 | 2.804.459 || 2-782 | 3-247 873 792 | 2.932.206
2-733 | 3-107 350 423 | 2,806,956 || 2-783 | 3-250 805 998 | 2.934.899
2°734 3°110 157 379 2,809,454 2784 3°253 740 820 2,937,441
2°735 3112 966 833 2,811,956 2-785 3°256 678 261 2,940,063
2°736 3°115 778 789 2,814,459 2-786 3°259 618 324 2,942,687
2°737 3°118 593 248 2,816,966 2-787 3°262 561 011 2,945,312
2°738 3°121 410 214 2,819,474 2-788 3°265 506 323 2,947,941
2-739 3°124 229 688 2,821,985 2-789 3°268 454 264 2,950,573
2-740 3°127 051 673 2,824,498 2-790 3°271 404 837 2,953,207
2-741 3°129 876 171 2,827,014 || 2-791 3°274 358 O44 2,955,843
2-742 3°132 703 185 2,829,532 2°792 3°277 313 887 2,958,481
2°743 3°135 532 717 2,832,052 2-793 3°280 272 368 2,961,121
2-744 3°138 364 769 2,834,574 2-794 3283 233 489 2,963,766
2°745 3141 199 343 2,837,100 2-795 3°286 197 255 2,966,411
2°746 3:144 036 443 2,839,628 2°796 3°289 163 666 2,969,060
2-747 3°146 876 071 2,842,156 2-797 3292 132 726 2,971,712
2-748 3°149 718 227 2,844,688 2°798 3°295 104 438 2,974,365
2-749 3°152 562 915 2,847,224 2-799 3°298 O78 803 2,977,020
2-750 | 3155 410 139 | 2,849,759 || 2800 | 3-301 055 823 | 2,979,678
— — —sSsssSsSsSSsSsSssssssssssms
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
257
Zz Ir Difference x Ix Difference
2-800 3301 055 823 2,979,678 2°850 3453 348 735 3,115,822
2°801 3°304 035 501 2,982,339 2°851 3456 464 557 3,118,610
2802 3°307 017 840 2,985,004 || 2°852 3°459 583 167 3,121,400
2°803 3°310 002 844 2,987,670 2°853 3°462 704 567 3,124,194
2804 3°312 990 514 2,990,337 2854 3°465 828 761 3,126,990
2°805 3°315 980 851 2,993,008 2°855 3468 955 751 3,129,790
2°806 3°318 973 859 2,995,681 2°856 3-472 085 541 3,132,590
2°807 3°321 969 540 2,998,358 2°857 3475 218 131 3,135,394
2°808 3324 967 898 3,001,036 2°858 3478 353 525 3,138,201
2°809 3°327 968 934 3,003,717 2°859 3481 491 726 3,141,011
2°810 3°330 972 651 3,006,400 || 2-860 3484 632 737 3,143,823
2811 3°333 979 051 3,009,086 || 2°861 3487 776 560 3,146,638
2°812 3°336 988 137 3,011,776 || 2-862 3°490 923 198 3,149,454
2°813 3°339 999 913 3,014,465 2°863 3°494 072 652 3,152,273
2°814 3°343 014 378 3,017,158 2°864 3497 224 925 3,155,096
2°815 3°346 031 536 3,019,854 2°865 3500 380 021 3,157,922
2°816 3349 051 390 3,022,554 2°866 3°503 537 943 3,160,749
2°817 3°352 073 944 3,025,256 2°867 3506 698 692 3,163,580
2°818 3°355 099 200 3,027,957 2°868 3°509 862 272 3,166,413
2819 3°358 127 157 3,030,664 2°869 3°513 028 685 3,169,248
2°820 3°361 157 821 3,033,374 2°870 3°516 197 933 3,172,086
2°821 3°364 191 195 3,036,083 2-871 3519 370 019 3,174,928
2°822 3°367 227 278 3,038,799 2°872 3522 544 947 3,177,772
2°823 3°370 266 O77 3,041,514 2-873 3525 722 719 3,180,618
2°824 3°373 307 591 3,044,232 2874 3°528 903 337 3,183,466
2°825 3°376 351 823 3,046,954 2°875 3°532 086 803 3,186,317
2°826 3°379 398 777 3,049,678 2-876 3°535 273 120 3,189,172
2°827 3°382 448 455 3,052,405 2877 3°538 462 292 3,192,030
2°828 3°385 500 860 3,055,133 2°878 3°541 654 322 3,194,889
2°829 3°388 555 993 3,057,864 2°879 3°544 849 211 3,197,751
2°830 3°391 613 857 3,060,600 2°880 3548 046 962 3,200,617
2°831 3°394 674 457 3,063,336 2°881 3°551 247 579 3,203,484
2°832 3°397 737 793 3,066,075 2°882 3°554 451 063 3,206,355
2°833 3400 803 &68 3,068,817 2°883 3°557 657 418 3,209,226
2°834 3403 872 685 | 3,071,561 2°884 3°560 866 644 3,212,103
2°835 3°406 944 246 3,074,307 2°885 3°564 O78 747 3,214,982
2°836 3°410 018 553 3,077,057 2°886 3°567 293 729 3,217,862
2°837 3°413 095 610 3,079,810 2°887 3-570 511 591 3,220,747
2°838 3°416 175 420 3,082,565 2°888 3°573 732 338 3,223,632
2°839 3°419 257 985 3,085,321 2°889 3576 955 970 3,226,522
2°840 3°422 343 306 3,088,081 2°890 3580 182 492 3,229,413
2°841 3°425 431 387 3,090,843 2°891 3°583 411 905 3,232,308
2°842 3°428 522 230 3,093,609 2°892 3586 644 213 3,235,206
2°843 3°431 615 839 3,096,376 2°893 3°589 879 419 3,238,106
2°844 3434 712 215 3,099,146 2°894 3°593 117 525 3,241,009
2°846 3437 811 361 3,101,918 2°895 3°596 358 534 3,243,914
2°846 3°440 913 279 3,104,695 2-896 3°599 602 448 3,246,822
2847 3444 017 974 3,107,473 2°897 3°602 849 270 3,249,733
2°848 3447 125 447 3,110,252 2°898 3-606 099 003 3,252,646
2°849 3°450 235 699 3,113,036 2°899 3609 351 649 3,255,563
2°850 3453 348 735 2900 3°612 607 212 3,258,482
3,115,822
5
REPORT—1893.
x Ix Difference x Iz Difference
9900 | 3612 607 212 | 3,258,482 || 2:950 | 3-779 164 648 | 3,407,969
3-901 | 3615 865 694 | 3,261,404 || 2951 | 3-782 572 617 | 3,411,031
2-902 | 3-619 127 098 | 3,264,328 || 2952 | 3-785 983 648 | 3,414,095
2903 | 3-622 391 426 | 3,267,255 || 2953 | 3-789 397 743 | 3,417,161
2-904 | 3-625 658 681 | 3,270,186 || 2954 | 3-792 814 904 | 3,420,232
2-905 | 3-628 928 867 | 3,273,119 || 2955 | 3-796 235 136 | 3,423,306
2-906 | 3°632 201 986 | 3,276,054 || 2956 | 3-799 658 442 | 3,426,382
2:907 | 3-635 478 040 | 3,278,992 || 2:957 | 3-803 084 824 | 3,429,460
9908 | 3-638 757 032 | 3,281,932 || 2958 | 3-806 514 284 | 3,432,541
2-909 | 3-642 038 964 | 3,284,876 || 2959 | 3-809 946 825 | 3,435,627
2910 | 3645 323 840 | 3,287,823 || 2960 | 3-813 382 452 | 3,438,714
2-911 | 3-648 611 663 | 3,290,773 || 2-961 | 3-816 821 166 | 3,441,803
2912 | 3-651 902 436 | 3,293,725 || 2:962 | 3-820 262 969 | 3,444,897
2-913 | 3-655 196 161 | 3,296,679 || 2-963 | 3-823 707 866 | 3,447,994
2914 | 3-658 492 840 | 3,299,687 || 2964 | 3-827 155 860 | 3,451,092
2915 | 3-661 792 477 | 3,302,597 || 2965 | 3-830 606 952 | 3,454,194
2916 | 3-665 095 074 | 3,305,560 || 2966 | 3-834 061 146 | 3,457,298
2917 | 3-668 400 634 | 3,308,526 || 2967 | 3-837 518 444 | 3,460,407
2918 | 3-671 709 160 | 3,311,494 || 2968 | 3-840 978 851 | 3,463,617
9919 | 3-675 020 654 | 3,314,466 || 2-969 | 3-844 442 368 | 3,466,631
2920 | 3-678 336 120 | 3,317,440 || 2970 | 3:847 908 999 | 3,469,747
2921 | 3-681 652 560 | 3,320,417 || 2971 | 3-851 378 746 | 3,472,866
9-922 | 3-684 972 977 | 3,323,396 || 2972 | 3854 851 612 | 3,475,988
-923 | 3-688 296 373 | 3,326,379 || 2-973 | 3:858 327 600 | 3,479,114
2-924 | 3-691 622 752 | 3,329,365 || 2-974 | 3-861 806 714 | 3,482,242
2925 | 3694 952 117 | 3,332,353 || 2:975 | 3-865 288 956 | 3,485,372
926 | 3:698 284 470 | 3,335,343 || 2976 | 3-868 774 328 | 3,488,506
2927 | 3-701 619 813 | 3,338,336 || 2977 | 3-872 262 834 | 3,491,643
9928 | 3-704 958 149 | 3,341,333 || 2978 | 3-875 754 477 | 3,494,784
9-929 | 3-708 299 482 | 3,344,332 || 2979 | 3-879 249 261 | 3,497,927
2-930 | 3-711 643 814 | 3,347,335 || 2-980 | 3-882 747 188 | 3,501,071
2931 | 3-714 991 149 | 3,350,339 || 2981 | 3-886 248 259 | 3,504,220
9-932 | 3-718 341 488 | 3,353,347 || 2-982 | 3-889 752 479 | 3,507,372
2933 | 3-721 694 835 | 3,356,359 || 2-983 | 3-893 259 851 | 3,510,526
2:934 | 3-725 051 194 | 3,359,371 || 2.984 | 3-896 770 377 | 3,613,683
2935 | 3-728 410 565 | 3,362,387 || 2-985 | 3-900 284 060 | 3,516,844
2936 | 3-731 772 952 | 3,365,405 || 2-986 | 3-903 800 904 | 3,520,007
2937 | 3-735 138 357 | 3,368,428 || 2-987 | 3-907 320 911 | 3,523,174
2938 | 3-738 506 785 | 3,371,452 || 2-988 | 3-910 844 085 | 3,526,343
2-939 | 2-741 878 237 | 3,374,481 || 2.989 | 3-914 370 428 | 3,529,615
2940 | 3-745 252 718 | 3,377,510 || 2.990 | 3-917 899 943 | 3,532,690
2-941 | 3-748 630 228 | 3,380,543 || 2-991 | 3-921 432 633 | 3,535,868
2942 | 3-752 010 771 | 3,383,580 || 2:992 | 3-924 968 501 | 3,539,049
2-943 | 3-755 394 351 | 3,386,618 || 2:993 | 3-928 507 550 | 3,542,234
2944 | 3-758 780 969 | 3,389,659 || 2:994 | 3-932 049 784 | 3,545,420
2945 | 3-762 170 628 | 3,392,703 || 2995 | 3-935 595 204 | 3,548,611
2946 | 3-765 563 331 | 3,395,752 || 2-996 | 3-939 143 815 | 3,551,804
2947 | 3-768 959 083 | 3,398,801 || 2-997 | 3-942 695 619 | 3,554,999
92-948 | 3-772 357 884 | 3,401,854 || 2-998 | 3-946 250 618 | 3,558,199
2:949 | 3-775 759 738 | 3,404,910 || 2999 | 3-949 808 817 | 3,661,400
2950 | 3-779 164 648 3,407,969 || 3000 | 3-953 370 217 | 3,564,606
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS,
259
in Iz Difference x Ia Difference
3000 | 3:953 370 217 | 3,564,606 || 3-050 | 4135 589 648 | 3,728,731
3-001 | 3-956 934 823 | 3,567,813 || 3-051 | 4139 318 379 | 3,732,091
3-002 | 3-960 502 636 | 3,571,025 || 3-052 | 4-143 050 470 | 3,735,457
3003 | 3:964 073 661 | 3,574,238 || 3-053 | 4:146 785 927 | 3,738,824
3-004 | 3-967 647 899 | 3,577,455 || 3-054 | 4-150 524 751 | 3,742,195
3-005 | 3-971 225 354 | 3,580,676 || 3-055 | 4-154 266 946 | 3,745,569
3-006 | 3-974 806 030 | 3,583,898 || 3-056 | 4-158 012 515 | 3,748,946
3007 | 3-978 389 928 | 3,587,123 || 3057 | 4-161 761 461 | 3,752,328
3008 | 3-981 977 051 | 3,590,354 || 3-058 | 4-165 513 789 | 3,755,709
3-009 | 3-985 567 405 | 3,593,586 || 3-059 | 4-169 269 498 | 3,759,096
3-010 | 3-989 160 991 | 3,596,820 || 3-060 | 4-173 028 594 | 3,762,486
3-011 | 3-992 757 811 | 3,600,058 || 3-061 | 4-176 791 080 | 3,765,879
3-012 | 3:996 357 869 | 3,603,300 || 3-062 | 4:180 556 959 | 3,769,275
3-013 | 3-999 961 169 | 3,606,544 || 3-063 | 4184 326 234 | 3,772,674
3014 | 4-003 567 713 | 3,609,791 || 3-064 | 4-188 098 908 | 3,776,075
3015 | 4007 177 504 | 3,613,041 || 3-065 | 4-191 874 983 | 3,779,481
3016 | 4010 790 545 | 3,616,294 || 3-066 | 4-195 654 464 | 3,782,891
3017 | 4-014 406 839 | 3,619,550 || 3-067 | 4-199 437 355 | 3,786,303
3018 | 4018 026 389 | 3,622,810 || 3-068 | 4203 223 658 | 3,789,717
3-019 | 4-021 649 199 | 3,626,072 || 3-069 | 4207 013 375 | 3,793,135
3020 | 4025 275 271 | 3,629,337 || 3-070 | 4-210 806 510 | 3,796,557
3-021 | 4-028 904 608 | 3,632,606 || 3-071 | 4214 603 067 | 3,799,982
3022 | 4-032 537 214 | 3,635,877 || 3-072 | 4-218 403 049 | 3,803,410
3-023 | 4-036 173 091 | 3,639,152 || 3-073 | 4-222 206 459 | 3,806,841
3-024 | 4-039 812 243 | 3,€42,480 || 3-074 | 4-226 013 300 | 3,810,275
3:025 | 4-043 454 673 | 3,645,710 || 3:075 | 4-229 823 575 | 3,813,713
3-026 | 4-047 100 383 | 3,648,994 || 3-076 | 4:233 637 288 | 3,817,153
3:027 | 4-050 749 377 | 3,652,281 || 3-077 | 4237 454 441 | 3,820,597
3-028 | 4-054 401 658 | 3,655,572 || 3078 | 4-241 275 038 | 3,824,044
3-029 | 4-058 057 230 | 3,658,864 || 3079 | 4-245 099 082 | 3,827,495
3:030 | 4-061 716 094 | 3,662,159 || 3-080 | 4-248 926 577 | 3,830,949
3031 | 4-065 378 253 | 3,665,458 || 3081 | 4:252 757 526 | 3,834,404
3-032 | 4-069 043 711 | 3,668,761 |] 3-082 | 4-256 591 930 | 3,837,865
3-033 | 4072 712 472 | 3,672,067 || 3-083 | 4-260 429 795 | 3,841,329
3-034 | 4-076 384 539 | 3,675,375 || 3-084 | 4-264 271 124 | 3,844,795
3-035 | 4-080 059 914 | 3,678,685 || 3:085 | 4-268 115 919 | 3,848,264
3036 | 4-083 738 599 | 3,682,001 || 3-086 | 4-271 964 183 | 3,851,737
3:037 | 4-087 420 600 | 3,685,319 || 3-087 | 4275 815 920 | 3,855,214
3038 | 4-091 105 919 | 3,688,639 || 3-088 | 4-279 671 134 | 3,858,693
3-039 | 4-094 794 558 | 3,691,962 || 3-089 | 4-283 529 827 | 3,862,176
3:040 | 4098 486 520 | 3,695,290 || 3-090 | 4-287 392 003 | 3,865,662
3-041 | 4102 181 810 | 3,698,620 || 3-091 | 4-291 257 665 | 3,869,151
3:042 | 4:105 880 430 | 3,701,954 || 3-092 | 4-295 126 816 | 3,872,643
3-043 | 4109 582 384 | 3,705,289 || 3-093 | 4-298 999 459 | 3,876,139
3044 | 4113 287 673 | 3,708,629 || 3-094 | 4302 875 598 | 3,879,639
3-045 | 4116 996 302 | 3,711,972 || 3-095 | 4306 755 237 | 3,883,140
3046 | 4:120 708 274 | 3,715,317 || 3-096 | 4-310 638 377 | 3,886,646
3-047 | 4124 423 591 | 3,718,665 || 3-097 | 4314 525 023 | 3,890,155
3-048 | 4:128 142 256 | 3,722,018 || 3-098 | 4-318 415 178 | 3,893,666
3-049 | 4131 864 274 | 3,725,374 || 3-099 | 4-322 308 844 | 3,897,183
3050 | 4135 589 648 | 3,728,731 || 3100 | 4:326 206 027 | 3,900,702
s2
260 REPORT— 1893.
2 ar rar naETEREEESSEEUTERINNINIINN TENSES 7
x Iz Difference iz Iz Difference
3100 4326 206 027 3,900,702 3150 4525 620 649 4,080,888
3101 | 4330 106 729 | 3,904,223 || 31651 | 4529 701 537 | 4,084,579
3102 | 4334 010 952 | 3,907,748 || 3152 | 4533 786 116 | 4,088,272
3-103 | 4:337 918 700 | 3,911,277 || 3153 | 4-537 874 388 | 4,091,970
3104 ‘4341 829 977 3,914,809 3154 4541 966 358 4,095,671
37105 4:345 744 786 3,918,344 3155 4546 062 029 4,099,374
3°106 4349 663 130 3,921,882 3°156 4550 161 403 4,103,082
3°107 4353 585 012 3,925,423 3°157 4554 264 485 4,106,793
3°108 4357 510 435 3,928,968 3°158 4558 371 278 4,110,506
3109 4361 439 403 3,932,518 37159 4562 481 784 4,114,225
3110 4:365 371 921 3,936,070 3°160 4566 596 009 4,117,947
3-111 4369 307 991 3,939,624 3161 4570 713 956 4,121,671
3112 4373 247 615 3,943,182 3°162 4574 835 627 4,125,399
3113 4377 190 797 3,946,743 3163 4578 961 026 4,129,131
3114 4381 137 540 3,950,308 3°164 4°583 090 157 4,132,867
3115 4°385 O87 848 3,953,877 3°165 4587 223 024 4,136,606
3116 4°389 041 725 3,957,449 3°166 4591 359 630 4,140,348
3117 4°392 999 174 3,961,025 3°167 4°595 499 978 4,144,093
3118 4-396 960 199 3,964,602 3'168 4-599 644 O71 4,147,842
3119 4-400 924 801 3,968,183 3169 4603 791 913 4,151,595
3120 4-404 892 984 3,971,768 3170 4:607 943 508 4,155,352
3-121 4-408 864 752 3,975,356 3°17] 4°612 098 860 4,159,112
3122 4°412 840 108 3,978,948 3172 4616 257 972 4,162,874
3123 4:416 819 056 3,982,544 3173 4620 420 846 4,166,641
3124 4-420 801 600 3,986,143 3174 4:624 587 487 4,170,412
3125 4424 787 743 3,989,744 3175 4°628 757 899 4,174,186
3°126 4428 777 487 3,993,348 3176 4°632 932 085 4,177,963
3°127 4432 770 835 3,996,957 3177 4°637 110 048 4,181,743
3128 4436 767 792 4,000,569 3178 4641 291 791 4,185,528
3:129 4440 768 361 4,004,184 3179 4:645 477 319 4,189,316
3130 4:444 772 545 4,007,804 3180 4649 666 635 4,193,108
3131 4-448 780 349 4,011,424 3181 4653 859 743 4,196,903
3°132 4-452 791 773 4,015,050 3182 4658 056 646 4,200,701
3133 4456 806 823 4,018,680 3183 4°662 257 347 4,204,502
3134 4-460 825 503 4,022,311 3184 4666 461 849 4,208,309
3-135 4-464 847 814 4,025,946 3185 4°670 670 158 4,212,118
3136 4-468 873 760 4,029,585 3°186 4-674 882 276 4,215,932
3137 4-472 903 345 4,033,227 3°187 4679 098 208 4,219,747
3138 4:476 936 572 4,036,874 37188 4683 317 955 4,223,567
3139 4-480 973 446 4,040,524 3189 4687 541 522 4,227,390
3140 | 4485 013 970 | 4,044,175 |) 3190 | 4-691 768 912 | 4,231,218
3141 | “4489 058 145 4,047,831 3191 4:696 000 130 4,235,048
3142 4493 105 976 4,051,491 3°192 4-700 235 178 4,238,882
3143 4-497 157 467 4,055,153 3193 4-704 474 060 4,242,720
3144 4501 212 620 4,058,819 3194 4°708 716 780 4,246,562
3145 4505 271 439 4,062,489 3195 4°712 963 342 4,250,407
3°146 4509 333 928 4,066,162 3196 4-717 213 749 4,254,254
3147 4513 400 090 4,069,839 3°197 4:721 468 003 4,258,107
3148 4-517 469 929 4,073,519 3°198 4725 726 110 4,261,963
3149 4-521 543 448 4,077,201 3199 4:729 988 073 4,265,822
3150 4525 620 649 4,080,888 3°200 4:734 253 895 4,269,685
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
261
Difference
x le Difference 2 Iz
3200 | 4-734 253 895 | 4,269,685 || 3250 | 4-952 546 165 | 4,467,501
3-201 | 4-738 523 580 | 4,273,552 || 3251 | 4-957 013 666 | 4,471,551
3-202 | 4-742 797 132 | 4,277,421 || 3-252 | 4-961 485 217 | 4,475,606
3203 | 4-747 074 553 | 4,281,294 || 3-253 | 4-965 960 823 | 4,479,665
3204 | 4-751 355 847 | 4,285,173 || 3-254 | 4-970 440 488 | 4,483,728
3:205 | 4:755 641 020 | 4,289,054 || 3-255 | 4-974 924 216 | 4,487,794
3:206 | 4-759 930 074 | 4,292,939 || 3-256 | 4-979 412 010 | 4,491,865
3-207 | 4-764 293 013 | 4,296,827 |] 3-257 | 4-983 903 875 | 4,495,937
3208 | 4-768 519 840 | 4,300,718 || 3-258 | 4-988 399 812 | 4,500,015
3:209 | 4-772 820 558 | 4,304,613 |] 3-259 | 4-992 899 827 | 4,504,098
3-210 | 4777 125 171 | 4,308,513 || 3-260 | 4-997 403 925 | 4,508,183
3-211 | 4781 433 684 | 4,312,416 || 3-261 | 5-001 912 108 | 4,512,272
3-212 | 4-785 746 100 | 4,316,322 |) 3-262 | 5-006 424 380 | 4,516,365
3-213 | 4-790 062 422 | 4,320,232 || 3-263 | 5-010 940 745 | 4,520,462
3-214 | 4-794 382 654 | 4,324,146 || 3-264 | 5-015 461 207 | 4,524,563
3-215 | 4-798 706 800 | 4,328,063 || 3-265 | 5-019 985 770 | 4,528,667
3-216 | 4803 034 863 | 4,331,984 || 3-266 | 5-024 514 437 | 4,532,774
3-217 | 4-807 366 847 | 4,335,909 || 3-267 | 5-029 047 211 | 4,536,888
3-218 | 4811 702 756 | 4,339,837 || 3:268 | 5-033 584 099 | 4,541,004
3-219 | 4816 042 593 | 4,343,770 || 3269 | 5-038 125 103 | 4,545,124
3-220 | 4-820 386 363 | 4,347,705 || 3-270 | 5-042 670 227 | 4,549,246
3-221 | 4:824 734 068 | 4,351,646 || 3-271 | 5-047 219 473 | 4,553,374
3-222 | 4-829 085 713 | 4,355,587 || 3-272 | 5°051 772 847 | 4,557,506
3-223 | 4-833 441 300 | 4,359,534 || 3-273 | 5056 330 353 | 4,561,640
3-224 | 4837 800 834 | 4,363,485 || 3:274 | 5-060 891 993 | 4,565,781
3-225 | 4-842 164 319 | 4,367,488 || 3-275 | 5-065 457 774 | 4,569,924
3-226 | 4:846 531 757 | 4,371,397 || 3-276 | 5-070 027 698 | 4,574,070
3-227 | 4:850 903 154 | 4,375,358 || 3-277 | 5-074 601 768 | 4,578,221
3-228 | 4855 278 512 | 4,379,323 || 3.278 | 5-079 179 989 | 4,582,375
3-229 | 4859 657 836 | 4,383,291 || 3-279 | 6-083 762 364 | 4,586,533
3-230 | 4-864 041 126 | 4,387,265 ‘| 3-280 | 5-088 348 897 | 4,590,696
3-231 | 4-868 428 391 | 4,391,242 || 3-281 | 5-092°939 593 | 4,594,863
3-232 | 4:872 819 633 | 4,395,221 || 3-282 | 5-097 534 456 | 4,599,033
3-233 | 4877 214 854 | 4,399,204 || 3-283 | 5102 133 489 | 4,603,206
3-234 | 4881 614 058 | 4,403,192 || 3-284 | 5-106 736 695 | 4,607,385
3-235 | 4-886 017 250 | 4,407,184 || 3-285 | 5-111 344 080 | 4,611,566
3-236 | 4-890 424 434 | 4,411,178 || 3-286 | 5115 955 646 | 4,615,751
3-237 | 4-894 835 612 | 4,415,177 || 3-287 | 5120 571 397 | 4,619,942
3-238 | 4899 250 789 | 4,419,179 || 3-288 | 5-125 191 339 | 4,624,135
3-239 | 4-903 669 968 | 4,423,185 || 3-289 | 5-129 815 474 | 4,628,333
3-240 | 4-908 093 153 | 4,427,195 || 3-290 | 6-134 443 807 | 4,632,534
3-241 | 4-912 520 348 | 4,431,208 || 3-291 | 5-139 076 341 | 4,636,739
3-242 | 4916 951 556 | 4,435,226 || 3-292 | 5143 713 080 | 4,640,948
3-243 | 4-921 386 782 | 4,439,247 || 3-293 | 5-148 354 028 | 4,645,161
3-244 | 4-925 826 029 | 4,443,272 || 3-294 | 5-152 999 189 | 4,649,379
3-245 | 4-930 269 301 | 4,447,301 || 3-295 | 5-157 648 568 | 4,653,601
3-246 | 4-934 716 602 | 4,451,334 || 3-296 | 5-162 302 169 | 4,657,825
3-247 | 4-939 167 936 | 4,455,370 || 3-297 | 5-166 959 994 | 4,662,053
3-248 | 4-943 623 306 | 4,459,407 || 3-298 | 5-171 622 047 | 4,666,286
3249 | 4-948 082 713 | 4,463,452 || 3-299 | 5-176 288 333 | 4,670,523
3-250 | 4-952 546 165 | 4,467,501 || 3300 | 5-180 958 856 | 4,674,764
262 REPORT—1893.
Difference x Ie Difference
4,674,764 | 3°350 5°419 975 369 4,891,927
4,679,009 | 3°351 5-424 867 296 4,896,375
4,683,256 || 3°352 5429 763 671 4,900,827
4,687,510 | 3°353 5434 664 498 4,905,283
4,691,767 || 3:354 5°439 569 781 4,909,743
4,696,028 3°355 5444 479 524 4,914,207
4,700,291 || 3:356 5-449 393 731 4,918,674
4,704,560 3°357 5454 312 405 4,923,148
4,708,833 || 3°358 5°459 235 553 4,927,624
4,713,109 3°359 5464 163 177 4,932,104
4,717,390 3°360 5-469 095 281 4,936,591
4,721,675 3°361 5-474 031 872 4,941,079
4,725,964 || 3:362 5478 972 951 4,945,572
4,730,257 | 3°363 5-483 918 523 4,950,070
4,734,552 || 3°364 5488 868 593 4,954,572
4,738,851 || 3°365 5-493 823 165 4,959,078
4,743,157 || 3°366 5°498 782 243 4,963,588
4,747,466 || 3:367 5°503 745 831 4,968,101
4,751,779 3°368 5°508 713 932 4,972,621
4,756,094 | 3369 5°513 686 553 4,977,144
3320 | 5275 265 168 | 4,760,416 || 3370 | 5-518 663 697 | 4,981,670
3321 5:280 025 584 4,764,740 3°371 5°523 645 367 4,986,201
3°322 5284 790 324 4,769,069 3°372 5°528 631 568 4,990,737
3323 5:289 559 393 4,773,402 || 3373 5533 622 305 4,995,278
3324 5294 332 795 4,777,737 3°374 5°5388 617 583 4,999,822
3°325 5:299 110 532 4,782,080 3375 5°543 617 405 5,004,369
3°326 5303 892 612 4,786,425 3°376 5548 621 774 5,008,921
3°32T 5308 679 037 4,790,773 3°377 5°553 630 695 5,013,479
3328 5313 469 810 4,795,126 3°378 5°558 644 174 5,018,039
3°329 5318 264 936 4,799,484 3379 5°563 662 213 5,022,604
3330 | 5-323 064 420 | 4,803,844 || 3380 | 6-568 684 817 | 5,027,173
3331 | 6-327 868 264 | 4,808,209 || 3-381 | 5573 711 990 | 5,031,747
3332 | 5:332 676 473 | 4,812,580 || 3382 | 5-578 743 737 | 5,036,326
3333 | 5°337 489 053 | 4,816,952 | 3-383 | 5-583 780 063 | 5,040,909
3334 | 5:342 306 005 | 4,821,331 || 3384 | 5:588 820 972 | 5,045,494
3°335 | 5347 127 336 | 4,825,712 || 3385 | 5593 866 466 | 5,050,085
3336 | 5:351 953 048 | 4,830,095 || 3386 | 5:598 916 551 | 5,054,681
3337 | 5:356 783 143 | 4,834,487 || 3387 | 5°603 971 232 | 5,059,280
3338 | 5361 617 630 | 4,838,882 || 3:388 | 5-609 030 512 | 5,063,884
3339 | 5°366 456 512 | 4,843,278 | 3389 | 5-614 094 396 | 5,068,492
3340 | 5:371 299 790 | 4,847,681 || 3390 | 5-619 162 888 | 5,073,104
3341 | 5376 147 471 | 4,852,087 | 3391 | 5-624 235 992 | 5,077,720
3342 | 5380 999 558 | 4,856,496 | 3392 | 5-629 313 712 | 5,082,342
3343 | 5385 856 054 | 4,860,912 | 3:393 | 5-634 396 054 | 5,086,967
3344 | 5°390 716 966 | 4,865,330 || 3:394 | 5-639 483 021 | 5,091,595
3345 | 5395 582 296 | 4,869,753 || 3:395 | 5-644 574 616 | 5,096,230
3346 | 5400 452 049 | 4,874,179 || 3:396 | 5-649 670 846 | 5,100,869
3347 | 5405 326 228 | 4,878,611 | 3:397 | 5-654 771 715 | "5,105,511
3348 5°410 204 839 4,883,046 || 3°398 5°659 877 226 5,110,157
3°349 5415 O87 885 4,887,484 | 3°399 5664 987 383 5,114,809
3°350 5419 975 369 4,891,927 3°400 5°670 102 192 5,119,465
eee ed
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
263
x Ix Difference oy Ix Difference
3-400 | 5-670 102 192 | 5,119,465 || 4450 | 5-931 870 019 | 5,357,870
3-401 | 5-675 221 657 | 5,124,125 || 3-451 | 5-937 297 889 | 5,362,752
3-402 | 5-680 345 782 | 5,128,789 || 3-452 | 5-942 590 641 | 5,367,641
3-403 | 5°685 474 571 | 5,133,457 || 3-453 | 5-947 958 282 | 5,372,531
3-404 | 5-690 608 028 | 5,138,130 |] 3-454 | 5-953 330 813 | 5,377,427
3405 | 5695 746 158 | 5,142,807 |] 3-455 | 5-958 708 240 | 5.382.398
3-406 | 5:700 888 965 | 5,147,489 || 3-456 | 5-964 090 568 | 5,387,234
3-407 | 5°706 036 454 | 5,152,176 || 3-457 | 5969 477 802 | 5,392,143
3-408 | 5711 188 630 | 5,156,866 || 3-458 | 5-974 869 945 | 5.397.058
3-409 | 5-716 345 496 | 5,161,560 || 3-459 | 5-980 267 003 | 5.401.977
3-410 | 6-721 507 056 | 5,166,260 || 3-460 | 5-985 668 980 | 5,406,900
3-411 | 6-726 673 316 | 5,170,964 || 3-461 | 5-991 075 880 | 6,411,830
3-412 | 5-731 844 280 | 5,175,672 || 3-462 | 5-996 487 710 | 5,416,761
3-413 | 5737 019 952 | 5,180,383 || 3-463 | 6-001 904 471 | 5.421.699
3-414 | 5-742 200 335 | 5,185,101 || 3-464 | 6-007 326170 | 5,426,642
3415 | 5-747 385 436 | 5,189,822 || 3-465 | 6-012 752 812 | 6,431,587
3-416 | 5752 575 258 | 5,194,547 || 3-466 | 6018 184 399 | 5.436.540
3417 | 5°757 769 805 | 5,199,278 || 3-467 | 6-023 620 939 | 5,441,496
3-418 | 5-762 969 083 | 5,204,011 || 3-468 | 6-029 062 436 | 5,446,455
3-419 | 6-768 173 094 | 5,208,751 || 3-469 | 6-034 508 890 | 5,451,422
3420 | 5773 381 845 | 5,213,494 || 3-470 | 6-039 960 312 | 5,456,392
3-421 | 5-778 595 339 | 5,218,241 || 3-471 | 6-045 416 704 | 5,461,364
3°422 | 5-783 813 580 | 5,222,993 || 3-472 | 6-050 878 068 | 5,466,345
3-423 | 5-789 036 573 | 5,227,751 || 3-473 | 6-056 344 413 | 5,471,329
3-424 | 5-794 264 324 | 5,232,511 || 3-474 | 6-061 815 742 | 5,476,316
3°425 | 5-799 496 835 | 5,237,276 || 3-475 | 6-067 292 058 | 5,481,309
3-426 | 5°804 734 111 | 5,242,047 || 3-476 | 6-072 773 367 | 5,486,308
3-427 | 5809 976 158 | 5,246,821 || 3-477 | 6-078 259 675 | 5,491,311
3428 | 5:815 222 979 | 5,251,601 || 3-478 | 6-083 750 986 | 5,496,317
3-429 | 5:820 474 580 | 5,256,383 || 3-479 | 6-089 247 303 | 5,501,329
3-430 | 5°825 730 963 | 5,261,170 || 3-480 | 6-094 748 632 | 5,506,346
3-431 | 5:830 992 133 | 5,265,963 || 3-48] 6-100 254 978 | 5,511,366
3-432 | 5°836 258 096 | 5,270,759 || 3-482 | 6105 766 344 | 5.516.392
3-433 | 5°841 528 856 | 5,275,562 || 3-483 | 6-111 282 736 | 5,521,423
3-434 | 5846 804 417 | 5,280,367 || 3-484 | 6-116 804 159 | 5,526,458
3435 | 5-852 084 784 | 5,285,177 || 3-485 | 6122 330 617 | 5,531,498
3-436 | 5°857 369 961 | 5,289,991 || 3-486 | 6127 862 115 | 5,536,543
3-437 | 6-862 659 952 | 5,294,810 || 3-487 | 6133 398 658 | 5,541,592
3438 | 5°867 954 762 | 5,299,634 || 3-488 | 6138 940 250 | 5.546.646
3-439 | 6:873 254 396 | 5,304,463 || 3-489 | 6144 486 896 | 5.551.705
3440 | 5:878 558 859 | 5,309,294 || 3-490 | 6-150 038 601 | 5,556,767
3-441 | 5°883 868 153 | 5,314,132 || 3-491 | 6-155 595 368 | 5,561,837
3-442 | 5-889 182 285 | 5,318,974 || 3-492 | 6161 157 205 | 5,566,910
3-443 | 5894 501 259 | 5,323,818 || 3-493 | 6166 724 115 | 5,571,987
3-444 | 5899 825 077 | 5,328,671 || 3-494 | 6172 296 102 | 5,577,070
3-445 | 5:905 153 748 | 5,333,527 || 3-495 | 6177 873 172 | 5,582,157
3-446 | 5910 487 275 | 5,338,385 || 3-496 | 6-183 455 329 | 5,587,248
3447 | 5-915 825 660 | 5,343,249 || 3-497 | 6-189 042 577 | 5,592,346
3-448 | 5-921 168 909 | 5,348,119 || 3-498 | 6-194 634 923 | 5.597.446
3-449 | 5-926 517 028 | 5,352,991 || 3-499 | 6-200 232 369 | 5.602.553
3-450 | 5-931 870 019 | 5,357,870 || 3-500 | 6-205 834 922 | 5,607,664
264 REPORT—1893.,
x Ix Difference x Iz Difference
3°500 6°205 834 922 5,607,664 3°550 6-492 579 585 5,869,392
3501 6°211 442 586 5,612,780 3°551 6°498 448 977 5,874,753
3°502 6°217 055 366 5,617,901 3552 6504 323 730 5,880,117
3°503 6°222 673 267 5,623,025 3°553 6510 203 847 5,885,488
3°504 6:228 296 292 5,628,156 3°554 6516 089 335 5,890,862
3°505 6'233 924 448 5,633,291 3°555 6521 980 197 5,896,243
3506 6:239 557 739 5,638,429 3°556 6527 876 440 5,901,629
3°507 6°245 196 168 5,643,576 3°557 6533 778 069 5,907,018
3°508 6°250 839 744 5,648,724 3558 6°539 685 087 5,912,414
3°509 6:256 488 468 5,653,878 3°559 6545 597 501 5,917,814
3°510 6:262 142 346 5,659,037 3560 6551 515 315 5,923,219
3511 6:267 801 383 5,664,200 3561 6557 438 534 5,928,631
3512 6273 465 583 5,669,370 3°562 6563 367 165 5,934,046
3513 6:279 134 953 5,674,543 3°563 6569 301 211 5,939,466
3°514 6°284 809 496 5,679,721 3564 6575 240 677 5,944,891
3°515 6°290 489 217 5,684,904 3°565 6581 185 568 5,950,321
3516 6:296 174 121 5,690,091 3°566 6587 135 889 5,955,759
3517 6301 864 212 5,695,285 3°567 6593 091 648 5,961,199
3°518 6°307 559 497 5,700,482 3°568 6°599 052 847 5,966,645
3°519 6313 259 979 5,705,685 3°569 6°605 019 492 5,972,097
3:520 6318 965 664 5,710,892 3°570 6°610 991 589 5,977,551
3521 6°324 676 556 5,716,103 3571 6616 969 140 5,983,012
3°522 6°330 392 659 5,721,320 3°572 6622 952 152 5,988,480
3°523 6336 113 979 5,726,543 3573 6628 940 632 5,993,951
3524 6341 840 522 5,731,770 3574 6634 934 583 5,999,428
3525 6°347 572 292 5,737,002 3575 6640 934 O11 6,004,909
3°526 6°353 309 294 5,742,237 3576 6646 938 920 6,010,395
3527 | 6359 051 531 | 5,747,479 || 3:577 | 6-652 949 315 | 6,015,888
3528 | 6364 799 010 | 5,752,726 || 3:578 | 6-658 965 203 | 6,021,384
3529 | 6370 551 736 | 5,757,976 || 3:579 | 6-664 986 587 | 6,026,886
3530 | 6376 309 712 | 5,763,233 || 3580 | 6-671 013 473 | 6,032,394
3°531 6°382 O72 945 5,768,494 3°581 6677 045 867 6,037,907
3°532 6°387 841 439 5,773,759 3°582 6683 083 774 6,043,424
3°533 6°393 615 198 5,779,032 5:583 6-689 127 198 6,048,946
3-534 6°399 394 230 5,784,306 3°584 6695 176 144 6,054,474
3°535 6°405 178 536 5,789,586 3°585 6:701 230 618 6,060,008
3°536 6-410 968 122 5,794,875 3°586 6°707 290 626 6,065,546
3°537 6-416 762 997 5,800,162 3587 6°713 356 172 6,071,088
3°538 6422 563 159 5,805,458 3°588 6°719 427 260 6,076,637
3°539 6°428 368 617 5,810,760 3°589 6°725 503 897 6,082,192
3°540 6°4384 179 377 5,816,064 3°590 6°731 586 089 6,087,751
3°541 6:439 995 441 5,821,374 3591 6737 673 840 6,093,314
3°542 6-445 816 815 5,826,691 3592 6°743 767 154 6,098.883
3543 6-451 643 506 5,832,011 3°593 6°749 866 037 6,104,458
3544 6457 475 517 5,837,336 3594 6°755 970 495 6,110,038
3°545 6°463 312 853 5,842,666 || 3°595 6°762 080 533 6,115,623
3°546 6°469 155 519 5,848,002 || 3596 6°768 196 156 6,121,213
3547 6°475 003 521 5,853,342 3°597 6-774 317 369 6,126,808
3548 6480 856 863 5,858,685 3598 6°780 444 177 6,132,409
3°549 6486 715 548 5,864,037 3°599 6-786 576 586 6,138,015
3°550 6°492 579 585 5,869,392 3600 6-792 714 601 6,143,626
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
1 Ss
265
Iyer Difference | x Iz Difference
6-792 714 601 | 6,143,626 | 3650 | 7-106 879 825 | 6,430,965
6-798 858 227 | 6,149,242 || 3-651 | 7-113 310 790 | 6,436,849
6805 007 469 | 6,154,864 || 3652 | 7-119 747 639 | 6,449'740
6811 162 333 | 6,160,491 || 3-653 | 7-126 190 379 | 6.448'636
6817 322 824 | 6,166,122 | 3654 | 7-132 639 015 | 6,454,536
6823 488 946 | 6,171,759 || 3°655 | 7-139 093 551 | 6,460,443
6829 660 705 ) 6,177,402 | 3656 | 7-145 553 994 | 6,466,355
6-835 838 107 | 6,183,050 | 3°657 | 7-152 020 349 | 6,472,975
6-842 021 157 | 6,188,703 || 3658 | 7-158 499 624 | 6/478,197
6-848 209 860 | 6,194,363 | 3659 | 7-164 970 821 | 6484'195
6854 404 223 | 6,200,026 | 3-660 | 7-171 454 946 6,490,061
6-860 604 249 | 6,205,695 || 3661 | 7-177 945 007 | 6,496,000
6-866 809 944 | 6,211,368 || 3662 | 7-184 441 007 | 6 501,944
6873 021 312 | 6,217,048 || 3663 | 7-190 942 951 | 67507'897
6-879 238 360 | 6,222,733 || 3-664 | 7-197 450 848 | 6,513,852
6-885 461 093 | 6,228,423 || 3-665 | 7-203 964 700 | 6519'816
6-891 689 516 | 6,234,120 | 3666 | 7-210 484 516 | 61595,784
6-897 923 636 | 6,239,820 | 3667 | 7217 010 300 | 6,531,756
6-904 163 456 | 6,245,526 || 3-668 | 7-293 542 056 | 6 537,735
6-910 408 982 | 6,251,237 | 3669 | 7-230 079 791 | 6,543,719
6916 660 219 | 6,256,954 || 3-670 | 7-236 623 510 6,549,709
6-922 917 173 | 6,262,676 || 3671 | 7-243 173 219 | 6,555,708
6-929 179 849 | 6,268,404 || 3-672 | 7-249 728 924 | 6.561.707
6-935 448 253 | 6,274,137 || 3673 | 7-256 290 631 | 6,567'713
6-941 722 390 | 6,279,875 || 3674 | 7-262 858 344 | 6,673,796
6-948 002 265 | 6,285,618 || 3675 | 7-269 432 070 | 6.579;744
6-954 287 883 | 6,291,368 || 3676 | 7-276 011 814 | 6,585,769
6-960 579 251 | 6,297,122 || 3-677 | 7-282 597 583 | 6,591,797
6-966 876 373 | 6,302,881 || 3678 | 7-289 189 380 | 6.597'831
6-973 179 254 | 6,308,647 || 3679 | 7-295 787 211 | 6.603873
6-979 487 901 | 6,314,417 || 3680 | 7-302 391 084 | 6,609,919
6-985 802 318 | 6,320,192 | 3-681 | 7-309 001 003 | 6,615,970
6-992 122 510 | 6,325,974 || 3-682 | 7315 616 973 | 6.622/029
6-998 448 484 | 6,331,761 || 3683 | 7-322 239 002 | 6,628,092
7-004 780 245 | 6,337,553 || 3-684 | 7-328 867 094 | 6,634,161
7011 117 798 | 6,343,351 || 3-685 | 7-335 501 255 | 6,640,235
TO17 461 149 | 6,349,152 || 3-686 | 7-342 141 490 | 6,646/315
7-023 810 301 | 6,354,961 | 3687 | 7-348 787 805 | 6,659,400
7-030 165 262 | 6,360,776 || 3-688 | 7-355 440 205 | 61658,493
7-036 526 038 | 6,366,594 || 3-689 | 7-362 098 698 | 6.664'590
7-042 $92 632 | 6,372,419 || 3-690 | 7-368 763 288 | 6,670,694
7-049 265 051 | 6,378,248 || 3:691 | 7-375 433 982 | 6,676,802
7-055 643 299 | 6,384,084 || 3-692 | 7-382 110 784 | 6 682/916
7-062 027 383 | 6,389,925 || 3693 | 7-388 793 700 | 6,689,036
7-068 417 308 | 6,395,771 || 3-694 | 7-395 482 736 | 6,695,162
7-074 813 079 | 6,401,624 || 3-695 | 7-402 177 898 | 6.701294
7-081 214 703 | 6,407,482 | 3696 | 7-408 879 192 | 6.707'431
7-087 622 185 | 6,413,343 || 3-697 | 7-415 586 623 | 6,713,574
7-094 035 528 | 6,419,212 || 3-698 | 7-422 300 197 | 6,719'793
7100 454 740 | 6,425,085 || 3-699 | 7-429 019 920 | 6°725'877
3650 | 7-106 879 825 | 6,430,965 || 3-700 | 7-435 745 797 | 6,732,037
266 REPORT—1893.
Bi Iz Difference x Ir Difference
3-700 | 7-435 745 797 | 6,732,037 | 3-750 | 7-780 015 230 | 7,047,503
3-701 | 7-442 477 834 | 6,738,203 || 3-751 | 7-787 062 733 | 7,053,963
3-702 | 7-449 216 037 | 6,744,376 || 3-752 | 7-794 116 696 | 7,060,432
3703 | 7-455 960 413 | 6,750,554 || 3-753 | 7-801 177 128 | 7,066,905
3-704 | 7-462 710 967 | 6,756,736 || 3-754 | 7-808 244 033 | 7,073,383
3-705 | 7-469 467 703 | 6,762,995 || 3-755 | 7-815 317 416 | 7,079,868
3-706 | 7-476 230 628 | 6,769,121 | 3-756 | 7-822 397 284 | 7,086,359
3-707 | 7-482 999 749 | 6,775,321 | 3-757 | 7-829 483 643 | 7,092,856
3-708 | 7-489 775 070 | 6,781,527 || 3-758 | 7-836 576 499 | 7,099,360
3-709 | 7-496 556 597 | 6,787,740 || 3-759 | 7-843 675 859 | 7,108,869
3-710 | 7-503 344 337 | 6,793,958 || 3-760 | 7-850 781 728 | 7,112,384
3711 | 7-510 138 295 | 6,800,182 || 3-761 | 7-857 894 112 | 7,118,906
8712 | 7-516 938 477 | 6,806,411 || 3-762 | 7-865 013 017 | 7,125,433
3-713 | 7-523 744 888 | 6,912,645 || 3-763 | 7-872 138 450 | 7,131,967
3-714 | 7-530 557 533 | 6,818,889 || 3-764 | 7-879 270 417 | 7,138,507
3-715 | 7-537 376 422 | 6,825,136 || 3-765 | 7-886 408 924 | 7,146,053
3716 | 7-544 201 558 | 6,831,389 || 3-766 | 7-893 553 977 | 7,151,604
3-717 | 7-551 032 947 | 6,837,647 || 3-767 | 7-900 705 581 | 7,168,162
3718 | 7-557 870 594 | 6,843,911 || 3-768 | 7-907 863 743 | 7,164,727
3719 | 7-564 714 505 | 6,850,182 || 3-769 | 7-915 028 470 | 7,171,297
3-720 | 7-571 564 687 | 6,856,458 || 3-770 | 7-922 199 767 | 7,177,874 _
3721 | 7-578 421 145 | 6,862,742 || 3-771 | 7-929 377 641 | 7,184,456
3-722 | 7-585 283 887 | 6,869,029 || 3772 | 7-936 562 097 | 7,191,045
3-723 | 7-592 162 916 | 6,875,323 || 3-773 | 7-943 753 142 | 7,197,640
3-724 | 7-599 028 239 | 6,881,623 || 3-774 | 7-950 950 782 | 7,204,242
3-725 | 7-605 909 862 | 6,887,930 || 3-775 | 7-958 155 024 | 7,210,849
3-726 | 7612 797 792 | 6,894,240 || 3776 | 7-965 365 873 | 7,217,462
3-727 7-619 692 032 | 6,900,558 3777 7972 583 335 | 7,224,082
3-728 7-626 592 590 | 6,906,882 3°778 T7979 807 417 | 7,230,708
3-729 | 7-633 499 472 | 6,913,212 || 3-779 | 7-987 038 125 | 7,237,340
3-730 | 7-640 412 684 | 6,919,547 || 3-780 | 7-994 275 465 | 7,243,977
3-731 | 7-647 332 231 | 6,925,887 || 3781 | 8-001 519 442 | 7,260,622
3-732 | 7-654 258 118 | 6,932,235 || 3-782 | 8-008 770 064 | 7,257,273
3-733. | 7-661 190 353 | 6,938,588 || 3783 | 8-016 027 337 | 7,263,930
3-734 | 7-668 128 941 | 6,944,947 || 3-784 | 8023 291 267 | 7,270,594
3735 | 7-675 073 888 | 6,951,312 || 3785 | 8-030 561 861 | 7,277,262
3-736 | 7-682 025 200 | 6,957,683 || 3-786 | 8-037 839 123 | 7,283,938
3-737 | 7-688 982 883 | 6,964,059 || 3:787 | 8-045 123 061 | 7,290,620
3-738 | 7-695 946 942 | 6,970,442 || 3-788 | 8-052 413 681 | 7,297,308
3-739 | 7-702 917 384 | 6,976,832 || 3-789 | 8-059 710 989 | 7,304,002
3-740 | 7-709 894 216 | 6,983,227 || 3-790 | 8-067 014 991 | 7,310,703
3-741 | 7-716 877 443 | 6,989,626 || 3-791 | 8-074 325 694 | 7,317,410
3-742 | 7-723 867 069 | 6,996,034 || 3-792 | 8-081 643 104 | 7,324,122
3-743 | 7-730 863 103 | 7,002,447 || 3-793 | 8-088 967 226 | 7,330,841
3-744 | 7-737 865 550 | 7,008,864 || 3794 | 8-096 298 067 | 7,337,568
3-745 | 7-744 874°414 | 7,015,289 || 3-795 | 8-103 635.635 | 7,344,301
3-746 | 7-751 889 703 | 7,021,721 || 3796 | 8-110 979 936 | 7,351,038
3-747 | 7-758 911 424 | 7,028,158 || 3-797 | 8118 330 974 | 7,357,782
3-748 | 7-765 939 582 | 7,034,600 || 3-798 | 8125 688 756 | 7,364,533
3-749 | 7-772 974 182 | 7,041,048 || 3-799 | 8-133 053 289 | 7,371,290
3-750 | 7-780 015 230 | 7,047,503 || 3:800 | 8140 424 579 | 7,378,054
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 267
xr Ta Difference x Ir Difference
3800 8140 424 579 | 7,378,054 3:850 8517 745 677 | 7,724,413
3-801 | 8147 802 633 | 7,384,823 || 3-851 8-525 470 090 | 7,731,506
3802 8155 187 456 | 7,391,600 3852 8-533 201 596 | 7,738,608
3-803 8-162 579 056 | 7,398,382 3853 8540 940 204-| 7,745,715
3804 8-169 977 438 | 7,405,171 3854 8-548 685 919 | 7,752,827
3805 $177 382 609 | 7,411,966 3855 8-556 438 746 | 7,759,947
3806 8-184 794 575 | 7,418,767 3856 8-564 198 693 | 7,767,074
3807 8-192 213 342 | 7,425,576 3857 8-571 965 767 | 7,774,208
3:808 8-199 6388 918 | 7,432,390 3858 8-579 739 975 | 7,781,348
3809 8-207 071 308 | 7,439,210 3859 8:587 521 323 | 7,788,495
3'810 8-214 510 518 | 7,446,037 3860 | 8-595 309 818 | 7,795,649
3811 8-221 956 555 | 7,452,870 3861 8-603 105 467 | 7,802,809
3812 8-229 409 425 | 7,459,710 3862 8-610 908 276 | 7,809,975
3813 8-236 869 135 | 7,466,556 3863 8-618 718 251 7,817,150
3-814 8:244 335 691 | 7,473,410 3864 8-626 535 401 | 7,824,230
3815 8-251 809 101 | 7,480,268 3865 8634 359 731 7,831,516
3816 8-259 289 369 | 7,487,134 3866 8-642 191 247 | 7,838,711
3817 8:266 776 503 | 7,494,005 3:867 8-650 029 958 | 7,845,911
3:818 $274 270 508 | 7,500,883 3868 8-657 875 869 | 7,853,118
3819 8-281 771 391 | 7,507,768 3869 8:665 728 987 | 7,860,331
3-820 §:289 279 159 | 7,514,658 3-870 8-673 589 318 | 7,867,553
3821 8-296 793 817 | 7,521,556 3871 8-681 456 871 | 7,874,781
3822 8304 315 373 | 7,528,460 3872 8-689 331 652 | 7,882,014
3823 8-311 843 833 | 7,535,370 3873 8697 213 666 | 7,889,255
3824 8319 379 203 | 7,542,288 3874 8-705 102 921 | 7,896,503
3825 8326 921 491 | 7,549,211 3875 8-712 999 424 | 7,903,757
3826 8:334 470 702 | 7,556,140 3876 8-720 903 181 | 7,911,019
3:827 8:342 026 842 | 7,563,077 3877 8-728 814 200 | 7,918,287
3828 8349 589 919 | 7,570,020 3878 8-736 732 487 | 7,925,562
3829 8°357 159 939 | 7,576,968 3:879 8-744 658 049 | 7,932,844
3830 8364 736 907 | 7,583,925 3880 8:752 590 893 | 7,940,132
3-831 8:372 320 832 | 7,590,887 3881 8-760 531 025 | 7,947,427
3°832 8379 911 719 | 7,597,856 3882 8-768 478 452 | 7,954,730
3833 8387 509 575 | 7,604,830 3883 8-776 433 182 | 7,962,038
3834 8-395 114 405 | 7,611,813 3884 8-784 395 220 | 7,969,354
3835 8-402 726 218 | 7,618,801 3885 8-792 364 574 | 7,976,677
3836 8-410 345 019 | 7,625,795 3886 8-800 341 251 | 7,984,007
3:837 8-417 970 814 | 7,632,797 3887 8-808 325 258 | 7,991,343
3-838 8-425 603 611 | 7,639,806 3888 8:816 316 601 | 7,998,685
-3°839 8-433 243 417 | 7,646,819 3889 8:824 315 286 | 8,006,036
2-840 8.440 890 236 | 7,653,840 3:890 8832 321 322 | 8,013,393
3-841 8-448 544 076 | 7,660,869 3891 8-840 334 715 | 8,020,757
3842 8-456 204 945 | 7,667,902 3:892 8848 355 472 | 8,028,127
3843 8-463 872 847 | 7,674,944 3893 8:856 383 599 | 8,035,506
3844 8-471 547 791 | 7,681,991 3894 8-864 419 105 | 8,042,890
3845 8479 229 782 | 7,689,045 3895 8-872 461 995 | 8,050,280
3846 8-486 918 827 | 7,696,105 3896 8880 512 275 | 8,057,680
3847 8-494 614 982 | 7,703,172 3897 8-888 569 955 | 8,065,085
3848 8502 318 194 | 7,710,246 3:898 8896 635 040 | 8,072,496
3849 8-510 028 350 | 7,717,327 3-899 8-904 707 536 | 8,079,915
3:850 8517 745 677 | 7,724,413 3-900 8-912 787 451 | 8,087,342
REPORT—1893.
Ez: Iz Difference | x Ix Difference
3-900 8912 787 451 | 8,087,342 || 3950 | 9:326 397 737 | 8,467,636
3-901 8-920 874 793 | 8,094,775 || 3-951 9-334 865 373 | 8,475,426
3-902 | 8928 969 568 | 8,102,216 | 3-952 | 9343 340 799 | 8,483,222
3:903 | 8-937 071 784 | 8,109,662 || 3953 | 9-351 824 021 | 8,491,024
3904 | 8945 181 446 | 8,117,115 3-954 | 9:360 315 045 | 8,498,836
3905 | 8-953 298 561 | 8,124,577 | 3955 | 9-368 813 881 | 8,506,654
3906 | 8-961 423 138 | 8,132,045 || 3:956 | 9:377 320 535 | 8,514,478
3:907 | 8-969 555 183 | 8,139,519 | 3-957 9-385 835 013 | 8,522,311
3908 | 8977 694 702 | 8,147,001 | 3°958 | 9:394 357 324 | 8,530,151
3909 | 8-985 841 703 | 8,154,490 | 3-959 | 9-402 887 475 | 8,537,998
3910 | 8-993 996 193 | 8,161,985 || 3-960 | 9-411 425 473 | 8,545,853
3-911 9-002 158 178 | 8,169,488 | 3-961 9-419 971 326 | 8,553,715
3-912 | 9-010 327 666 | 8,176,998 || 3-962 | 9-428 525 O41 | 8,561,583
3913 | 9-018 504 664 | 8,184,515 || 3963 | 9-437 086 624 | 8,569,461
3914 | 9-026 689 179 | 8,192,039 | 3964 | 9-445 656 085 | 8,577,344
3915 | 9-034 881 218 | 8,199,570 || 3:965 | 9-454 233 429 | 8,585,235
3916 | 9-043 080 788 | 8,207,107 | 3966 | 9-462 818 664 | 8,593,136
3917 | 9-051 287 895 | 8,214,653 | 3:967 | 9:471 411 800 | 8,601,040
3918 | 9:059 502 548 | 8,222,205 | 3-968 | 9-480 012 840 | 8,608,953
3-919 | 9-067 724 753 | 8,229,764 | 3-969 | 9-488 621 793 | 8,616,875
3920 | 9-075 954 517 | 8,237,330 || 3-970 | 9-497 238 668 | 8,624,804
3921 | 9-084 191 847 | 8,244,904 || 3-971 9-505 863 472 | 8,632,739
3-922 | 9-092 436 751 | 8,252,484 | 3:972 | 9-514 496 211 | 8,640,683
3923 | 9-100 689 235 | 8,260,070 || 3973 | 9-523 136 894 | 8,648,633
3-924 ‘108 949 305 | 8,267,667 || 3:974 | 9-531 785 527 | 8,656,590
3-925 | 9-117 216 972 | 8,275,266 | 3975 | 9:540 442 117 | 8,664,557
3926 | 9-125 492 238 | 8,282,876 || 3-976 | 9-549 106 674 | 8,672,530
3927. | 9133 775 114 | 8,290,492 || 3:977 | 9-557 779 204 | 8,680,509
3928 | 9-142 065 606 | 8,298,116 || 3:978 | 9-566 459 713 | 8,688,498
3929 | 9-150 363 722 | 8,305,745 | 3-979 | 9575 148 211 | 8,696,493
3-930 | 9-158 669 467 | 8,313,382 || 3980 | 9:583 844 704 | 8,704,495
3-931 | 9166 982 849 | 8,321,027 || 3-981 | 9:592 549 199 | 8,712,505
3-932 | 9:175 303 876 |. 8,328,678 || 3-982 | 9-601 261 704 | 8,720,525
3-933 | 9:183 632 554 | 8,336,337 || 3-983 | 9-609 982 229 | 8,728,549
3°934 | 9:191 968 891 | 8,344,003 || 3-984 | 9618 710 778 | 8,736,581
3935 | 9-200 312 894 | 8,351,677 || 3985 | 9-627 447 359 | 8,744,623
3-936 | 9-208 664 571 | 8,359,356 || 3-986 | 9-636 191 982 | 8,752,670
3937 | 9-217 023 927 | 8,367,043 || 3987 | 9-644 944 652 | 8,760,726
3938 | 9-225 390 970 | 8,374,737 || 3-988 9-653 705 378 | 8,768,788
3-939 | 9-233 765 707 | 8,382,440 || 3989 | 9-662 474 166 | 8,776,859.
3940 | 9-242 148 147 | 8,390,150 || 3-990 9-671 251 025 | 8,784,936
3-941 9-250 538 297 | 8,397,866 || 3-991 9-680 035 961 | 8,793,023
3-942 | 9:258 936 163 | 8,405,589 || 3-992 | 9-688 828 984 | 8,801,116
3943 | 9-267 341 752 | 8,413,319 || 3-993 | 9-697 630 100 | 8,809,216
3-944 | 9-275 755 071 | 8,421,057 || 3-994 | 9-706 439 316 | 8,817,325
3945 | 9-284 176 128 | 8,428,802 || 3:995 | 9-715 256 641 | 8,825,440
3946 | 9-292 604 930 | 8,436,555 || 3:996 | 9-724 082 081 | 8,833,564
3-947 | 9-301 041 485 | 8,444,315 || 3:997 | 9-732 915 645 | 8,841,696
3948 | 9-309 485 800 | 8,452,082 || 3:998 | 9-741 757 341 | 8,849,833
3949 | 9:317 937 882 | 8,459,855 || 3-999 | 9-750 607174 | 8,857,980
3950 | 9:326 397 737 | 8,467,636 || 4000 | 9-759 465 154 | 8,866,134
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 269
Ix Difference x Ir Difference
465 154 | 8,866,134 || 4-050 | 10-212 921 103 | 9,283,709
331 288 8,874,295 || 4051 10222 204 812 9,292,262
205 583 8,882,464 || 4:052 | 10:231 497 074 9,300,821
O88 047 8,890,642 4:053 10240 797 895 9,309,391
978 689 8,898,826 4-054 10250 107 286 9,317,967
877 515 8,907,018 4-055 10°259 425 253 9,326,552
784 533 8,915,218 4056 | 10:°268 751 805 9,335,143
699 751 8,923,425 4-057 10-278 086 948 9,343,743
623 176 8,931,641 || 4:058 10°287 430 691 9,352,354
554 817 8,939,864 4:059 | 10-296 783 046 9,360,971
494 681 8,948,093 | 4-060 | 10:306 144 016 9,369,592
442 774 8,956,332 | 4-061 10°315 513 608 9,378,226
399 106 8,964,579 4:062 | 10:324 891 834 9,386,867
363 685 8,972,831 | 4063 10334 278 701 9,395,516
336 516 | 8,981,093 | 4-064 | 10-343 674 217 | 9,404,174
317 609 | 8,989,363 | 4-065 | 10:353 078 391 | 9.412.839
306 972 | 8,997,639 | 4-066 | 10:362 491 230 | 9/421/512
304 611 | 9,005,923 || 4-067 | 10371 912 742 | 9,430,192
310 534 | 9,014,217 | 4-068 | 10:381 342 934 | 9/438,883
324 751 | 9,022,516 || 4-069 | 10-390 781 817 | 91447.580
347 267 9,030,824 || 4-070 10°400 229 397 9,456,285
378 091 | 9,039,140 | 4071 | 10-409 685 682 | 9,465,000
3 417 231 | 9,047,463 | 4-072 | 10-419 150 682 | 9 473,722
464 694 | 9,055,794 | 4-073 | 10-428 624 404 | 9/489'450
520 488 9,064,135 | 4074 | 10-438 106 854 9,491,192
584 623 9,072,480 | 4:075 | 10-447 598 046 9,499,937
657 103 9,080,835 || 4076 | 10-457 097 983 9,508,690
737 938 9,089,197 || 4077 | 10-466 606 673 9,517,454
827 135 9,097,567 4078 | 10-476 124 127 9,526,227
924 702 9,105,948 || 4-079 10°485 650 354 9,535,005
030 650 | 9,114,331 | 4-080 | 10-495 185 359 | 9,543,792
144 981 | 9,122,725 | 4-081 | 10504 729 151 | 9,552,589
267 706 | 9,131,128 | 4:082 | 10:514 281 740 | 9/561,393
398 834 | 9,139,538 | 4-083 | 10523 843 133 | 9'570'205
538 372 | 9,147,953 || 4-084 | 10533 413 338 | 9,579,025
686 325 | 9,156,378 || 4-085 | 10°542 992 363 | 91587/854
842 703 | 9,164,814 || 4086 | 10:552 580 217 | 9/596,690
007 517 | 9,173,252 || 4-087 | 10-562 176 907 | 9,605,537
180 769 | 9,181,705 | 4088 | 10571 782 444 | 9'614'390
362 474 | 9,190,160 | 4-089 | 10°581 396 834 | 9/623.951
552 634 | 9,198,625 || 4-090 | 10:591 020 085 | 9,632,122 _
751 259 9,207,096 4-091 10°600 652 207 9,641,001
958 355 9,215,578 | 4:092 | 10-610 293 208 9,649,887
173 933 9,224,066 4:093 | 10-619 943 095 9,658,783
397 999 9,232,563 || 4:094 | 10-629 601 878 9,667,686
630 562 9,241,068 4:095 | 10°639 269 564 9,676,598
871 630 9,249,579 4096 | 10°648 946 162 9,685,518
121 209 9,258,100 4097 | 10°658 631 680 9,694,446
379 309 9,266,629 4098 | 10°668 326 126 9,703,383
645 938 9,275,165 4099 | 10°678 029 509 9,712,328
921 103 9,283,709 4100 | 10687 741 837 9,721,281
270 REPORT—1893.
x Ix Difference us Ix Difference
£100 | 10°687 741 837 | 9,721,281 | 4:150 | 11-184 950 646 | 10,179,815
4101 | 10-697 463 118 | 9,730,245 || 4-151 | 11-195 130 461 | 10,189,207
4-102 | 10-707 193 363 | 9,739,215 || 4:152 | 11-205 319 668 | 10,198,607
4-103 | 10-716 932 578 | 9,748,193 || 4153 | 11-215 518 275 | 10,208,017
4-104 | 10:726 680 771 | 9,757,179 || 4154 | 11-225 726 292 | 10,217,434
4:105 | 10-736 437 950 | 9,766,176 || 4-155 | 11-235 943 726 | 10,226,861
4106 | 10-746 204 126 | 9,775,181 || 4:156 | 11-246 170 587 | 10,236,296
4-107 | 10-755 979 307 | 9,784,192 || 4:157 | 11-256 406 883 | 10,245,740
4:108 | 10-765 763 499 | 9,793,214 || 4-158 | 11-266 652 623 | 10,255,199
4-109 | 10°775 556 713 | 9,802,243 || 4159 | 11-276 907 815 | 10,264,656
4110 | 10-785 358 956 | 9,811,280 || 4:160 | 11-287 172 471 | 10,274,127
4111 | 10795 170 236 | 9,820,326 || 4161 | 11-297 446 598 | 10,283,606
4-112 | 10-804 990 562 | 9,829,381 || 4:162 | 11-307 730 204 | 10,293,094
4-113 | 10814 819 943 | 9,838,444 || 4163 | 11-318 023 298 | 10,302,591
4-114 | 10-824 658 387 | 9,847,516 || 4-164 | 11-328 325 889 | 10,312,098
4-115 | 10:834 505 903 | 9,856,596 || 4-165 | 11-338 637 987 | 10,321,613
4-116 | 10-844 362 499 | 9,865,685 || 4:166 | 11:348 959 600 | 10,331,138
4:117 | 10-854 228 184 | 9,874,782 || 4-167 | 11:359 290 738 | 10,340,670
4118 | 10-864 102 966 | 9,883,889 || 4168 | 11-°369 631 408 | 10,350,213
4-119 | 10-873 986 855 | 9,893,001 || 4:169 | 11-379 981 621 | 10,359,763
4:120 | 10883 879 856 | 9,902,124 || 4170 | 11-390 341 384 | 10,369,323
4-121 | 10893 781 980 | 9,911,258 || 4:171 | 11-400 710 707 | 10,378,892
4-122 | 10-903 693 238 | 9,920,396 || 4172 | 11-411 089 599 | 10,388,470
4-123 | 10-913 613 634 | 9,929,543 || 4173 | 11-421 478 069 | 10,398,057
4-124 | 10-923 543 177 | 9,938,701 || 4174 | 11-431 876 126 | 10,407,652
4-125 | 10-933 481 878 | 9,947,867 | 4175 | 11-442 283 778 | 10,417,258
4126 | 10°943 429 745 | 9,957,041 |) 4176 | 11-452 701 036 | 10,426,871
4127 | 10-953 386 786 | 9,966,223 || 4177 | 11-463 127 907 | 10,436,494
4:128 | 10-963 353 009 | 9,975,414 || 4178 | 11-473 564 401 | 10,446,124
4-129 | 10-973 328 423 | 9,984,615 || 4179 | 11-484 010 525 | 10,455,767
4-130 | 10°983 313 038 | 9,993,824 || 4180 | 11-494 466 292 | 10,465,416
4131 | 10-993 306 862 | 10,003,041 || 4°181 | 11°504 931 708 | 10,475,074
4-132 | 11-003 309 903 | 10,012,266 || 4:182 | 11°515 406 782 | 10,484,742
4133 | 11-013 322 169 | 10,021,501 || 4183 | 11°525 891 524 | 10,494,419
4-134 | 11-023 343 670 | 10,030,744 || 4184 | 11°536 385 943 | 10,504,106
4135 | 11-033 374 414 | 10,039,995 || 4185 | 11-546 890 049 | 10,513,802
4-136 | 11-043 414 409 | 10,049,256 || 4:186 | 11°557 403 851 | 10,523,503
4-137 | 11-053 463 665 | 10,058,525 || 4187 | 11°567 927 354 | 10,533,219
4-138 | 11-063 522 190 | 10,067,802 || 4188 | 11-578 460 573 | 10,542,940
4-139 | 11-073 589 992 | 10,077,089 || 4189 | 11°589 003 513 | 10,552,671
4140 | 11-083 667 081 | 10,086,385 || 4190 | 11:599 556 184 | 10,562,412
4141 | 11-093 753 466 | 10,095,688 || 4-191 | 11°610 118 596 | 10,572,163
4142 | 11-103 849 154 | 10,105,002 || 4-192 | 11-620 690 759 | 10,581,922
4-143 | 11113 954 156 | 10,114,322 || 4193 | 11-631 272 681 | 10,591,689
4144 | 11-124 068 478 | 10,123,652 || 4-194 | 11-641 864 370 | 10,601,466
4-145 | 11134 192 130 | 10,132,991 || 4195 | 11-652 465 836 | 10,611,252
4-146 | 11-144 325 121 | 10,142,338 || 4-196 | 11-663 077 088 | 10,621,048
4147 | 11-154 467 459 | 10,151,694 || 4:197 | 11-673 698 136 | 10,630,852
4148 | 11-164 619 153 | 10,161,059 || 4:198 | 11-684 328 988 | 10,640,666
4-149 | 11-174 780 212 | 10,170,434 || 4-199 | 11°694 969 654 | 10,650,489
4150 | 11-184 950 646 | 10,179,815 || 4-200 | 11-705 620 143 | 10,660,322
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 271
oes Iz Difference / fis Iz Difference
4200 | 11-705 620 143 | 10,660,322 || 4-250 | 12-250 874 666 | 11,163,862
4-201 | 11-716 280 465 | 10,670,162 || 4251 | 12-262 038 528 | 11,174,170
4202 | 11-726 950 627 | 10,680,013 | 4-252 | 12-273 212 698 | 11184494
4203 | 11-737 630 640 | 10,689,874 || 4-253 | 12-284 397 192 | 11,194'897
4204 | 11-748 320 514 | 10,699,743 | 4-254 | 12-295 592 019 | 11,205,169
4205 | 11:759 020 257 | 10,709,620 | 4-255 | 12:306 797 188 | 1.215.521
4206 | 11-769 729 877 | 10,719,508 || 4-256 | 12:318 012 709 | 11.225'883
4207 | 11-780 449 385 | 10,729,406 || 4-257 | 12-329 238 592 | 11,236,254
4208 | 11-791 178 791 | 10,739,311 || 4-258 | 19:340 474 846 | 11,246,635
4209 | 11:801 918 102 | 10,749,226 || 4-259 | 12-351 721 481 | 11'257/096
4210 | 11-812 667 328 | 10,759,151 || 4-260 | 12362 978 507 | 11,267,427
4211 | 11823 426 479 | 10,769,086 | 4-261 | 12374 245 934 | 11,277,836
4212 | 11-834 195 565 | 10,779,029 || 4-262 | 12-385 523 770 | 11288256
4213 | 11-844 974 594 | 10,788,981 | 4-263 | 12396 812 026 | 11,298,687
4214 | 11-855 763 575 | 10,798,944 || 4-264 | 12-408 110 713 | 11,309,127
4215 | 11866 562 519 | 10,808,915 | 4-265 | 12-419 419 840 | 113191576
4216 | 11-877 371 434 | 10,818,895 | 4-266 | 12-430 739 416 | 11,330,034
4217 | 11-888 190 329 | 10,828,885 || 4267 | 12-442 069 450 | 11,340,503
4218 | 11:899 019 214 | 10,838,885 | 4-268 | 12-453 409 953 | 11.350,982
£219 | 11-909 858 099 | 10,848,893 || 4-269 | 12-464 760 935 | 11,361,471
4220 | 11-920 706 992 | 10,858,911 || 4270 | 12-476 122 406 | 11,371,969
4221 | 11-931 565 903 | 10,868,938 | 4-271 | 12-487 494 375 | 11,382,475
4222 | 11-942 434 841 | 10,878,976 | 4-272 | 12-498 876 850 | 11,392,996
4223 | 11-953 313 817 | 10,889,023 | 4-273 | 12510 269 846 | 11.403/595
4224 | 11:964 202 840 | 10,899,078 |) 4-274 | 12-521 673 371 | 11,414,061
4225 | 11-975 101 918 | 10,909,142 || 4-275 | 12-533 087 432 | 11.424’608
4226 | 11-986 011 060 | 10,919,217 |) 4-276 | 12-544 512 040 | 11,435,166
4227 | 11-996 930 277 | 10,929,302 | 4-277 | 12:555 947 206 | 11,445,734
£228 | 12-007 859 579 | 10,939,394 | 4-278 | 12-567 392 940 | 11.456:312
#229 | 12018 798 973 | 10,949,497 | 4-279 | 12:578 849 252 | 11.406,898
4230 | 12029 748 470 | 10,959,610 || 4-280 | 12:590 316 150 | 11,477,495
4231 | 12-040 708 080 | 10,969,732 || 4-281 | 12°601 793 645 | 11,488,103
4232 | 12°051 677 812 | 10,979,863 || 4-282 | 12°613 281 748 | 11,498.70
4233 | 12-062 657 675 | 10,990,004 | 4-283 | 12-624 780 468 | 11.509/347
4234 | 12-073 647 679 | 11,000,154 | 4-284 | 12-636 289 815 | 11,519,984
#235 | 12084 647 833 | 11,010,314 || 4-285 | 12:647 809 799 | 11,530,630
£236 | 12°095 658 147 | 11,020,483 || 4-286 | 12:659 340 429 | 111541.288
4237 | 12-106 678 630 | 11,030,662 | 4-287 | 12-670 881 717 | 11,551,955
4238 | 12-117 709 292 | 11,040,850 || 4-288 | 12-682 433 672 | 11'562/632
4239 | 12128 750 142 | 11,051,049 || 4-289 | 12:693 996 304 | 11'573.318
#240 | 12139 801 191 | 11,061,256 |) 4-290 | 12-705 569 622 | 11,584,015
4241 | 12150 862 447 | 11,071,472 || 4291 | 12-717 153 637 | 11,594,722
4242 | 12161 933 919 | 11,081,700 || 4-292 | 12-728 748 359 | 11,605,440
4243 | 12-173 015 619 | 11,091,936 || 4-293 | 12-740 353 799 | 11/616167
4244 | 12184 107 555 | 11,102,182 || 4-294 | 12-751 969 966 | 11,626,904
4245 | 12195 209 737 | 11,112,435 || 4.295 | 12-763 596 870 | 11,637,650
4246 | 12206 322 172 | 11,122,703 || 4-296 | 12-775 234 520 | 11,648,407
4247 | 12-217 444 875 | 11,132,977 || 4297 | 12-786 882 927 | 11,659,176
4248 | 12-228 577 $52 | 11,143,260 || 4-298 | 12-798 542 103 | 11/669/953
4249 | 12-239 721 112 | 11,153,554 || 4-299 | 12-810 212 036 | 11,680,740
4250 | 12-250 874 666 | 11,163,862 || 4-300 | 12821 892 796 | 11,691,537
nn ee
272 REPORT— 1893.
co, | Iz Difference £ Ic Difference
4300 12-821 892 796 | 11,691,537 || 4:350 | 13-419 909 985 | 12,244,526
4301 | 12/833 584 333 | 11,702,346 || 4351 | 13-432 154 511 | 12,255,850
4-302 | 12:845 286 679 | 11,713,164: || 4:352 | 13-444 410 361 | 12,267,189
4-303 | 12°856 999 843 | 11,723,993 || 4353 | 13-456 677 550 | 12,278,536
4-304 | 12:868 723 836 | 11,734,830 || 4:354 | 13-468 956 086 | 12,289,895
4-305 | 12:880 458 666 | 11,745,678 || 4:355 | 13-481 245 981 | 12,301,263
4-306 | 12°892 204 344 | 11,756,537 || 4:356 | 13-493 547 244 | 12,312,642
4:307 | 12:903 960 881 | 11,767,405 || 4357 | 13:505 859 886 | 12,324,032
4308 | 12915 728 286 | 11,778,284 || 4358 | 13518 183 918 | 12,335,433
4309 | 12-927 506 570 | 11,789,173 || 4359 | 13530 519 351 | 12,346,845
4310 | 12-939 295 743 | 11,800,073) 4360 | 13542 866 196 | 12,358,267
4311 | 12°951 095 816 11,810,982 || 4361 | 13555 224 463 | 12,369,700
4312 | 12-962 906 798 | 11,821,902 | 4°362 | 13-567 594 163 | 12,381,143
4313 | 12:974 728 700 | 11,832'832 | 4:363 | 13579 975 306 | 12,392,598
4314 | 12-986 561 532 | 11,843,772 |) 4:364 | 13592 367 904 | 12,404,062
4315 | 12°998 405 304 | 11,854,722 || 4:365 | 13-604 771 966 | 12,415,538
4316 | 13-010 260 026 | 11,865,683 || 4:366 | 13-617 187 504 | 12,427,025
4317 | 13-022 125 709 | 11,876,655 || 4367 | 13-629 614 529 | 12,438,592
4-318 | 13-034 002 364 | 11,887,635 | 4368 | 13°642 053 051 | 12,450,030
4319 | 12:045 889 999 | 11,898,627 || 4369 | 13°654 503 081 | 12,461,549
4320 | 13-057 788 626 | 11,909,629 || 4370 | 13666 964 630 | 12,473,079
4-321 | 13-069 698 255 | 11,920,642 || 4371 | 13-679 437 709 | 12,484,620
4-322 | 13-081 618 897 | 11,931,663 | 4372 | 13-691 922 329 | 12,496,170
4-393 | 13-093 550 560 | 11,942,697 || 4373 | 13-704 418 499 | 12,507,733
4-324 | 13:105 493 257 | 11,953,739 || 4374 | 13-716 926 232 | 12,519,306
4-325 | 13-117 446 996 | 11,964,793 || 4:375 | 13-729 445 538 | 12,530,890
4-326 | 13129 411 789 | 11,975,857 || 4376 | 13-741 976 428 | 12,542,484
4-327 | 13141 387 646 | 11,986,931 || 4:377 | 13°754 518 912 | 12,554,090
4328 | 13153 374 577 | 11,998,017 4378 | 13°767 073 002 | 12,565,707
4-329 | 13-165 372 594 | 12,009,111 || 4379 | 13-779 638 709 | 12,577,334
4-330 | 13177 381 705 | 12,020,217 || 4380 | 13-792 216 043 | 12,588,972
4331 | 13-189 401 922 | 12,031,333 || 4:381 | 13:804 805 015 | 12,600,621
4-332 | 13-201 433 255 | 12,042,459 | 4382 | 13817 405 636 | 12,612,282
4-333 | 13-213 475 714 | 12,053,595 || 4:383 | 13-830 017 918 | 12,623,953
4-334 | 13-225 529 309 | 12,064,743 || 4:384 | 13:842 641 871 | 12,635,634
4-335 | 13-237 594 052 | 12,075,900 || 4385 | 13855 277 505 | 12,647,327
4336 | 13-249 669 952 | 12,087,068 || 4386 | 13°867 924 832 | 12,659,031
4-337 | 13:261 757 020 | 12,098,248 || 4:387 | 13-880 583 863 | 12,670,747
4-338 | 13-273 855 268 | 12,109,437 || 4388 | 13-893 254 610 | 12,682,472
4339 | 13-285 964 705 | 12,120,635 | 4:389 | 13-905 937 082 | 12,694,209
4340 | 13298 085 340 | 12,131,845 || 4:390 | 13-918 631 291 | 12,705,957
4-341 | 13310 217 185 | 12,143,067 || 4391 | 13-931 337 248 | 12,717,716
4342 | 13322 360 252 | 12,154,297 | 4-392 | 13-944 054 964 | 12,729,486
4343 | 13:334 514 549 | 12,165,538 || 4393 | 13-956 784 450 | 12,741,267
4344 | 13:346 680 087 | 12,176,791 || 4:394 | 13-969 525 717 | 12,753,058
4-345 | 13°358 856 878 | 12,188,054 || 4-395 | 13-982 278 775 | 12,764,862
4-346 | 13371 044 932 | 12,199,327 || 4:396 | 13-995 043 637 | 12,776,677
4:347 | 13:383 244 259 | 12,210,610 || 4-397 | 14-007 $20 314 | 12,788,501
4348 | 13:395 454 869 | 12,221,907 || 4-398 | 14-020 608 815 | 12,800,338
4349 | 13407 676 776 | 12,233,209 || 4-399 | 14-033 409 153 | 12,812,185
4350 | 13-419 909 985 | 12,244,526 || 4-400 | 14-046 221 338 | 12,824,043
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS.
273
2 Ix Difference x Iz Difference
4-400 | 14-046 221 338 | 12,824,043 || 4-450 | 14-702 184 510 | 13,431,374
4401 | 14-059 045 381 | 12,835,913 | 4-451 | 14-715 615 884 | 13,443,813.
4-402 | 14-071 881 294 | 12,847,794 || 4-452 | 14-729 059 697 | 13,456,264
4-403 | 14-084 729 088 | 12,859,686 || 4:453 | 14-742 515 961 | 13,468,727
4-404 | 14-097 588 774 | 12,871,589 || 4-454 | 14-755 984 688 | 13,481,201
4405 | 14110 460 363 | 12,883,504 || 4-455 | 14-769 465 889 | 13,493,686
4-406 | 14-123 343 867 | 12,895,429 || 4-456 | 14-782 959 575 | 13,506,186
4407 | 14-136 239 296 | 12,907,366 || 4-457 | 14-796 465 761 | 13,518,696
4-408 | 14149 146 662 | 12,919,313 || 4-458 | 14-809 984 457 | 13,531,215
4-409 | 14162 065 975 | 12,931,272 || 4-459 | 14-823 515 672 | 13,543,748
4-410 | 14-174 997 247 | 12,943,242 || 4-460 | 14-837 059 420 | 13,556,293
4-411 | 14-187 940 489 | 12,955,225 |) 4-461 | 14-850 615 713 | 13,568,851
4-412 | 14-200 895 714 | 12,967,217 || 4-462 | 14-864 184 564 | 13,581,420
4-413 | 14-213 862 931 | 12,979,220 || 4-463 | 14:877 765 984 | 13,593,998
4-414 | 14-226 842 151 | 12,991,235 || 4-464 | 14-891 359 982 | 13,606,591
4-415 | 14-239 833 386 | 13,003,262 || 4-465 | 14-904 966 573 | 13,619,194
4-416 | 14-252 836 648 | 13,015,300 || 4-466 | 14-918 585 767 | 13,631,811
4-417 | 14-265 851 948 | 13,027,350 || 4-467 | 14-932 217 578 | 13,644,439
4-418 | 14-278 879 298 | 13,039,410 || 4-468 | 14-945 862 017 | 13,657,077
4-419 | 14-291 918 708 | 13,051,481 || 4-469 | 14-959 519 094 | 13,669,728
4-420 | 13304 970 189 | 13,063,564 || 4-470 | 14-973 188 822 | 13,682,391
4-491 | 14318 033 753 | 13,075,659 || 4-471 | 14-986 871 213 | 13,695,068
4-492 | 14:331 109 412 | 13,087,765 || 4-472 | 15-000 566 281 | 13,707,753
4-493 | 14-344 197 177 | 13,099,881 || 4-473 | 15-014 274 034 | 13,720,451
4-494 | 14-357 297 058 | 13,112,010 || 4-474 | 15-027 994 485 | 13,733,163
4425 | 14370 409 068 | 13,124,150 || 4-475 | 15-041 727 648 | 13,745,885
4496 | 14:383 533 218 | 13,136,300 || 4-476 | 15-055 473 533 | 13,758,620
4-497 | 14-396 669 518 | 13,148,463 || 4-477 | 15-069 232 153 | 13,771,366
4-498 | 14-409 817 981 | 13,160,636 || 4-478 | 15-083 003 519 | 13,784,124
4-499 | 14-422 978 617 | 13,172,823 || 4-479 | 15-096 787 643 | 13,796,895
4-430 | 14-436 151 440 | 13,185,020 || 4-480 | 15-110 584 538 | 13,809,678
4-431 | 14-449 336 460 | 13,197,228 || 4481 | 15-124 394 216 | 13,822,472
4-432 | 14-462 533 688 | 13,209,447 || 4-482 | 15°138 216 688 | 13,835,277
4-433 | 14-475 743 135 | 13,221,679 || 4-483 | 15-152 051 965 | 13,848,095
4-434 | 14-488 964 814 | 13,233,921 || 4-484 | 15-165 900 060 | 13,860,927
4-435 | 14-502 198 735 | 13,246,177 || 4-485 | 15-179 760 987 | 13,873,770
4-436 | 14-515 444 912 | 13,258,439 || 4-486 | 15-193 634 757 | 13,886,625
4-437 | 14-528 703 351 | 13,270,719 || 4-487 | 15-207 521 382 | 13,899,490
4438 | 14-541 974 070 | 13,283,007 || 4-488 | 15-221 420 872 | 13,912'368
4-439 | 14-555 257 077 | 13,295,307 || 4-489 | 15-235 333 240 | 13,925,259
4-440 | 14-568 552 384 | 13,307,619 || 4-490 | 15-249 258 499 | 13,938,163
4-441 | 14-581 860 003 | 13,319,943 || 4-491 | 15-263 196 662 | 13,951,079
4-442 | 14-595 179 946 | 13,332,276 || 4-492 | 15-277 147 741 | 13,964,004
4-443 | 14-608 512 222 | 13,344,623 || 4-493 | 15-291 111 745 | 13,976,943
4-444 | 14-621 856 845 | 13,356,982 |] 4-494 | 15-305 088 688 | 13,989,894
4-445 | 14-635 213 827 | 13,369,351 || 4-495 | 15-319 078 582 | 14,002,859
4-446 | 14-648 583 178 | 13,381,731 || 4-496 | 15°333 081 441 | 14,015,834
4447 | 14-661 964 909 | 13,394,126 || 4-497 | 15°347 097 275 | 14,028,822
4448 | 14-675 359 035 | 13,406,530 || 4-498 | 15-361 126 097 | 14,041,822
4449 | 14-688 765 565 | 13,418,945 || 4-499 | 15°375 167 919 | 14,054,835
4450 | 14-702 184 510 | 13,431,374 || 4:500 | 15-389 222 754 | 14,067,859
T
274 REPORT—1893.
x Iz Difference a; Ix Difference
4500 | 15:389 222 754 | 14,067,859 4:550 | 16°108 828 111 | 14,734,909
4:50L | 15-403 290 613 | 14,080,896 | 4:551 16°123 563 020 | 14,748,572
4-502 | 15:-417 371 509 | 14,093,945 4552 | 16:138 311 592 | 14,762,249
4503 | 15°431 465 454 | 14,107,005 4553 | 16°153 073 841 | 14,775,936
4-504 | 15°445 572 459 | 14,120,079 4554 | 16°167 849 777 | 14,789,637
4-505 | 15-459 692 538 | 14,133,165 4555 | 167182 639 414 | 14,803,352
4506 | 15-473 825 703 | 14,146,262 4556 | 16:197 442 766 | 14,817,079
4507 | 15:487 971 965 | 14,159,573 4557 | 16°212 259 845 | 14,830,820
4508 | 15502 131 338 | 14,172,496 || 4558 | 16-227 090 665 | 14,844,572
4509 | 15-516 303 834 | 14,185,630 || 4559 | 16°241 935 237 | 14,858,338
4510 | 15530 489 464 | 14,198,778 4560 | 16256 793 575 | 14,872,116
4511 | 15°544 688 242 | 14,211,938 4561 | 16°271 665 691 | 14,885,908
4512 | 15:°558 900 180 | 14,225,109 4562 | 16:°286 551 599 | 14,899,712
4513 | 15°573 125 289 | 14,238,293 4563 | 16°301 451 311 | 14,913,531
4514 | 15°587 363 582 | 14,251,489 4564 | 16°316 364 842 | 14,927,360
4515 | 15°601 615 071 | 14,264,699 4565 | 16°331 292 202 | 14,941,204
4516 | 15615 879 770 | 14,277,920 4566 | 16°346 233 406 | 14,955,060
4517 | 15°630 157 690 | 14,291,154 4567 | 16°361 188 466 | 14,968,931
4518 | 15644 448 844 | 14,304,401 4568 | 16°376 157 397 | 14,982,812
4519 | 15°658 753 245 | 14,317,659 4569 | 16°391 140 209 | 14,996,709
4-520 | 15:673 070 904 | 14, 330,930 4570 | 16-406 136 918 | 15,010,617
4-521 | 15°687 401 834 | 14,344,214 4571 | 16°421 147 535 | 15,024,538
4-522 | 15:701 746 048 | 14,357,510 4572 | 16-436 172 073 | 15,038,474
4523 | 15°716 103 558 | 14,370,819 4573 | 16-451 210 547 | 15,052,421
4524 | 15-730 474 377 | 14,384,138 4574 | 16-466 262 968 | 15,066,382
4525 | 15°744 858 515 | 14,397,472 4575 | 16-481 329 350 | 15,080,355
4526 | 15°759 255 987 | 14,410,819 4576 | 16-496 409 705 | 15,094,343
4-527 | 15°773 666 806 | 14,424,177 4:577 | 16511 504 048 | 15,108,344
4528 | 15-788 090 983 | 14,437,549 4578 | 16:°526 612 392 | 15,122,357
4529 | 15°802 528 532 | 14,450,932 || 4579 | 16541 734 749 | 15,136,384
4-530 | 15816 979 464 | 14,464,329 || 4:580 | 16°556 871 133 | 15,150,423
4-531 | 15831 443 793 14,477,737 || 4581 | 16-572 021 556 | 15,164,476
4532 | 15°845 921 530 | 14,491,159 4582 | 16587 186 032 | 15,178,542
4533 | 15°860 412 689 | 14,504,592 || 4583 | 16602 364 574 | 15,192,623
4:534 | 15-874 917 281 | 14,518,040 4584 | 16617 557 197 | 15,206,713
4-535 | 15889 435 321 | 14,531,498 || 4585 | 16-632 763 910 | 15,220,821
4-536 | 15:°903 966 819 | 14,544,970 4586 _| 16°647 984 731 | 15,234,939
4537 | 15918 511 789 | 14,558,454 4587 | 16663 219 670 | 15,249,072
4:538 | 15°933 070 243 | 14,571,952 4588 | 16678 468 742 | 15,263,216
4°539 | 15:°947 642 195 | 14,585,462 4589 | 16693 731 958 | 15,277,376
4-540 | 15°962 227 657 | 14,598,984 4590 | 16°709 009 334 | 15,291,547
4-541 | 15°976 826 641 | 14,612,519 4591 16°724 300 881 | 15,305,735
4542 | 15°991 439 160 | 14,626,068 4592 | 16°739 606 616 | 15,319,931
4543 | 16:006 065 228 | 14,639,628 4593 | 16°754 926 547 | 15,334,146
4544 | 16:020 704 856 | 14,653,201 4594 | 16°770 260 693 | 15,348,368
4-545 | 16°035 358 057 | 14,666,786 4:595 | 16-785 609 061 | 15,362,610
4546 | 16:050 024 843 | 14,680,387 || 4:°596 | 16800 971 671 | 15,376,861
4547 | 16:064 705 230 | 14,693,999 4597 | 16°816 348 532 | 15,391,126
4548 | 16:079 399 229 | 14,707,622 4598 | 16°831 739 658 | 15,405,406
4-549 | 16:094 106 851 | 14,721,260 4599 | 16°847 145 064 | 15,419,698
|
4550 | 167108 828 111 | 14,734,909 4600 | 16862 564 762 | 15,434,004
¢
i i ne py ee et eee
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 275
x Iz Difference ae lx Difference
4600 | 16°862 564 762 | 15,434,004 || 4650 | 17-652 072 549 | 16,166,690
4-601 | 16877 998 766 | 15,448,322 |) 4-651 | 17-668 239 239 | 16,181,700
4602 | 16-893 447 O88 | 15,462,656 || 4652 | 17-684 420 939 | 16,196,719
4603 | 16-908 909 744 | 15,477,001 || 4-653 | 17-700 617 658 | 16,211.758
4604 | 16-924 386 745 | 15,491,362 |) 4-654 | 17-716 829 416 | 16,226,805
4-605 | 16-939 878 107 | 15,505,734 || 4-655 | 17-733 056 221 | 16,241,869
4-606 | 16-955 383 841 | 15,520,122 || 4656 | 17-749 298 090 | 16,256,948
4607 | 16-970 903 963 | 15,534,521 || 4-657 | 17-765 555 038 | 16,272,040
4608 | 16-986 438 484 | 15,548,935 || 4658 | 17-781 827 078 | 16,287,147
4609 | 17-001 987 419 | 15,563,361 || 4-659 | 17-798 114 225 | 16.302'266
4610 | 17:017 550 780 | 15,577,804 4-660 | 17-814 416 491 | 16,317,402
4611 | 17-033 128 584 15,592,256 4661 17-830 733 893 | 16,332,550
4612 17-048 720 840 | 15,606,726 4-662 17-847 066 443 | 16,347,714
4613 | 17:064 327 566 | 15,621,205 4663 17-863 414 157 | 16,362,892
4614 17-079 948 771 | 15,635,703 4-664 17-879 777 049 | 16,378,082
4615 | 17:095 584 474 | 15,650,209 4665 17-896 155 131 | 16,393,291
4616 | 17-111 234 683 | 15,664,733 4666 17-912 548 422 | 16,408,509
4617 17126 899 416 | 15,679,270 4-667 17-928 956 931 | 16,423,744
4618 17142 578 686 | 15,693,816 4668 17-945 380 675 | 16,438,994
4619 17158 272 502 | 15,708,383 4669 17-961 819 669 | 16,454,257
4620 | 17-173 980 885 | 15,722,958 || 4-670 | 17-978 273 926 | 16,469,532
4-621 | 17-189 703 843 | 15,737,549 || 4-671 | 17-994 743 458 | 16,484,827
4622 | 17-205 441 392 | 15,752,152 || 4-672 | 18-011 228 285 | 16,500,132
4623 | 17-221 193 544 | 15,766,771 || 4-673 | 18-027 728 417 | 16,515,452
4624 | 17-236 960 315 | 15,781,403 || 4-674 | 18-044 243 869 | 16,530,788
4625 | 17-252 741 718 | 15,796,049 || 4:675 | 18-060 774 657 | 16,546,138
4-626 | 17-268 537 767 | 15,810,706 || 4-676 | 18-077 320 795 | 16,561,502
4627 | 17-284 348 473 | 15,825,382 || 4-677 | 18-093 882 297 | 16,576,879
4-628 | 17-300 173 855 | 15,840,068 | 4678 | 18110 459 176 | 16,592,274
4629 | 17-316 013 923 | 15,854,767 || 4679 | 18-127 051 450 | 16,607,678
4630 | 17-331 868 690 "15,869,483 4680 18143 659 128 | 16,623,103
4631 17:347 738 173 | 15,884,212 4681 18-160 282 231 | 16,638,537
4632 | 17:363 622 385 | 15,898,953 4682 | 18176 920 768 | 16,653,990
4-633 17:379 521 338 | 15,913,710 4683 18-193 574 758 | 16,669,453
4634 | 17:395 435 048 | 15,928,478 4684 | 18210 244 21 16,684,934
4-635 | 17-411 363 526 | 15,943,262 4685 | 18:226 929 145 | 16,700,427
4636 | 17-427 306 788 | 15,958,061 4-686 | 18:243 629 572 | 16,715,938
4637 | 17-443 264 849 | 15,972,870 4687 | 18-260 345 510 | 16,731,460
4638 | 17-459 237 719 | 15,987,698 4688 | 18-277 076 970 | 16,746,998
4639 | 17-475 225 417 | 16,002,536 4689 | 18:293 823 968 | 16,762,552
4640 | 17-491 227 953 | 16,017,390 4-690 | 18:310 586 520 16,778,118
4641 17-507 245 343 16,032,255 4691 18327 364 638 16,793,700
4642 | 17-523 277 598 | 16,047,139 4692 18344 158 338 | 16,809,297
4643 | 17-539 324 737 | 16,062,032 4693 18:360 967 635 | 16,824,908
4644 | 17-555 386 769 | 16,076,943 4694 | 18377 792 543 | 16,840,533
4645 | 17-571 463 712 | 16,091,863 4695 | 18°394 633 076 | 16,856,175
4646 | 17-587 555 575 | 16,106,804 4696 18411 489 251 | 16,871,829
4647 | 17:603 662 379 | 16,121,753 4697 | 18428 361 080 | 16,887,499
4648 | 17-619 784 132 | 16,136,718 4698 18445 248 579 | 16,903,185
4649 | 17-635 920 850 | 16,151,699 4-699 18462 151 764 | 16,918,883
4650 | 17-652 072 549 | 16,166,690 4700 | 18-479 070 647 | 16,934,598
ee ee
T2
276 REPORT—1893.
BB Ie Difference & Ix Difference
4-700 | 18-479 070 647 | 16,954,598 4-750 | 19°345 361 448 | 17,739,429
4701 | 18:496 005 245 | 16,950,327 4-751 19°363 100 877 | 17,755,913
4-702 | 18512 955 572 | 16,966,071 4:752 | 19-380 856 790 | 17,772,415
4°703 | 18°529 921 643 | 16,981,829 4-753 | 19°398 629 205 | 17,788,932
4-704 | 18546 903 472 | 16,997,604 4:754 | 19-416 418 137 | 17,805,464
4-705 | 18563 901 076 | 17,013,390 4-755 | 19-434 223 601 | 17,822,010
4-706 | 18580 914 466 | 17,029,194 || 4°756 | 19-452 045 611 | 17,838,573
4-707 | 18597 943 660 | 17,045,011 4757 | 19-469 884 184 | 17,855,152
4-708 | 18614 988 671 | 17,060,844 4:758 | 19-487 739 336 | 17,871,747
4:709 | 18-632 049 515 | 17,076,692 | 4-759 | 19°505 611 083 | 17,888,356
4-710 | 18-649 126 207 | 17,092,556 || 4:760 | 19°523 499 439 | 17,904,980
4711 18-666 218 763 | 17,108,430 | 4-761 19-541 404 419 | 17,921,623
4-712 | 18°683 327 193 | 17,124,324 4:762 | 19-559 326 042 | 17,938,279
4-713 | 18°700 451 517 | 17,140,233 4°763 19°577 264 321 | 17,954,953
3:714 | 18-717 591 750 | 17,156,152 4-764 19595 219 274 | 17,971,638
4-715 | 18°734 747 902 | 17,172,090 4-765 | 19613 190 912 | 17,988,343
4°716 | 18°751 919 992 | 17,188,043 4-766 19°631 179 255 | 18,005,063
4-717 | 18:769 108 035 | 17,204,008 |; 4-767 | 19°649 184 318 | 18,021,798
4718 | 18°786 312 043 | 17,219,992 4-768 | 19°667 206 116 | 18,038,547
"4-719 | 18-803 532 035 | 17,235,990 || 4769 | 19°685 244 663 | 18,055,314
4-720 | 18820 768 025 | 17,252,001 | 4770 | 19-703 299 977 18,072,098
4-721 18°838 020 026 | 17.268,028 4771 19°721 372 075 | 18,088,895
4-722 18°855 288 054 | 17,284,070 5772 19-739 460 970 | 18,105,710
4°723 18872 572 124 | 17,300,128 4-773 19757 566 680 | 18,122,538
4°724 18-889 872 252 | 17,316,200 4-774 | 19°775 689 218 | 18,139,386
4-725 | 18-907 188 452 | 17,332,288 || 4-775 | 19-793 828 604 | 18,156,245
4-726 | 18924 520 740 | 17,348,391 || 4:776 | 19-811 984 849 | 18,173,123
4-797 | 18-941 869 131 | 17,364,509 || 4-777 | 19:830 157 972 | 18,190,016
4-728 | 18-959 233 640 | 17,380,642 || 4778 | 19:848 347 988 | 18,206,926
4729 | 18-976 614 282 | 17,396,788 || 4-779 | 19:866 554 914 | 18,223,849
4730 | 18-994 011 070 | 17,412,954 | 4-780 | 19-884 778 763 | 18,240,790
| 4731 | 19-011 424 024 | 17,429,132 || 4:781 | 19°903 019 553 | 18,257,748
4-732 19-028 853 156 | 17,445,325 4-782 19°921 277 301 | 18,274,720
4-733 19-046 298 481 | 17,461,534 4°783 | 19°939 552 021 | 18,291,709
4-734 19:063 760 O15 | 17,477,758 4°784 19:957 843 730 | 18,308,713
4-735 | 19:081 237 773 | 17,493,998 4-785 | 19-976 152 443 | 18,325,735
| 5:736 | 19:098 731 771 | 17,510,253 4°786 19:994 478 178 | 18,342,769
4-737 | 19°116 242 024 | 17,526,520 4-787 | 20:012 820 947 | 18,359,823
| 4°738 | 19°133 768 544 | 17,542,808 4:788 | 20:031 180 770 | 18,376,892
| 4-739 | 19°151 311 352 | 17,559,108 || 4789 | 20-049 557 662 | 18,393,976
4-740 | 19168 870 460 | 17,575,424 20-067 951 638 | 18,411,078
| 4-741 19:186 445 884 | 17,591,755 | 4-791 20°086 362 716 | 18,428,194
| 4-742 | 19:204 037 639 | 17,608,102 4:792 | 20:104 790 910 | 18,445,327
4-743 19°221 645 741 | 17,624,463 4-793 | 20:123 236 237 | 18,462,475
| 4°744 19-239 270 204 | 17,640,841 4-794 | 20°141 698 712 | 18,479,641
| 4-745 | 19°256 911 045 | 17,657,233 4:795 | 207160 178 353 | 18,496,822
4-746 | 19:274 568 278 | 17,673,642 4-796 | 20:178 675 175 | 18,514,020
4747 | 19°292 241 920 | 17,690,065 4797 | 20:197 189 195 | 18,531,233
4748 | 19°309 931 985 | 17,706,505 4:798 | 20°215 720 428 | 18,548,463
| 4749 19°327 638 490 | 17,722,958 4-799 | 26-234 268 891 | 18,565,709
4-750 19-345 361 448 | 17,739,429 4800 | 20:252 834 600 | 18,582,971
a
Rs
4
ite)
o
a
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 277
Iz Difference x Iz Difference
20°252 834 600 | 18,582,971 4850 | 21-203 471 276 | 19,467,100
20°271 417 571 | 18,600,251 4851 | 21:222 938 376 | 19,485,211
20°290 O17 822 | 18,617,543 || 4852 | 21-242 423 587 | 19,503,339
20°308 635 365 | 18,634,856 || 4853 | 21-261 926 926 | 19,521,482
20:327 270 221 | 18,652,182 || 4-854 | 21-281 448 408 19,539,643
20°345 922 403 | 18,669,527 4:855 | 21-300 988 051 | 19,557,821
20°364 591 930 | 18,686,885 || 4856 | 21-320 545 872 | 19,576,017
20°383 278 815 | 18,704,263 || 5°857 | 21:340 121 889 | 19,594,298
20-401 983 078 | 18,721,654 4858 | 21:359 716 117 | 19,612,459
20420 704 732 | 18,739,064 || 4859 | 21-37: 19,630,706
6
20°439 443°796 | 18,756,488 4860 | 21:398 959 82 | 19,648,968
20458 200 284 | 18,773,930 4861 | 21-418 608 250 | 19,667,250
20-476 974 214 | 18,791,389 4862 | 21:438 275 500 | 19,685,548
20-495 765 603 | 18,808,863 | 4863 | 21-457 961 048 | 19,703,863
20°514 574 466 | 18,826,353 4864 | 21-477 664 911 | 19,722,198
20°533 400 819 | 18,843,861 4:865 | 21-497 387 109 | 19,740,546
20°552 244 680 | 18,861,385 || 4866 | 21-517 127 655 | 19,758,914
20571 106 065 | 18,878,924 4867 21:536 886 569 | 19,777,297
20°589 984 989 | 18,896,482 || 4:868 21556 663 866 | 19,795,700
20°608 881 471 | 18,914,054 4-869 21576 459 566 | 19,814,118
20°627 795 525 | 18,931,645 4:870 | 21:596 273 684 | 19,832,554
20°646 727 170 | 18,949,252 4871 | 21:616 106 238 | 19,851,008
20°665 676 422 | 18,966,874 4872 | 21:635 957 246 | 19,869,481
20°684 643 296 | 18,984,513 4:873 | 21:655 826 727 | 19,887,967
20°703 627 809 | 19,002,169 4:874 | 21675 714 694 | 19,906,474
20°722 629 978 | 19,019,842 4875 | 21:695 621 168 | 19,924,998
20°741 649 820 | 19,037,532 4876 | 21°715 546 166 | 19,943,538
20'760 687 352 | 19,055,238 4877 | 21:735 489 704 | 19,962,094
20-779 742 590 | 19,072,959 4878 | 21:755 451 798 | 19,980,672
20°798 815 549 | 19,090,700 4879 | 21:775 432 470 | 19,999,265
20°817 906 249 | 19,108,454 4880 | 21:795 431 735 20,017,874
20°837 014 703 | 19,126,227 4881 21:815 449 609 | 20,036,504
20°856 140 930 | 19,144,018 4882 | 21°835 486 113 | 20,055,150
20°875 284 948 | 19,161,823 4883 | 21°855 541 263 | 20,073,811
20°894 446 771 | 19,179,645 4:884 | 21°875 615 074 | 20,092,492
20°913 626 416 | 19,197,486 4885 | 21:895 707 566 | 20,111,190
20:932 823 902 | 19,215,341 4886 | 21:915 818 756 | 20,129,907
20°952 039 243 | 19,233,215 | 4:887 | 21-935 948 663 20,148,640
20°971 272 458 | 19,251,105 4888 | 21:956 097 303 | 20,167,390
20-990 523 563 | 19,269,010 | #889 | 21:976 264 693 | 20,186,160
21-009 792 573 | 19,286,936 4890 | 21-996 450 853 | 20,204,946
21-029 079 509 19,304,877 4891 | 22016 655 799 | 20,223,750
21-048 384 386 | 19,322,832 4892 | 22:036 879 549 | 20,242,571
21-067 707 218 | 19,340,807 4893 | 22:057 122 120 | 20,261,410
21-087 048 025 | 19,358,798 4894 | 22-077 383 530 | 20,280,270
21:106 406 823 | 19,376,808 4895 | 22:097 663 800 | 20,299,144
21:125 783 631 | 19,394,830 4896 | 22°117 962 944 | 20,318,035
21:145 178 461 | 19,412,873 4897 | 22:138 280 979 | 20,336,947
21-164 591 334 | 19,430,933 4:898 | 22:158 617 926 | 20,355,873
21-184 022 267 | 19,449,009 4-899 | 22-178 973 799 | 20,374,821
21-203 471 276 | 19,467,100 || 4-900 | 22-199 348 620 | 20,393,787 _
REPORT—1893.
x Iz Difference | re Ix Difference
4-900 | 22:199 348 620 | 20,393,787 || 4-950 | 23-242 644 448 | 21,365,085
4-901 | 22-219 742 407 | 20,412,766 |) 4951 | 23-264 009 533 | 21,384,979
4-902 | 22-240 155 173 | 20,431,765 | 4952 | 23-285 394 512 | 21,404,895
4-903 | 22:260 586 938 | 20,450,783 | 4-953 | 23°306 799 407 | 21,424,830
4-904 | 22-281 037 721 | 20,469,820 || 4-954 | 23-328 224 2937 | 21,444,778
4905 | 22:301 507 541 | 20,488,873 | 4:955 | 23-349 669 015 | 21,464,753
4-906 | 22:321 996 414 | 20,507,943 | 4:956 | 23-371 133 768 | 21,484,739
4-907 | 22:342 504,357 | 20,527,082 | 4:957 | 23-392 618 507 | 21,504,749
4-908 | 22°363 031 389 | 20,546,139 || 4-958 | 23-414 123 256 | 21,524,777
4-909 | 22:383 577 528 | 20,565,265 || 4-959 | 23-435 648 033 | 21,544,821
4910 | 22-404 142 793 | 20,584,410 || 4-960 | 23-457 192 854 | 21,564,887
4911 | 22-424 727 203 | 20,603,568 || 4-961 | 23-478 757 741 | 21,584,971
4-912 | 22-445 330 771 | 20,622,747 | 4-962 | 23-500 342 712 | 21,605,073
4913 | 22:465 953 518 | 20,641,945 || 4-963 | 23:521 947 785 | 21,625,196
4-914 | 22-486 595 463 | 20,661,161 |) 4:964 | 23-543 572 981 | 21,645,335
4-915 | 22:507 256 624 | 20,680,393 | 4:965 | 23-565 218 316 | 21,665,496
4-916 | 22°527 937 017 | 20,699,644 || 4-966 | 23-586 883 812 | 21,685,674
4-917 | 22548 636 661 | 20,718,915 | 4:967 | 23-€08 569 486 | 21,705,871
4918 | 22569 355 576 | 20,738,202 || 4:968 | 23-630 275 357 | 21,726,090
4919 | 22:590 093 778 | 20,757,508 || 4969 | 23-652 001 447 | 21,746,322
4-920 | 22°610 851 286 | 20,776,833 || 4970 | 23-673 747 769 | 21,766,579
4-921 | 22-631 628 119 | 20,796,174 || 4:971 | 23-695 514 348 | 21,786,851
4-992 | 22652 424 293 | 20,815,533 || 4972 | 23-717 301 199 | 21,807,145
4-923 | 22-673 239 826 | 20,834,914 |) 4:973 | 23-739 108 344 | 21,827,457
4-924 | 22694 074 740 | 20,854,310 || 4:974 | 23-760 935 801 | 21,847,787
4-995 | 22:714 929 050 | 20,873,723 || 4:975 | 23-782 783 588 | 21,868,138
4-926 | 22-735 802 773 | 20,893,159 || 4976 | 23-804 651 726 | 21,888,507
4-927 | 22-756 695 932 | 20,912,609 || 4977 | 23-826 540 233 | 21,908,893
4-928 | 22-777 608 541 | 20,932,080 || 4978 | 23-848 449 126 | 21,929,304
4-929 | 22798 540 621 | 20,951,568 || 4979 | 23-870 378 430 | 21,949,730
4-930 | 22:819 492 189 | 20,971,075 || 4980 | 23-892 328 160 | 21,970,176
4931 | 22-840 463 264 | 20,990,599 | 4981 | 23-914 298 336 | 21,990,642 —
4-932 | 22861 453 863 | 21,010,143 || 4982 | 23-936 288 978 | 22,011,125
4-933 | 22:882 464 006 | 21,029,703 || 4:983 | 23-958 300 103 | 22,031,630
4-934 | 22-903 493 709 | 21,049,286 || 4984 | 23-980 331 733 | 22,052,152
4-935 | 22-924 542 995 | 21,068,883 || 4985 | 24-002 383 885 | 22,072,695
4-936 | 22°945 611 878 | 21,088,500 || 4:986 | 24-024 456 580 | 22,093,258
4-937 | 22-966 700 378 | 21,108,135 || 4-987 | 24-046 549 838 | 22,113,838
4-938 | 22-987 808 513 | 21,127,790 | 4-988 | 24-068 663 676 | 22,134,440
4-939 | 23-008 936 303 | 21,147,461 |) 4-989 | 24-090 798 116 | 22,155,058
4-940 | 23-030 083 764 | 21,167,153 || 4990 [24112 953 174 | 22,175,698
4-941 | 23-051 250 917 | 21,186,863 || 4-991 | 24-135 128 872 | 22,196,358
4-942 | 23-072 437 780 | 21,206,590 || 4-992 | 24-157 325 230 | 22,217,035
4-943 | 23-093 644 370 | 21,226,337 || 4:993 | 24-179 542 265 | 22,937,734
4-944 | 23-114 870 707 | 21,246,103 | 4-994 | 24-201 779 999 | 22,258,450
4-945 | 23-136 116 810 | 21,265,886 | 4995 | 24-294 038 449 | 22,279,187
4-946 | 23-157 382 696 | 21,285,687 || 4-996 | 24-246 317 636 | 22,299,944
4-947 | 23178 668 383 | 21,305,510 || 4-997 | 24-268 617 580 | 22,320,718
4-948 | 23-199 973 893 | 21,325,349 | 4-998 | 24-290 938 298 | 22,341,516
4-949 | 23-221 299 242 | 21,345,206 || 4-999 | 24-313 279 814 | 22,362,328
21,365,085 || 5-000 | 24-335 642 142 | 22,383,164
ON MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS. 279
a Iz Difference x Iz Difference
5000 | 24-335 642 142 | 22,383,164 5:050 | 25-480 735 808 | 23,450,292
5-001 | 24:358 025 306 | 22,404,018 5-051 | 25:504 186 100 | 23,472,151
5:002 | 24-380 429 324 | 22,424,892 5-052 | 25527 658 251 | 23,494,030
5-003 | 24-402 854 216 | 22,445,786 5053 | 25:551 152 281 | 23,515,931
5-004 | 24-425 300 002 | 22,466,697 5-054 | 25-574 668 212 | 23,537,852
5005 | 24-447 766 699 | 22,487,632 5-055 | 25:598 206 064 | 23,559,793
5006 | 24-470 254 331 | 22,508,584. 5-056 | 25621 765 857 | 23,581,755
5007 | 24-492 762 915 | 22,529,555 5057 | 25645 347 612 | 23,603,736
5008 | 24515 292 470 | 22,550,548 5058 | 25:°668 951 348 | 23,625,741
5-009 | 24-537 843 018 | 22,571,560 5:059 | 25-692 577 089 | 23,647,765
5010 | 24-560 414 578 | 22,592,590 5060 | 25716 224 854 | 23,669,811
5-011 | 24-583 007 168 | 22,613,644 5-061 | 25-739 894 665 | 23,691,876
5-012 | 24-605 620 812 | 22,634,712 5:062 | 25:763 586 541 | 23,713,963
5-013 | 24-628 255 524 | 22,655,806 5-063 | 25-787 300 504 | 23,736,070
5-014 | 24-650 911 330 | 22,676,915 5:064 | 25:811 036 574 | 23,758,197
5-015 | 24-673 588 245 | 22,698,046 5-065 | 25:834 794 771 | 23,780,348
5016 | 24-696 286 291 | 22,719,196 5066 | 25°858 575 119 | 23,802,515
5-017 | 24:719 005 487 | 22,740,367 5:067 | 25882 377 634 | 23,824,709
5-018 | 24-741 745 854 | 22,761,558 5-068 | 25-906 202 343 | 23,846,917
5-019 | 24:764 507 412 | 22,782,768 5-069 | 25:930 049 260 | 23,869,153 _
5-020 | 24-787 290 180 | 22,803,998 || 5070 | 25-953 918 413 | 23,891,404
5021 | 24-810 094 178 | 22,825,250 5-071 | 25:977 809 817 | 23,913,680
5022 | 24-832 919 428 | 22,846,519 5-072 | 26:001 723 497 | 23,935,977
5023 | 24855 765 947 | 22,867,809 5-073 | 26025 659 474 | 23,958,291
5:024 | 24-878 633 756 | 22,889,120 5-074 | 26-049 617 765 | 23,980,629
5025 | 24-901 522 876 | 22,910,451 5-075 | 26:073 598 394 | 24,002,986
5026 | 24-924 433 327 | 22,931,801 5-076 | 26:097 601 380 | 24,025,368
5027 | 24-947 365 128 | 22,953,173 5-077 | 26121 626 748 | 24,047,767
5-028 | 24-970 318 301 | 22,974,561 5078 | 26145 674 515 | 24,070,190
5-029 | 24-993 292 862 | 22,995,975 5-079 | 26169 744 705 | 24,092,631
5:030 | 25-016 288 837 | 23,017,404 5-080 | 26-193 837 336 | 24,115,096
5031 | 25-039 306 241 | 23,038,856 5-081 | 26-217 952 432 | 24,137,582
5-032 | 25-062 345 097 | 23,060,329 5-082 | 26:242 090 014 | 24,160,089
5-033 | 25:085 405 426 | 23,081,818 5-083 | 26-266 250 103 | 24,182,614
5-034 | 25-108 487 244 | 23,103,332 5-084 | 26-290 432 717 | 24,205,165
5035 | 25-131 590 576 | 23,124,865 5085 | 26°314 637 882 | 24,227,733
5-036 | £5:154 715 441 | 23,146,416 5-086 | 26338 865 615 | 24,250,325
5037 | 25:177 861 857 | 23,167,989 5-087 | 26363 115 940 | 24,272,937
5038 | 25-201 029 846 | 23,189,581 5-088 | 26387 388 877 | 24,295,572
5-039 | 25-224 219 427 | 23,211,197 5-089 | 26-411 684 449 | 24,318,226
———— >. a}
5040 | 25-247 430 624 | 23,232,829 5-090 | 26-436 002 675 | 24,340,903
5041 | 25-270 663 453 | 23,254,483 || 5-091 | 26-460 343 578 | 24,363,601
5:042 | 25:293 917 936 | 23,276,159 5092 | 26-484 707 179 | 24,386,322
5-043 | 25°317 194 095 | 23,297,853 5:093 | 26509 093 501 | 24,409,059
5-044 | 25-340 491 948 | 23,319,569 5:094 | 26533 502 560 | 24,431,823
5045 | 25:363 811 517 | 23,341,304 5095 | 26:557 934 383 | 24,454,608
5046 | 25:387 152 821 | 23,363,062 5-096 | 26-582 388 991 | 24,477,409
5:047 | 25:410 515 883 | 23,384,837 5-097 | 26:606 866 400 | 24,500,239
5048 | 25-433 900 720 | 23,406,635 5098 | 26631 366 639 | 24,523,084
5049 | 25:457 307 355 | 23,428,453 5-099 | 26655 889 723 | 24,545,957
5050 | 25-480 735 808 | 23,450,292 5100 | 26-680 435 680
ee eESESEE—————————EE———E——E—————SaaaSa&SSa————_—-
280 REPORT—1893.
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Lord McLaren (Chairman), Professor A.
Crum Brown (Secretary), Dr. JouHN Murray, Dr. ALEXANDER
Bucuan, Hon. RALPH ABERCROMBIE, and Professor R. COPELAND.
(Drawn up by Dr. Bucnan.)
Tue Committee were appointed as in former years for the purpose of
co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis.
The hourly eye-observations by night and by day have been made
during the past year at the Ben Nevis Observatory without a single
interruption by Mr. Omond and his assistants; also the continuous
registrations and other observations have been carried on at the Low Level
Observatory at Fort William with the same fulness of detail as during
the previous two years.
The Directors of the observatories tender their cordial thanks to
Messrs. R. C. Mossman, F.R.S.H., A. J. Herbertson, C. Stewart, B.Sc.,
J. I. Craig, and A. Shand for valuable assistance rendered as volunteer
observers during the winter and summer for periods varying from four
to ten weeks, thus affording much needed relief to the members of the
regular observing staff.
For the year 1892 Table I. shows the monthly mean and extreme
pressures, temperatures, hours of sunshine, amounts of rainfall, number
of fair days or days of less than 0:01 inch of rain, at the observatories,
the mean pressures at the top of the Ben being reduced to 32° only,
while those at Fort William are reduced to 32° and sea-level (see
Table I.).
The mean temperature of the whole year at Fort William was 45°°3,
being 1°-9 less than the mean of previous years, being nearly the deficiency
for 1892 of a large part of Scotland to the north and east of Fort
William. The mean temperature at the top of Ben Nevis was 29°°7,
which is 1°] under the mean. Thus the mean temperature at the top,
as compared with the foot of the mountain, was 0°°8 relatively warmer,
and this relatively higher temperature was maintained at all strictly
island and sea-coast situations from Monach in the Outer Hebrides to
Corsewall Point, Wigtownshire, just as occurred in 1891. The difference
was occasioned chiefly by the temperatures of the spring months and
December.
The lowest mean monthly temperature at Fort William was 35°°3 in
December, being 4°°6 under the mean; but at the top of the Ben 20°3
in March, being 2°°3 under the mean. At the top the mean for December
was 24°-0, being only 0°-7 under the average; whilst, as stated above,
the mean of Fort William was 4°°6 under the average. The difference of
the means of the two observatories was only 11°-3, instead of the normal
15°2. This remarkably higher relative temperature of the top in
December was altogether due to the prevalence of well-marked anti-
cyclones during the time, when the temperature at the top was frequently
much higher than at Fort William. It was during these periods, when
extraordinary dryness of the air also prevails, that Mr. Herbertson
succeeded in obtaining the most valuable of the hygrometric observations
in connection with the large inquiry he is now conducting at the two
“ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.
Tasie I,
281
1892 | Jan. | Feb. |March| April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct.
Nov. | Dec. | Year
Mean Pressure in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob- | 25°096 sii) 25362) 25°395) 25-346) 25-398) 25-471) 25-301) 25-234) 25-146) 25-281) 25-235) 25-284
servatory
Fort William | 29-717] 29:755| 30-034] 29-995) 29-894] 29-929] 29-969] 29-772] 29-744] 29707] 29-849] 29°862| 29-852
Differences .| 4:621| 4°615| 4:672| 4-600) 4°548| 4:524] 4-498] 4-471] 4:510| 4:561| 4°568| 4-627| 4-568
Mean Temperatures.
BenNevisOb-| 21:8 | 236] 20:3 | 27-9) 33:0 | 35:9] 40-7] 391] 344] 27-2 | 29:8] 24-0] 29-7
servatory
Fort William | 37-7 | 37°8 | 365 | 43:2 | 49:6 | 53:0] 55°6 | 55:3] 50°3| 43:4] 45:0] 35:8 | 45:3
Differences . | 15:9 | 15:2 | 162 | 15°3| 166 | 17:1 | 14:9 | 162] 159] 162] 152] 11:8] 15°6
Extremes of Temperature, Maxima.
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° fo} ° °o °o
Ben NevisOb-| 37:2 | 40-1 | 39:3 | 44-1 | 44°3 | 56:0 | 59:1 | 50°7 | 47-3 | 38:2 | 42-9 | 37:5 | 591
servatory
Fort William | 53:9 | 492 | 57:0 | 65:8 | 67-7 | 75:5 | 72:8 | 684 | 60-0 | 525 | 54:7 | 51:8 | 75:5
Differences .| 16:7 | 91 | 17°71 21-7 | 23-4 | 19°5 | 13:7 | 17-7 | 127 | 14:3] 11°81 14:3 | 16-4
Extremes of Temperature, Minima.
™ ° ° ° ° | ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
BenNevisOb-| 88] 7:0] 3:5 115 | 20-4 | 22:9 | 29:8 | 280] 25:1] 16:2] 162] 10:9] 3:5
servatory | |
Fort William | 17:0 | 13:3 | 20'1 | 23:0 | 32:6 | 37:2 | 43:9] 41:3 | 347 | 23:3 | 30:0 | 17:9] 133
Differences «| 82 | 63] 16:6] 11:5 | 122) 1431 141] 133] 96| 711] 138] 7:0] 9:8
Rainfall in Inches.
Ben Nevis Ob- | 22°32) 12:30| 5:42) 5:91) 14°07! 9:56 | 10:83/ 15°47| 21°90] 9:53| 13°86] 9°73 |150:90
servatory | |
Fort William | 854] 2:93] 1:84) 1:96) 5:97] 3:87| 5:47| 8-14] 14-43] 5:35! 9:39] 5:39] 73:28
Differences .| 13:78] 9:37| 3:58| 3:95| 810] 569] 5:36| 7:33| 7:47| 4:18] 4:47| 4:34| 77°62
Number of Days of no Rain.
Ben NevisOb- 5 10 14 10 6 8 16 9 12 9 7 10 | 116
servatory |
Fort William 5 16 23 17 9 13 18 11 6 14 8 12 | 152
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.
Ben NevisOb-| 6 3 1 1 5 3 6 6 9 2 5 3 | 50
servatory
Fort William 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 5 0 1 1 13
Hours of Sunshine.
BenNevisOb-| 12 43 | 105 125 | 117} 104 | 130 37 31 43 19 36 | 802
servatory
Fort William 24 65 | 136 178 | 168] 160 | 160 96 74 74 25 19 | 1,179
Differences .| 12 22) 31 53 51 56 | 30 59 43 31 6 | —17 | 377
observatories. The highest monthly mean temperature at the top was
40°°7 in July, and 55°'5 at Fort William in the same month, these being
respectively 0°°6 above and 1°-8 under the several averages.
The maximum temperature at the top was 59°] on July 29, and
7o°'5 at Fort William on June 6.
The minimum temperature at the top
was 3°°5 on March 27 from the hourly eye-observations, and 2°-7 from
the minimum thermometer.
This is absolutely the lowest temperature
that has occurred since the opening of the observatory in 1883, and it
was observed at 6 A.M.
1892 was 13°°3 on February 19
The registrations of the sunshine-recorder show 802 hours out of a
possible 4,470 hours, being 106 fewer than during the previous year.
At Fort William the minimum temperature for
282 REPORT—1893.
The maximum was 130 hours in July, being the highest for July hitherto
recorded, and the minimum, 12,in January. At Fort William the number
for the year was 1,179 hours, or 377 in excess of the number registered
on the top; a difference above the average. The greatest number was
178 hours in April, and the least 19 hours in December. ;
Since, at the top of Ben Nevis, the horizon is virtually clear all round,
the total possible hours of sunshine agree with the theoretic number for
the latitude. But at Fort William, owing to the surrounding hills, the
theoretic number differs widely from the actual number possible to be
observed. During the last three years Mr. Omond has observed the actual
intervals between sunrise and sunset at the lower station with the
following result :—
TasLe II.—Theoretical Number of Hours of Sunshine.
Ben Nevis Fort William Difference
January . a 4 * 231 151 80
February . - : : 275 1938 82
March : : p : 365 295 70
April . : . : E 426 350 76
May . : ; : : 508 413 95
June. 5 P 5 F 529 438 91
Bitigs Ol ate Rated Pee 528 429 99
August. : ; 5 467 380 87
September. : : 381 315 66
October . , : ; 319 241 78
November . 3 ‘ . 242 167 (
December . é : . 210 125 85
Year ~~. ; =a 4,481 3.497 984
Thus the summit station has 984 hours more possible sunshine than the
low level: while 84 per cent. of the possible sunshine was registered by
the sunshine-recorder at Fort William, 18 per cent. was registered at
the top of Ben Nevis, or about half the per cent. recorded near sea-level
at Fort William.
Taste I1I.—Hygrometric Readings for each Month.
— Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April| May | June| July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec.
Dry Bulb. . .| 155] 110] 195) fo7| 30:3
fo} ° o °
28'3| 51°3| 38°0| 46:2) 29°0| 33:9) 25:1
Wet Bulb . 5 1271 69] 14°3] 17°3| 21:3) 25°0) 36:5] 31°0) 31°6); 23°77) 260) 16:9
Dew-point . . |—14°6 |—25°1|—23:7| —0°3| —66} 11°8| 21°2) 21:2] 15°5 45} 11:8 |—27°8
Elastic Force . . | 0°021) 0-012) 0-013} 0:043} 6:031] 0:073| 07114} 0°114] 0-088 | 0:053] 0:073| 0°010
Relative Humidity | 24 17 12 35 18 47 30 50 28 33 37 7
Saturation = 100
Of these relative humidities the lowest, 7, occurred at 3 p.m. of De-
cember 24, and from 3 A.M. of the 24th to 10 4.m. of the 28th of that month
the humidity did not exceed 20. At the time of lowest humidity the
calculated dew-point fell to —27°°8. Each month, from December to
May, the dew-point fell below the zero of Fahrenheit’s scale.
The rainfall for the year was 150-90 inches, being 27:12 inches less than
in 1891, and 47°44 inches less thanin 1890. At Fort William the amount
was 73°28 inches, or less than half of what fell at the top of the Ben. These
amounts are in each case very near their averages. Mr. Omond has com-
a
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 283
pared the rainfall at the Fort William Observatory with the monthly
amounts collected with the old gauge at Mr. Livingston’s during the year
anda half ending with December 1892, with the result that the rainfall at
the observatory is 4°6 per cent. less than at Mr. Livingston’s. The largest
rainfall of any month at the top was 22°52 inches in January, and at Fort
William 1442 inches in September, the smallest amounts being respectively
5°42 inches and 1°84 inch, both occurring in March. The heaviest fall on
any single day at the top was 5'76 inches on January 25, and at Fort
William 2°83 inches on November 28.
The number of days on which the rainfall was nil, or less than one-
hundredth of an inch, was 116 at the top, and 152 at Fort William. At
the top the largest number of days was 16 in July, and the smallest, 5,
in January; and at Fort William the numbers were 23 in March and
5in January. At Fort William a fall of an inch of rain a day or more
occurred on 13 days during 1892, but at the top of Ben Nevis on 50 days,
or nearly four times as often. From one to nine such wet days were
recorded at the top each month, whereas at Fort William no such wet
days occurred in March, April, June, July,and September, and on four of
the other months only one day each.
At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure at 32° and sea-level
was 29°852 inches, and at the top 25°284 inches, thus giving a difference
of 4-568 inches. The lowest pressure at the top for the year was 24147
inches at 2 p.m. of February 2, and the highest 25-960 inches at 7 p.m. of
March 22, the difference being 1°815 inch.
Mr. A. J. Herbertson is carrying on at the two observatories the
research on the hygrometry of the atmosphere referred to in our report of
last year. During last autumn and early winter he spent upwards of
four months at the Ben Nevis Observatory, and there measured the
aqueous vapour by direct weighing, obtaining a new and valuable series
of experiments at very low temperatures and humidities. Since July last
a similar set of experiments are being conducted by him and two skilled
assistants, involving measurements of the aqueous vapour simultaneously
at both high- and low-level observatories. Observations are made at the
same times with the dry and wet bulb, both in a Stevenson screen and
in an Assmann aspirator psychrometer; with Regnault’s bygrometer ;
and of the numbers of dust particles present, the general weather con-
ditions as to barometric pressure, sunshine, wind, &c. Mr. Herbertson
has communicated a preliminary report on the results of last year’s.
observations and experiments to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, in
which among other points of interest the very unsatisfactory character of
the hygrometric tables now in use is clearly shown for low temperatures
and great dryness. The experiments at present in progress give the cor-
responding data for summer temperatures and humidities; and, seeing they
are conducted simultaneously both on the top of the Ben and at Fort
William, the effect of large differences of pressure will be seen on the rela-
tions of the dry and wet buib readings to the amounts of aqueous vapour
actually present in the air at the time. The Directors regard these
experiments as of great importance, not only as furnishing data towards a
better knowledge of the hygrometry of the atmosphere, but also as leading
to much needed improvements in the methods of reducing the readings of
the dry and wet bulb thermometers.
Mr. Omond has written a paper on hourly readings of a black bulb
thermometer in vacuo as compared with the readings of the dry bulb
284 REPORT—1893.
thermometer in the Stevenson screen, which was published in the last
‘Journal’ of the Scottish Meteorological Society. The results are interest-
ing and suggestive. He has prepared a paper on the height of the lower
edge of the cloud layer on Ben Nevis, based on observations taken at In-
verlochy during some months of the present summer; and has also insti-
tuted a comparison of the temperature observations from August 1890 to
December 1891, made simultaneously by himself at the new observatory
and by Mr. Livingston at the old station with the instruments in use
there since 1885.
At last year’s Meeting of the Association a grant of 501. was made to
aid in the payment of assistants to perform the strictly routine work of
Dr. Buchan and Mr. Omond, so that their time would be set free for the
discussion of the observations cf the two observatories beginning with
August 1890. This arrangement has been carried out, and the following
is a detailed statement of the work which has been completed or is still
in progress.
From the first eight years’ observations of the rainfall at the top of
Ben Nevis the mean hourly variations for the twelve months of the year
have been calculated, and the hourly values reduced to percentages above or
below the monthly means. The results were then ‘ bloxamed’ in the usual
XIT+I+4+I11 f
meee oey So
, &c., where the Roman numerals repre-
way, that is, the value for 1 a.m. of January equals
1 a.m. of February eee =
sent the values of the months December, January, February, &c., for
these years. In this way Table IV. has been constructed, which shows
the diurnal variation in the precipitation throughout the year. As was to
have been expected, the curves for the warmer months of the year are
best marked. These show a clearly defined double maximum and mini-
mum. The larger maximum occurs from 11 a.m. to 8 P.m., or during the
warmer honrs of the day after the ascending current has set in. Then a
minimum occurs from 8 p.M. to 1 A.M., or during the hours when tem-
perature falls most rapidly, and the evening maximum of pressure prevails.
For the next six hours precipitation is above the average, the greatest
increase being from 5 to 6 a.M.; and finally from 7 to 11 a.m. the next
minimum occurs, or during the hours atmospheric pressure and tempera-
ture increase, and terminates with the formation of the ascending current,
which is so pronounced a feature in the meteorology of Ben Nevis. During
the colder months the curves are less distinctly marked, except a decided
maximum during the coldest hours of the day, and a minimum during the
hours of the morning barometric maximum, when temperature is rising.
The hourly variation of the rainfall is more clearly shown than at any
other observatory at which hourly observations have been made from
results extending over a comparatively short term of years.
The discussion of the hourly barometric and thermometric means at
the two observatories for the three years is nearly complete.
An inquiry into the diurnal variation of the barometer and thermo-
meter on Ben Nevis during days of clear weather on the one hand, and days
of fog or mist throughout on the other, is completed for the three years
ending August 1893. The inquiry had not proceeded far when it was
apparent that the curves for clear weather and those for clouded weather
while fog or mist was absent were in all essential respects the same; but
the curves were of quite a different character when fog or mist prevailed.
ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 285
Taste IV.—Showing the Hourly Variation of the Rainfall on Ben Nevis,
expressed in Percentages above or below the daily means.
ea Jan, | Feb. | Mar. | April} May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
= | |
i= | = =
1 AM. +1/—3/] — 2] —6| —11} —14} -—10}; —3/ +2)/+5/4+7|]+4 =A
ae Elta) 2) +2/4+2)—1)+4+4)/—-2) +43) +42)/ + 8)i4+9)] —
55 +12} 4+9/+7)/+1/—3|—6/+2/4 3) +5) +4) 410] +13) —
4a) g FO; +3/4+0/4+ 8) 4+ 3/+2)/4+0/4+5)/4+3/—1/—3)/43) —
Dini: + 8j| +18/ +12} + 6)—3/—2)/—1/+1/+7/+5/4+3)41] —
Gia +0); +12/} +18 | +20] +11 | +11] +14/ +8) +2/—3]/+0/+0] —
Mees, —9/—2)/ +9) - 8} +3) —3)+1/—1{!— 9) —13) —13] —10 —
ue —5}/—5|—5] — 9] —15 | —13 | -11} —7| -12|; —5|-—2]/—o0] —
a, —3/—7]— 9] —12) —17} —12} -12] —5|/—5/}]—o0/+0o0]-—2] —
LOM eat abel ie ON arf 1) | Bel a ae a) Tle esl
Tt 5 +6/+2)/+4)/—5/—8|—4/—5/+8|]+4+2/]—1};—7|/-—6] —
Noon +3/—7;]—1)] +5] +11] +12 2;/+1/—3/—1/+4/)/+0] —
1 PM +1)/+i1/+2)+4/+7/] +10} + 8] +6] +10) +12] +11) 4+ 3) —
eT 5 Pees oe fea eto! RO) | 6 | ed | =e SUN Se) ay
ts —3/+0/; — 9) + 0} 415 | +20] +14) —1)/ +1)—5]/—8]—5 —
ata Ot 2i— 2) Ol Peer 6) 7 | + 3s) 4 — 1) — 6) — 2) —
Biss ti) +1)=4)/ +2) +11) +11) 47/47) 4+3/—4/4+2)/4+3] —
Gia53 — 5} —11} — 5} + 6/ +16} +13} +11] +4/ +5); +0/4+ 3] —2 —
as —5/—1/—5/—1/+1/+4/4+1/4+0]/—1]/-—1/—6]/-—4] —
Bri 5 +2}—1/4+6/4+2)/4+6)/+7)/+5]/+1]/—4}/—6}/—5|/—6] —
is eee ee | 2 bab Bas at | Oe Bia | Regt ee
10-55 +2/+ 3) +5] — 2}; —10} —13/ —14] -—-7|—5/+3/4+3/+4+3] —
Ti =— 7| — 8| —11} —16 | —18} —13 | —12| —5|—2|/+4+2])—4]/—7] —
Midnight Sw 0 fo 3 8 8 6 Be ee eg
Hence, only those days were entered as foggy or misty when fog or mist
was recorded for each of the twenty-four hours of the day. The hourly
temperature and pressure of such days were extracted from the daily
sheets, and the averages for each month calculated. Those days were
regarded as clear days when the sun shone at least several hours, and
when fog or mist was virtually absent. Means were similarly calcu-
lated for these clear days. Thereafter the monthly means for the three
years were ascertained, and the hourly results ‘ bloxamed’ as explained
above.
The results show two sets of curves, essentially different the one
from the other, the monthly curves for foggy and misty days revealing
a diurnal variation of pressure quite distinct from that of the curves
for clear days. Table V. shows the differences between the two sets of
curves, the plus sign (+) indicating a higher pressure for foggy days,
and the minus sign (—) a lower pressure for those days as compared with
the pressure for clear days at the same hours. With clear skies the
daily maximum pressure occurs at 11 A.M. in winter, but at 2.30 p.m. in
summer; whereas with fog or mist it occurs at all seasons between
10 and 11 p.m. With clear skies the minimum occurs at 4.30 a.m., but
with fog at 6 a.m.
From Table V. it is seen that, with fog, pressure is higher than with
clear skies from 7 P.M. to 4 A.M, attaining the absolute maximum at
midnight, but lower from 5 a.m. to 6 p.m., the absolute minimum being
about noon. The important bearing of these results on solar and terres-
trial radiation and other physical inquiries is obvious. No small part
of the large excess of pressure during the night hours in fog is probably
occasioned by the latent heat set free in the condensation of the aqueous
vapour into fog or mist. This necessarily, in the circumstances, increases
the barometric readings where it occurs, viz., on the top of the mountain,
and particularly at night when the surface temperature of the mountain
286 | REPORT—1893.
is low. Owing to the high winds which often prevail at the time, and
the formation of the fog being chiefly confined to the restricted area of
the mountain top, the increased pressure is not relieved by the formation
of an ascending current, and hence pressure is increased at the top, being
the restricted area where the condensation takes place.
Taste V.—Showing Difference of Pressure, in Thousandths of an Inch, at
the Ben Nevis Observatory, 4,406 feet, between foggy days and clear
days respectively. The plus sign shows pressure on foggy days the
greater ; the minus sign, less.
Hour Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April} May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
1 AM +17 | +18 | +14 | +15 | +14 | +19 | +17 | +17 | +17 | +24] +23 | +23 | +18
rg a +15 | +13] +8] 4+ 8] +7] +11] +11] +13] +11] +16] +16] +20] +12
cigs +11/+7/+4)/4+3/4+4]/4+7/+8] +8] +6] +12] +13] +16] +8
Anis +7)/43)/+2)/+ 0/41) 4+1)4+4/)/4+ 3/42/48 | +10] 411} +4
Hie Fe +51/+0/+0/-—4/—2|],—3;—1,;—1/)/4+0/+5)4+9]48]41
Gar —4/-—-9)/—6)]/—7]—7/-—7\|—38);-—3]/74]4+1]/4+5)]4+2]—-—4
Gi he — 8] —10|—6]—8|—8|—9|—6|—7|—7/—2}—0]|]—2]-—6
B iy —9|/—9]—6]—8]-— 8] -10|]— 8] —10] —-11}—7])—5])—7]|—8
0 ss —15 | —14} — 9 | —10] —10] —13 | —10 |} —13 | —14]} —12] — 9] —12 | —12
10° 45 —15 | —14| — 9| —10} —10 | —13 | —11 | —14]} —15 | —16 | —15 | —15 | —14
iia Pa etd We 9 eID 10} 13) 1 | S03) |) SS 19, |) Sg Shleip
Noon —11 | —11 |] — 9| —12} —12 | —15 | —11 | —12 | —15 | —22 | —22 | —18 | —14
1 P.M. —12 | —13 | —11 | —11 ] — 9 | —11 | —10; —11 | —15 | —23 | —21 | —18 | —14
345 Se te eee — 9p] Bal 0 Oe) AL eal ee ere ede
Satis 7G )\ 5 1Ge | bebe be |b 5 — LOM el) — 1.05) ) = lela eed Or
ne yh Sas |) SS Sy a) Ein |S aye Pig il Saigy || artsy if ea
By es me A 8 8 | A nr peerage ay
Ge Bel Sei y Spon 8 Tl es +3{—-1)/-1]-1]-5 Bh | ul ee
Tae +1}/+3/4+1)/4+ 4/47] 410/4+5)4+4)/4+4/4+0)/—2]/-—4/43
Sis Me Pee HHS eligi CO) Wet piety Wrest EHR S| lg east (PA MRSIaN [Pe 228) Paya ofan te 22 EN
gr cs + 8/411} +7)]4+ 9] + 9)] +13; +11) +12} +14] +16] +11} + 9] +11
ones +11 | +14] + 9] +12] +12] +17] +15 | +18 | +19 | +22 | +16 | +15 | +15
ile +15} +18 | +12 | +15 | +16} +21 | +20 | +22 | +24 | +28 |} +23] +21] +20
Midnight +21 | +24] +16] +19} +19 | +27 +24 | +25 | +25 | +29 | +26) +27 | +24
The work of recopying on daily sheets the hourly observations of
both observatories, which show at a glance the relations of the two sets
of observations to each other, is in progress, and already about half of the
three years is finished. These sheets show the relative times of occur-
rence at the top and bottom of the mountain respectively of changes of
pressure, temperature, humidity, and the other subjects of observation,
together with their relative amounts. As the work proceeds the entries on
the sheets are compared with the bi-diurnal weather maps of the weekly
weather report of the Meteorological Office, and copious notes are made
of the relations of the observations of the two observatories to the cyclones
and anticyclones of north-western Europe at the time. One example may
be here referred to. It frequently happens that the temperature differ-
ence of the two observatories, which is generally about 16°-0, becomes less
and less during the time of the anticyclone, and occasionally temperature
is higher at the top than at the foot of the mountain. But as the anti-
cyclone gives way, and the cyclone advances, temperatures assume their
normal difference. Now the observations show two marked types of
weather in these circumstances : one typ@ when the difference is brought
about by a falling temperature at the top while temperature at Fort
William remains practically stationary; and the other type when tempera-
ture rises at Fort William while at the top of Ben Nevis it is stationary.
These different types at the present stage of the inquiry seem to point to
important well-marked characteristics of the approaching weather.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 287
Earth Tremors.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. C. Davison (Secretary), Sir F. J BraMwet., Pro-
fessor G. H. Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewrna, Dr. Isaac Roserts,
Mr. Tuomas Gray, Sir JoHN Evans, Professors J. Prestwicu,
E. Hutt, G. A. Lesour, R. Mexpoua, and J. W. Jupp, Mr. M.
Watton Brown, Mr. J. GLAISHER, Prof. C. G. Knorr, Prof. J. H.
PoyntinG, and Mr. Horace Darwin. (Drawn up by the Secretary).
APPENDIX—Account of Observations made with the Horizontal Pendulum.
By Vr. E. VON REBEUR-PASCHWITZ, p. 309.
Tue Committee were appointed to consider the advisability and desirability
of establishing in other parts of the country observations upon the pre-
valence of earth-tremors, similar to those now being made in Durham in
connection with coal-mine explosions.
In the present report descriptions are given of several instruments
which have been used in the study of earth-tilts and earth-pulsations.
The list is not a complete one, some having already been included in the
reports of the Committee on the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity for 1881
and 1882, drawn up by Messrs. G. H. and H. Darwin.! The first of
these valuable reports also contains an account of the pendulum with
double-suspension mirror, used in the well-known experiments in the
Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. The extraordinary sensitiveness of
this pendulum led Mr. Horace Darwin to design another form of the
instrument, smaller and simpler in construction, but capable of measuring
smaller angles than are required in these experiments. The method of
determining the angular value of the scale-divisions has also been altered.
The new pendulum was made some months ago by the Cambridge
Scientific Instrument Company, and Mr. Darwin, being unable at the
time to give much attention to it, has lent it to the Committee for trial.
The preliminary experiments have been made by the Secretary at
Birmingham, chiefly under Mr. Darwin’s guidance, and the results are
described below. The Committee think it most desirable that the
observations should be continued in Birmingham, and also made in other
parts of the country.
One of the most delicate instruments that have been used for the
observation of earth-tilts is the horizontal pendulum of Dr. E. von
Rebeur-Paschwitz, who has described the results obtained with it in
several valuable memoirs. The Committee considered that an account
of these observations in English would be of great use, and at their
request Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz kindly consented to write the very
suteresting and valuable summary which forms an appendix to this
report.
Br irane of M. C. Wolf—tThe nadirane erected in 1863 by M.
d’Abbadie at Abbadia, near Hendaye, is described in the reports for
1881 and 1882,” as well as some of the results which have been obtained
with it.
Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1881, pp. 93-126 ; 1882, pp. 95-119. In referring to these
reports in the following pages they will be quoted as the Reports for 1881 and 1882.
2 Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1881, pp. 116-118 ; 1882, pp. 102, 103. The following is a
list of M. d’Abbadie’s papers on this subject :—
288 REPORT—1893.
The nadirane now to be described was designed by M. Wolf for use
at the Paris Observatory.! It differs from that of M. d’Abbadie in two
important particulars: (1) The beam of light is made to traverse a
horizontal, instead of a vertical, layer of air, thereby avoiding the effects
of variations in temperature. (2) The relative fixity of the object-glass
and the observing microscope is rendered immaterial by employing
differential, instead of absolute, measures of the position of the image,
The bath of mercury rests on the limestone floor of the observatory
cellar, which, being at a depth of 27 metres, is free from surface vibra-
tions, and remains at a practically constant temperature. Above the
bath, and rigidly connected with it, is a hollow prism of cast iron, the
hypotenuse face of which carries a plane mirror of silvered glass inclined
to the horizon at an angle of 45°. The mercury-bath is closed by a
horizontal object-glass, 24 cm. in diameter, about 30 m. in focal length,
and cut so as to give the least aberration to yellow light. The closing
of the bath was found to be necessary in order to prevent the action of
the mercury vapour on the silvering of the mirror. A second plane
mirror of silvered glass, and 14 cm. in diameter, is fixed to the
horizontal surface of a support rigidly connected with the framework
of the mercury bath. On the floor of the cellar and ina line at right
angles to the vertical face of the hollow prism is a metal plate, through a
hole in which a beam of monochromatic yellow light passes. This beam
is reflected by the inclined mirror, and again by the horizontal mirror and
mercury, and is then returned as a double beam by the inclined mirror to
near its origin, where the two images are observed with a microscope
of small magnifying power.
If the luminous point is rigidly connected with the optical centre of
the object-glass of the microscope the two images, M. Wolf shows, are
only displaced with respect to one another when the reflecting apparatus
is rotated about a horizontal axis. The luminous point and microscope
might indeed be held by the hand. The parts of the reflecting apparatus
must, however, be invariably fixed with respect to one another and their
support; and, the temperature of the cellar being constant, it follows
that the only error can arise from rusting of the metallic parts.
1. ‘ Appareil destiné 4 reconnaitre les Mouvements du Sol par la Variation de la
Pesanteur relativement aux Masses Solides du Terrain,’ Paris, Acad. Sci., Compt.
Rend., vol. xxxiv. 1852, pp. 942, 943.
2. ‘Direction de la Pesanteur,’ Paris, Acad. Sci., Compt. Rend., vol. 1xi. 1865,
. 838.
: 3. ‘ Etudes sur la Verticale,’ Assoc. Frang., Compt. Rend., vol. 1. 1872, pp. 159-168.
4. ‘ Observations relatives 4 une Communication de M. Plantamour sur le Déplace-
ment de la Bulle des Niveaux 4 Bulle d’Air,’ Paris, Acad, Sci., Compt. Rend., vol.
lxxxvi. 1878, pp. 1528-1530.
5. ‘Sur les Variations de la Verticale,’ Paris, Acad. Sci., Compt. Rend., vol. 1xxxix.
1879, pp. 1016, 1017.
6. ‘ Recherches sur la Verticale,’ Bruxelles, Soc. Scien., Annales, 5e année, 1881,
pp. 37-51.
7. ‘Sur les Petits Tremblements de Terre,’ Paris, Acad. Sci., Compt. Rend., vol
xeviii. 1884, pp. 322, 323.
8. ‘La Fluctuation des Latitudes Terrestres, Bull. Astron., mars 1892. An
abridged translation of this paper is given in Nature, vol. xlvi. 1892, pp. 65, 66.
1 “Sur un Appareil propre 4 l’Etude des Mouvements du Sol, Paris, Acad. Sci.,
Compt. Rend., vol. xcvii. 1883, pp. 229-234. Notes on several changes in the
construction of this apparatus are given in the Rapports Annuels sur Etat de
V Observatoire de Paris, 1881, pp. 20, 21; 1883, p. 14; 1884, pp. 20, 21; 1885, pp.
13, 14.
ON. EARTH TREMORS. 289
With this apparatus it is possible to measure an angle of 0/05; with
M. d’Abbadie’s nadirane, one of 0/03.
M. Wolf informs me that the only result of his observations, which
have been carried on for several years, is that there has been no permanent
change of level in the floor of the observatory cellar.
Tromometer of P. T. Bertelli.—This instrument being now well known
a brief account will be sufficient here. In its original form it cousists of
a mass of 3 kilogrammes suspended by a copper wire 1 mm. in diameter
and 3m, long. In the ‘normal tromometer,’ which is the form generally
adopted throughout Italy, a mass of 100 grammes is suspended by a
very fine copper-wire 15 m. in length from a stout arm projecting from
the column which forms the stand of the instrument. From the centre
of the bob of the pendulum there projects downwards a short style, the
point of which, after reflexion in the hypotenuse-face of a right-angled
prism, is observed with a microscope. In some instruments the style
ends in a small disc, on which are ruled two fine lines at right angles to
one another. The mirror is provided with a glass micrometer-scale ruled
to tenths of a millimetre, and tenths of a division may be estimated by
the eye. It is therefore possible with this instrument to measure an
earth-tilt of about 14’. The scale can also be rotated so as to determine
the direction of the movement.
Tremor-recorder of Professor J. Milne-—The pendulum consists of a
weight of 7 lb. suspended by a fine iron wire 3 feet 3} inches long. The
upper end of this wire is soldered into a small hole in a plate which forms
the top of a tripod-stand about 5 feet high. From the base of the bob a
spike projects downwards, and is kept by a spring in contact with the
end of a long light vertical pointer made of a strip of bamboo. The length
of the pointer is about 164 inches, the short arm, which is in contact with
the spike of the pendulum, being about th of the length of the longer
arm. The instrument is made recording by discharging a spark every
five minutes from the end of the pointer, and thus perforating a band of
paper which is moved by clockwork beneath the end of the pointer. A
second band of paper moves at right angles to the former, in order to
avoid the loss of a record in case the pointer should move parallel to
the first band. Though designed independently, this instrument, as
Professor Milne remarks, is similar to one previously made by M. Bouquet
de la Grye.!
To avoid the friction arising from the movement of the pointer, M.
Chesneau suggests that the bob of the pendulum should be a lens, a point
of light close to it forming an image at a greater distance, which should
record on a strip of photographic paper the movements of the pendulum.?
The tromometer now used by Professor Milne is described in the
*Report.of the British Association’ for 1892 as well as in the two last
papers in the following list, in which he has given the results of his work
on this subject :—
1. ‘ Earth Tremors,’ ‘ Japan Seism. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. vii. pt. 1, 1883, pp. 1-15.
2. ‘Harth Pulsations,’ ‘ Nature,’ vol. xxviii. 1883, pp. 367-372.
3. ‘ Earth Tremors,’ ‘ Nature,’ vol. xxix. 1884, pp. 456-459.
Paris, Acad. Sci., Compt. Rend., vol. xcvi. 1883, p. 1857; also Rapport Annue.
ur UV Etat de V Observatoire de Paris pour Vv Année 1885 (Paris, 1886), pp. 24-26.
* M. B. de Chancourtois, ‘Sur un Moyen de constater par Enregistrement con tinu
les petits Mouvements de l’Kcorce Terrestre,’ Paris, Acad. Sci., Compt. Rend., vol. xcvi.
1883, pp. 1857-1859.
1893. U
290 REPORT—1893.
4. ‘On the Observation of Earth-tips and Earth Tremors,’ ‘ Nature,’ vol. xxxii.
1885, pp. 259-262.
5. ‘Earth Tremors in Central Japan,’‘ Japan Seism. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xi.
1887, pp. 1-78.
6. ‘Earth Tremors in Central Japan,’ ‘Japan Seism. Soc. Trans.,’ vol. xiii. pt. 1,
1888, pp. 7-19.
7. ‘Earth Tremors and the Wind,’ ‘Roy. Met. Soc. Journ.,’ vol. xiv. 1888,
pp. 64-72.
8. ‘Earth Pulsations in relation to certain Natural Phenomena and Physi-
cal Investigations,’ ‘ Japan Seism. Journ.,’ vol. i. 1893, pp. 87-112.
9. ‘On Earth Pulsations and Mine Gas,’ ‘Fed. Inst. Mining Eng. Trans.,’ vol. v.
1893, pp. 203-219.
10. ‘Reports on the Seismological Phenomena of Japan,’ ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep..,’
1881, p. 202 ; 1883, pp. 211, 212; 1884, pp. 249-251 ; 1885, pp. 374-378 ;
1887, pp. 219-226; 1888, pp. 433-435 ; 1892, pp. 107-113.
Seismic Oscillations of the Ground-water Surface-—Some interesting
observations have recently been made on this subject by Professor
Franklin H. King in wells in the Wisconsin agricultural experiment
station farm.! The instrument employed consists of a copper float con-
nected with the end of the short arm of a lever. The longer arm is three
times as long as the other, and at the end carries a pen which traces the
magnified fluctuations of the water-level on a moving sheet of paper. The
recording apparatus is placed on a slab over the top of the well.
The well in which these observations were made is 40 feet deep, and
is tubed with 6-inch iron pipe down to the rock (sandstone), 37 feet below
the surface, the water having a mean depth of about 20 feet. Ata
distance of 140 feet from the well there is a railway line.
When the records from this well were examined, numerous sharp,
short period curves were found, which were at first supposed to be due to
accidental disturbances of the apparatus. But the fact that they were
always dependent from the main curve, indicating a rise of water in the
well, led to their closer examination and to their association with the
movement of trains past the well. ‘The strongest rises in the level of
the water are produced by the heavily-loaded trains which move rather
slowly. A single engine has never been observed to leave a record, and
the rapidly moving passenger trains produce only a slight movement, or
none at all, which is recorded by the instrument.’ The curve is produced
by ‘a rapid but gradual rise of the water, which is followed by only a
slightly less rapid fall again to the normal level, there being nothing
oscillatory in character indicated by any of the tracings nor observable
to the eye when watching the pen while in motion. The downward move-
ment of the pen usually begins when the engine has passed the well by
four or five lengths, and when the pen is watched it may be seen to start
and to descend quite gradually, occupying some seconds in the descent.’
The cause of these movements of the ground-water surface is not
quite clear. Possibly the earth, being depressed by the weight of the
train, and sinking into the ground-water, may displace it laterally, and
thus cause it to rise under the surrounding area; or the compression of
the zone of capillarily saturated soil lying just above the ground-water
surface, or its frequent recoils from the shock imparted by the moving
train, may force some of the capillary water out of the soil, and thus
raise the mean level of the ground-water.
1 ‘Observations and Experiments on the Fluctuations in the Level and Rate of
Movement of Ground-water, &c.’ United States: Weather Bureau, Bull. No. 5, pp.
ore See also a paper by Mr. Isaac Roberts, F.R.S., in the Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1883,
p. 405.
ON EARTH TREMORS, 291
Bifilar Pendulum designed by Mr. Horace Darwin.
The pendulum used by Messrs. G. H. and H. Darwin in their experi-
ments at Cambridge is fully described in the Report for 1881 (pp. 93-
112). The principle of this instrament was suggested to them by Lord
Kelvin, and may be briefly described as follows. A heavy weight is sus-
pended by two converging brass wires, which only allow the cylinder to
move in a direction at right angles to the plane they are in. A fine silk
fibre is attached at one end to the bottom of the weight and at the other
to a fixed support, and passes through two thin wire loops on the edge of
a small circular mirror. The ends of the silk fibre are brought close
together, so that the two parts are inclined at a considerable angle.
Thus, a very small displacement of the pendulum at right angles to the
plane of the mirror will cause it, and a ray of light reflected by it, to turn
through considerable angles.
Mr. Horace Darwin has designed the new bifilar pendulum on the
same principle (fig. 1). The mirror is circular and } inch in diameter,
and itself forms the bob of the pendulum. Two hooks about } inch
apart are fixed to its upper rim and are hooked on a Friel
very fine silver wire which supports the mirror. The See
points to which the ends of this wire are fixed are some We
distance apart in a vertical direction, one being very
nearly vertically above the other, and are attached to
supports in the frame of the instrument.
Any simple tilt of the ground may be resolved into
component rotations about a vertical line and two
horizontal lines, one perpendicular, and the other parallel,
to the face of the mirror. The first rotation produces
no appreciable effect, the second changes the horizontal
distance between the two points of support, thus render-
ing the instrument more or less sensitive, according as
the distance is diminished or increased. By the third
rotation, the upper support is moved through a greater
distance than the lower, causing a deflection of the
mirror about a vertical axis. If, for instance, the mirror
be suspended in a north and south plane, facing a gas-
jet at some distance to the west of it, and if the north
part of the suspending wire be the longer, it is obvious
that the pendulum will only indicate those tilts which
take place in an east and west direction, or the east and
west component of tilts which take place in other direc-
tions ; and that a tilt towards the west will cause the
reflected beam to deviate towards the south.
The pendulum is at present placed in this position. The mirror
faces west, and it will be convenient in this description to refer to the
sides as north or south, &c. The front or west view of the instrument
is given in fig. 2, on one-third the real scale. The base, A, is carried by
three levelling-screws, 6 inches apart, and is made in two pieces fixed
together ;! but it would be better for the fature to have it cast in
one, together with the brass box, B, 2 inches broad, 2% inches high, and
* In order to equalise the temperature in the instrument, thick metal of good
conductivity has been used throughout in the construction. Brass and gun-metal
have been used, although copper would have been considerably better.
u 2
292 REPORT— 1893.
13 inch from front to back. One of the screw-feet is placed due east of
the axis of the pendulum, and the line joining the other two is therefore
north and south. The lower half of the front contains a circular window,
Fig. 2.
# inch in diameter, through which the pendulum-mirror is visible.
This box is only a little larger than the mirror, and is connected above
with a brass tube, c, 13 inch in external diameter and 123 inches high,
ON EARTH TREMORS. 293
ending in a brass cap 2} inches high, so that the total height of the
instrament above the top of the foundation is only 192 inches.
A section of the instrument by an east and west plane is given in
Fig. 3.
K
i
SASS
fig. 3," and shows the manner in which the pendulum-mirror, w, is sus-
pended. Two }-inch square brass bars, H and k, are firmly screwed
together ( being on the east side), and carry between them two pulley
' In figs. 2 and 3 the same letters denote the same parts of the instrument.
294 REPORT—1893.
wheels, P and Q, with V-shaped grooves, which turn stiffly on their axles.
This part of the instrument will be referred to as the ‘frame,’ The thin
silver wire which supports the mirror passes partly round each of these
wheels, and is fastened by a small screw in their edges. The wire hangs
down in a loop just below the frame, and is stretched tight when the
mirror is hooked on. The north portion of the wire is attached to the
upper wheel, and the south portion to the lower. A convenient vertical
adjustment is given to the mirror by turning the pulleys and winding
some of the silver wire on to them; the friction with which they turn
prevents them running back.
When the mirror is suspended in this manner the frame and mirror
are inserted into the brass tube, the lower end of the frame resting on
the hollow conical surface, r, of the passage from the tube to the mirror-
box, so that the mirror hangs within the latter. A rectangular opening
in a circular brass plate, p (fig. 2), at the top of the tube admits the
frame and allows it to move without rotation in an east and west direc-
tion. A thin rod, which passes through a hole in the south-east side
near the top of the cap of the tube, is kept pressing bya spiral spring
against the bar H (fig. 3), and this holds the frame against the north
side of the rectangular opening, and also against the end of the screw, E£
(figs. 2 and 3), on the west side. Thus, all movement of the frame
inside the tube is prevented, except that in an east and west direction,
produced by turning the screw, r. Another and much stronger spring
outside the cylinder keeps the screw E pressed in one direction in order
to prevent any backlash in the screw.
Before the plate, D, and the cap are screwed on, the mirror-box and
tube are filled with paraffin oil, so that the pendulum and supports are
entirely immersed in it. The effect of this is to make the pendulum
absolutely dead-beat and capable of registering slow earth-tilts only. It
is therefore unaffected by the rapid tremors such as would be produced
by the rattling of passing vehicles.
The two west or front levelling-screws being equidistant from the
east and west line through the centre of the instrument, it is evident
that the inclination of the pendulum along the latter line is not changed
if one of the screws be raised and the other depressed by equal amounts.
The sensitiveness of the pendulum can be increased or decreased by
turning the screws in this manner. At present this is done by hand,
but it might be desirable to put a slow motion for their adjustment
which could be worked from a distance. The inclination of the pen-
dulum in the east and west direction can be altered by the east or back
levelling-screw (called the ‘back-leg’ in the Report of 1881) without
affecting the sensitiveness, and a movement of the same kind but of far
greater delicacy can be given to the frame by the screw, E. This can be
done by hand, or a small turn of the screw can be made by the lever, F.
The distances between the levelling-screws being known, and also
the number of threads to the inch, it is evident that the tilt given to the
instrument by one turn, or fraction of a turn, of the back-leg could be
estimated. In the present form of the instrument the tilt is, however,
given to the frame by turning the screw, £, through a known angle. If
a be the distance between the bottom of the frame and the point at
which the screw acts, 6 the breadth of the frame, and a the semi-
vertical angle of the hollow cone, Rk, on which the frame rests, a move-
ment of the screw, E, through a distance, h, will tilt the frame through an
ON EARTH TREMORS. 295
angle whose circular measure is 2h/(2a—b tana). In the present case
a=14'56 inches, b='56 inch, a=44°, and the number of threads on
the screw is 100 to the inch. One complete turn of the screw will
therefore tilt the frame through an angle of 146-4 seconds. A fractional
turn of the screw may be made by the lever, r, which can be clamped to
it by a screw in front. The lever ends below in a rectangular plate with
ends projecting outwards; and, by two screws working through these
ends, and abutting against the stops, G, the range of the lever’s move-
ment can be regulated. The length of the lever is 335-5 mm., so that
Fig. 4.
with the range of movement of 14-4 mm. of the bottom of the lever the
tilt given to the frame is exactly one second.
It will be useful to give the general arrangement of the instrument
now in use in Birmingham. It is erected in a cellar, the plan of which
is shown in fig. 4. The pendulum is placed at A on a foundation de-
scribed below. The line aB runs east and west. Ten feet west of the
pendulum a board, B, is placed on the floor of the cellar. This board,
which was used in the experiments at Cambridge, contains a pair of
rails on which a carriage with three legs slides, bearing a gas-jet. On
the east side of the carriage is a screen, pierced by a circular hole, one
inch in diameter, having on the west side a piece of ground glass, and
296 REPORT—1893.
on the east side a fine wire. The image of this wire formed by reflexion,
first, in the pendulum-mirror, and then in a plane mirror, at ¢,! is ob-
served with a telescope, D, furnished with cross-wires and placed in the
passage just outside the cellar. A wooden bar, £, is attached at one end
to the side of the carriage, and at the other end is graduated to tenths
of an inch, the index-pointer being near the floor to the right of the
telescope. The carriage is also provided with a screw-motion, which
can be worked from the telescope-seat, but it was found unnecessary to
use this, as the image can be rapidly and accurately adjusted on the
vertical cross-wire of the telescope by gently tapping the end of the
graduated bar.
When the instrument is in order, nearly all operations can be carried
on in the passage without entering the cellar. Strings attached to the
two sides of the lever are guided by hooks and brought round to either
side of the telescope, so that the angular value of the scale-divisions can
be determined without leaving the telescope. The gas-jet also can be
lighted from the same place. The only occasion for entering the cellar
is to readjust the pendulum when one end of the scale-divisions, which
occupy a length of about 9 inches on the graduated bar, approaches
the index-pointer. But this can be rapidly done by a slight turn of the
screw used for tilting the frame. In a few minutes the image becomes
steady, and if this be done about the time of day when the tilt is
changing in direction, the movement in so short a time will be so small
that it may be safely neglected.
The house in which the pendulom is installed lies on the west margin
of Birmingham. The rock is Bunter sandstone, but this is covered at
the surface by a thick bed of clayey sand, with occasional layers of
rounded pebbles. The nearest edge of the road in front of the house is
11 yards from the pendulum. A single-line suburban railway runs in a
deep cutting at the bottom of the garden, about 80 yards from the
pendulum. But no disturbance has ever been noticed from either pass-
ing carts or trains, the short vibrations or tremors produced by them
being too rapid to affect the pendulum, and the local bendings of the
ground caused by their weight apparently having no effect.
The Foundation of the Pendulum.?—A circular hole, 3 feet in diameter,
was made to a depth of 84 feet. The bottom of the hole is covered with
a layer of concrete, ¢ (fig. 5), 2 ft. 2 in. in thickness, and on the surface
of this is placed vertically a cast-iron water-pipe, a, 6 ft. 6 in. long,
103 inches in external diameter, and ,% inch thick, and weighing
about 3 cwt.; so that the pipe projects about 2 inches above the cellar
floor. A further layer of concrete, nearly 2 feet in thickness, surrounds
the bottom of the pipe and keeps it in position, and the pipe itself is also
filled with concrete to within 2 feet of the top. The pendulum stands
on an iron plate, B, which rests at three points only on top of the pipe;
lateral displacement is prevented by pieces projecting a little way down
the inside of the iron pipe. In order to isolate the stand from the cellar
floor, the iron pipe is surrounded by earth only to abont 2 feet from the
top, and then an earthenware drain-pipe, D, is placed surrounding the
pipe, leaving an air-space between. The interval between the drain-
pipe and the sides of the hole is filled with earth, and the brick pave-
1 This mirror is an ordinary plate-glass looking-glass. It should, however, be
made of worked glass, as should also the window of the mirror-box (8, fig. 2).
? This foundation was designed by Mr. Horace Darwin.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 297
ment of the cellar is taken up for a few inches round the drain-pipe. A
wooden plate, ©, covers the drain-pipe without touching it, and rests
only on the cellar floor.
Angular Value of Scale-divisions—The pendulum was erected by Mr.
Horace Darwin on April 20 and 21. Experiments were made to deter-
mine the angular value of the scale-divisions at various times between
May 1 and 25, and again between August 1 and 3. The first trials were
unsatisfactory, the image seldom returning to the same or nearly the
same position. Some of the causes of failure were easily remedied ; but
298 REPORT—1893.
even in the latest attempts there is still some slight discrepancy between
the positions of the image after successive to-and-fro movements of the
lever.!
If the bottom of the lever be moved to the left, it is evident that the
screw advances and that the frame is tilted to the east. When this is
done the movement of the image is at first rapid, but in two or three
minutes becomes nearly insensible, and after five minutes no displace-
ment of the image can be perceived. In all the later and more satis-
factory trials the lever was moved every ten minutes, and in the intervals
the gas was turned down. It should be added that in the evenings when
these experiments were made the pendulum always indicates a movement
to the west.
The range of motion of the bottom of the lever was regulated so as to
give a tilt of two seconds to the frame, and the corresponding lengths of
the scale in inches, as determined on May 24, were as follows :—
+702 -—665 47:20 -695 +4666 —6-96
+690 —685 +683 —697 +4694 —6-65
A plus sign indicates a tilt to the west, and a minus sign a tilt to the
east. Thus the average of six tilts of two seconds to the west gives
6*92£-05 inches as the corresponding scale-value, and the average of six
similar tilts to the east gives 6°842:04 inches. The difference between
these two values may no doubt be in part attributed to the westerly
tilting of the instrument. If, however, the mean of the scale-values of
successive pairs of tilts be taken, the effect of this westerly tilting will
be eliminated, if it may be supposed to be uniform throughout the
twenty minutes allowed for the to-and-fro movements of the lever and
for the subsequent readings. The average of these six means is 6°88+:03
inches. This value is probably the most accurate of the series, and a
tilt of one second will therefore be taken to correspond to 3°44 inches of
the scale.
The distance of the gas-jet from the pendulum being 10 feet, the
angle through which the mirror turns for an east or west tilt of one
second is therefore | tan-1°'“4
2 120
Since the two parts of the silver wire which support the mirror
always lie in the vertical plane through their points of support, the angle
through which the mirror turns for a given east or west tilt is inde-
pendent of the distance between the mirror-hooks; it depends only on
the horizontal and vertical distances between the two points of support
of the silver wire. If c be this horizontal distance, and 6 the angle
through which the mirror turns for an east or west tilt of one second, it
is evident that cO is constant. If « be the decrease in the value of c, due
toa given southerly tilt of the frame, and é the corresponding increase in
the value of 0, then 6=20/c. Hence, if the frame be tilted through one
second in a north and south line, the change in the value of 0@ is 6?, and
the corresponding change in the scale-value above given is therefore 7,th
of that value. It follows that, in order to make the error small, 6 should
be small; that is, the scale should be a long way from the pendulum.
The original instrument used in the Cavendish Laboratory experiments
was free from this error. It would be possible to replace one of the fine
, or 49 minutes.
‘ It is hoped that this discrepancy will disappear with another arrangement of
the lever which Mr, Darwin has designed.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 299:
wires supporting one side of the mirror by two converging wires, and
thus to allow it to move only in an east and west direction, and so
eliminate this error. It would, however, have the drawback of compli-
cating the instrument.
If d be the vertical distance between the points of support of the
silver wire, it is obvious that the circular measure of one second is ¢@/d,
and therefore c=d/2940. In the present instrument d is about 12 inches,.
so that the horizontal distance between the points of support is only
0:004 inch.
On the first three days of August, the scale-value for a tilt of two
seconds was redetermined in the manner described above. The average:
scale-values of six pairs of east and west tilts on each evening were
639-03, 6:06:06, and 6:14:08 inches,
and the average of the eighteen pairs was 6:20:04 inches. Between
the end of May and the beginning of August, the scale-value for one second
changed from 3:44 to 3:10 inches, and there must, therefore, have been a
tilt towards the north of about seven seconds.
Sensitiveness of the Pendulum.—Except on two occasions, which will
be referred to below, the image has always been perfectly steady, and
chiefly to this is due the extreme delicacy of the pendulum. If the gas-
jet be displaced by 2,ths of an inch, the image and the vertical crogs-
wire in the telescope are clearly separated, and a displacement of ,35th
of an inch of the gas-jet can be easily detected. Thus the scale-value of
one second being 3°44 inches, it follows that we can observe a tilt of the
ground of less than ;},th of a second ;! and since the pendulum might
be rendered more sensitive, and the optical arrangements improved, it
would not be impossible to detect a tilt of ;)5th of a second, or even
less than this if desired.
Observations with the Pendulum.—The principal objects of the experi-
ments being to test the working of the instrument, observations were
made when convenient, and not at regular intervals. They were made
frequently enough, however, to give some idea of the nature of the daily
motion. At first the movement indicated appeared to be always to the
west, and the observations, though not generally continued later than
10 p.m., showed no trace of a return movement to the east. This westerly
tilting, of at first about a second a day, appeared to be chiefly due to the
settling of the foundation, and by the end of June became nearly imper-
ceptible. Towards the end of May and the beginning of June, observa-
tions on the daily movement were made for about two weeks consecutively.
The direction of the movement changed from east to west at from 7 to.
9 a.m., and from west to east at from 10 to 12 p.m., but these epochs were
altered when the continued westerly tilting ceased. During the middle.
of August, the easterly movement lasted till noon or about 2 or 3 P.M.
Subsequent experiments, described below, seem to show that this daily
movement may be, in part at least, due to the action of convection currents
in the oil surrounding the mirror.
The pendulum in the Cavendish Laboratory having been extremely
sensitive to slight changes of pressure on the floor of the room, it seemed
desirable to make some similar experiments with the present instrument.
I stood for one minute about a foot and a half west of the pendulum, and,
' An isosceles triangle with a base one inch long and each of the equal sides 1,000»
miles would have a vertical angle of about ;1,th of a second.
REPORT—1893.
returning quickly to the telescope, found there had been an apparent
tilting of about one-sixth of a second to the east. Standing for the same
time on the east side of the pendulum, there was an apparent tilting to
the west. Ata distance from the pendulum these effects were much less
marked. After sitting for a short time at the telescope-seat in the
passage outside the cellar a somewhat similar, but very slight, effect is
noticeable. For about a minute the image remains perfectly steady.
It then starts slowly, but rather suddenly, to the right, indicating a
movement to the east, the total deflection in eight minutes being about
jth of a second. I attributed these movements at first to my weight
bending the cellar floor, but some experiments made afterwards at Mr.
Darwin’s suggestion showed that they were due rather to changes of
temperature, and that the deflections caused by my weight were in reality
almost imperceptible.
Supposing the foundation to remain fixed, the effects of a change in
FIG. 6.
& 00
700+ /
Gas turne oF |
re a ee an a
2 Qo rm FOTN 12 Iwm2 I < 3 6 7 3 I
the distribution of temperature might be manifested in two ways—either
by the unequal expansion of different parts of the instrument or by con-
vection currents in the paraffin oil. Since the gas-jet stands west of
the pendulum, the expansion due to its heat would produce an apparent
tilting to the east. On the other hand, since the vertical axis about
which the mirror turns lies to the south of its centre (see fig. 1) the
effect of convection currents on the oil would be to cause an apparent
tilting to the west. Thus the initial deflection of the mirror in the pre-
ceding experiments appears to be due to expansion.
If, however, the heating be continued for some time a retrograde
movement sets in. On August 20 the gas was kept alight for six hours,
ON EARTH TREMORS. 301
from 9.12 a.m. to 3.12 P.M. ; it was then turned down, and readings were
continued for six hours longer. The results are illustrated by the curve
in fig. 6. The effect of expansion is shown by the movement to the east
for a short time after the gas is lighted, and that of contraction by an
increase in the rate of westerly deflection immediately after the gas is
turned down. The most important movement is that of more than a
second to the west while the gas was up, and to the east when it was
turned down. There can be little doubt that it is due to the action of
convection currents in the paraflin oil, in which the mirror and frame are
immersed. ;
An attempt was next made to determine the part of the instrument
whose expansion produced the first deflection. For this purpose a card-
board box, 12 inches long, 54 inches broad, and 4 inches deep, was filled
with hay. It was first placed so as to shield the upper part of the
instrument, leaving the mirror-box and levelling-screws uncovered, with
the result of preventing the first easterly movement. The gas was kept
alight for two hours (11.30 a.m. to 1.30 p.m.) ; it was then turned low
down, and readings were taken at intervals during the next three hours.
After one minute the image was seen to the left of the vertical cross-wire,
indicating a deflection to the west; and this westerly movement continued
at a very nearly uniform rate during the whole time the gas was alight,
and also for about half an hour afterwards. Its velocity then rapidly
diminished, and after a quarter of an hour an easterly movement set in,
whose velocity soon became uniform and equal to that of the westerly
movement. ‘The total westerly deflection of the mirror in the first 24
hours was equivalent to a tilt of 14 seconds.
The box was then placed resting with its longer side on the wooden
cover of the drain-pipe. Strings were tied to each end and brought.
round by hooks to the telescope-seat, so that the box could be moved
backwards and forwards in front of the mirror-box and levelling-screws.
These were shielded by the box from the gas-jet, which was kept alight
for two hours (12.40 to 2.40 p.m.). In order to take the readings, the
box was drawn to one side for a few seconds and then replaced.
Readings were also continued for several hours after the gas was turned
down. The resulting curve is similar to that in fig. 6. It follows, there-
fore, that the first easterly movement which takes place after the gas is
lighted is caused by the expansion of the brass-tube more than by that
of the levelling-screws.
It is evident from these experiments that the natural movements of
the pendulum in its present form and position may be seriously affected
by the slight changes of temperature which take place in ordinary cellars.
To guard against these, Mr. H. Darwin proposes to alter the mode of
suspension of the mirror. The two hooks by which it hangs on the silver
wire will be placed in a line at right angles to the plane of the mirror.
The instrument will also be protected by a case, and perhaps by immersion
in water. For photographic registration, it would be better to use a
glow electric lamp, or, better still, an induction-coil spark, instead of a
continuously burning gas-jet.
A few experiments were made on the bending of the cellar-floor by
means of a heavy weight, but without much success. This was due
partly to the tilting so caused being nearly or quite masked in the daily
movement of the mirror, partly because to move the weight I was obliged
to enter the cellar, and frequently approach close to the instrument. The’
302 REPORT—1893.
heavy mass employed is about 84 lb., and consists of a part of the
cast-iron pipe of which the foundation is made. When it was placed
at successive distances of a foot, from 2 to 9 feet, nearly west of the
pendulum, the tilting of the column was inappreciable ; and this was also
the case when it was placed alternately at distances of 2 and 9 feet.
If, however, it was put alternately nearly west and east of the pendulum,
and close to the wooden cover of the drain-pipe, the tilting, though very
slight, was perceptible, and apparently in the direction away from the
heavy mass. For the reasons above stated, however, the results were
not altogether concordant, so that these experiments prove little more
than the nearly complete isolation of the stand.
Earth Pulsations of June 3 and 6, 1893.—At 5.43 p.m. on June 3 the
image was, as usual, perfectly still, and was adjusted to the cross-wire
without difficulty. At 6.29, when I went to take the next reading, it was
marching slowly and steadily from side to side of the field of view. At
first I timed each separate oscillation, and found their period to be nearly
regular, and between 15 and 17 seconds in Jength. At this time the
range of movement was greatest, but it was impossible to determine its
amount exactly, owing to the shifting of the mean position of the image
produced by the heat of the gas-jet. The movement continued to be
considerable for about five minutes, then it gradually diminished, and b
6.37 was decidedly less, perhaps half that at 6.30. Between 6h. 35m. lds.
and 6h. 37m. 40s. the image crossed the wire fourteen times, the average
period of the seven complete oscillations being therefore 20°7 seconds.
At 6.42 the image had become steady again. I then tried to measure the
range of the movement when it was greatest from my recollection of the
average limiting positions of the image, and found the scale-value to be
0:44 inch, and the corresponding angular value about }th of a second.
At 6.46 the oscillations began again, and continued from this time
until 8.13, with a few short intervals, when they either ceased or were
almost imperceptible; but throughout this time the range was always
very small, never, I believe, exceeding .),th of a second. The oscillations
were also more constant in range and in their mean position, so that the
range could be determined by making the image in each limiting position
coincide with the cross-wire. Between 6h. 48m. 40s. and 6h. 53m. 40s.
there were sixteen complete oscillations, giving an average period for
each of 18°8 seconds. At 6.56 the range was about ;1,th of a second, and
at 7.8 about ,),th of a second. After this the oscillations became smaller,
and it could just be seen that the image was in motion. This continued
until just before 7.19, when the movement became greater again and
more regular. Between 7h. i9m. Os. and 7h. 25m. 43s. there were twenty
complete oscillations, the average period being 20-2 seconds; and the
range immediately after the latter time was about th of a second. Then
the oscillations again decreased, and at 7.36 the image was nearly steady,
occasionally being just visible on one side or other of the cross-wire.
Between 7h, 42m. 58s. and 7h. 45m. 50s. there were five complete oscilla-
tions, but the movement was so slight that one or two of them may have
been missed. At 7°54 I left the cellar, returning about ten minutes later.
About 8.8 the last series of oscillations began. Between 8h. 8m. 15s. and
Sh. 11m. 20s. ten complete oscillations were counted, the average period
being 18-5 seconds, and the range immediately afterwards was found to
be about 35th of asecond. After 8.13, though I watched almost con-
ON EARTH TREMORS. 303
tinuously for two hours and a half, no further oscillations were percep-
tible, and the usual steady movement was resumed.
Another series of pulsations was observed on June 6 at 7.21 a.m., and
lasting nearly an hour, but I was unable at this time to watch them
carefully. From 7.0 to 7.8 the image was perfectly steady, At 7.21,
when I went down to the cellar again, and for about ten minutes after-
wards, it was performing oscillations even more extensive than on the
previous occasion, but it was again not possible to measure the exact
range owing to the variable limiting positions. Between 7h. 32m. 25s.
and 7h. 35m. 22s. there were nine complete oscillations, the average
length being 19°7 seconds. At the end of this interval the range had
decidedly diminished. At 7.45, from my recollection of the limiting
positions of the image, I found the maximum range to be about
4 second; and I do not think this estimate can be much in error. By
7.55 the range had diminished to about 1; second (measured). At 8.7
the movement was almost imperceptible, and ten minutes later the image
was steady again.
It is probable that these earth-pulsations were the dying-out vibrations
from some distant and severe earthquakes, but I have not been able to
identify them with any particular shocks. On May 23 a violent earth-
quake was felt at Thebes, in Greece, laying a great part of the city in
ruins, and it is stated that shocks were felt daily for some time afterwards.
Some of these may possibly have produced the earth-pulsations observed
on June 3 and 6.
Horizontal Pendulum of Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz.
Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz’s horizontal pendulum is a modified form
of Professor Zollner’s, which is described in the Report for 1881, pp.
112-114. The principal difference consists in the method of suspension
of the pendulum, the two stretched springs of Professor Zéllner’s instru-
ment being replaced by steel points working in agate cups, which allow
a nearly frictionless motion. In the following pages the pendulum used
by Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz is first described, and this is followed by
an account of the improvements suggested to him by the experience of
several years’ work with the instrument.!
The heavy cast-iron tripod-stand of the pendulum consists of a low
cylindrical vessel, on which, at equal distances apart, are three projec-
tions for the reception of the foot-screws, the whole being cast in one
piece. The cylinder is open at the top, and, after the instrament is
adjusted, is covered with a closely-fitting bell-glass. The screws have a
pitch of 0°36 mm., and are provided with large heads, so that a very small
change may be given by them to the level of the stand. The distance
between each pair of screws is 435 mm. Exactly half-way between two
of the foot-screws ard opposite the third is an opening in the cylinder,
which is closed by a plano-concave lens, 75 mm. in diameter, and about
4°6 m. in focal length, the optical axis of the lens being horizontal and
directed towards the centre of the tripod-stand.?
1 The pendulum is described in Dr, E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz’s valuable memoir,
Das Horizontalpendel, &c., pp. 17-41. The suggested improvements are contained
in pp. 213-216 of the same memoir, and also in letters to members of this Com-
mittee.
? The lens is used for photographic registration ; for direct vision it is replaced
by a plane glass.
304 REPORT— 1893.
The support of the pendulum (fig. 7) is arranged symmetrically with
respect to the diameter of the tripod-stand, which passes through the
third foot-screw. It consists of a strong rectangular frame, a, the plane
of which is parallel to the lens above mentioned (whose position is
shown by the circle in the figure), and is screwed to the hase of the
tripod-stand behind the lens. It carries two horizontal cylinders, 3, B,
one lying vertically over the other, which can be turned round their
axes with considerable friction. In the middle of the cylinders are very
fine steel points, c,¢ (shown projecting upwards in the figure). These
are screwed to the cylinders, so that they are perpendicular to their
axes, and project only a little way from their surfaces. The vertical
distance between the axes of the cylinders is 68 mm.
Fig. 7.
bgt ps:
Yj
KX
The pendulum is made completely of brass in the form of an isosceles
triangle (fig. 8). D, £, Fare thin tubes; H, a small weight attached at
the vertex of the triangle. At Pp and Q are two small spherical agate
cups, 2°5 mm. in radius, their centres being 68 mm. apart. The steel
points against which the cups rest also project from the axes of the
cylinders by 2°5 mm., so that in every position the points are perpendi-
cular to the tangent-planes to the cups. The rod, x, which projects per-
pendicularly from the tube, r, has a perforation, t, in the direction P Q
for the reception of a kmife-edge, on which the pendulum can be sus-
pended in a vertical position. mM isa mirror which projects through the
ON EARTH TREMORS. 305
frame of the support, and can be rotated about the axis of a rod, Nn,
parallel to Pq. The weight of the whole pendulum is 42 grammes, and
the distance of the centre of gravity, G, from the axis of rotation is
100 mm.
Immediately beneath the mirror, M, and in the same plane with it, a
fixed mirror, m’ (fig. 7), is attached to the tripod-stand, and can be
rotated about a horizontal and vertical axis from outside the instrument.
To adjust the pendulum the mirror, M, is fixed on the rod, N, so that
its surface is approximately perpendicular to the axis of the triangle.
The centre of gravity, G, of the whole pendulum is next brought into
that axis by supporting the pendulum at two points of the axis, near
L and 4H, and by displacing the small weight, 1. The cylinders, 8, B, are
then rotated until the steel points are directed towards the agate cups,
and are parallel respectively to the lines GP and qa. This can be done
with sufficient accuracy by the eye by applying a cardboard triangle of
the form GpQ. When the pendulum is suspended the arrangement is
therefore such that the pressure is directed perpendicularly to the cups,
and there is consequently no tendency to slip.
Fie. 8.
Two stops are fixed to the tripod-stand to prevent the pendulum up-
setting. One of these stops consists of a tube directed towards the
pendulum, and communicating on the outside of the tripod-stand with
an indiarubber tube and bellows, so that the pendulum can be made to
oscillate by the observer. The other stop is a vertical rod a little longer
than the pendulum, and carrying at the upper end a small horizontal
knife-edge. On this the pendulum can be suspended in a vertical position
by means of the perforation at L, and the knife-edge then agrees nearly
with the direction of the true axis of rotation. By finding the period of
oscillation in this position the constant required for the reduction of
the observations when the axis is in an inclined position can be deter-
mined with all desirable accuracy.
The apparatus for photographic registration is placed about 4}
metres north of the pendulum. The source of light is a petroleum lamp
capable of burning fourteen hours, and enclosed in an opaque case. In
this there is a movable vertical slit, 20 mm. in length, through which
the light passes to the lens! of the pendulum apparatus. The lamp-case
1 In the more recent experiments at Strassburg, the plane mirror, M, attached to
the pendulum is replaced by a concave mirror, and this renders the use of the lens
superfluous.
1893. x
306 REPORT—1893.
is mounted on a small iron stand, whose position can be adjusted both
vertically and horizontally, and the stand is cemented to a pillar.
By the side of the lamp is placed the recording apparatus. The
photographic paper is wrapped round a horizontal roller, 20 cm. long
and 564 em. in circumference, which is turned round with considerable
friction on its axis once in fifty hours, the paper being held fast to the
roller by two bars. Parallel to the roller, and at the same height as its
axis, is a cylindrical lens, 20 em. long and 5 em. in focal length. After
reflexion at the pendulum-mirror, M, and a double passage through the
lens in front of it, the pencil of light sent out from the slit is focussed by
the cylindrical lens to a fine point on the surface of the photographic
paper. An image is also formed by reflexion from the fixed mirror, mw’,
and, by rotation of that mirror, can be brought into any desired position.
This fixed point of light records a straight line on the photographic
paper, and is also used for marking the time, the light being shut off for
five minutes at the beginning of each hour by a small screen moved by
the clockwork. The recording apparatus is mounted on a heavy cast-
iron plate, through which pass the cords of the weight and the pendulum
of the driving-clock. It is covered by a wooden box, closed at the top
by a lid, and having in front a horizontal slit for the passage of the light.
The lamp is changed twice a day; and, two being used, a fresh one can
be inserted in the case by a slide without appreciable loss of time. Thus,
when once well adjusted, the working of the instrument requires very
little attention.
Suggested Alterations.—The sensitiveness of a given horizontal pen-
dulum increases with its period of oscillation, and this is greater the
smaller the inclination of the axis to the vertical.!' The difficulty of
obtaining and preserving very fine steel points therefore imposes a limit
to the sensitiveness of the instrument. In order to preserve the form of
the points, it is desirable that the pendulum should be as light as possible.
It should therefore be made of aluminium, whose specific gravity is about
{yths that of brass. This would at the same time reduce still further
the little friction that exists. The distance between the steel points might
also be increased with advantage to double its present value, or even to
20 em., without altering the distance of the centre of gravity from the
axis of rotation.
The two lateral foot-serews should be removed and their places taken
by screws for adjusting the position of the lower of the two steel points.
The third foot-screw, which regulates the sensitiveness of the pendulum,
should also be replaced by a screw for adjusting the position of the upper
steel point. In the original instrument, if the parts of the foot-screws
projecting downwards are of unequal lengths, a temperature-correction
must be introduced ; but with the removal of the foot-screws this may
be rendered unnecessary.
The head of the screw which regulates the position of the upper
steel point should be provided with divisions and an index, so that the
axis of rotation may be tilted through a known angle. The period of
oscillation (Ty) of the pendulum in a horizontal position of the axis may
then be determined indirectly as follows. If T, and T, be the periods of
1 If T, be the period of oscillation when the axis is horizontal, T that when the
axis is inclined at an angle, i, to the vertical, T?=T,? cosec @.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 307
oscillation when the axis is inclined at angles i, and i, to the vertical,
we have the following equations :—
Me Ba
tan } (t2+7,)=tan } (42—7,) Th
and
To=T\V sin 7;=ToV sin 7.
Thus, T,, Ty, and 7,—7, being known, we can find 7,, 7, and con-
sequently T,.
When the point of light leaves the photographic paper, the pen-
dulum has to be readjusted by turning the foot-screws. This always
Fig. 9.
produces a certain change of stress, which it is desirable to avoid, espe-
cially as in some places the movement is so great that such corrections are
necessary every few days. By the employment of a ‘ correcting-mirror,’
which can be turned by screws, the point of light can be brought back to
the middle of the roller by the observer without touching or approaching
the instrument. The arrangement will be evident from fig. 9.
Tt would be a great advantage if the length of the roller used for the
photographic records were increased, and an arrangement devised for
displacing the roller in the direction of its axis, so that the same paper
could be used during two consecutive rotations. The rapidity of rota-
x2
308 REPORT—1893.
tion of the roller might also be increased, so as to give a more detailed
representation of the recorded movements.
Oombination of two Pendulums in Perpendicular Planes.—The method
of arranging two pendulums in perpendicular planes is shown in fig. 9.
A, and A, are the pendulums in the planes of the meridian and prime
vertical respectively, M, and Mm, their mirrors. The light enters in the
direction of the dotted line through a lens of about 4m. focal length
at B, and returns after reflection along the same course. C, and Cy are
the correcting-mirrors of the two pendulums, D a tixed mirror at right
angles to the path of the light. All three mirrors can be rotated from
outside the apparatus about a vertical and horizontal axis. s, and s, are
screws for the longitudinal correction of the lower steel points of the two
pendulums, T, and 1, screws for the lateral correction of the upper steel
points. The lamp and roller are, as
et before, placed side by side. When the
Tt preteen ee apparatus is properly adjusted no cor-
i Tar, rections are necessary, except those
required for the rotation of the correct-
ing-mirrors, in order to keep the points
of light on the middle of the roller.
Combination of two Pendulums in
the sume Plane.—As already remarked,
the length of the period of oscillation
and consequently the sensitiveness of
the pendulum are limited by the diffi-
culty of obtaining very fine steel points.
By arranging two exactly similar pen-
dulums in one plane, as shown in fig.
10, we can obtain four times the exac-
io titude of registration without increas-
: ing the sensitiveness of the pendulums.
A, and A, are the pendulums, mM, and
M, their mirrors inclined at angles of
45° to the common axis of the pendu-
lums and at right angles to one
another. The light passes through the
: slit, s, and after double reflection by
it : the mirrors, and refraction by the lens,
SS ee a ee ee B, forms two images at c, andc,. If
nicki. there be any change of level or of
the vertical in a direction inclined to the common axis of the pendulums,
both are equally deflected towards the same side of the axis. The angle
between the mirrors alters by double this deflection, and the distance
between the images C, and ¢, is four times as great as would be produced
by the employment of a single pendulum and fixed mirror. This greater
accuracy of registration would be of great advantage in investigations on
small movements such as are produced by the influence of the moon.
List of Memoirs by Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz.—The following is a
list of memoirs published by Dr. von Rebeur-Paschwitz on the horizontal
pendulum, and the results so far obtained with it :—
Ay
1, ‘Ueber das Zollner’sche Horizontalpendel und neue Versuche mit
demselben,’ ‘ Verh. des naturw. Ver. zu Karlsruhe,’ Bd. x., 1887.
2. ‘Ueber einen Versuch, die Veriinderungen der Horizontalebene mit Hiilfe
ON EARTH TREMORS. 309
eines Zéllner’schen Horizontalpendels photographisch zu registriren.’
* Astr. Nach.,’ Bd. 118, 1887, col. 9-16.
3. ‘Ueber die Anwendung des Horizontalpendels zur Untersuchung der
Bewegung des Erdbodens.’ ‘ Astr. Nach.,’ Bd. 120, 1888, col. 273-278.
4, ‘The Earthquake of Tokio, April 18, 1889, ‘Nature,’ vol. xl. 1889, pp.
294-295.
5. ‘Resultate aus Beobachtungen am Horizontalpendel zur Untersuchung
der relativen Variationen der Lothlinie,’ ‘ Astr. Nach.,’ Bd. 126, 1890,
col. 1-18.
6. ‘Wellenbewegung des Erdbodens in Puerto Orotava,’ ‘Naturwissen-
schaftliche Wochenschrift’ (Berlin), Bd. vi. 1891, pp. 123-124.
7. ‘Ueber Horizontalpendel-Beobachtungen in Wilhelmshaven, Potsdam
und Puerto Orotava auf Teneriffa, ‘ Astr. Nach.,’ Bd. 130, 1892, col.
193-216.
8. ‘Das Horizontalpendel und seine Anwendung zur Beobachtung der abso-
luten und relativen Richtungs-Aenderungen der Lothlinie,’ ‘ Nova Acta
der ksl. Leop. Carol. Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher,’ Bd. lx.
1892, pp. 1-216.
. ‘Neue Beobachtung mit dem Horizontalpendel, nebst Untersuchungen
iiber die scheinbare tiigliche Oscillation der Lothlinie,’ ‘ Astr. Nach.,’
Bd. 132, 1892, col. 33-58.
10. ‘ Beobachtung kleiner Erderschiitterungen am selbstregistrirenden Hori-
zontalpendel auf den Sternwarten zu Strassburg und Nicolaiew,’‘ Astr.
Nach.,’ Bd. 132, 1892, col. 113-118.
11. ‘ Berichtigung zu dem Aufsatz : neue Beobachtungen mit dem Horizontal-
pendel,’ ‘ Astr. Nach.,’ Bd. 132, 1893, col. 143-144.
12. ‘Ueber die Méglichkeit, die Existenz von Mondgliedern in der schein-
baren tiglichen Oscillation der Lothlinie nachzuweisen,’ ‘ Astr. Nach.,’
Bd. 133, 1893, col. 1-23.
13. ‘Ueber eine muthmassliche Fernwirkung des japanischen Erdbebens
von Kumamato, 28 Juli 1889,’ ‘ Astr. Nach.,’ Bd. 133, 1893, col. 97-100.
14, ‘ Ueber eine merkwiirdige Fehlerquelle astronomischer Beobachtung,’
‘Astr. Nach.,’ Bd. 133, 1893, col. 137-144.
15, ‘Ueber die Aufzeichnung der Fernewirkungen von Erdbeben,’ ‘ Peter-
mann’s Geographische Mittheilungen,’ 1893, Heft 9, pp. 201-212.
i=)
APPENDIX.
Account of Observations made with the Horizontal Pendulum.
By Dr. E. von Reseur-PascHwitz.
In reply to the invitation of the Committee to furnish an account
of the results obtained by myself with the horizontal pendulum, I have
the pleasure of submitting the following outlines.
In 1887, during some preliminary experiments with a rather roughly
constructed instrument at Karlsruhe, I noticed that the motions of a
horizontal pendulum placed in the E. W. plane in one of the cellars of the
‘Technische Hochschule were sufficiently regular to permit the applica-
tion of continuous photographic registration. "With few exceptions, the
pendulum, though entirely at liberty to swing, when observed through a
telescope from a distance of 44m. always appeared to be at rest. When
this was not the case, the oscillations performed were generally very
small, and so regular that it was easy to observe the elongations, and thus
obtain a very accurate value of the mean position of the pendulum. The
vibrations of the ground caused by traffic, which were sometimes very
noticeable owing to the situation of the cellar next to one of the greatest
thoroughfares of the town, never appeared to have any other effect than
310 REPORT—1893.
to produce a slight vertical swing of the mirror attached to the end of the
pendulum. The position of equilibrium received no alteration whatever.
After having placed the pendulum in the plane of the meridian, a
successful attempt was made to photograph its movements, the instru-
mental arrangement being very similar to that which is generally
employed in registering the variations of the magnetic elements.
During the above observations, which only extended over a short
interval of time, a daily oscillation was the most important part of the
motions of the pendulum. I therefore employed the name of ‘ zero-
point’ for the mean position of the day, not expecting that at other
places the irregular movements of the zero-point would far exceed those
due to the daily period. The application of the word ‘ zero-point’ may thus
not appear very appropriate. I have, however, retained it during all the
farther investigations in order to avoid confusion, and because the
character of the changes of the zero-point would not be better represented
if one were to speak of ‘irregular’ or ‘secular’ changes.
In 1888 a grant from the Prussian Academy of Sciences allowed me
to undertake observations on a more extended scale. Two horizontal
pendulums, which have heen in use up to the present time, were carefully
constructed by Messrs. Repsold, of Hamburg, whilst the necessary photo-
graphic apparatus was furnished by Mr. Wanschaff, of Berlin. In. 1891
both instruments received small alterations, reference to which will be
made later on.
Observations at Potsdam and Wilhelmshaven.—In November 1888 a
column was erected in a circular cellar situated below the east tower
of the Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam. One of the pendulums
was placed in it with its plane in the meridian, and was at first observed
by the aid of a telescope from a distance of 4°7m. Different degrees of
sensitiveness were given to the instrament in order to study the regularity
of the motions, It was found during these trials that the period of
oscillation of the pendulum is very dependent on the magnitude of the
amplitude, even when the latter is quite within the limits which in an
ordinary pendulum ensure the isochronism of the oscillations. Later experi-
ments at Strassburg, which Professor Becker was kind enough to make
for me by using a chronograph, showed that the formula
T=T)+C a,
in which C is a constant, represents the observed values of T in a
satisfactory way. The correction Ca is rather large when the period of
oscillation is great, and has to be taken account of if one wishes to
obtain an accurate value of To, which is the constant required for
reducing the observations. As it is impossible to make good observa-
tions of T when a is very small, a ought always to be observed at the
same time in order to be able to compute C and T).
Further experiments were made to try the effect of weights deposited
in the neighbourhood of the column. Its foundation was about 90 cm.
below the floor of the cellar, and a ditch was left free round it. Notwith-
standing these precautions, a considerable tilting of the column of about
07 was caused, when a weight of 100 kilogrammes was moved from one
side of the ditch to the other. This tilting did not take place suddenly,
but required a considerable time, just as the soil did to recover its former
state after the pressure had been removed.
When a person walked slowly round the space contained between the
ON EARTH TREMORS. 311
double circular wall of the cellar, which is a circle of about 6 m. diameter,
the corresponding motion of the pendulum was still distinctly visible.
This effect of pressure formed a simple means of setting the pendulum
swinging, when it was necessary to determine the period of oscillation.
It follows from these observations that the neighbourhood of the
column carrying a horizontal pendulum ought to be guarded against
receiving any additional weights during the course of observations.
On the other hand, it was observed that the turning of the dome
which covers the east tower of the observatory had no disturbing
influence on the horizontal position of the pendulum, though the vibra-
tions of the soil could be distinctly felt by the observer.
An experiment was also made to mitigate certain effects of micro-
seismic movements. In the first days of February 1889 a strong gale
was blowing, and the pendulum was found to be in a very disturbed state.
When trying to photograph the curve a broad and very irregular band
was obtained, which showed that the pendulum was not only constantly
swinging, but that it was subject to certain small changes of the vertical.
A point was fixed to the free end of the pendulum pointing downward
into a dish containing a mixture of water and glycerine. Although the
point only just touched the liquid, the pendulum was now unable to
swing, but the slow motions of its plane of equilibrium took place as
before. Photographs were taken for about a fortnight, and a very
remarkable case of earth pulsations, to which I will refer later, was
observed during this period. But, unfortunately, I was obliged to
abolish the glycerine, because it was evident that the position of the
pendulum was influenced by certain molecular effects.
After these preliminary experiments, observations were taken between
April 1 and June 6, and again from June 18 until the end of September
1889. The column and pendulum were protected by a strong wooden
box nailed with tinfoil, which also covered the ditch and only contained a
small window, through which the light passed, and through which it was
possible to get at the foot-screws of the pendulum. The photographic
apparatus and lamp stood in a passage connecting the cellar with another
one lying to the north of the former, and were separated by a door, which
was also nailed with tinfoil and had two slits for the light to pass. This
door was only opened when it became necessary to bring the light point
back to the middle of the drum. On such occasions a thermometer
hanging near the column was read, and the same was done in the adjoin-
ing passage every other day when the paper was changed. During the
summer the temperature of the passage in which the lamp was burning
constantly was generally 1° or 2° C. higher than that of the cellar. The
door connecting the passage with the cellar to the north of it was only
opened twice every day, when the lamps or the paper had to be changed.
At Wilhelmshaven the horizontal pendulum stood in a cellar of the
Imperial Naval Observatory, whilst the rest of the apparatus was placed
in an adjoining cellar lying to the south of the first. Openings were
made in the wall to let the light pass. All arrangements were very similar
to those described for Potsdam. Professor Boergen, the director of the
observatory, and his former assistant, Dr. Eschenhagen, very kindly
undertook to do all the work connected with the observations, and these
were carried on from March 7 until October 5. Amongst the several
difficulties which at first presented themselves, and caused several inter-
ruptions of the observations, the most serious arose from the excessive
312 REPORT—1893.
moisture of the air in these cellars. The slightest difference of tempera-
ture was sufficient to produce dew on the glasses, and for a long time
during the months of May and June, when the temperature of the air
was rising quickly, observations became quite impossible.
Observations at Puerto Orotava, Teneriffe—The third station where I
was able to try the horizontal pendulum was at Puerto Orotava, on the
island of Teneriffe. The Spanish houses in this country do not have any
underground cellars, but through the kindness of an English lady, Mrs.
C. Smith, the widow of a well-known resident of the Canary Islands,
a small chemical laboratory on her grounds, which had been empty
for many years, was placed at my disposal. The estate bears the name
‘ Sitio del Pardo,’ and is well known to all English visitors of the place,
many of whom may have noticed the little laboratory, because it is
covered with a most beautiful specimen of a white creeping rose. The
Sitio occupies the eastern flanks of an old lava stream, which runs from
the Montafieta de la Horeca to the north towards the sea, and forms a
platform akove the Puerto on which a large hotel is now built.
The nature of the volcanic soil did not allow a similar foundation for
the instrument as was offered by the cellars at Potsdam and Wilhelms-
haven. Instead of making a hole into the ground I preferred to erect it
on the cemented floor of the little laboratory, which is on the same level
with the outer grounds, with the exception of the east side, where the
ground is higher.
The little building, the direction of which very nearly agrees with the
magnetic meridian, is divided into two rooms, of which the one to the
south was used to place the horizontal pendulum, whilst the one to the
north was reserved for the photographic apparatus. A door leading from
the former into the garden was closed by masonry work, and another
one connecting the two rooms received only the necessary openings for
the light to pass. Thus the pendulum was guarded as much as possible
against all disturbances. Observations were begun on December 26, 1890,
and continued without any interruption until April 27. Mauch trouble
arose from the bad quality of the petroleum. The lamps, which had
burned fourteen hours and more at the first two stations, had to be con-
stantly watched, and many hours of observation were lost. This, however,
was of no importance for the final reduction of the observations, because
the extreme regularity of the motions of the pendulum at this station
always permitted the gaps to be filled up by interpolation.
The following paper, ‘Das Horizontalpendel und seine Anwendung
zur Beobachtung der absoluten und relativen Richtungsinderungen der
Lothlinie,’! contains all the readings taken from the photographic curves
by the aid of a glass scale.
RESUtrtSs.
A preliminary study of the first two sets of observations shows that
the investigation might be divided as follows: I. The influence of the
moon ; II. The daily oscillation and its changes; IIJ. The motion of the
zero-point ; IV. Seismological phenomena and others of a more incidental
character.
T. The Influence of the Moon.—Since Professor G. H. Darwin and his
brother, Mr. Horace Darwin, made their well-known experiments at the
1 Nova Acta der hais. Leop. Carol. Acad, 1x. Nr. 1.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 313
Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge, no observer is likely to expect much
from a short series of observations, however complete it may be, for the
demonstration of gravitational or tidal effects of the moon. Holding this
view, I was much surprised to find, when first inspecting the photographs,
that in the curves obtained at Wilhelmshaven a lunar wave was distinctly
visible, which produced a decided change in the general aspect of the
curves in different phases of the moon. This led me to make a careful
reduction, with the object of finding a lunar wave in all the three sets of
observations. The final results of this investigation I have lately pub-
lished in No. 3169 of the ‘ Astronomische Nachrichten.’ But as it re-
quired a good deal of calculation before the conclusions there given were
arrived at, it may be useful to say a few words about the way in which
the influence of the moon has been determined.
We owe to Professor Darwin the evaluation of the principal effects
the moon may produce on the solid earth, apart from the well-known
deflections of the plumb-line due to the tidal forces of the moon. All
these different indirect and direct lunar influences form a complex pheno-
menon, the general forms of which have to be ascertained before one may
try to analyse it. ‘The first object of our investigation, therefore, is to
find whether the observations require the assumption of a lunar wave,
what is its form and its position referred to the meridian passage of the
moon, and how the size of the wave varies with the declination of the
moon.
The problem is apparently identical with the problem of the ocean
tides, if, instead of the heights of the water, the ordinates of the curves
are introduced. The same method might therefore be employed which
was indicated by Professor Darwin and Professor Boergen for the reduc-
tion of the ocean tides. But there is this difference between tidal obser-
vations and observations of the plumb-line, that in the former the principal
changes in the height of the water are due to the attraction of the sun
and moon, the mean level remaining very nearly constant, whilst in the
latter the changes due to solar and lunar influence are extremely small
compared with the periodical changes which arise from thermal effects
and the very marked variations of the mean daily position of the plumb-
line. Thus the principal difficulty in reducing a set of observations with
the object of determining the lunar influence is to eliminate as much as
possible the zero-point and the daily period.
The following is a very simple method for eliminating the zero-
point, which I constantly employed in determining the mean daily oscil-
lation of a group of days. It gives very satisfactory results provided
that care be taken to exclude such days on which the motion of the zero-
point is too irregular to admit the assumption of a simple mathematical
formula.
If fo, fi, . - - fo3 is a series of twenty-four equidistant values, which in
the present case would represent the means of a number of single readings
of the curves, it is always possible, when the readings form an uninterrupted
series, to add to those twenty-four values the following six: f_3, fo,
tis - - - fos fos» fos, the meaning of which is clear from the suffixes
given. These thirty values may be represented with sufficient accuracy
by the following formula :—
: 23\?
janet (--B) +h (pS) on
314 REPORT—1893.
in which the first part contains the changes due to the variation of the
zero-point and P all periodical changes. The period being twenty-four
hours, we have
BE p= Posty
Thus, if we form the differences A,=f.,—/f_3, Ag=foo—f_o, - - . Ag
ee we get six equations, from which we obtain by the mune
of least squares
b= 5554 RENMEI A At A. \.
=snp\ —5A,—33,—A,+A,+3A,; +5A, r:
If the lunar wave be of any importance the harmonic elements of
the daily period as deduced from observations in different phases of the
moon will show certain regular changes. But as the daily period is in
itself very variable, and depends on the radiation of the sun at the place of
observation, these latter changes must be entirely eliminated before the
changes produced by the superposition of the lunar wave can be distinctly
recognised.
Judging from my own experiments, I believe that the variation of the
daily period, which is due to meteorological changes, forms the most serious
obstacle to this investigation. The gravitational deflections of the plumb-
line are large enough to be discovered by the horizontal pendulum But
it requires a very long set of observations to reduce the meteorological
effects sufficiently in the mean results to make the former visible.
In my investigation contained in No. 5169 of the ‘Astr. Nachr.’ I
have availed myself of the three sets of observations, containing 159,
161, and 128 days respectively, of twenty-four readings each.! For each
day the time of the upper meridian passage of the moon was taken from
the almanac, and groups were formed of those days for which C agrees
within one hour. Thus, each set of observations was divided into twenty-
four groups. If we distinguish these by the letters a, b, c, d,.. ., a, for
instance, contained all days with C between 0 hours 0 minutes and 1 hour
0 minutes; d, all days with C between 3 hours 0 minutes and 4 hours
0 minutes; ae soon. I then proceeded to form other groups by taking
the means 3 (a+b+c), 4 (b+c+d),...&c. This was done because the
number of days contained in each set of observations was too small to
eliminate in a satisfactory manner the irregularities of the curves.
The twenty-four sets of twenty-four mean hourly values each were
now treated as described above, the values of 3 and y were calculated, and
the necessary corrections applied, so as to obtain the purely periodical part
P,, of the observations. From the resulting numbers, the harmonic con-
stants a, b were computed, supposing the daily oscillation to be repre-
sented by the expression
a, cos t+, sint+ a, cos 2¢ + b, cos 2¢+ 4a, cos 3¢ + b, sin 3¢ + a, cos 4¢ + D, sin 4¢,
in which ¢ is either Greenwich mean time or local time. A deflection of
the plumb-line to the east of its normal position is considered as positive.
In deducing the constants a, b account had to be taken of the process of
1 The readings were taken for the beginning of each hour of Greenwich mean time
for the first two sets of observations, and of local time for the third set.
ON. EARTH TREMORS. 315
forming groups, certain enlarging factors being applied, as is done in the
reduction of tides.
When these results had been obtained it immediately appeared that
all the constants down to the smallest terms presented more or less con-
siderable periodic changes. The following table contains two examples,
one showing the coefficients of the first harmonic term for Potsdam !
(a, cost+b,sint), the second those of the second term for Wilhelms-
haven ? (a, cos 2t+ by sin 2¢).
Cc ay b, | ag be
H.
0-5 +103 +131°9 + 89:1 — 07
1165s — 31 +135°3 + 877 : +151
2°5 + 3:0 +149°9 + 797 +32°9
3:5 + 22 +1460 + 58°6 +347
4:5 +181 +141:2 + 509 +378
5:5 + 91 +136°2 + 31:2 +40°9
65 + 70 +137°5 + 24:7 +33°9
T5 +10°2 +1252 + 144 +155
8°5 + 94 +109°3 + 26°6 —13:0
9°5 + 54 + 103-6 + 401 lee,
10°5 + 71 +108:2 + 69:3 —27:1
11:5 + 19 +110°5 + 95:4 —25°5
12°5 +12°8 + 105:0 +108°3 + 5'6
135 — 19 + 98:0 +109°5 +39°3
14:5 + 52 + 99°3 +103°2 +53°7
155 — 99 +1020 + 91°8 +52'8
16:5 + 50 +108°1 aerial + 45°8
17°5 — 1:0 +1156 oo + 38°5
18:5 +11:4 +1261 + 19:9 +33°8
19°5 +14:0 +131°6 + 654 +10°7
20°5 + 24:0 +125°5 + 44:0 —16:2
21°5 +14:2 +1253 + 51:8 —38'9
22:5 + 66 +129°2 + 731 —32°4
23°5 + 6°6 + 130°0 + TTA4 —18:2
Each group from which these numbers were computed contained.
about twenty days. It is evident that these two periodical changes pre-
sent an entirely different character. In the first case a, and b, vary with
each other,? and the changes are proportional to the mean values of these
constants. Putting m, cos (M,—+?) in place of a, cost+b, sin#, there is
no considerable change in M,. In the second case the changes of a, and
b, are independent of each other, but of about the same range, and the
phase is subject to considerable fluctuations. It is immediately seen that
the variations in ay, b, are due to the superposition of a lunar wave, which
moves on as C changes, whilst the variations in a,, b, may be very nearly
represented by a periodical change of m, alone.
Similar observations may be made in comparing any of the twenty-four
lists of coefficients printed in the ‘ Astr. Nachr.’ There are several cases in
which the influence of a lunar term is easily recognised, and others in
which it is easy to see that both causes act together to produce periodical
changes.
When treating of the daily period it will be shown that the range of
} Expressed in units of 0/0020. 2 Expressed in units of 0’’-0028.
’ This is not quite so evident in the values of a; on account of their smallness.
and irregularity.
316 REPORT—1893.
motion is on an average very nearly proportional to either the quantity of
sunshine or the maximum oscillation of the temperature during the day.
Though one might expect that in a series of observations of more than
half a year’s length, grouped in such a regular way as here, meteorological
effects would be sufficiently eliminated, this is really not the case. In
comparing the meteorological data with the results mentioned above, it
was found that the first class of periodical changes can be explained to a
great extent by meteorological changes.
The best way to avoid these disturbing influences would be to place
the horizontal pendulum in the bottom of a mine, where the effects of
meteorological changes are reduced to a minimum whilst, as far as we
may judge, the lunar effects must remain the same as on the surface of
the earth.
Since every periodical change in the coefficients a, b can be considered
as the combined effect of changes of the first and second kind, it is im-
possible to decide in the cases of the two stations at Potsdam and Puerto
Orotava, where the effects of temperature appear to be especially strong,
which part is due to the first, and which to the second, cause. We must
content ourselves with the following result: The comparison of the ob-
served temperatures with the harmonic constants of the daily oscillation
shows that the former play an important part in producing periodical
variations in the latter. But, on the other hand, there is some evidence
of the existence of a small lunar wave in both places, amounting to 0/01,
or probably more. I do not hesitate to express the opinion that if it had
been possible to continue the observations through a longer interval of
time, and thus to eliminate the effects of temperature, a more positive
result would have been obtained.
In a former investigation,! in which I employed the usual method of
tide reduction without having regard to the motion of the zero-point and
the variation of the daily period, numerical values of a supposed semi-
diurnal wave caused by the moon have been computed. These values
agreed pretty well with the formula representing the ordinary gravita-
tional deflections of the plumb-line, for whilst we find the semi-diurnal
wave to be
+0/0142 cos (24—247°'5) and +0/-0128 cos (2t—228°°5)
for Potsdam and Puerto Orotava respectively, the formule of deflection
are :—
+0':0099 cos (2t—270°) and +0':0142 cos (2t—270°).
Until farther researches have been made, it seems advisable not to
place too much confidence in these numbers, though it is not impossible,
from the way in which they were computed, that they represent a near
approach to the real values.
Whilst we now see that the observations obtained at Potsdam and at
Orotava were insufficient to demonstrate the effects of the moon on the
plumb-line, the third series of observations at Wilhelmshaven, as might be
expected after the preliminary investigation mentioned above, led to a
positive result of some interest. It will be shown later on that at Wil-
helmshaven, though the range of the daily oscillation is extremely
variable, there does not exist such a clear relation between it and the
1 See Das Horizontalpendel, &c. pp. 87-104.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 317
meteorological phenomena as in the two former cases. In consequence
the effect of variability of the daily period is much better eliminated, and
it makes little difference if, in computing the lunar terms, one takes
account of it or not.
The following expression was deduced by a simple transformation
from the original values of a, b, after expressing each of the eight series
as an harmonic function of C. The form in which it is given is, of course,
entirely empirical. Thus the changes in the coefficients, which here
depend cn C, in reality probably depend on the declination of the moon.
All uncertain terms I have suppressed, and only retain those the exist-
ence of which is demanded by the observations.
9°5 (= 1:12)+4+41°9 (+ 2:43) cos (C—268°'7)
{ +20°8 (+ 2°25) cos (29-1641) cos (t{—C—121°'8) !
+245 (E 2:43) cos (80 —260°-4)
+ {45:0 (= 0°95) +10°5 (£1:97) cos (C—194°'8) } cos (24—-20—341°'3)
+ { 9:1 (= 0°50) +412:1 (+ 0°71) cos (20— 50°°9)} cos (44—40 —332°'0)
In comparing the above expression with the lunar term computed by the
first simpler method, which is
45:4 cos (2t—2C —345°-7),
it is seen that it contains a nearly identical term. Considering this alone,
we find that it represents a semi-diurnal deflection of the plumb-line, the
eastern excursion of which takes place on an average a little more than
half an hour before the meridian passage of the moon, or about 1} hour
before high water. The observatory lies on the west side of the Fahde-
busen, at a distance of about 200 m. from high-water mark, whilst the
station for tidal observations is a good deal more to the south, at the
entrance of the harbour. Accordingly the semi-diurnal term might be ex-
plained in a pretty satisfactory way by the pressure of the tides, which on
an average rise toa height of 35 m. at Wilhelmshaven. This would certainly
be a very strong effect of tidal depression compared with the theoretical
results obtained by Professor Darwin in his researches ; but as the soil is
of a marshy character, and apparently very elastic, such an effect would
not appear impossible.
The present results, however, seem to tell against such an explana-
tion ; for, if it were the tides that produce by their pressure the lunar
terms, a close connection between these and the form of the tides ought
to be established, which is not the case. In fact, the very large term of
the first order, which is perhaps the best determined of all, and which is
all the more remarkable, because, according to our computation, it changes
the sign, reminds one of the corresponding lunar tide, which, though
playing an important part in many places in the world, is comparatively
small on the coasts of Germany.
Tt seems advisable to postpone a discussion of the above facts until
farther observations undertaken at some suitable place shall have placed
them beyond doubt. Perhaps few places in the world would offer a better
‘ Expressed in units of 0''-0028. The numbers in brackets are approximate values
of the probable errors of the coefficients.
318 REPORT—1893.
chance for studying the effects of the tides than the Bristol Channel, with
its enormous variations of the water-level.
The following formula expresses, in the same unit as above, the ordi-
nary lunar deflection of the plumb-line ; and it will be remarked that the
latter is very small compared with the observed deflections :—
5:0 sin 26 cos ((—270°)+3°7 cos? 6 cos (2t—270°),
where 6 is the moon’s declination.
As it might be of interest to the reader to be able to judge for himself
how far the formula for Wilhelmshaven represents the observations, I
have appended the following table of the values of the coefficients a, 6,
and a4, by.1 a», by were given above, and the changes in a3, b3 are less
pronounced, this term being altogether the smallest. The unit is again
0/0028, and each pair of constants rests on about twenty days of
observations.
Cc ay by a bs
H.
05 + 292°8 + 203:0 + 40 + 64
1:5 + 298-2 +199°5 + 24 +175
2-5 +292:0 +1946 — 90 +184
3°5 +271°4 +198°0 —10°8 +156
45 + 249-0 + 202°4 —15'8 + 84
55 +272°6 +211°5 —1671 + 13
6°5 + 255°6 +2211 —14-2 + Ld
(a) +277°9 + 232°9 — 93 + 43
85 +261°7 +2401 — 82 + 55
9°5 + 270°2 +251°4 —101 — 07
10°5 + 261°5 + 249°3 —12°3 — 58
1a + 286°4 + 237°2 — 94 — $1
12°5 +2761 + 208°4 — 32 + 1:0
13°5 +2878 +192°8 — 08 + 98
14:5 + 285°2 +191:0 — 72 +146
15°5 +3150 +1881 —15:2 +132
16°5 +3116 +213°5 —17-2 + 81
17°5 +3248 + 233°5 —10°2 + 53
18°5 +307°7 + 252°2 — 71 + 2:4
19:5 +313°0 + 256°3 — 27 + 40
20°5 + 277°0 + 240°6 —11°4 + 72
21:5 +261°9 + 245':3 —173 + 5:8
22°5 + 260°7 + 232°3 —107 — 25
23°5 +261°7 + 222-7 + 1:0 + O7
Il. The Daily Oscillation and its Changes-—The most prominent feature
in the curves is a daily oscillation, which, from the agreement between the
observations taken at three different places under varied conditions, must
be considered as a phenomenon of a universal, and not of a local, cha-
racter.
If we take the means of all the observations the daily motion of the
horizontal pendulum, which, when it is placed in the meridian, repre-
sents the east-west component of the motion of an ordinary pendulum, is ~
described in the following table :-—
' These values refer to Greenwich mean time, whilst in the formula ¢ has been
redaced to local time.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 319
Place West Elongation Zero East Elongation Zero
He Fie ME H. M. ian: hy H. M.
Potsdam : , (—0'23) 8 30 a.m. 1 OPM. (+026) 5 0 PM. 1 0AM.
Wilhelmshaven . (-10) 5 OAM. 9 30 A.M. (+12) 3 0PM. 8 30 P.M.
Puerto Orotava . (—017) 7 30 A.M. 10 30 A.M. (+0°23) 4 0 P.M. 9 30 P.M.
The curves representing these daily changes bear a resemblance
to the curves of the daily changes of temperature and of magnetic decli-
nation. The ordinates for every two hours are as follows :—
Poets at eee Potsdam Wilhelmshaven Puerto Orotava
H. u " ”
0 —0:06 +0°82 +0:09
2 +013 +117 +0°21
4 + 0:25 +107 +023
6 +0:23 + 0°62 +015
8 +0:16 +014 + 0:06
10 +0:10 —0:24 — 0:02
12 + 0:02 —0°55 —0:07
14 — 0:06 —0°82 —O11
16 —0'12 —1:06 —014
18 —018 —1-01 —0:16
20 —0°24 — 0°42 —0:18
22 —0:21 +047 —0:09
As was pointed out before, the daily motion of the horizontal pendu-
lum is extremely variable, especially as far as the range of motion is
concerned. Whilst the epochs of elongation do not differ much from
the mean values within a small number of days, they appear to be subject
to an annual change. But owing to the observations being incomplete
the character of this annual variation is not sufficiently well-determined.
Thus, at Orotava, during four months of observations in winter, we find
that in the earlier part (December) the maximum deflections occur about
two hours later than towards the end (April). At Wilhelmshaven the
eastern elongation is earlier in spring and autumn than in midsummer,
whilst at Potsdam there is no very marked change.
The range of motion (a) was found to be much more variable, and it
was interesting to compare it with the maximum oscillation of tempera-
ture (@) during the day as well as with the observations on sunshine
(S) and clouds (Cl). The following mean results were obtained :—
PorspAM Purerto ORorTAvA
No. of No. of || No. of
a gl Cl? | Observa- a (?) Observa- a Ss. Observa-
tions tions tions
” ° " ° | " H.
0-14 57 91 10 0:10 5:4 5 011 2°3 3
0°30 fe 81 38 0:22 65 13 0°24 31 8
0°48 9-4 65 41 0°35 75 25 0°35 4:0 18
0-68 | 104 4:9 31 0°61 8:2 28 O51 71 22
O87) | 122 34 22 0°64 8:5 33. ||, «(064 T8 30
1:09 | 14:0 15 10 0-76 9:4 14 || O76 8-9 12
0°88 9°6 4 || 0-88 97 4
} 1
? Celsius (Centigrade). 2 Clear sky =0, clouded sky =10.
320 REPORT—1893.
WILHELMSHAVEN
No. of 8 No. of
Z @ Observations “2 Observations
” ° 7 ie}
1:66 15 4 2°25 (C3 22
1°72 2:2 2 2°39 8-4 13
1:90 3-4 4 2°81 9°5 6
2°34 4:5 19 2°95 10°3 8
2:06 54 24 2°73 TTS 4
2-31 6°5 28
We see from these numbers that at Potsdam as well as Orotava the
average range of daily motion agrees mostremarkably with those meteoro-
logical elements which we may consider as a measure of the intensity of
solar radiation. But I must not omit to remark that the single days do
not show this coincidence equally well. For cloudy days occur with a
large range of oscillation, and clear days with a small range.
At Wilhelmshaven, though we find that a similar relation is indicated,
it is not so well marked. If we neglect the first three and the last three
lines in the above table, which rest on a small number of days only, the
range of motion appears to be very nearly constant. It is this cireumstance
which allowed the lunar wave to be determined with much more accu-
racy than in either of the two other cases.
The above results make it evident that the daily oscillation is toa
great extent due to thermal effects of the sun. Probably there are other
causes acting besides, but temperature and radiation are certainly the
principal agents. Owing to this fact it would be quite useless to try and
study the tidal effects of the sun.
How this thermal effect takes place remains as yet an open ques-
tion. It seems quite impossible to connect the observed oscillation
with purely local influences, such as we constantly observe in our
astronomical observatories. It would certainly be a most extraordinary
chance if the radiation of the sun should produce such similar effects
on the foundations in three places, so entirely different from each
other respecting all conditions. I may mention besides that a few
observations made at Karlsruhe in 1887 and recent observations by
Professor Kortazzi at Nicolaiew show the general character of the
curve to be the same in those two places as we have found it. Until
further researches have been made, we may therefore consider the
daily oscillation of the plumb-line as a general phenomenon all over
the surface of the earth, and consequently it would afford great in-
terest to study it at a number of places equally distributed over it
and with as varied conditions as possible.
The question naturally arises whether these motions which we must
consider as motions of the soil are still noticeable at a certain depth
below the surface. We ought not to expect this, according to what
has just been said; but, on the other hand, the law of continuity makes
it difficult to understand how they should disappear quite near the sur-
face, at a depth down to which the daily change of temperature pene-
trates, when they are still so noticeable in such a place as the cellar of
the Potsdam Observatory.
Ihave had no chance until now of trying this interesting experi-
ON EARTH TREMORS. 321
ment. But, during the observations at Wilhelmshaven, Professor
Boergen at my request had readings taken twice a day of the level of the
meridian circle to see if the daily oscillation could be noticed there as
well. The result of one mdnth’s observations was that there was no
appreciable difference.
The pier of the meridian circle rises from a mass of sand, which
forms the subsoil of the marshy ground round Wilhelmshaven, down to
a depth of more than 250 m. The walls of the observatory as well as the
column of the pendulum have their foundation in a layer of clay of
2m. or3 m. thickness, which is divided from the sand by a layer of
turf-like material, about 1 m. thick. Perhaps, if one does not prefer to
attach no importance to the indications of the water level when treating
of so small angular quantities, we may conclude from the above result
that only the upper layer of clay, which presses on the elastic turf, par-
takes of the oscillation.
Tl. The Motion of the Zero-point.—Next to the daily oscillation a par-
ticular interest is attached to the motion of the zero-point, for by studying
it we may hope to learn something about the slow secular changes which
we know take place constantly all over the earth, though the number
of places is small where they are noticeable to the eye within a small in-
terval of time. For this purpose it is desirable to have an uninterrupted
series of observations, or at least, where interruptions are unavoidable,
as will probably always be the case with such a delicate instrument, to
determine by other means as well as possible the motion of the zero-point
during the interval.
I have pointed out before that the present observations, with the
exception of those made at Puerto Orotava, are incomplete in this
respect, for they were interrupted once in June, and at Wilhelmshaven
many days were missed in May. Notwithstanding, some results of
interest have been gathered. The daily oscillation having been deter-
mined, two numbers were interpolated from the readings for every day,
corresponding to the moments when the periodical deflection is equal to
zero, and curves were drawn and compared with the curves of tempera-
ture and barometric pressure.!
(1) At Wilhelmshaven a remarkably strong effect is produced by the
changes in the barometer. When the pressure increases the pendulum
moves towards the east, thus indicating a sinking of the soil in the same
direction, and a change of 1 mm. in the former corresponds witha change
of 0-29 in the direction of the plumb-line. Apparently both changes
take place simultaneously, or, if the changes in the position of the pen-
dulum lag behind those of barometric pressure, the difference must be
very small.
Thas, the horizontal pendulum in this particular case acts as a most
delicate barometer, and might be used as such if it were not subject to
other influences. As the atmospheric pressure presents a daily oscilla-
tion, it is necessary in discussing the daily period of the plumb-line to
take the former into account.
(2) The correspondence between the pendulum and the barometer is
most pronounced when the mean temperature remains pretty constant
during a number of days, but with sudden changes of temperature the
effect of the latter is seen to prevail over the former. From all the
‘ See the reproduction of a part of these curves in my paper, Das Horizontal-
pendel, &c.
1893. Y
322 REPORT—1893.
observations, it was concluded by a careful investigation that at Wilhelms-
haven a rise of temperature of only 1° C. produces exactly the double
effect. which is caused by an increase of barometric pressure of 1 mm.,
viz., a motion of 0/"58 towards the east.
Thus it is seen that, when these two meteorological agents happen by
chance to actin the same sense, very considerable deflections of the
plumb-line are produced at Wilhelmsbaven, which, in case they should not
be limited to the upper layers of the ground, would not escape detec-
tion at an astronomical observatory where regular observations are
taken.
(3) A similar investigation led to the following results for Potsdam.
Barometric pressure appears to have no effect whatever on the position
of the pendulum at this place. But a rise of temperature of 1° OC. pro-
duces a deflection of 0/16 towards the east. This latter constant is
again determined with considerable accuracy, the result of thirty-eight
days in April and May being 0/18, whilst fifty-seven days of the later
period give the value 0/’:15.
(4) At Puerto Orotava the meteorological effects are small, but they
present a particular interest. They are not so easily noticed as in the two
former cases, where to see them it is sufficient to look at the diagrams.
Nevertheless they exist, and the following values could be deduced by
properly grouping the observations. A change of +1 mm. in barometric
pressure causes a deflection of 0/’-0309 of the plumb-line to the west, and
a change of +1° C. in temperature a deflection of 0’-0362 to the east.
The effect of barometric pressure is especially interesting, because,
from the description of the locality given above, it may be gathered that
it could be accounted for by the counteraction of volcanic forces, which
undoubtedly are still active inside the Pico de Teyde. If it is allowable
to draw any conclusions from the intervals of time in which during the
latest centuries volcanic action has shown itself on the outskirts of this
famous mountain, the time would now have arrived when the inhabitants
might be prepared to see another of those outbursts. It is not improbable
that, before an eruption takes place, the whole mass might show an
inclination to yield to variations of external pressure. And this is really
the case, for Puerto Orotava is situated on the N.N.E. flank of the cone, at
a distance of about 18 kilometres; thus, when the external pressure
diminishes, the slope of the mountain is increased, and a horizontal
pendulum placed as it was at Orotava ought to move towards the east.
(5) It is interesting to compare the effects of temperature, which we
have now found to exist, with each other as well as with the daily oscil-
lation. If we divide the mean values of the latter by the mean corre-
sponding values of the maximum oscillation of temperature, we obtain the
following table, which corresponds throughout with a change of 1° C.:—
ee eee Pee
Zero-point Daily Oscillation
” i ”
Wilhelmshaven . : . ; 0:58 0:36
Potsdam . . * = 4 0:16 0:06
Orotava . ‘ : - i 0:036 0:06
ie ee ee eee
Thus it is evident that, if it is the same cause which produces the
motion of the zero-point and the daily oscillation, this cause acts in a
different way and not in the same intensity everywhere. It is necessary
ON EARTH TREMORS. 323
to add that in the present investigation no account has been taken of a
purely local effect of temperature which is caused by a difference in the
length of the two foot-screws east and west of the pendulum. If they
are not equally long, a change of temperature will produce a small tilt of
the instrument. This, however, would only be noticeable in the motion
of the zero-point, for the daily change of temperature in the cellars was
practically zero. But also in the former it would only account for a small
motion, such as, for instance, was found for Orotava. Considering the
dimensions of the instruments, I find that a difference of temperature of
1° C. produces a tilt of 00164 multiplied by the difference in the length
of the screws expressed in millimetres. The surface of the column
which carries the pendulum ought therefore to be made as nearly hori-
zontal as possible, supposing the instrument to possess an entirely sym-
metrical form.
(6) Besides those changes which we have until now considered, and
which by the nature of their causes can never surpass certain limits, the
zero-point is subject to others of particular interest, which are probably
due to geological causes, viz., the slow folding of the earth’s crust. By
the aid of the diagrams drawn I have tried to fill out the gaps in the
observations, and to construct curves which represent approximately the
motion of the zero-point, corrected for temperature and barometric pres-
sure, during the whole period of observation. Starting from an arbitrary
zero, I have obtained the following values, in which an increase indicates
a motion towards the east, corresponding to a tilt in the same direction :—
Potsdam Wilhelmshaven Puerto Orotava
” uw ”"
1889 April 1 21:0 1889 March 7 5°5 1890 Dec. 26 5:3
» 15 13:0 eo 1891 Jan. 14 1-1
May 1 68 5 0 26049 Feb. 1 07
» 9 54W.elong. April 6 4:1 » 13 0:3W.elong.
June 1 13°8 » 90 6:7 E.elong. March 1 1:0
» 15 166 E. elong. May 2017 April 1 19
July 1 14:2 » 30 15 Fryer (he
Aug. 1 86 June 28 1°5
Sept. 1 7:0 July 30 2:9
Oct. 1 26 Aug. 14 8-5 H.elong.
» 25 5:0
Sept. 25 8:2
In computing the values for Wilhelmshaven I supposed that during the
month of June there was no considerable alteration in the position of the
zero-point as it is indicated by the form of the diagrams before and after
the interruption. The observations at Orotava are complete, whilst at
Potsdam the interruption is so short that the given values may be con-
sidered as very nearly accurate.
Thus we find that the pendulum showed the greatest motion at Pots-
dam, where its installation was certainly the most favourable of all.
Observations there were commenced about five months after the column
was completed. During the whole of April and the first part of May the
column inclined towards the west; it then turned and a tilt of 11/2
towards the east began, which lasted until the middle of June, when again
it inclined towards the west, moving through an angle of 14’ until the
end of the observations.
x 2
324 REPORT—1893.
At Wilhelmshaven, where from other reasons one might have expected
a larger motion, the latter is really comparatively small. Two very dis-
tinct waves present themselves in the diagrams, both causing maximum
excursions to the east on April 30 and on August 14. But on the average
the mean position of the pendulum remained pretty constant. This fact
is of some importance, considering that the column at Wilhelmshaven
had also been constructed five months before the commencement of the
observations, and that the heavy moisture of the cellar would in that case
certainly retard the process of drying. Thus it is not likely that the
strong motion which took place at Potsdam during the first month ought
to be ascribed to this cause.
This conclusion would, however, not be justified in the third case, for
when observing at Puerto Orotava circumstances did not permit me to
lose so much time. If the considerable inclination of the column towards
the west during the first month be ascribed to the drying process, the
general motion of the zero-point is of a very simple form, and may be
explained by a slow tilt towards the east.
It is only natural to suppose that all modern geological changes in the
island of Teneriffe emanate from the Peak as a centre. If thisis true, the
observed tilt might be the consequence of a slow elevation of the island,
which would gradually increase the slope of the lower parts of the
mountain, and would find an end when the internal forces should again
succeed in breaking themselves a way through one of the weaker parts of
its flanks.
When considering the interest which is attached to the Canary Islands
and the Pico de Teyde, especially in the history of volcanic theories, the
foregoing remarks, though only founded on a short series of observations,
will suffice to indicate the service which might be rendered to geological
science by observing two horizontal pendulums during a sufficiently long
interval of time on opposite sides of the mountain cone. Places like
Icod de los Vinos, on the north side of the island, and Guimar, on the
south side, are probably to be recommended most, for not only do they offer
the comfort which is desirable for a longer sojourn, but the surrounding
country is so full of interest as to form a most magnificent object for
scientific study of the most varied kind.
IV. Seismological Phenomena and Others.—Some time before writing
this account I drew up a paper containing all observations on seismo-
logical phenomena obtained by myself, and lately by Professor Kortazzi at
Nicolaiew, up to May 1893. This paper is not yet printed, but will soon
be published in ‘ Petermann’s Mittheilungen.’! As it is impossible to enter
much into details here, I must refer the reader to this paper. Respecting
the phenomena of earth pulsations and other remarkable movements of
the earth’s surface I am in a similar position, for another paper on these,
which is illustrated by figures representing some of the most curious
portions of the photographs, is about to be published in the ‘ Astronomische
Nachrichten.’2 In order to avoid repetition I shall in the following re-
marks include all that may as yet be said about the later observations at
Strassburg, as far as it refers to the object of this section. q
The horizontal pendulum, besides constantly indicating the position
of the plumb-linein relation to the surrounding objects on the earth’s sur-
face, affords an excellent means of controlling the momentary state of the
1 See list of papers, p. 309, No. 15. 2 See list of papers, No. 14.
ON EARTH TREMORS. 325
soil. This, like the surface of a lake, is sometimes at rest, and at other
times subject to undulations and vibrations, which have received the
general name of mivroseismic movements. The horizontal pendulum in
its present form offers the same difficulty which is often felt by earth-
quake observers, viz., that it is often impossible to say whether the dis-
turbances visible on the curves have been produced by vibrations setting
the pendulum swinging, or by a repeated tilting. ‘The latter, when it
takes place slowly, and when the period of the tilt does not coincide with
that of the pendulum, would only produce deflections ; but as all micro-
seismic movement appears to be very complicated and variable, probably
deflections and swinging of the pendulum generally act together. Thus
we may explain the great variety of figures which are seen on the photo-
graphs and sometimes extend over several hours, thereby indicating that
earthquake motion, when it travels over large distances, spreads out more
and more on account of the difference in the rate of propagation. It is
well to remember hereby that in a few cases in which the effect of distant
earthquakes was observed by astronomers, when they were occupied with
the levels of their instruments, the motion was nearly always seen to be
of an undulatory character, whilst at the centre of an earthquake vibratory
horizontal motion generally prevails.
(1) Observations of Earthquakes——The comparison of the curves ob-
tained simultaneously first at Potsdam and Wilhelmshaven, and later at
Strassburg and Nicolaiew, has shown that a very large percentage of the
observed disturbances was common to both places. In fact, it is a com-
paratively rare occurrence that when an earthquake figure, however
small, appears on one of the photographs, it is not equally visible on the
other. It often happens that the curves are not sufficiently distinct,
owing to variations in the intensity and figure of the light-point and
faults in the paper, or when a general microseismic movement is more
pronounced at one of the stations than at the other. In such cases
small disturbances may at first escape detection, put are often found
_ when notice is given from the other station.
The difference of time is well marked in many cases during the
observations in 1892-93, whilst in 1889 the distance was too small, con-
sidering the uncertainty connected with the readings. The distance
between Strassburg and Nicolaiew is nearly 2,000 kilometres, and yet
many of the observed disturbances appear to have lost none of their
intensity in passing over this distance. We are thus quite justified in
expecting that strong earthquakes will be observed by the horizontal
pendulum, wherever their centre may be on the earth. Of course it is
quite possible that the conditions for propagation are more favourable in
certain places than in others, and that, for instance, earth-waves travel
more easily across continents than when they have to pass over broad
oceanic tracts.
The publication of the entire list of nearly 200 disturbances will, I
hope, lead to establish a greater number of relations between some of
these and observed earthquakes than I have yet been able to find.
Nevertheless, amongst the latter there are some cases of great interest,
of which I mention the following: the Japanese earthquakes of Tokio,
April 17, 1889, and of Kumamoto, July 28, 1889; the earthquakes of
Wjernoje (Central Asia), July 12, 1889, and of Patras in Greece,
August 25, 1889; the earthquake of San Francisco, April 19, 1892;
several of the Zante earthquakes, and the great Levant earthquake
which took place in the town of Malatia on February 9, 1893.
326 REPORT—1893.
As it is impossible here to describe all these cases in detail I refer
to the above paper; only this may be mentioned, that in the case of the
great earthquake of Kumamoto two disturbances were observed, which
exactly agree with the supposition that the earthquake-wave travelled
round both sides of the globe with a velocity of 2:3 kilometres per
second.
The time of a shock as obtained by this method is always rather un-
certain for two reasons. The first is that, owing to the slow rate of the
motion of the paper, which was 11 mm. per hour, the readings may be
2 or 3 minutes in error; the second, that a shock very rarely begins
suddenly, but is generally preceded by smaller movements of the ground,
which make it impossible to decide which is the beginning of the earth-
quake. In such cases, however, I have sometimes found the figures of
a disturbance to show remarkable coincidences. Thus, by comparing
the moments of sudden increase of motion at the two stations, which
occur in nearly every earthquake, several determinations of the difference
of time may be obtained, the mean of which is affected by a smaller
probable error than a single determination.
The velocities of propagation obtained from the above-mentioned
observations vary between 2 and 5 kilometres per second, which, how-
ever uncertain the single values may be, confirms the view that it is
impossible to speak of a constant of velocity in the distant propagation otf
earthquakes.
If the first observations with the horizontal pendulum leave much to
be desired with respect to their application to the study of earthquakes,
they certainly show what might be done if only a small number of
stations, well distributed all over the earth, were organised. It would
be a great satisfaction to the writer if this account should help to excite
an interest for the establishment of at least one such station in the far
West, say in the western part of the United States or Canada, and
another in the far East, in Japan, or rather in some other country
which is less subject to the effects of local earthquakes. We may safely
predict that the comparison of horizontal pendulum curves obtained at
two such stations, with those at an intermediate European station, would
lead to most interesting results, not only from a seismological point of
view, but also with respect to the determination of the modulus of
elasticity of the upper strata of the earth. If, with this special object in
view, one should not lay any value on observing at the same time the
deflections of the plumb-line, the horizontal pendulum might be much
simplified, and perhaps an improved form of Milne’s ‘tromometer’ or
conical pendulum, when furnished with sufficiently fine corrections,
would be the cheapest and simplest instrument. The rate of the paper
ought to be much increased, and this could be done without raising the
expense, for it would not be necessary to employ a very high degree of
sensitiveness, the deflections of the pendulum would thus be reduced, and
a narrow strip of paper would be sufficient where a broad sheet is now
required.
(2) Harth Pulsations——Karth pulsations, consisting of long, flat
waves, somewhat like the swell of the ocean, were for the first time
observed by myself at Potsdam on February 11, 1889. Owing to the
application of glycerine, as described above, the pendulum could not
swing, and a sharp black line was drawn by the light-point. The instru-
ment had been adjusted in the afternoon, but in consequence of some
ON EARTH TREMORS. 327
after-effect the light-point was slowly travelling across the paper. At
7 P.M. waves begin to be visible, which are beautifully distinct between
8.44 and 16.40. The mean period of a wave is about 9 minutes, and
the average range is 0’’"1. The motion disappears gradually, and the
curve soon reassumes its ordinary appearance as a dark line of uniform
breadth.
This is the only case in which earth pulsations were distinctly ob-
served during the experiments in 1889. ‘The curves at Wilhelmshaven
certainly present very large irregularities, and systems of waves of all
sorts of periods, from a few minutes up to nearly one hour, appear; but
all these disturbances bear a more irregular character. At Potsdam,
again, the light-point was rather large, and consequently a broad line was
drawn, and it may be that this was the reason why no trace of earth
pulsations was ever noticed again, for, when the waves are small, the
light-point must not be beyond a certain size in order that the waves
may be visible. 1 may mention, however, that the curves which I ob-
tained when the glycerine arrangement was still in use showed traces
of pulsations on many days. The borders of the black line have the
appearance of a zigzag, like the teeth of a saw, a tooth on one side
corresponding with an interval between two teeth on the other. Thus,
it is quite possible that, for the sake of representing such motions as
earth pulsations, it would be useful to damp the swing of the pendulum
in order to avoid the effect of other microseismic movements, which cause
the pendulum to oscillate, and thereby help to increase the breadth of
the curves.
On January 5, 1890, earth pulsations first appeared on a photograph
taken at Orotava. The period of the waves is much smaller than in the
case described above, and they are so close together that it requires a
magnifying glass to distinguish and to count them. Beginning at
6.37 a.m., 103 half-oscillations are distinctly seen, which are extremely
regular as far as the period is concerned, which is 45 seconds, or 14
minute for a complete oscillation. The range of motion is variable, and
it is easily recognised that several systems of waves are superimposed on
each other. The total range of motion is about 0/15 on an average.
Afterwards the waves are less distinct; larger deflections iaterfere and
destroy the regularity.
Soon after this observation 1 heard of some curious phenomena that
had been ebserved at Madeira. The sea had risen and fallen at short
intervals on the south coast, whilst on the Desertas Islands large land-
slips had occurred which caused the breakage of a cable in the neighbour-
hood. When examining more closely the times of observation, I found
that there was certainly no direct connection between these phenomena
and the disturbance observed at Orotava on January 5.
Later on it appeared that the latter was not at all extraordinary, for
on many days similar disturbances were observed, always at the same
time of the day, viz., the time in which the pendulum is in its western
elongation. On many days it was possible to count a few waves, but
with one exception they were too close together to allow such a detailed
investigation to be made as on January 5. This happened on April 7
when thirteen waves, with a period a little more than 7} minutes each,
appeared on the photograph, nearly as distinct as in the case observed
at Potsdam. It is interesting to note that, on the system of these
waves, which have a range of 0/07, other smaller waves are visible,
328 REPORT— 1893.
the period of which is nearly the same as the period of the waves on
January 5.
Amongst the fifty-two days which show traces of this curious pheno-
menon during the time between 5 a.m. and noon, there are several on
which it appears developed into a large disturbance of the character of
an earthquake, Whether this is a chance coincidence, and earthquake
waves really happened to pass over Teneriffe so often during the same
time of the day, is a question which, of course, cannot be answered with
certainty. But it is much more probable to suppose that it was only
the intensity of the motion, in which these days differed from others,
like January 5 and April 7. Thus, if I had possessed the means for ob-
serving real tilts, and not the swing of the pendulum on those days,
probably very large deflections would have been noted.
It is very interesting to find that this phenomenon bears such a
decidedly local character at Orotava, for it never occurs at other times of
the day than in the early morning and forenoon. It generally begins
at a time when there is yet no trace of wind in the lower parts of the
island, though this circumstance may not appear of much importance,
because from many comparisons made it is nearly certain that the wind
exercises no influence whatever over the pendulum. The idea naturally
presents itself that the causes which produce the daily oscillation might
also be the reason why a certain period of the day is especially favourable
to the formation of earth pulsations. If the daily period be the effect of
a general motion of the ground, its condition of stress might vary, thus
affording the internal forces a better chance of producing such an effect
during one part of the day than during the other.
I now turn to the description of some cases of earth pulsations lately
observed at Strassburg, but, as the observations are not yet finished,
I should like the following remarks to be considered as provisional only.
During the whole summer of 1892 photographs were taken, but never
did a trace of earth pulsations appear on them. The lines were not as
clear as I wished them to be, yet it was easily seen that in a general way
the pendulum was remarkably steady compared with what had been
noticed at the former stations. About the middle of October a slight
change was made in the lamp, which only produced a very insignificant
difference in the appearance of the curve.
On October 19 earth pulsations suddenly appeared, such as had never
been seen before. The appearance of the curve is as follows wanna and
is due to the imperfect figure of the light-point, which, instead of being
a small circle, has an oblong shape, with its axis a little inclined, thus
causing one branch of each wave to be more marked than the other.
This shows how important it is that the point of light should be as small
and as regular in shape as possible. During an interval of nearly ten
hours I counted about 200 successive waves, the duration of each being
nearly three minutes. At first the period of the waves was a little larger,
viz., 3 minutes 19 seconds, whilst towards the end it had gradually dimin-
ished to 2 minutes 43 seconds. The amplitude was a little less than ,),th
of a second, and remained constant throughout, thus giving the zigzag line
an extremely regular appearance.
A very similar and yet more remarkable series of earth pulsations was
observed on December 22, when more than 300 waves were counted within
a period a little shorter than on October 19. Besides these two cases many
others occurred when the number of waves was smaller. The mean
ON EARTH TREMORS. 329
period could always be accurately determined by counting the number of
the waves within the space of a few hours, and a period of a little less than
three minutes was found in most cases. But it is evident that this is not
a constant, for occasionally waves with longer periods are observed, and
again in some parts of the curve the borders show traces of waves of very
short period, like a fine fringe.
The size of these waves is always about the same as above, and they
present no such variations as in Puerto Orotava. They generally are
visible during several succeeding hours, but often, too, a portion of the
curve, which is as undisturbed as a straight line, is broken by a short
series of waves.
Towards the end of the winter these earth pulsations seem{to have
again entirely disappeared. No change of any kind was made in the
instrumental arrangements, and the curves are quite as distinct as before.
Perhaps a more careful inspection, which will be made when the observa-
tions have come to a close, will show traces where they have now been
overlooked ; but certainly nothing like the two cases mentioned above has
occurred during the last four or five months.
At Tokio Professor Milne has observed earth pulsations, which differ
from the above, because their period is only a few seconds. But in a
photograph which he has lately sent me I find a zigzag line of quite the
same form as described above; thus it is certain that waves of longer
period occur in Japan also.
The study of earth pulsations may prove to be of importance for
many branches of scientific research. For instance, they may explain
some curious discrepancies which are occasionally noticed in astrono-
-mical observations. If it should be found by future observations that
waves representing an angular value of a few tenths of a second are a
frequent occurrence, astronomers will be forced to take them into account,
and will no louger be able to rely on the present method of determining
the level in all delicate researches.
(3) Earth Tremors.—A third appearance of interest in the curves is
what is generally called earth tremors. Perhaps they are nothing else
than earth pulsations of short period, but I prefer to think that they are
principally due to the swinging of the pendulum, produced by small
vibrations and pulsations, which now increase and now again retard its
motion. Such tremors generally last many hours, and sometimes days,
and the curve, which is often like a dark black line drawn by a ruling pen,
takes the appearance of a succession of small earthquake figures. When
roughly comparing the results obtained at Potsdam and Wilhelmshaven, I
found that strong tremors were nearly always observed at both places
simultaneously, and that they bear a relation to the force of the wind. When
strong wind is blowing tremors may always be expected to occur, and
sometimes they appear to outrace the wind, for they are also noticed in
calm weather when there is wind at a distance. The intensity of tremors
is not always proportional to the strength of the wind. No systematical
comparison, however, has yet been made, because of the many interrup-
tions at Wilhelmshaven and the short duration of the observations.
At Puerto Orotava tremors were quite insignificant ; in fact, there is
scarcely a trace of them, except during the hours when earth pulsations
occur. This is all the more remarkable because heavy winds are con-
stantly blowing against the high mountain chain in the island, but per-
haps they would have been more noticeable if observations had been
330 REPORT—1893.
taken in the east-west plane, and not in the plane of the meridian,
which is nearly at right angles with the mountains and the coast line.
For this reason, perhaps, no effect was either noticed of the heavy surf
which is for ever beating against the rocky coast.
At Strassburg tremors were also found to be considerably smaller than
at either of the first two stations. During the warmer season the light-
point appears to be much more steady than in winter, and altogether
strong tremors are a rare occurrence. A special investigation will be
made when the observations have come to an end.
For an investigation of the earth pulsations and tremors little only can
be done with the present arrangement of the apparatus, which only offers
a means of studying the statistics of these phenomena. It is necessary to
use quickly moving paper and plates and a highly sensitive pendulum in
order to make the details visible. As the soil is often perfectly steady
through long intervals of time, to avoid taking useless photographs a
telescope ought to be added, through which it is possible to see whether
the pendulum is at rest or not.
(4) Sudden Deflections of the Pendulum.—tI have already mentioned
that the curves at Wilhelmshaven are so full of irregularities that some
parts may be compared with declination photographs of magnetic storms.
But whilst these are seen more or less every day, the following disturbances
are amongst the rarest occurrences.
On April 9, 1889, at 6.36 p.m., the light-point at Potsdam suddenly
travelled through 85 mm., which is equal to a deflection of 0/34
of the plumb-line towards the west, thus forming the following figure
. It is evident that this deflection was not instantaneous,
for if it had been so, the curve would have appeared broken, the second
part beginning with swings, as is the case whenever a deflection of the
pendulum is caused artificially. But here there is no trace of swinging,
and the dark appearance of the line joining the two parts of the curve is a
proof that the light-point moved sufficiently slowly to leave an impression
on the paper.
Many small deflections are seen on other days at Potsdam as well as
at Wilhelmshaven. Amongst those observed at the latter place the
most important took place at 11 a.m. on August 9, and at 6.30 P.M.
on September 24. They are similar to the case described above, but the
line which joins the two parts of the curve is not so well marked, and
ae
the following figure is formed . Another remarkable case
was observed at Puerto Orotava on February 2, soon after 9 p.m., the
figure being as follows 7 ie ele angular value of the deflec-
tion is 017, but in this case it lasted 1 hour 20 minutes before the light-
point had gained its new position, and the middle part of the figure is.
just as dark as the rest.
Whilst the above deflections were permanent, passing deflections
occurred at Wilhelmshaven, and were especially marked on July 12
at 7 A.., and on September 12 at 6 p.m. In the latter case the
ON EARTH TREMORS. 33h
following figure YY appears, and the deflection is equal to an
angle of not much less than one second in the direction of the plumb-line.
At Strassburg no strong deflections of a similar kind were noted
except during some earthquakes and when observations were made at
the transit circle, which is borne by the column to which the pendulum
is attached. These disturbances must be ascribed to vibrations of the
pillar, which are produced either by the earthquakes or by the observer
knocking against it, and which cause a slight change in the connection
between the pivots and agate cupsof the pendulum. It remains, however,
to be explained why these displacements so often accompany earth-
quakes at Strassburg, whilst they were never noticed at any one of the
first three stations, although earthquake-motion of probably equal strength
was frequently observed there. Besides, it is remarkable that once when
a piece of iron was driven into the pillar on the side opposite to where the
pendulum was placed, thus causing very considerable vibrations, the dis-
placement of the light-point was not larger than that which accompanied
one of the earthquakes.
Observations at Strassburg.—When I returned from Teneriffe I was.
anxious to continue the observations, but being myself unable to look
after the instrument I sent it to Professor Kortazzi, who wished to try it
at the Imperial Naval Observatory at Nicolaiew, and has been taking
observations in different positions of the pendulum since the spring ot
last year. At the same time I applied to Professor Becker, the Director
of the Strassburg Observatory, who very kindly offered to take charge of
the other instrument which had remained at Wilhelmshaven and to place
it in one of the cellars of the observatory.
Before this was done the pendulum passed through the hands of
Messrs. Repsold. It received new pivots, and the plane mirrors, which I
had used before, were replaced by concave silvered glass mirrors of nearly
1 m. focal distance. In making this change I followed the advice of Dr.
Eschenhagen at Potsdam, who had obtained beautifully sharp curves with
these mirrors. A circular mirror was cut in two, and one half was.
ground down as much as possible to reduce its weight. But through this
process the focal length was slightly changed, and when the two halves
were afterwards placed one over the other it was impossible to make the
two reflected points of light equally sharp. At first the silvered surface
was soon spoiled through the moisture, but when the mirrors had been
resilvered and the ordinary precautions were taken to dry the air inside
the pendulum box, this difficulty was removed, and the same mirrors have
been in use without interruption since last July. Though the curves
obtained at Strassburg are certainly finer than the older ones, I am not
sure that the same result might not be obtained by using the ordinary
plane mirrors if these were silvered on the front side. Besides it must be
remembered that the distance between the mirror and the photographic
paper had to be reduced to more than one-half of the former distance,
which alone ensures a sharper image, and that itis very difficult to make
“yh such mirrors with exactly the same focal length when the latter is
arge.
In placing the instrument it was considered to be of special interest to
attach it to one of the large pillars of the observatory. The pillar of the
transit circle was selected and a stone table fixed into it on its east side,
332 REPORT—-1893.
because I wished to take observations in the east-west plane. The lamp
and photographic apparatus are mounted on wooden tables, and the dis-
tance between the pendulum mirror and the drum is a little less
than 2m. The necessary preparations were made in November 1891,
but regular observations did not begin until April 1892. At first
many interruptions occurred owing to the extraordinary motions of
the zero-point, which caused me to discontinue the observations for a few
‘days at the beginning of May. A second interruption occurred in June,
because it was necessary to have the mirrors resilvered ; but since July 18
last until now the instrument has been in good working order, and only
on two occasions the continuity of the observations is broken by sudden
motions, which caused the light-point to travel beyond the borders of the
paper before it could be noticed at the usual control. To finish the
account of the instrumental arrangement, I have to add that since
November paper from the manufactories of Dr. Stolze in Charlottenburg
has been used instead of Morgan and Kidd’s paper, and that a great im-
provement has thus been obtained owing to its much greater sensitiveness,
For the details respecting the first part of the observations between
April 4 and September 18, 1892, I refer to the ‘ Astronomische
Nachrichten,’ No. 3147. The discussion of the later observations, to-
gether with a general investigation, has been deferred until later,
because it is intended to continue the series up to the beginning of
September. For this reason I am unable here to give definite results,
and shall only mention what may be of use to other observers.
The daily period is much smaller than it was found when the pendu-
Tum was placed in the meridian, but it is well pronounced, and, to judge
from the aspect of the curves alone, it decreases much in winter.
During the winter months it entirely disappears on some days. The
same fact has been communicated to me as observed at Nicclaiew by
Professor Kortazzi. The diagram representing the daily change is much
like the one which I found from one day’s eye observations at Karlsruhe
in 1887, and forty-eight days’ observations at Nicolaiew in 1892 give a
sunilar result. The following numbers I extract from the ‘ Astronomische
Nachrichten,’ + denoting a deflection towards the north :—
M.T. Karlsruhe Strassburg Nicolaiew
(0 hour=noon) 1887 1892 1892
Hours m mw ”
0 + 0-086 +0017 +0:040
2 —0:065 — 0:016 + 0:024
4 —O151 —0°057 + 0:003
6 —0:200 —0:079 —0:016
8 —07184 —0:064 —0:030
10 —07192 — 0034 —0:037
12 —0:108 —0-011 —0:037
14 —0:016 +0°015 —0:029
16 +0:135 + 0-050 —0:010
18 +0 225 +0:073 +0°013
20 +0°237 +0065 _ +0:035
22 + 0°204 +0041 +0:045
Thus it is seen that at Strassburg the plumb-line is in its southern
elongation about 6 P.M. and in its northern elongation about 6 A.M.
“These epochs, however, only represent the mean of the summer months.
At Nicolaiew the times of these moments are each about four hours later.
a th ls a
a i el ee ee
ON EARTH TREMORS. 333.
The general form of the true oscillation of the plumb-line is probably
very nearly represented by an ellipse whose large axis lies between the
two directions E.W. and N.W.-S.E.
The daily oscillation of the pendulum at Strassburg is quite insig-
nificant when compared with the enormous changes of the zero-point.
During the first fortnight, when a change of 1 mm. in the position of the
light-point was equivalent to a deflection of 0/027 of the plumb-line, the
pendulum was moving towards the north. Between April 4 and 18 it
travelled through 6/"4,' when it stopped, and a southward motion began,
which was very considerable during the whole of last summer, for the
following angles were described :—
”
Between April 18 and May 5 — 14:36 (motion south)
ss May ices. une, | —13:12 a
os July 18 ,, July 27 —10°45 <5
rh July 27 ,, Sept. 2 = 10:55 Pn
” Sept. 2 ,, Sept. 18 — 7:34 f
The same motion continued with a varying rate and occasional
stoppings during the rest of the year 1892 and the beginning of 1893.
The total angular displacement is probably very nearly 2 minutes when
the intervals are taken into account during which observations were
missed. Since the early months of this year a reaction seems to have
taken place, for a slow northerly motion has commenced, and now and
then the pendulum remains in very nearly the same position during
several days. I believe that the extraordinary motion of the pendulum,
which far exceeds anything one could have expected beforehand, con-
sidering its favourable foundation, is due to two causes—a very con-
siderable tilt of the column from the north to the south and a large
annual oscillation which augments the southerly motion during the later
part and retards it during the earlier part of the year.
If the tilting is due to a general motion of the ground it must affect
the meridian circle, which is at a short distance to the east of the transit
instrument. A comparison will be made as soon as the nadir observa-
tions are available. In November 1892 Professor Becker had a water
level attached to the other side of the pillar, which was read twice a day.
As it is a well-known fact that water-levels are not very reliable for this
sort of observations, it will not be surprising to hear that the readings.
of the level, although they agree in a general way with the motion of the
pendulum, differ from it in many details.
The temperature of the cellar is read twice a day because it is subject
to considerable variations. Owing to the form of the building of the
meridian circle, in which the instruments are placed one storey high,
the cellars below the observing rooms are not underground, and in
winter during the severe cold the temperature fell below zero (C.)-
An effect of temperature is certainly indicated, and will require a careful
examination.
It may be mentioned that the pillar which carries the transit instru-
ment, and to which the pendulum is attached, is not massive throughout.
A horizontal section through the middle of it presents the following
figure +). The cylindrical mantel] stands on the same foundation as the
middle part, and is probably rigidly connected with it in its lower and
! When speaking of the angular motion of the pendulum the corresponding
motion of a vertical pendulum is always meant.
334 REPORT—1893.
upper parts. If one considers these circumstances it does not appear
improbable that the pendulam might be affected by temperature in a
different way from the level on the other side.
The large motion of the pendulum is felt as a great drawback when
it is necessary to give it a high degree of sensitiveness, because it re-
quires a constant watching of the light-point in order to make the
necessary corrections before it leaves the paper. But another difficulty
arises, because when a strong motion of the pillar takes place in the
N. S. direction it is only natural to suppose a similar motion to take
place in the E. W. direction, which must cause a perpetual change in the
scale value.
During the observations at Strassburg the period of the pendulum
was observed every now and then, and as it had not varied much at
first, observations were taken at longer intervals afterwards. On
May 10, however, when a new determination was made by Professor
Becker with the chronograph, it was found that the period, which had
been 12-4 seconds (one-half swing) before, had risen to 17°4 seconds,
which indicates that either the pillar had been tilted considerably from
the west to the east, or that a sudden displacement of the pendulum must
have taken place, perhaps during one of the earthquake-shocks, the effects
of which were mentioned above.
Should other observers try the horizontal pendulum they may gather
from the above that it is almost necessary to use a double pendulum for
observing both components of the deflections, and that arrangements
should be made to determine the period of oscillation at short intervals
whenever a strong motion of the zero-point is indicated.
During the winter a curious fact was communicated to me by Pro-
fessor Kortazzi. In trying to explain the motion of the zero-point he
had placed a hygrograph in the cellar with the pendulum, and found
that the pendulum was decidedly influenced by the relative moisture of
the air in the cellar, for the diagrams were much like each other. Ina
letter to me he expressed the following opinion. The column which
carried the pendulum had been piled up of large loose stones without
mortar or cement in order to be able to begin the observations without
the loss of time caused by the drying process. The ground of the cellar
being perfectly dry, it appears that the stone behaved like a sponge,
drawing in the moisture contained in the air more or less, and thereby
causing a change in the inclination of the instrument. I have lately
heard from Professor Kortazzi that the effect of moisture disappeared
almost entirely when the openings through which the cellar communi-
cated with others were closed, and the pillar was covered with a water-
proof material.
It is evident that if this cause has a considerable effect at Nicolaiew,
it could only have been of secondary importance at the other stations.
At Wilhelmshaven, for instance, the relative moisture of the air was
probably always 100 per cent. It is necessary, however, to consider this
agent also, and to take the necessary precautions in order either to avoid
or to eliminate its effect as much as possible in the final results. A dry
and wet bulb thermometer have therefore been placed in the cellar at
Strassburg, and are read twice every day.!
? It may be useful to mention that observations with two horizontal pendulums,
exactly like the one used by myself, are now being made by Prof. Lewitzky at
Charkow.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 335
The Action of Magnetism on Light; with a critical correlation of
the various theories of Light-propagation. By JosrrH LARMoR,
M.A., D.Sc., F.RS., Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed
among the Reports, ]
Part J.—Maaenetic Action on Licur.
Discovery of Magnetic Rotation.
1. Tue redaction of light and heat, and of electrical phenomena, to a
common cause has been a cardinal subject of physical speculation from
the earliest times. More recently Oersted! fully persuaded himself, on
somewhat wider knowledge of fact, ‘that heat and light are the result of
the electric conflict,’ and saw in his great discovery of the gyratory
action of an electric current on a magnet the explanation of the phenomena
classed under the name of polarisation of light. But it was reserved for
Faraday to make the first effective entrance into this domain of know-
ledge.
2. After failure in 1834 to discover any direct relation between light
and static electrification, and after repeated attempts in other directions,
he at length discovered ” the fact that when plane polarised light is passed
through a transparent body along the direction of lines of magnetic force,
its plane of polarisation undergoes rotation by a specific amount character-
istic of the medium traversed. He thus succeeded ‘in magnetising and
electrifying a ray of light, and in illuminating a magnetic line of force.’
After observing that when the ray is oblique to the lines of magnetic
force it is the component of the force in the direction of the ray which
appears to be effective in producing the rotation (a law which has since
been exactly verified by Verdet and more recently by Du Bois), he proceeds
to inquire into the condition of the active medium with the following
results :
‘2171. I cannot as yet find that the heavy glass when in this state,
i.e., with magnetic lines of force passing through it, exhibits any increased
degree, or has any specific magneto-inductive action of the recognised
kind. I have placed it in large quantities, and in different positions,
between magnets and magnetic needles, having at the time very delicate
methods of appreciating any difference between it and air, but can find
none.
‘2172. Using water, alcohol, mercury, and other fluids contained in
very large delicate thermometer-shaped vessels, I could not discover that
any difference in volume occurred when the magnetic curves passed
through them.’
The rotation was in general right-handed with respect to the magnetic
force; and in the case of (2165) ‘ bodies which have a rotative power of
their own, as is the case with oil of turpentine, sugar, tartaric acid, tar-
trates, etc., the effect of the magnetic force is to add to, or subtract from,
their specific force, according as the natural rotation and that induced by
? Hans Christian Oersted, Haxperimenta circa Effectum conflictus Electrici in Acum
Magneticam, Hafniae, 1820.
* M, Faraday, Experimental Researches, 19th series; Phil. Trans., 1845.
336 REPORT— 1893.
the magnetism is right or left handed.’ (2187.) ‘In all these cases the
superinduced magnetic rotation was according to the general law, and
without reference to the previous power of the body.’
Further on, after describing the diversity of the effect in different
media, and its usually small amount in crystals, he adds :
£2182. With some degree of curiosity and hope, I put gold-leaf into
the magnetic lines, but could perceive no effect. Considering the extremely
small dimensions of the length of the path of the polarised ray in it, any
positive result was hardly to be expected.’
The powerful rotation discovered long after by Kundt, with films of
iron, will here be called to mind.
Repeated trials with varions transparent media gave no effect of lines of
electro-static force on a ray of polarised light, propagated either along
them or at right angles to them. An effect in this case has been detected
by Kerr long after, but presented itself as a change in the elasticity, pro-
ducing double refraction, and entirely devoid of rotational character.
‘2224. The magnetic forces do not act on the ray of light directly
and without the intervention of matter, but through the mediation of the
substance in which they and the ray have a simultaneous existence.’
Any such changes of internal constitution of media must of necessity
(2226) ‘belong also to opaque bodies: for as diamagnetics there is no
distinction between them and those which are transparent. The degree
of transparency can, at the utmost, in this respect only make a distinction
between the individuals of a class.’
After pointing out (2230) that this is ‘the first time that the molecular
condition of a body, required to produce the circular polarisation of
light, has been artificially given,’ and is, on that account also, worthy of
minute study, Faraday proceeds to draw out in very clear and striking
contrast the distinction between the natural undirected rotatory property
of liquids like turpentine, and the magnetic property which is related to
the direction of the lines of force, as well as the distinction between the
latter and the axial but undirected rotatory power of quartz.
This brief réswmé of the topics treated in Faraday’s memoir will be of
interest as indicating how thoroughly he probed the problem, and how
much his ideas were on the lines of the subsequent development of the
subject.
Mathematical Representations of the Phenomena.
3. The rotation of the plane of polarisation in quartz and other sub-
stances had already been explained by Fresnel as depending on the two
principles, (i) that the vibrations which can be propagated without change
of form as they proceed are for these substances circular (or it may be
elliptical), and (ii) that the velocity of propagation is different according
as the vibration runs along in the manner of a right-handed or a left-
handed screw-motion. It had also been shown by MacCullagh! how
such properties might be deduced from equations of vibration modified
by the insertion of small terms involving (d/dz)?, where z is the direction
of propagation.
Soon after Faraday’s discovery of magnetic rotation, Airy? pointed
out the different modifications of the equations of vibration that would
similarly account for the existence of the magnetic rotation.
1 J. MacCullagh, Trans. R.I.A., xvii. 1836; Collected Works, pp. 63, 186.
2G. B. Airy, Phil. Mag., June 1846,
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. Don
We may in fact develope a complete and compact account of the
matter, as follows. The equations for the displacements in a circular
transverse vibration, propagated along the axis of z, are
u=A cos (nt—ez), v=A sin (nt—ez) ;
for a given value of z these equations represent a circular vibration in the
plane of zy, and this is propagated in spiral fashion as a wave. We may
very conveniently combine the two equations into one by use of the vector
$=u+w to represent the displacement, thus obtaining the form
$= Aei@t=2)
As this vibration is propagated without change, the equation of propaga-
tion must be linear in $3, therefore of the form
The terms in P involve higher differential coefficients, and are necessary
in order that the two values of e corresponding to a given value of n
may not be equal except as to sign, in other words in order that right-
handed and left-handed waves of the same period may be propagated at
different speeds. To ensure this result, P must contain terms of odd
order in the differential coeflicients ; if there were only terms of even
order, it would still lead to an equation for the square of e, and so would
represent ordinary dispersion without the rotational property.
If we confine our attention to terms of the first and third orders we
can tabulate possible rotational terms as follows : !
ee K BS K ds K BS K a3 K, ds
‘ded’ 7 de® 3 dt? “dedi?” > de’ ° da’
Now in the case of the first three types, change of sign of z does not affect
the phenomenon; thus the rotation is in the same direction whether the
wave travels forward or backward ; it is of the magnetic kind. In the
case of the last three types, change of sign of z produces the same effect
as change of sign of the rotatory coefficient ; the rotation is of the kind
exhibited by quartz and sugar and other active chemical compounds.
Onan ultimate dynamical theory, if $ denote displacement in a medium
2 .
of density p, p om will represent force per unit volume ; and the principle
of dimensions shows that «,/p, «2/p, «3/p, are respectively of dimensions
[L?T*], [T], [T7], in length and time. Thus the coefficient «, will pro-
duce rotation owing to some influence of a distribution of angular momen-
tum pervading the medium ; while the coefficients x, and «; would produce
selective rotation owing to the influence of the free periods of the fine-
grained structure of the imbedded atoms of matter. The latter kind of
rotation is to be expected to a sensible amount only in the rare cases in
which selective absorption of the light is prominent; consequently we are
guided, as a first approximation, to ascribe magnetic rotation to a co-
efficient of the type x}.
The last three types of term will be appropriate to represent the
rotation of naturally active media. The dimensions of x,/p, «s/p, «¢/p,
1 J. Larmor, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., xxi. 1890.
1893. Z
338 REPORT—1893.
are respectively [L], [L‘T-?], [LT-?]. The term actually employed by
MacCullagh to illustrate that action was the statical one with «, for
coefficient.
Dynamical Illustrations.
4. The first direct dynamical investigation bearing on the subject is
by Lord Kelvin.'! He points out that the elastic reaction of a homo-
geneously strained solid has a character essentially devoid of all helicoidal
and of all dipolar asymmetry. It therefore follows that the helicoidal
rotation of the plane of polarisation by quartz, turpentine, etc., must be
due to elastic reactions dependent on the heterogeneity of the strain
through the space of a wave.
Then with regard to the magnetic or unipolar rotation the well-
known paragraph occurs, quoted by Maxwell (‘ Treatise,’ § 831) as ‘an
exceedingly important remark,’ of which his own theory of molecular
vortices, and also its outcome, the conception of the working model
which led to the electric theory of light, is an expansion. On reversing
the light the magnetic rotation is not reversed: therefore it depends on
some outside influence of a vector character, exerted on the system
which transmits the light. This influence makes the free period of a
circular motion differ, according as it rotates in one direction or the
opposite one. If the purely elastic forces maintaining the motion are
supposed similar in the two cases, it will follow that ‘the luminiferous
circular motions are only components of the whole motion.’ There
must be another dynamical system present, linked with the one which
transmits the light, and possessing motion of rotation round the lines of
magnetic force, or some other motion directed with respect to those
lines; and the kinetic reaction between these two systems will account
for the magnetic rotation.
The influence which is exerted on the free periods of a vibrating
system by linking it on to another system which is in rotation may be
illustrated by some dynamical problems. If the angular velocity of the
rotating system is supposed to be maintained constant, such illustrations
admit of comparatively simple analytical treatment. We can determine
the change produced by the rotation in the free period of the original
system. If that system is one member of a chain or solid continuum,
we can deduce the velocity of propagation of waves of given length from
a knowledge of this change of period; for it is the velocity which would
carry the undulation over a wave-length in the free period. A typical
example of this kind, which is treated in the paper, is the motion of a
Blackburn’s pendulum, suspended from a horizontal bar which is made
to spin round a vertical axis with angular velocity w. The equations of
motion are
dx dy gq
ee ND ArT
qe’ 2w 725
d*y
Writing
1 1
n=o(7+2), and \?= 5) ({-£),
1 W. Thomson, ‘Dynamical Ulustrations of the Magnetic and the Helicoida
Rotatory Effects of Transparent Bodies on Polarised Light,’ Proc. Roy. Soc., 1856.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 339
the motion for the case when w is very great compared with n loses its
original character, and reduces to a form which, neglecting slight tremors,
is derived approximately from the superposition of two circular motions,
one in the same direction as the angular velocity w, of period 27/0, the
other in the opposite direction, of period 27/p, where
i po a BAS | eee
pant Bum Ba” Bam t Bae
The rotation in such a case as this becomes dominant; a plane oscil-
lation now subsists, but will rotate steadily round the axis with angular
velocity 5(¢—p), which is the slower the greater the velocity w with
which the horizontal arm is carried round.
These results may be extended to any rotating system with two
transverse principal periods. Thus for the case of a long stretched cord,
or a long rod, rotating round its own length with an angular velocity w
which is very great compared with either of its natural transverse fre-
quencies (27//)~? and (2z/m)-, the period of vibration of a wave of
given type on the rotating cord will be changed to
Qn (, 1M ie
anh +8 on? f
and the angle of rotation of its plane of polarisation, during propagation
through a wave-length, will be
mA
4nw?’
this rotation being in the same direction 4s the angular velocity w.
Again, this xolotropic cord may have imposed on it such a (slight)
rate of twist that a very long plane wave, made helicoidal by the rota-
tion », will just be straightened out again by this twist, as it progresses
along the cord, the natural period being still practically unaltered. From
this remark it follows that ‘the effect of a twist amounting to one turn
in a length s, a small fraction of the wave-length, is to cause the plane
of vibration of a wave to turn round with the forward propagation of
4
the wave, at the rate of one turn in SS wave-lengths,’ in the same
direction as the imposed twist.
The first of these results illustrates magnetic rotation, the second the
axial rotation of quartz; while a medium filled with spiral arrangements,
like the second but devoid of special orientation, represents the rotation
of turpentine. The mode of passing directly in this illustration from
the effect of spin to the effect of helical structure produced by twist
is noteworthy.
The subject of a vibrating chain loaded with gyrostats, having their
axes all along it, is considered by Lord Kelvin in a later paper:! and the
general behaviour, as to propagation of waves, of a chain loaded with
gyrostats which are orientated in any orderly manner with respect to it,
has also been developed.?
? W. Thomson, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vi. 1875.
2? J. Larmor, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., xxi. 1890.
340 REPORT—1893.
Mathematical Representations tested by Verdet’s Hxuperiments on
Magnetic Dispersion.
5. The use of the term of type x, to explain magnetic rotation was
arrived at by Maxwell! by the help of a provisional theory of molecular
vortices, in which it occurs as standing for the reaction of a vortical
motion of the medium representing its magnetisation, when that motion
is disturbed by the light-vibrations passing through it.
A very full examination has been made by Verdet? of the manner in
which the constant of magnetic rotation (hence called Verdet’s constant)
depends on the direction of the ray with regard to the magnetic force, on
the refractive power of the medium, on the dispersive power of the
medium, and in the same medium on the wave-length of the light. The
rotation comes out, as has since been verified in detail by Du Bois, to be
proportional simply to the component of the magnetic force along the
ray. Media of great refractive power have in general high magnetic
rotatory power. For the same medium the product of the rotatory
power and the square of the wave-length is nearly constant, but always
increases slightly with the index of refraction ; media of great dispersive
power have in general also high rotatory dispersion.
Verdet’s most important piece of work is, however, aprecise comparison
of his experimental numbers for different wave-lengths with the results of
a mathematical formula adapted to express both ordinary dispersion and
the magnetic rotation according to Maxwell’s theory. He assumes
Cauchy’s form of the ordinary dispersion terms, and so obtains equations
equivalent to z 5 36
d? d' d
from which is derived (Maxwell, ‘ Treatise,’ §§ 828-830) the formula
connecting 0, the rotation, with m, a specific constant for the medium ;
y, the magnetic force resolved along the ray ; c, the length of path of the
ray on the medium; X, the wave-length of the light in air; and 7, the
index of refraction of the medium. This formula is
2a di
A= i N=)
eo
The comparison with experiment leads to agreement within the possible
errors of observation (Maxwell, loc. cit.) for the case of bisulphide of
carbon, but for the ordinary creosote of commerce the agreement is not
so good. The fact that creosote is a chemically complex substance, or
rather a mixture of different substances, may be of influence here.
A coefficient of the type x, leads also to the general law of proportion-
ality to the inverse square of the wave-length, but does not correspond
nearly so well in detail as «, ; a coefficient of the type «; (C. Neumann’s)
must be rejected altogether.
It is to be borne in mind that it is only in substances with regular
dispersion that Cauchy’s dispersive terms can be taken to represent the
facts; whereas the x, rotatory term is, as we have seen, related to a free
period of some kind in the system, and therefore to abnormal dispersion.
1 J. C. Maxwell, Phil. Mag., 1861; Treatise, § 822, seq.
2 BE. Verdet, Comptes Rendus, 1863; Annales de Chimie (3), 1xix. ; in @uvres, vol. i.
p. 260.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 341
6. The considerations just given bring together evidence of various
kinds, that for ordinary media the «, rotatory term is to be taken as very
subordinate to the x, term. Using the «, term alone, the equations of
propagation of a wave travelling along the lines of magnetic force (now
leaving out dispersion) will be of the form
du lp du a dy .
Cae de®” deat}
dy ___ dv du
? Ie Toe de | deat
Let us now attempt to deduce general equations of propagation along
any direction. These clearly must involve three constants «,, ky, «, pre-
portional to the components of the magnetic field along the axes of co-
ordinates. For they must lead to the experimental law that the rotation
for any direction of the wave is proportional to the component in that
direction of the intensity of the magnetic field; in particular this law
must be satisfied for the directions of the axes of coordinates. Further,
the vibrations may be assumed to remain purely transverse, so that we
must have no compression of the medium ; and therefore the condition
is to remain satisfied after the rotational terms are added to the equations.
The equations, then, must for an isotropic medium conform to the
general type
dv dw
dy* daz
du_,— 2 d (du
ANY wt Bo (Gat
d
p dt2 +5 Pe
in which P,, P,, P, are linear functions of the second spacial differential
coefficients of the displacements; and transversality of the unmodified
wave requires A+B=0. Further when w, f and io are all null, these
q dz dy ?
functions must reduce to the forms
d*v _ au
K; az’ —kK,; da?
0.
Hence
dy dw
P; ae Ky dy? Se Q.
ORE!
da’ dy’ dz”
Transversality of the disturbed wave requires
in which Q, involves only products of
dz dy dz 7
hence changing the expression for P, to
d d d dv dw
P — C.. —— + ——— + i. =—o_o + R
5 («: dz “Vy ‘4 5) & Bs) cad
342 REPORT—1893.
R, can involve only products of the operators ©. oe = and we must.
have identically
dR, , dR, , dR, _
dx dy dz
These conditions necessitate that R,, R,, R, shall be each null.
The equations of the magnetically modified medium are therefore
restricted to a definite form by the hypothesis that the wave remains
strictly transversal. ay equations so obtained, of the type
d fdu , dv *)
2y —
aa Esl are i a
as, «0 dv dw
+5 (sagtigt a) er a
contain only terms that are invariantive for transformation of the co-
ordinates ; they thus retain the same form when referred to new axes.
They therefore satisfy Verdet’s law, that the rotatory coefficient for any
other direction, which may be taken as the new axes of z, is proportional
to the component of the magnetic field in that direction, as they ought
to do.
Not only so, but Verdet’s law requires that the equations shall be
expressible in terms of invariants of the three vectors
add
Kz, Ky) =) (= dy’ dz , and (u, Vv, w),
independently of particular axes of coordinates. Hence P,, P,, P, must
be so expressible ; and they must be the components of a vector, of the
first degree in the first and third of the above vectors, of the second
degree in the remaining one. The invariants which can enter are simply
the geometrical relations of the figure formed by the above three vectors
drawn as rays from an origin. The only possible forms are the scalars
KECK ay
dad
de dy dz |’
U Ww
f 4# ea d d du , dv , dw
Rigg dat AF aa" tag ae de ay ae
and the vectors of which the « components are
KyW—k,v dv — dw
/ dz dy”
These combine to give the most general form for P,, represented by the
equation
a ad? . @
ey Ge + dp + = («#0— )
_@a dv_dw
+M(« 2 t5gt Ss) (Gna)
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 343
a ad du , dv , dw
+N (45, K, =) Cae.
+c{ (« dig <.) (2-3)- K one =) (:-=)
*dz “da) \dx dy ( “da “dy/ \dz dz ;
Now
when w, 4 E are null, Pano;
Ps U, a 5s P=;
hence L—M=1, G=0.
This expression for P, with the correlative ones for P, and P, is the
most general form which the magnetic terms can assume in an isotropic
medium, independently of any condition of exact transversality of the
vibrations: transversality requires in addition that L and N shall be null.
The equations of vibration of an elastic medium loaded with spinning
molecular gyrostats, whose axes follow the rotations of the elements
of the medium, have been formed,! and it is of interest to observe that
the rotatory terms come under this special type for which L, N are null
as wellas G. The reason is clear: the action of the gyrostats depends
solely on the rotations of the elements of the medium, while the terms
involving L and N have no rotational character.
7. Before application of these magneto-optic terms to problems of
reflexion at a magnet, the type of the unmodified equations of propagation
of light, to which they are to be added, must first be settled. The form
of these equations which gives most satisfactory results for reflexion at
the interface separating transparent media is (equivalent partially to Lord
Kelvin’s labile «ther theory) expressed most simply both as to bodily
equations and as to boundary conditions by the principles of the electro-
magnetic theory of light; and it has been shown that the introduction of
electric conducting quality into these equations gives a tolerable account
of the phenomena of metallic reflexion.” It is therefore natural to add on
these rotatory terms to the equations of the electro-magnetic theory, and to
try to explain the phenomena of magnetic reflexion by their aid, with the
boundary conditions appropriate to that theory. This is what has been
done in all attempts that have had any success ; though there is room for
diversity in the electrical basis which has to be supplied for the rotational
terms.
Dynamical Theories based on the Form of the Energy-function.
8. The subject of magnetic rotation has been treated by G. F. Fitz-
Gerald? from the point of view of an additional magneto-optic term in
the energy-function of the electro-magnetic medium. According to
1 J. Larmor, Proce. Lond. Math. Soc., xxii. 1891.
2 Cf. J. J. Thomson, ‘ Recent Advances in Electricity and Magnetism,’ 1893,
§§ 352, seq.
8 G. F. FitzGerald, ‘On the Electro-magnetic Theory of the Reflection and Re-
fraction of Light,’ Phil. Trans., 1880.
344 REPORT—1893.
theory, the energy of this medium is made up of the kinetic or electro-
magnetic part T, and the static part W, where in Maxwell’s notation, dr
being an element of volume,
T= g_| (e+ BB-+er)dr,
= 3 {e+ O54 Bhar:
and there is also in our problem to be added on another small term,
Maxwell’s hypothetical magneto-optic part T’.
Now the dynamical equations of any medium or system are most
fundamentally expressed as the conditions that the characteristic function
of Lagrange and Hamilton
[or+a—wyae
should be stationary for a given time of motion from any one definite
configuration to another, subject to whatever restraints the coordinates
have to obey. This form is the most fundamental, because the processes
of the Calculus of Variations are purely analytical, ‘and quite independent
of whatever specifying quantities we may choose in order to represent the
state of the system, the only condition being that the fanction T+T’/—W
is to be expressed in terms of a sufficient number of measures of configura-
tion and their first differential coefficients with respect to the time, and
is to be of the second degree as regards these differential coefficients.
In order to obtain such an expression FitzGerald proposes to treat
(a, 8, y) as velocities corresponding to coordinates (£, n, 2), so that
(a, B, =o (é, ; é),
dé?
pS Epes
£| dt? +H +a) ar
and this will be successful if W can be represented in terms of (é, n, 2)
only. Now in a dielectric
and then
df_ dy dp
4a aT gy a > oystaas
hence
baja 2, Ge 57 staveys
also (P, Q, R) is, from the constitution of the medium, expressed in terms
of (f, g, h) by the linear equations of electrostatic induction, so that the
thing required is done. If, in fact,
= | Udr,
where U is a quadratic function of (f, g, h), the equations of motion in
non-rotational media are involved in the variational equation
#5 [ (de, do? , ae? 24
fet Bel = +o +55 ars Van ye:
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 345
for variations of (é,n,) subject to the ¢mposed condition
dé dyn , do _
Te as a ac on =0,
which expresses that the magnetic flux is constrained to be circuital.
This condition is included, in the Lagrangian manner, by adding on to
the above variation, which is equated to zero, a term
dé dn dé
ON Go bo Nd
jae Wear ar) ke
and determining \ afterwards as a function of position, so that the im-
posed condition shall be satisfied. Thus we have
p_( (ae dot ja of: (ee .)a
feel eg one T go T
+ dee eke jar b =o.
da
Changing from the differential coefficients of ¢& to 6& itself by integra-
tion by parts, and similarly for 67 and 8¢ in the usual manner, we obtain
finally
1 ae ad dU ad dU ANY se
—_\dt = 4n— ) déd oust eats
ra AC Oe awd is 7) mer Af
dU dU 3. \
—~ 6n — —— dfé—4rdds \ldS+... She ee:
+ | ao” i $—4mhog ) + +
This is to be true for all forms of 6, 6n, 6£, which necessitates equations
of the type ogee
de d dU dx
—— —+4r —=0
Rae anid dade? dd
throughout the medium; while at an interface, supposed for an instant
to be normal to the axis of z, so that (J, m, n)=(1, 0, 0), we must have
dU, duz,
= On — ol
ao" rr 6—Amndcé
continuous.
Now from the bodily equations we deduce at once
vA=0;
therefore \ is mathematically the potential function of a mass-distribution
on the interfaces only, and so is continuous across them. It follows that
the only way of securing the required continuity at an interface is (i) to
postulate that 7 and ¢ are continuous across it, owing to the continuous
structure of the system, and that therefore = and = are alsocontinuous
across it; and (ii) either to postulate that ¢¢ is constrained to be null or
else that is null all over it. The alternative taken in Maxwell’s electro-
dynamics is that \ is null everywhere in the field, as in fact representing
no observed physical phenomenon; then the boundary conditions are
four, that the tangential components of the magnetic force are continu-
ous, as also the tangential components of the electric force.
346 REPORT—1898.
Since (£, 7, ¢) is the magnetic force, the displacement of the medium,
as represented by the vector (&, 7, 2), is in the plane of polarisation of
plane-polarised hght: by representing it by some function of (£, 7, Z),
e.g., its curl, we could have it at right angles to this plane, as in Fresnel’s
work.
This quantity \ is not introduced in FitzGerald’s analysis of the pro-
blem of ordinary crystalline refraction. As the results of the discussion of
propagation and reflexion show, any motion propagated in a medium,
homogeneous or heterogeneous, whose dynamical properties are determined
by the above characteristic function, is effectively of a compressionless
character, and there is no necessity to introduce a restriction to that
type. But the case becomes different when magneto-optic terms are
added to the energy-function.
9. FitzGerald goes on to assume, after Maxwell’s theory of molecular
vortices, that the magneto-optic part of the energy is of the form
eo dé df ,dndg , at dh
P =4r0 | do di’ do dt’ do a)
where denotes differentiation along the lines of imposed magnetic
dl
force ; but on working out the variation of the characteristic function, he
finds a difficulty about satisfying all the equations of condition at an
interface. This may, I think, be got over by introducing the undeter-
mined multiplier \ of the above analysis into the variation, and so taking
into account a certain condensational tendency which is originated at
the interface, and propagated throughout the medium with very great
velocity. There also remains for settlement the question whether the
energy represented by T’ is correctly localised by its formula, or whether
it involves superficial components, in addition to the bodily distribution ;
in Maxwell’s vortex theory, from which it is taken, it has been transformed
by integration by parts. So long as this doubt remains we shall not be
in a position to demonstrate boundary conditions by this method.
A chief interest, at the present date, of FitzGerald’s paper, lies in the
application of the method of Least Action to deduce the equations of a
dielectric medium from the expression for its energy alone. This method
would not be available for a medium which is the seat of viscous forces ; !
consequently the equations for a conducting medium would have to be
derived from those of a dielectric by the empirical introduction of appro-
priate terms to represent the viscosity. It is, in fact, clear that the scien-
tific method, in forming a dynamical theory, is to restrict it in the first
instance to systems in which the interaction of stress and motion has free
play, without the interference with its results that is produced by fric-
tional agencies. The subject of the reduction of the equations of electro-
dynamics into the domain of the general principle of Least Action has
recently been treated by von Helmholtz.
10. The second of the questions raised above will now be examined.
The magneto-optic energy must in reality be localised in space and not
on surfaces; and it is of interest to inquire what is the most general
formula that can be given for it which will lead to terms of the accepted
type in the equations of motion. If we take a term in the variational
1 It is possible, however, to introduce Lord Rayleigh’s dissipation function into
the general equation of Action.
—
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 347
3
equation of motion of the form laa oy dr,—where ¢ and w each stand
for one of the symbols £, n, , and s stands for one of the symbols 2, y, z,—
and if we trace backwards the operation of integration by parts by which:
it was derived from the characteristic function, we obtain the following
types under the sign of volume-integration which may exist in the direct
variation of that function :
d’¢ dip do dap dp dst addy
dsdt ds’ dt ds?’ ds dsdt’ ' ds*dt’
These expressions may combine into complete variations of terms of any
of the types
Pp dy dp PY 4 a
dsdt ds’ dt ds®’ " ds*dt°
Now the term in the energy which comes from the linking of the optical
with the magnetic motion should be of the first degree as regards the
velocities of each of them; and it may involve linear and angular dis-
placements, but not their differential coefficients, 7.e., it should involve
only second differential coetficients with respect to space. The first of
these types is thus the only one available, and the term in the energy
must therefore be a scalar constructed from the combination of Ms with
dt
ack (2 dg
ae ; 59h Se re ea ee rie
go» Orand (7, 9, ) or (I—T", );
if we exclude the scalar
i eee
dz dy daz’
which would introduce compression. The term under investigation may
therefore have the form either
art d?n ae '
Iaoae* 9 aoget” aoai
or
di df , dy dg, de dh
dé dt dé dt dé dt’
excluding, for the reason already given, forms such as
d
v9 (af+Bg+7h).
Of these the first combines together the angular distortion of the medium,
the velocity representing the motion in the magnetic field, and the rate
of change of the velocity of the medium in the direction of that motion;
while the second combines the spin of the medium with the velocity in
the magnetic field. It would be difficult to assign a physical basis to the
former on either a dynamical or an electric theory; and thus we are
confined on our premisses to Maxwell’s form as giving correctly the
localisation of the magneto-optic part of the energy. This dynamical
conclusion if granted will restrict the purely formal results of § 6, in the
348 REPORT—1893.
Same way as has been already done by the use of the hypothesis of ab-
solutely perfect incompressibility in the resulting equations of propa-
ation.
11. To discuss the first question it will be convenient to reproduce
the main lines of FitzGerald’s analysis, with however the introduction
of the new terms involving X, the origin of which has been already
explained. The variational equation of the motion is
[ea V cca ae “= ) us
Gate | wt n+) dr —3( Uae
+4x0af dé df , dn dg, dé a) dr
dodt dOdt d0dt
dé , dm , dé
‘f.(EeB)e}-
5 | Boy” ee % °
in_which = =o = +6 a +y = where (a, (, y) is the imposed uniform
magnetic field, 4 (f, g, h) is the curl of (E, , ¢) as defined above, and A
is a function of (z, y, z), analogous to a hydrostatic pressure in a
dynamical theory, and to be determined afterwards as circumstances
dictate. The variation is conducted in the ordinary manner; and of the
final result the term involving o£ is here explicitly set down, for the
special case of an isotropic medium for which
T= e(i2t9°+?"),
as follows, /, m, n being the direction cosines of the normal to the element
of surface dS :
1 Fee dn watt V3 Fae Mens
eee Gay a (M_& 4 40% 5
{2 lax| 1" oh a m(q = eas +0, yg poe
d (ag _ dy
dt\dy dz
1(f @e @ fat_dn
+7 Pit BO a =)
_ Of (la-+mp-+ny) )esas—| IhdEdS
big dg de dfd& dé dX
+ ue = es wt dr |.
+z] a dx dy at te) | 4" ok |
Thus the bodily equations of propagation are of type
ae A $(2-F)-$ dé _ dé ]
ap oT Ke dy\dz dy} dz eS 2
d? (dZ_dn\_, dd
890 snl ay Z) san.
From them comes y?\= 0, showing that is mathematically the potential
function of a mass-distribution on the interfaces only, and so does not
appear at all in an infinite homogeneous medium.
The interfacial conditions are most easily expressed by taking for the
instant the axis of z at right angles to the element of surface considered.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 349
The following expression must then be continuous across the interface in
order that the surface integral may be null :
lfdi dz dn ad dg _dn
et he 4x Oy 5 ( ) bar
ae mage a a ae
PA fab dn ore gel ely d pita \
lee ae meabas Get tai s Todas) $e
dfdn dé
= A+4rCy = ( 2!
{ qlee ten fe a) $%
Now we must have d£ and 6y continuous to avoid a breach in the medium
at the interface, therefore the coefficients of these quantities must also be
continuous across the interface ; and as regards the third term either 62
is continuous, or else its coefficient must vanish.! The other conditions
of continuity do not allow 6¢ to be continuous; therefore the third term
gives simply the surface condition as to \ in the form
ae d (dn_ dé
= anCy ("2 a
This very slight pressure is by the previous analysis continuous across
the interface; it is important because it appears in a rotationally active
form in the equations; the formula shows that, at the interface, it is
proportional to the normal component of the magnetic force.
It appears therefore that we have here a consistent scheme of equa-
tions of reflexion and refraction, without the necessity of condoning any
dynamical difficulties in the process, the result being in all respects
implicitly involved in the expression for the energy function of the
medium.
The introduction of the circumstance of conduction, or absorption of
the energy of vibration, can hardly affect the analytical form of the
boundary conditions as to displacement and traction across an interface.
If this be allowed, the problem of reflexion at a magnet will involve the
same equations of propagation in the magnet as the above, with the
exception that the velocity constant is complex, both the magneto-optic
terms and the boundary conditions being otherwise unaltered. How far
this theory can compete with others in giving a full explanation of our
experimental knowledge would take too long time at present to inquire ;
but the considerations to be explained in the latter part of this paper
will, I think, give it strong claims to being a correct formulation of the
phenomena.
' The difficulty has been raised that this procedure leaves 5¢ discontinuous, and
so apparently leads to rupture of the media at the interface. The reply to this point
would be that if the necessity of the continuity of 5¢ is admitted, the very formula-
tion of the problem will involve innate inconsistency, as no other equation of condi-
tion can be introduced into the variational equation ; while on the other hand the
vanishing of the coefficient of 5¢, as above, shows that there is no resistance offered
to stretching along the normal of the layer of the medium at the interface, and
therefore the continuity of 5¢ will be actually adjusted by a stretching of the inter-
facial layer which involves no dynamical consequences. The part of 8¢ to be thus
adjusted is very small, depending on C; the mode of adjustment would probably be
more fully in evidence, if we passed to the limit through a medium of slight com-
pressibility. Precisely the converse mode of adjustment is in fact required in Lord
Kelvin’s labile zther. In any case we can hold to the axiom (§ 24) that the variation
of the Action introduces all the conditions that are really essential.
350 REPORT—1893.
Recent Hlectrical Theories.
12. A recent very comprehensive memoir! by Drude, on this subject,
begins by alluding to the enormous rotatory power of magnetised bodies dis-
covered by Kundt, which places in strong light the direct magnetic origin
of the phenomenon of rotation, and to the observation of Kundt that a film
of non-magnetic metal deposited on a magnet destroys Kerr’s phenomena,
so that they cannot be due to magnetic rotation in the air. He also re-
marks on the insufficiency of the notion that before reflexion the light
penetrates slightly into the magnet and so undergoes rotation in its sub-
stance ; this notion is in the first place not precise or quantitative at all,
and further it assigns to the surface layer of transition an influence in
reflexion which is much too great in view of other optical phenomena.
He then takes up one type of the formal equations of propagation in
an isotropic medium, viz. (u, v, w) being a certain vector (the rotation in
an isotropic elastic medium)
2
ae
dt?
and he works out as follows the results of adding on to the right-hand
side terms of the various kinds originally suggested by Airy. On adding
terms of the form which represents the theory of C. Neumann, viz.
(u, v, w)=e72(U, v, w);
b, by bs
du dv dw
dt dt dt
there come equations of the type
dus dv dw , av
gp Vs tg tae
to which the term = is conjoined in order to allow us to have
du , dv , dw
ma ms + 7 0,
é.e., in order that the light-waves shall remain purely transversal.
The form of this new term might be derived from the general varia-
tional equation of motion of the system, worked out subject to this limit-
ation of the displacement (u, v, w).
On writing
_ (dw_ dv du_ dw dv_ du
(é, 0, 6)= dy aevde dade =|
there follows
dé dn dé
aay fr ete an as
VIAK— (bs F+be +s),
and also the equations of propagation in the form
gypsies cpt uF (nF dé dé
ET hey i boone 1 gat eeg, +a):
1 P. Drude, ‘ Ueber magneto-optische Erscheinungen,’ Wied. Ann., xlvi. 1892,
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 351
Since (0,, bo, bs) are small we may employ in the terms containing them
the approximate values of (&, », 4) which neglect the rotatory action, viz.,
2
which satisfy ( sav") (, n, 6)=0, and so obtain finally, for disturb-
ances of period 27/7, the equations
du Phe ae dé dé “)
= —( 6; +b, —+b;— ).
de Me tat a da Ady 8 de
Thus for a wave travelling along the axis of z
Pu_ Pu eb, dv
at? dar? de*dt
dy _,fv_ 2b; Bu ,
dt? dz? =r? dz®dt’
but the rotatory effect given by these equations, if sensible for waves of
moderate length, would be quite insensible for light-waves.
On the other hand, if we add rotational terms of the type employed
by Maxwell we should have similarly
@v _, &u 4a
dt > dydt* de’
where the condition for transverse undulations determines \ by the
equation
d/, EE, dy, @L
r»=— b
M4 els get Paget 5 dat)’
so that
avuaevivutS {5 ia a-a)-2 a a7) }
7. i dt ae dz *dy?\dy da
a2 ae dn d2Z
for b,
Pea 1 gat begat begs )>
that is,
PINE Waa. de pera: 2 GP May aE
diz Y uUseV V 7 a Gea t bo Gat Ps aes)
Thus the equations arrived at in these two ways are not, as Drude
seems to hastily assume without examination, of the same type.
It is however difficult to see why equations arrived at in this manner
are worthy of the detailed discussion and refutation to which Drude
subjects them: though it is to be said that they agree formally with the
equations of the earliest attempt to explain magnetic reflexion, that of
Lorentz based on the Hall effect. The form of the rotational terms in
the first of them (leaving out of account the character of the coefficient
«b,/7”) is the same as the one to which we have been already guided as
the correct type, by various lines of argument; and in fact the equations
adopted by Drude himself are obtained by adding on these terms, some-
what empirically, to the ordinary electro-magnetic equations of type
du
df dn hae.
mt (aa =—0.
352 REPORT—1893.
It may be observed that the analysis here given would apply equally if
the equations just written were substituted for the fundamental equations
from which it started.
13. The electrical views by means of which Drude accounts for the
addition of terms of this kind to the electro-magnetic equations are as
follows. He starts with the two circuital relations to which the equations
of electrodynamics have been reduced by Heaviside, Hertz, and other
expositors, of the types
_ dy dp _da dR dQ
Ce Peat dt dy da?
in which as usual (1, v, w) is total electric current, (a, 6, y) is magnetic
force, (a, b, c) is magnetic induction, and (P, Q, R) is electric force. To
these equations we would, under ordinary circumstances, add relations
depending on the structure of the medium, in the form for isotropic
media,
(a, b, c) ae (a, B, Y),
(4 xw)=(~ +e) QR),
where K is specific indactive capacity and o is specific conductivity. To
introduce the magnetic rotatory property, Drude proposes to modify the
second set of circuital relations ‘on Maxwell’s analytical basis, that to
the kinetic energy of the medium which is expressed in simple form by
means of the components of the magnetic force certain subsidiary terms
are appended ; as according to Maxwell the magnetisation is to be con-
sidered as a kind of molecular vortex or concealed motion (verborgene
Bewegung).’ The modification which he assumes on this ground is a re-
placement of the second circuital relation by one ee type
_da_dR _1Q,
dt dy dz AG ag, ue 7 Besback),
keeping the other equations unaltered.
On forming the expression for the transfer of energy per unit
volume of the medium, there is obtained (neglecting, however, the magneto-
optic energy) the ae
d TAGs +6947") dr + Hl Orta +Rear }
oe
di
= sels Q?+R®) dr
+{{a (Gre St... +... bar
+{{ (P+ege- , ) B- (Q42,2 = — 0) a }nas
Lg Renee 2
in which dr is an element of volume, and the three integrals at the end
are extended over the boundary of the medium, of which (1, m, n) are the
direction cosines.
For periodic vibrations there is thus no dissipation of energy except
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. oe
that due to conduction. But at the interface between two media
the transmission of energy without accumulation on the surface requires
that, the axis of « being assumed normal to the interface for the moment,
in addition to the continuity of (3, y) the tangential magnetic force, we
must have continuity in
dR dP
(Q+0, bs
dP , dQ
a Bb 8 GP).
The tangential electrical force is therefore to be taken discontinuous ;
and the author enters into explanations to minimise the repugnance which
may be felt to such a hypothesis, their gist being that the part of the
electric force derived from the relations of the system itself must be con-
tinuous, but the part imposed from without need not be so.
The weak point in this determination of the boundary conditions is
the fact that, as the extra terms are supposed to have their origin in a new
term in the energy, this term ought to have been included in the reckon-
ing before we can draw any conclusions from the flux of energy across
the interface.
The equations of propagation are, for periodic motions in which
—— —ir se of the type
-@a_dQ_dR_d dP dP dP
gee ag dy a Mag de ai
where K’ is the complex quantity = Z +o, and where, when the axis of
# is normal to an interface, the quantities above mentioned are to be con-
tinuous across it. The vector (a, 3, y) is in the wave-front of the undu-
lations for, the magnetic permeability being constant,
die dB ed yauy
de dy dz ’
and it is in the plane of polarisation.
These equations may also be variously expressed in terms of other
vectors, e.g., of (P, Q, R) which is in the plane of the wave-front and
transverse to the plane of polarisation, or of
dQ. , aR
(Pb 40.5%, Me ie )s
The magnetic rotation is here to be explained by the single real
vector coefficient (b,, bs, b;) ; and the same value of this coefficient is in
fact found to give a fairly good account of the various circumstances
attending the rotation of the plane of polarisation in magnetic reflexion
by iron and nickel, while it is also of the same order of magnitude as
would correspond to Kundt’s measures of the rotation produced by
transmission through a thin film of iron.
14. A theory published a few months before by Goldhammer ! goes,
on the other hand, on the assumption that the effect of the magnetic field
_ ' D. A. Goldhammer, ‘ Das Kerr’sche . . , Phiinomen,’ Wied. Ann., xlvi, 1892, p. 71,
1893. rar
4
354 REPORT—1893.
is to produce a temporary structural change in the medium. In the
ordinary case of an isotropic medium
— K d .
(u,v, w)= ‘An dt +0 )\(P,2 R);
so that in periodic motion for which . = we have
dt or
d K a Ar
a CE; Q, R) = (qt) (u, v, a (u, Vv, w), Say,
in which the complex part of the coefficient, involving o, represents the
effect of conductivity. This is now replaced by a wider relation: in the
general crystalline medium he proposes the form
dP _4r du dw dw
Se A2oYU— = ———— es
Fe Pe cae Mees Mead Oe rane
dQ 4a du dw du
ee Ay W—Aa YU a Tye
me et a ae Oe
dR 47 dw du dv
a oN =) pyotas ee mae
7 adi alam age ae aa Eg ner
in which pj, po, 3 are assumed to be complex.
When the period 7/27 is very great the last terms, involving
ee u,v, w), exert no appreciable effect, and so may be left out of account :
dt .
the vector coefficient (A,, 42, 43) which is left is the representative of the
Hall effect. When the period 7/27 is very small, as in the case of light-
waves, the rotational coefficient (1), 2, 43) is preponderant, and the other
one (Aj, As, A3) may he neglected. We may also leave out of account the
slight double refraction represented by the coefficients p,, fy, pf. a8 these
are in nowise rotational. Thus, for an isotropic optical medium, the
structural relation which connects electric force with electric current
would reduce to the form
fe ee age aE
dQ 4r w du
de ea ai
in which Goldhammer takes (1, 19, 43) to be complex (unless the medium
is transparent) and proportional to the intensity of the imposed magnetic
field. This structural relation between magnetic induction and magnetic
force is supposed to remain unmodifiable in form by magnetic or other
disturbance. But it is not easy to understand the manner in which the
relation is introduced into the equations of electro-dynamics, and the
analysis to be given presently leads to a different result. The bodily equa-
tions are expressed in terms of Maxwell's vector-potential ; they are the
same in form as Drude’s equations expressed in terms of magnetic force ;
and the boundary conditions assumed are continuity of the vector-potential
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 355
and its first differential coefficients, and continuity of the electrostatic
potential.
15. The equations of Drude may be subjected to an important trans-
formation which will bring them into line with another class of electrical
theories. If in them we write
pas dQ _» ak
aes dt be an’
129+, B_»,
Vea the = b; at?
ety dP) 4dQ
R’=R+by 7 by a
and take (P’, Q’, R’) as the electric force instead of (P, Q, R), we may
preserve unaltered both of the fundamental circuital relations. The first
one is clearly preserved; and so will be the second one if the relation
between electric current and electric force is taken to be that derived by
substitution from
ee Gate) (P, Q, R).
This leads to a relation of type
ya Ae ae dv _, dw
- ale at?) (wrtea 2s ne
which differs from the structural relation assumed by Goldhammer, but is
of thesame class. When this transformation is made, Drude’s boundary
conditions become simply the ordinary ones which express that the
tangential components of the electric force and the magnetic force are
continuous in crossing the interface ; the difficulty as to discontinuity in
the tangential electric force does not now occur.
The special type of this relation which is assumed by Goldhammer is
dP Kd FS dv dw
dt \ de nt?) Peds Ge aan
in which he asserts that p11, po, 3 are each, owing in some way to their
origin, of the form e Tr +o’,so that they are complex constants of
TT
which the real and imaginary parts are, for the case of light-waves, of
the same order of magnitude. He had previously rejected the coef-
ficients (,, Xs, 43) of the Hall effect as being for light-waves negligible in
comparison with those retained, although the purely imaginary part of a
coefficient of type ,. must have the same character as they have, irrespec-
tive of magnitude. It is, perhaps, difficult to see any reason which
would give probability to this assumption that the coefficients of type p
are complex quantities whose real and imaginary parts come to be pre-
cisely of the same order of magnitude.
16. A general formal development of the equations of the electro-
magnetic theory, which is necessarily wide enough to take account of all
possible secondary phenomena, such as dispersion and circular polarisa-
A A'Z
356 REPORT—1 893.
tion, has been given in 1883 by Prof. Willard Gibbs,’ under the title of
‘An Investigation of the Velocity of Plane Waves of Light, in which
they are regarded as consisting of solenoidal electrical fluxes in an
indefinitely extended medium of uniform and very fine-grained structure.’
The principle on which his investigation is based is the very general
idea that the regular simple harmonic light-waves traversing the medium
excite secondary vibrations in its molecular electrical structure, which
is supposed very fine compared with the length of a wave. When there
is absorption the phases of these excited vibrations will differ from that
of the exciting wave; but even in this most general case the simple
harmonic electric flux with which we are alone concerned is at each
point completely specified by six quantities, the three components of the
flux itself, and the three components of its rate of change with the time.
In the same way, the electric force may be similarly specified by six co-
ordinates. Now the electric elasticity of the medium, as regards its
power of transmitting waves, is specified by the relation connecting
average force and average flux, this average referring to a region large
compared with molecular structures, but small compared with a wave-
length. The most general relation of this kind that can result from the
elimination of the molecular vibrations must be of the form of six linear
equations connecting the quantities specifying the flux with the quanti-
ties specifying the force, the coefficients being functions of the wave-
length. If E denote the force and U the displacement, ‘ we may there-
fore write in vector notation
LE] 4ce= ®[U Jarre ah ie renee
where ® and ¥ denote linear functions.
‘The optical properties of the media are determined by the forms
of these functions. But all forms of linear functions would not be con-
sistent with the principle of the conservation of energy.
‘In media which are more or less opaque, and which, therefore, absorb:
energy, ¥ must be of such a form that the function always makes an
acute angle (or none) with the independent variable. In perfectly
transparent media ¥ must vanish, unless the function is at right angles
to the independent variable. So far as is known, the last occurs only
when the medium is subject to magnetic influence. In perfectly trans-
parent media the principle of the conservation ef energy requires that
® should be self-conjugate, 7.e., that for three directions at right angles to.
one another the function and independent variable should coincide in
direction.
‘In all isotropic media not subject to magnetic influence it is probable
that © and W reduce to numerical coefficients, as is certainly the case with
® for transparent isotropic media.’ ?
For the further examination of the content of this relation connecting
the two electric vectors we may express it in the symbolical form
[flux]=[p] [force]+ [2 ral [ force |
1 J. Willard Gibbs, ‘On the General Equations of Monochromatic Light in
Media of every Degree of Transparency, American Journal of Science, February,
1883.
2 J. Willard Gibbs, loc. cit., p. 183; J. Larmor, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., xxiv. 1893,
where, however, some of the statements need correction.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. oo
where [p] and E i represent vectorial coefficients. For the simple
harmonic oscillations of period 7 that are here contemplated
d_ 20 gee (=)
Gian ar Ga kr ;
so that for the very small periods of light-vibrations multiplication of a
coefficient by d/dt increases its importance enormously. When the
oscillations are very slow the coefficient [ p] has still in a magnetic field a
rotational part which reveals itself as the Hall effect; the presence of a
d
coefficient [a A could hardly be detected. On the other hand, with
greater rapidity of vibrations, the importance of the rotational part in
1a increases steadily, and finally absolutely overshadows any possible
effect of the [p] terms, unless the latter should contain a part whose
2
origin was of the form [ de |" If that were so, at a still higher rapidity
of vibrations the [ p] terms would again become the important ones: but
the wave-lengths would then be too small for such vibrations to have any
physical reality.
17. The question occurs whether to secure complete generality a
corresponding rotational quality should be imparted to the linear relation
connecting the magnetic flux (7.e., magnetic induction) with the magnetic
force. It is, however, usual to assume, on various grounds, that the
vibrations of light are too rapid to allow of their being accompanied by
an oscillating magnetisation of the material medium. The phenomena of
magenetisation of iron leave possibly no room for doubt that the magnetic
movement is an affair of loosely associated groups of molecules, not of
individual molecules themselves, the free periods corresponding to these
groups being much too slow to follow the light-vibrations. These groups
are broken up at the temperature of recalescence without the occurrence
of any very striking effect: nor is there any striking difference in kind
between the behaviour of iron to light and the behaviour of non-magnetic
metals.
The effect of strong magnetisation on light-waves would be on this
view a secondary effect due to a change of structure of the medium.
Soon after the experimental discovery of the Hall effect, and the attention
which was concentrated on it owing chiefly to the influence of Lord
Kelvin, it was pointed out by J. Hopkinson that the existence of an
effect of that character had been anticipated by Maxwell in his ‘ Treatise,’
vol. i. § 303, where in discussing the possibility of the occurrence of a
rotational term in the equations expressing the general form of Ohm’s
law of conduction, he remarks that such a coefficient ‘ we have reason to
believe does not exist in any known substance. It should be found if
anywhere in magnets, which have a polarisation in one direction, probably
due to a rotational phenomenon in the substance.’ The theory of such
rotatory coefficients had also been worked out long before by Lord Kelvin,'
in a thermo-electric connexion.
18. It seems worth while to examine how much in the way of magnetic
1 Cf. Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), Collected Papers, vol. ii.
358 REPORT—1893.
rotation can be got out of this relation by assuming the functions ® and
W to have rotational quality; though Gibbs himself later on in his
memoir qualifies its use by a statement that ‘the equation would not hold
in case of molecular vibrations excited by magnetic force. Such vibra-
tions would constitute an oscillating magnetisation of the medium, which
has already been excluded from the discussion.’
If the rotational quality is simply due to a magnetic field, we may
take for brevity the direction of its lines of force to be along the axes of z,
and the equations will be
u=eP—vQ
v=eQ+vP
w=eR
K d d Lae ‘
where «= ke wit” and v is of the form at”: The circuital relations
of types
aes dy dB _da_dR_ dQ
dy dz’ dt dy dz
lead to
ap_ a 4 2Q +7)= = QP. dQ
vee a(E+5 dy mage marke dt Sy dé’
: : ds
Thus the rotational operator, instead of being of Maxwell’s type dn2dt
comes out of type O5 +4 ») 5; -
a
Though a rotational tale of this latter type, entering into the rela-
tion between current and force, and conjoined with the ordinary equations
of electro-dynamics, leads, as we have just seen, to precisely the same
scheme as Drude’s to explain magnetic reflexion of waves of any single
period ; yet in order to take into account Verdet’s laws of magnetic dis-
persion (in transparent media) the coefficients \ and y have to be taken
functions of the wave-lengths, whereas the coefficients in Drude’s form of
theory remain constant for all wave-lengths. The relation of Gibbs is
competent to give an account of the laws of reflexion and of crystalline
propagation for any one wave-length, by altering so to speak the electric
inertia of the medium; and it fails for dispersion simply because the only
method it possesses of rendering an account of dispersion is by accepting
the observed facts, and making the coefficients functions of the wave-
length. Thus we ought not to allow its failure to agree with magnetic
dispersion to tell too much against the mode of explaining magnetic
reflexion now under discussion. Yet the fact remains that the scheme
embodied in Drude’s equations has an advantage in comprehending a
wider group of phenomena, and to that extent corresponds more funda-
mentally with the mechanism of the action; while on the other hand it
exhibits, especially with regard to the boundary conditions, a more
empirical character.
19. These equations we have named after Drude because his memoir
contains by far the most detailed comparison with observation that has
yet been made. The same equations, however, had been used by a number
of other writers. For transparent media they had been obtained by
Rowland ! as equations of propagation, and they had been used by Fitz-
1H. A. Rowland, Phil. Mag., 1881.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 359
Gerald and by Basset! to calculate the circumstances of magnetic re-
flexion, without, however, entering into the case of metallic media. While
recently J. J. Thomson? has employed them in an independent discussion
of the laws of magnetic reflexion, which corroborates the main conclu-
sions of Drude without going so much into detail. In dielectric media
Rowland and Basset proceed simply by assuming rotational terms in the
expression for the electric force on the analogy of the Hall effect in
metals ; and. FitzGerald, as we have seen, deduces his equations from a
new term in the energy which represents the linking on of the magnetic
system. It is shown by J. J. Thomson, in his discussion of Kerr’s results
on reflexion, that in metals as well as dielectrics it is the time-rate of
change of the induction or electric displacement, and not the total
electric current, that combines with the magnetic field in the formation
of this new term.
The boundary conditions are determined by FitzGerald and Basset
from the hypotheses that the tangential magnetic force shall be con-
tinuous, and there shall be no concentration of energy, or quasi-Peltier
effect, at the interface, subject however in the case of the latter to the
same objection as has been applied above to Drude’s use of this principle ;
while J. J. Thomson arrives at the same boundary conditions by
postulating that the part of the electric force which is derived from the
system itself must be continuous tangentially, whatever may happen
to the part imposed from without.
20. There are thus two ways in which the magnetic field may affect
the phenomena of light-propagation. The imposed magnetisation is an
independent kinetic system of a vortical character which is linked on to
the vibrational system which transmits the light-waves; the kinetic
reaction between the two systems will add on new terms to the
electric force: these terms are naturally continuous so long as the
medium is continuous, but owing to their foreign origin they need not
be continuous at an interface where the magnetised medium suddenly
changes. At such an interface the other part of the electric force, which
is derived from the vibrating system itself, has been assumed to be con-
tinuous in the ordinary manner, viz., its tangential components con-
tinuous ; the total induction through the interface must of course always
Maintain continuity. This seems to be the type of theory developed
by Maxwell in his hypothesis of molecular vortices (‘ Treatise,’ § 822),
and the conditions to which it leads have been applied to magnetic re-
flexion by the majority of writers on the subject, including Basset,
Drude, J. J. Thomson. But against this procedure there stands the
pure assumption as regards discontinuity of electric force at an inter-
face. The correct boundary conditions would be derived from the modi-
fication of FitzGerald’s procedure, which has been explained above.
The other point of view is the purely formal one contemplated by
Lord Kelvin and Maxwell in their discussions of possible rotational co-
efficients introduced into the properties of the medium by magnetisation.
The magnetisation is supposed to slightly alter the structure of the
medium which conveys the light-vibrations, but not to exert a direct
dynamical effect on these vibrations.
It would appear from the analysis of Drude, and more particularly
1 A. B. Basset, Phil. Trans., 1891.
2 J. J. Thomson, ‘ Recent Researches . . .,’ § 408, seg
360 REPORT—1893.
of J. J. Thomson,' that there is some ground for assuming the correct-
ness of the equations to which the former method leads; and those
equations may be expressed in the terms of the second method some-
what as follows. The electric current is in a dielectric the rate of change
of the electric displacement, which is of an elastic character; in a con-
ducting medium part of the current is due to the continual damping of
electric displacement in frictional modes: it may thus fairly be argued
that the fundamental relation is primarily not between current and
electric force, but between current and displacement, while the current is
indirectly expressed in terms of electric force through the elastic relation
between displacement and force. The equations would then run as
follows, (£, 1, £) being the electric displacement :
(2, v, w)= (5+5") (CF U] 49))5
where é=P—),Q+).R;
n=Q—},R+b3P;
€=R—b,P+5b,Q.
This would make the relation between electric displacement and
electric force of a rotational character, owing to the magnetisation. If the
medium were not magnetised, Lord Kelvin’s argument might be employed
for the negation of such a rotational character, on the ground that a
sphere rotating in an electric field would generate a perpetual motion ;
but as it is the rotation in the magnetic field would generate other
electric forces. The frictional breaking down of displacement, viz., con-
duction, is known to assume a slightly rotational character, as manifested
in the Hall effect.
Part JJ.—Corretation or GeneraL OpticaL THEORIES.
MacCullagh’s Dynamical Theory of Light.
21. It has been remarked in this discussion of magneto-optic phe-
nomena that a perfectly straightforward mechanical theory of magneto-
optic reflexion would be obtained by adding on a uniaxial gyratory part
to the energy-function of Lord Kelvin’s labile xther.2 The development
of such a theory as this, after the manner already indicated, from the
single basis of the principle of Least Action, would compare very favour-
ably, by the absence of subsequent adjustment and assumption, with any
of the foregoing explanations.
It has possibly been observed that the energy-function of FitzGerald’s
electro-dynamic analysis considered above is identical except as to
surface terms with the energy-function of the labile «ether theory, when
(é, 7, ¢) is taken to denote actual displacement of the medium. The differ-
ence that, for plane-polarised light, (é, n, 2) is in the former case in the
plane of polarisation, while in the latter case it is at right angles to that
plane, is due, as we shall see, not to the fact that in the electric medium
as ue is taken to be absolutely null, while in the
da" dy ° dz
labile zether the pressure is taken to be absolutely null or the medium is
* J. J. Thomson, ‘ Recent Advances in Electricity and Magnetism,’ 1893, § 412.
* Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), ‘On the Reflexion and Refraction of Light,’
Phil. Mag., 1888.
the compression
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 361
supposed devoid of consistence to compression, but it is the result of
the neglected surface-terms on the energy-function. The correlation
between an electric theory and a mechanical theory which follows from
this comparison has already been alluded to by Willard Gibbs.! It will
be found below that there is a similar correlation between two mechanical
theories.
The vector (é, n, £) of FitzGerald’s equations is, as he points out, exactly
the displacement in MacCullagh’s? quasi-mechanical theory of optical
phenomena; and his analysis is for non-rotational media very much a
translation of MacCullagh’s work into electric terminology. The method
followed in MacCullagh’s extremely powerful investigation, which was
independent of and nearly contemporary with those of Green, and, I
think, of at least equal importance, was to discover some form of the
energy-function of the optical medium which shall lead by pure dynamical
analysis in Lagrange’s manner, without further hypothesis, to the various
optical laws of Fresnel. In this he was completely successful, though
Stokes‘ gives reason to doubt whether he has obtained the most general
solution of his preblem. His optical work has, however, to a great extent
failed to receive due recognition from various causes; in particular the
objection has been emphasised by Stokes (loc. cit.), and generally ac-
cepted, that the vector (£,7, £) which represents the light-disturbance in
his analysis could not possibly be the displacement in a medium which
transmits vibrations by elasticity in the manner of an ordinary elastic
solid. ‘Indeed MacCullagh himself expressly disclaimed to have given
a mechanical theory of double refraction. (It would seem, however, that
he rather felt the want of a mechanical theory, from which to deduce the
form of the function Q or V, than doubted the correctness of that form
itself.) His methods have been characterised as a sort of mathematical
induction, and led him to the discovery of the mathematical laws of
certain highly important optical phenomena. The discovery of such
laws can hardly fail to be a great assistance towards the future establish-
ment of a complete dynamical theory.’ °
Since the date of these remarks the mechanical theory sought for
has, I think, been supplied by Lord Kelvin’s notion ® of a medium domi-
nated by some form of molecular angular momentum such as may be
typified by spinning gyrostats imbedded in it. The gyrostatic part of
the energy of strain of such a medium can be a quadratic function of its
elementary twists or rotations, precisely after MacCullagh’s form. The
conjugate tangential tractions on the faces of a rectangular element of
volume, instead of being equal and of the same sign as in the elasticity
of solid bodies, are equal and of opposite sign,’ just as Stokes pointed
1 J. Willard Gibbs, ‘A Comparison .. . ,’ Phil. Mag., 1889.
? James MacCullagh, ‘An Essay towards a Dynamical Theory of Crystalline
Reflexion and Refraction,’ Trans. R.I.A., December, 1839.
* George Green, ‘On the Laws of the Reflexion and Refraction of Light at
the Common Surface of two Non-crystallised Media,’ Cambridge Phil. Trans.,
December, 1837, with Supplement, May, 1839; George Green, ‘On the Propagation
of Light in Crystallised Media,’ Cambridge Phil. Trans., May, 1839.
* Sir G. G. Stokes, ‘Report on Double Refraction,’ Brit. Assoc., 1862, p. 227.
5 Sir G. G. Stokes, loc. cit., p. 279.
a Lord Kelvin, Comptes Rendus, Sept., 1889; Collected Papers, vol. iii. 1890,
p. 467.
7 (f. J. Larmor, ‘On the Equations of Propagation of Disturbances in gyro-
statically-loaded Media,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., xxiii. 1891. The medium considered
362 REPORT—1893.
out they would be on MacCullagh’s theory. Consequently a framework
free of elasticity of its own, and carrying a system of such gyrostatic cells,
would be a mechanical representation of an «ther which corresponds
with MacCullagh’s expression for the energy-function, and so would
afford an explanation of optical phenomena on the lines of his analysis.
The axes of the gyrostats will, in crystalline media, be concentrated in
certain directions; but in any one direction as many must point back-
wards as forwards. Any very slight violation of the latter condition
will introduce into the medium directed rotational property with
respect to the resultant axes of angular momentum; such we may
imagine to be the effect of an imposed magnetic field. Non-directed
rotational property will be a structural effect, due to mode of aggrega-
tion. If the light-disturbance is represented by the displacement of the
medium, it: will be in the plane of polarisation; while if it is represented
by the rotation, it will be at right angles to that plane. According to
this theory of light, the density of the «ther will be the same in all
media; but in different media the distribution of angular momentum
will vary.
22. The bodily equations of MacCullagh, when formulated in con-
nexion with the boundary conditions appropriate to the theory of the
elasticity of solids, which it is, I think, fair to say that their author never
intended, and with which, in fact, Stokes pointed out that his whole
scheme is inconsistent, have been shown! by various writers to lead to
a wholly untenable account of reflexion.
The investigation of MacCullagh himself, based purely on dynamical
analysis, leads him to the boundary conditions which alone are consistent
with his scheme, much in the manner of FitzGerald’s correlative electro-
dynamic theory sketched above. These conditions are quite different
from the ones appropriate for an elastic solid medium.
The energy of MacCullagh’s medium depends only on rotation, and
not sensibly on compression. The compressional term can in general be
absent only because either (i) there is no resistance offered to pressure, so
that no work is done by it, or (ii) the medium is incompressible so that
pressure can do no work. The tangential tractions on either side of an
interface are expressed in terms of rotation, not of distortion as in the
elastic solid theory.
The surface conditions are, however, theoretically too numerous, as
MacCullagh knew but did not suffer from in the problem of crystalline
reflexion, and as FitzGerald found irremediably in the magneto-optic
problem. The way to remove this difficulty is to recognise, according
to which of the above views we adopt, either (i) a local play of com-
pression close to the interface which is not propagated away from it,
which involves no sensible energy, but which renders it unnecessary to
suppose the displacement normal to the interface to be continuous, or
(ii) a play of pressure which is propagated from the interface with
infinite velocity (i.e. attains instantly an equilibrium distribution
in this paper is dominated by simple rotators imbedded in its structure, and the
forcive is proportional to angular velocity. Lord Kelvin’s new rotational medium is
dominated by complex gyrostatic cells, containing arrangements of Foucault gyro-
stats, of which only the outer cases are firmly imbedded in the medium; and the
forcive is proportional to the angular displacement.
1 @. Lord Rayleigh, ‘ On the Reflexion of Light from Transparent Matter, Phil.
Mag., 1871.
— sa
:
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 363
throughout the medium), and which therefore necessitates the modifi-
cation of the equations of propagation as FitzGerald’s equations are
modified (swpra, § 11), » in that analysis being clearly a hydrostatic
pressure when (£,7, ¢) represents linear displacement of the medium.
Any actual refracting system is of finite extent, so that the equi-
librium state contemplated by (ii) is easily established throughout it:
it is only for the simplification of analysis that it is customary to take the
interface to be an unlimited plane.
The discussion of crystalline reflexion which is given by MacCullagh
takes no account of this pressure A, but makes an argument in favour of
his theory out of the remarkable fact that although there are too many
surface conditions compared with the number of variables, yet in no case
is the introduction of such a pressure required by the analysis or the
optical phenomena, provided the densities of both media are assumed to
be the same; while FitzGerald’s further application to magneto-optic
reflexion simply leaves the continuity normal to the interface unsatisfied,
and so far tacitly adopts the first of the above alternatives, that the
medium, considered as a mechanical one, offers no resistance to com-
pression—a hypothesis which turns out to be untenable.
3. If these considerations are sound, we have the following con-
clusions.
The phenomena of light are explained on MacCullagh’s mathe-
matical equations by a theory of pure rotational elasticity, without any
accompaniment of the character of the elasticity due to change of volume
or change of shape of an ordinary solid body; for linear vibrations the
direction of the displacement of the medium is in the plane of polarisation
of the light, while the axis of its rotation is at right angles to that
plane. ‘There is, however, no occasion to take the medium devoid of
resistance to compression: it may transmit longitudinal waves with finite
velocity, and still no such wave will be produced by the refraction of a
transverse wave.
The electric theory of light is formally the same as MacCullagh’s
theory, magnetic force corresponding to velocity, provided his medium is
taken to be incompressible.
The labile ether theory of Lord Kelvin is one that contemplates
elastic quality depending on compression and distortion, 7.e., the ordinary
elasticity of solid bodies, but the resistance of the medium to laminar
compression is taken to be infinitesimal.
The difference between MacCullagh’s theory and the electric theory
does not, as has been just remarked, affect the problem of propagation in
crystalline media, nor does it enter into the question of reflexion at an
interface between either isotropic or crystalline media, the boundary
conditions being all satisfied without any condensational disturbance ; it
is not necessary to introduce either (i) interfacial compression or (ii)
hydrostatic pressure, according to the two cases above, to preserve the
continuity at the interface. But we have already seen that the difference
between these hypotheses makes itself felt in the problem of magneto-
optic reflexion.
The labile «ther theory stands, according to the remark of Willard
Gibbs, already quoted, in a relation of precise duality to the electric
theory, and therefore also to the other limiting interpretation of
MacCullagh’s theory, which postulates absence of volume elasticity ; the
linear displacement in the labile ether corresponds to the rotation in the
364 REPORT—1893.
rotational wther. And here there is a point which demands explanation.
The energy-function is the same in both the labile ether and this
rotational ether ; but the boundary conditions are different, being in the
one case those of the elasticity of solids and in the other those of pure
rotational elasticity. Yet, in the treatment of the subject proposed here,
emphasis is laid, after MacCallagh, on the fact that the energy-function
implicitly involves in itself the ‘boundary conditions. This difficulty is
elucidated by observing that the expression
1 dé _dy OE tae dy >); a
2(BY i i= Z) a (- z) lee = 2
given by Lord Kelvin! for the potential energy of the labile ether does
not represent the localisation of the energy, considered as that of an
elastic solid. It is in fact derived from the appropriate expression for an
elastic solid
1h al dn 2 dé dé dn dé
{3 ee ee) (G45)
in df , di dé . dtd
Be eee ie Ce es 2) fa
a at ide ete dy ‘
by integration of the second term by parts; and at an interface between
different media, a surface term which will be found to be the difference
for the two media of the values of the expression
LE adel dy dy ace
BG ae) tae ae) (ae a
| 1 i( dy da le dy
is thus thrown away. Now a superficial distribution of energy is repre-
sented mechanically by a surface-tension of equal intensity ; so that a
surface-tension of this amount, varying from point to point, assists in
keeping up the equilibrium of the interfacial layer, in addition to the
surface forces indicated by MacCullagh’s analysis.
Elucidation of a General Dynamical Principle.
24, A cardinal point in this correlation of different theories is the insist-
ence on the validity of the proper application of MacCullagh’s doctrine that
the energy-function of a medium, provided it is correctly localised, con-
tains implicitly in it the aggregate of the boundary conditions at an inter-
face between two different media; and that notwithstanding any apparent
discrepancy in continuity that may still be outstanding after the conditions
so obtained have been applied to the problem. The same principle had
previously been formulated by Green,” in similar terms; ‘one of the
advantages of this method, of great importance, is, that we are neces-
sarily led by the mere process of the calculation, and with little care on
our part, to all the equations and conditions which are requisite and
sufficient for the complete solution of any problem to which it may be
applied.’ On the practical application of this procedure some fresh
1 Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), Phil. Mag., 1888.
? George Green, ‘On the Laws of the Reflexion and Refraction of Light,’ Trans.
Camb. Phil. Soc., December 11, 1837; Math. Papers, p. 246.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT, 365:
light may be thrown by the consideration of a quite similar difficulty
in the dynamics of actual elastic systems, which has recently occupied
the attention of several mathematicians. The vibrations of a curved
elastic plate, in fact of a bell supposed of small thickness, have been
worked out by Lord Rayleigh,' simply from the energy-function of the
plate. The plate being thin, it can easily be deformed by bending; on
the other hand to stretch it sensibly would be very difficult. For this
reason the energy-function is formed by Lord Rayleigh on the assumption
that the plate is perfectly inextensible, so that terms depending on exten-
sion do not occur in its expression. Some years subsequently it was
pointed out by Love * that this treatment does not allow of all the elastic
conditions at the boundary of the plate being satisfied. Now on the
principles here expounded the adjustment of these terminal conditions
would be made by tensions in the plate, which, owing to the very rapid
velocity of propagation of extensional disturbances, practically obey at
each instant an equilibrium theory of their own, and at the same time
involve the play of only a negligible amount of energy owing to the
magnitude of their elastic modulus. If the plate were quite inextensible
these tensions would be absolutely in equilibrium at each instant, and
the energy-changes involved in them would be null. And this view is,
I believe, in agreement with the mode of explanation now generally
accepted for that problem.? The solution of the problem of vibration of
a bell may thus be derived, as regards all things essential, from the
energy-function, of the bending alone, combined explicitly or implicitly
with the geometrical condition of absence of extension.
Critique of Kirchhof’s Theory.
25. The principle implied in MacCullagh’s analysis is claimed to be
identical, in its results if not in theory, with a hypothesis adopted by
Kirchhoff in his discussion of crystalline reflexion, which is commonly
quoted by German authors under the title of Kirchhoff’s principle. Its
author employs it avowedly as a formal mathematical representation of
assumptions made explicitly by F. Neumann, and tacitly he says by
MacCullagh, in their theories, which it is the object of his memoir to
reproduce and amplify. He attempts no dynamical justification of its
use; on the other hand he rather formulates it as an additional hypo-
thesis. At any rate it has been treated as a hypothesis by Kirchhoff’s
followers in Germany, while its validity is suspected by some other
writers who have considered the subject. The explanation of Kirchhoff
himself in the introductory paragraph of his memoir, in comparing
Neumann’s and MacCullagh’s theories, is here reproduced in a free
translation. ‘Yet at the first glance the points of departure of the two
theories would appear to be different, even diametrically opposed to each
other. For Neumann starts from the view that the wether in respect of
light-vibrations comports itself as an elastic solid, on whose elements no
1 Lord Rayleigh, ‘On the Infinitesimal Bending of Surfaces of Revolution,’ Proc.
- Lond. Math. Soc., xiii. 1882.
2 A. E. H. Love, Phil. Trans., 1888.
8 Of. A. HE. H. Love, Treatise on Elasticity, vol. ii. 1893, § 349.
4 G. Kirchhoff, ‘Ueber die Reflexion und Brechung des Lichts an der Grenze
krystallinischer Mittel, Abh. der Berl. Akad., 1876; Gesammelte Abhandl., p. 352.
366 REPORT—1893.
forces act except such as are called forth by their relative displacements ;
while MacCullagh takes for the potential of the forces in operation on
the elements of the zwther an expression which does not agree with the
potential of the forces called into play by the relative displacements of
the parts of an elastic solid. Thus in the theory of MacCullagh, if we
are to treat the ether as an elastic solid, we must treat it as one which
is acted on by forces in addition to those called into play by its elasticity.
Yet of these other forces it may be proved from the energy-function
adopted by MacCullagh that, taken throughout a portion of the ether in
a homogeneous body, they reduce to tractions which operate on its surface.
We can therefore assert, that the theory of MacCullagh rests on the
hypothesis that on the elements of the ether no forces act except such
as are derived from its elasticity; but on the surfaces which form the
boundaries of heterogeneous media tractions are imposed which have
some other origin. And such tractions must also be contemplated by
Neumann’s theory ; their function is that we are by their aid empowered
to leave the compressional wave out of consideration, just as happens in
the former theory: they must exist, in order that compressional waves
may not be set up in the reflexion and refraction of lighi-waves. The
two theories compared can thus be seen to be in complete accord. I
propose to myself to Jay before the Academy a treatment of the question
from the standpoint of these theories which, I think, is more general and
more comprehensive than those that have been given hitherto.’ These
imposed interfacial forces are restricted merely to satisfy the condition
that they shall do no work on any element during the actual displace-
ments of the media; they are considered by Kirchhoff to be ‘ tractions
from without (fremden Druckkriifte) which act on an element of the
interface, tractions which, we are accustomed to assert, arise from the
forces which the ponderable parts of the two media sustain from
the ether”! The forces contemplated by Kircbhoff’s principle, in
order to allow of the condition of incompressibility being satisfied, are
thus only interfacial tractions, which form an equilibrating system in so
far as they do no work in any displacement actually contemplated.
According to the elucidation and extension of MacCullagh’s principle
which is here proposed, they should be taken to be a system of pressures
distributed throughout the media, which do no work for the displace-
ments actually contemplated, and which are in so far equilibrating.
These pressures will be discontinuous at an interface; and will hence
modify the boundary conditions in the same manner as Kirchhoff’s
extraneous forces.
26. In the account of Kirchhoff’s principle given by Volkmann,? the
view is propounded that such a principle is necessary because the equa-
tions of an elastic solid medium, with the addition of a pressure intro-
duced in the manner indicated above (§ 11), will not lead to an account
of reflexion which is in accordance with experiment. Quoting from
Kirchhoff’s lectures on Optics (p. 145), ‘We have to recognise that the
elasticity of the ether is different in the various transparent media,
different in glass, for example, from what it is in empty space. We are
not in a position to form for ourselves a clear representation as to how
the alteration of the elasticity of the wether in glass is brought about; but
1 G. Kirchhoff, loc. cit. ; Gesammelte Abhandl., p. 367.
* P. Volkmann, Theorie des Lichtes, 1891 .§ 76.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 367
still we can say that it is a consequence of forces which the elements of
the ponderable matter exert on the elements of the wether. As therefore
such forces are present they must exert a direct influence on the motion
of the elements of the ether at the boundary of the glass, though in the
interior of the glass they have only an indirect influence in altering the
elasticity of the wether. The relations of the direct action of these forces
at the surface and in the interior are similar to those which hold with
capillary forces, which also are only of influence at the surfaces of fluids,
and are not felt in the interior.’ This quotation has been given at length,
as it puts the case precisely. The reply is that it is only a confession of
total ignorance as to the distribution of the energy throughout the mass
of the media which would permit us to prop up the boundary conditions
by extraneous forces in this manner. In the theory of capillarity the
surface-tractions are derived from the distribution of energy throughout
the mass of the liquid; and if they could not be deduced rationally from
some possible volume distribution of energy, it would have to be held
that they were erroneous. So here, if Kirchhoff’s extraneous surface-
tractions cannot be deduced from some energy-function of the complex
medium (ether and matter) which is the seat of the undulations, there is
absolutely no basis left for them. It will not suffice to say that at the
boundary there is interaction between the ether and the matter, and a
gradual transition in density caused by the equilibration of such action:
if the depth of this layer of transition is a small fraction of the wave-
length, the introduction of the energy-function appropriate to it would have
but a small influence on the variation of the total energy, and so would
not sensibly affect the results. In so far as the introduction of the pressure
arising mathematically from the condition of incompressibiiity will not
make an elastic theory work, that theory has simply not been sustained ;
in various theories above mentioned the introduction of the pressure is
efficacious, and they are in so far verified and in a position to be further
tested by application to more complicated phenomena.
Although it would seem that Kirchhoff’s method cannot be main-
tained, yet, as he remarks, his formal equations come out the same as those
of the rotational theory represented by MacCullagh’s equations ; so that
his detailed development of the problem of crystalline reflexion will be
in agreement with MacCullagh’s, and holds good so far as it goes.
27. In the theory of Neumann, which contains one of the first
attempts at a rational dynamical treatment of reflexion and refraction,
he starts with equations for the strain of an elastic crystalline medium,
of the imperfect type, however, which the then current elastic
theory of Navier and Poisson supplied. By assumption of special rela-
tions between the constant coefficients of these equations, he obtained a
form which led approximately to Fresuel’s laws of double refraction.!
He then applied this form to the problem of crystalline reflexion,” but
found, I suppose, that the six conditions which he recognised as necessary
to ensure continuity of displacement and stress at the interface could not
all be satisfied. To satisfy them in a case of an ordinary compressible
medium would require the introduction of a wave of longitudinal dis-
placement in each medium, set up in the act of refractiun; Neumann’s
1 F. E. Neumann, Pogg. Ann., xxv.
2 F. E. Neumann, Abhandlungen der Berliner Akademie, 1835. This memoir pro-
ceeds throughout on the method of rays, without explicit consideration of the
elasticity of the medium.
368 REPORT—1893.
medium being incompressible, he did not take account of such waves, and
so was in difficulty with his boundary equations. He cut the knot by
assuming that the displacement is continuous across the interface, in
other words that there can be no rupture of material continuity ; and by
omitting altogether all conditions of continuity of stress, replacing them
by the principle that there is no loss of energy in the act of refraction and
reflexion. This, as Kirchhoff remarks, is equivalent to an admission that
the equilibrium (or vibrational motion) of an indefinitely thin layer,
including in it the interface, is maintained by the aid of forces introduced
somehow from outside the vibrating system; but that, as the energy of
the incident light is accounted for exactly by that of the reflected and
refracted light, these forces must be subject to the condition that they do
no work on any element of this surface layer in the displacements to
which the medium is actually subjected during the motion, On this
basis Neumann obtains Fresnel’s equations of reflexion, by aid of the
hypotheses that the displacement of a linear wave is in the plane of
polarisation, and that media differ optically in elasticity but not in density.
As we have seen, Kirchhoff adopts and expounds the method initiated
by Neumann for getting over the boundary difficulty. But his main
argument is that if we do not assume surface forces from without we are
helpless, that such forces exist, as is inferred from molecular theory, but
that all we know about them is that in their play they cannot absorb any
of the energy of the light. His method of procedure would therefore be
to assume the most general possible type of such forces subject to this
one condition, and then try by special assumption to adjust them to the
final result he desires. There is clearly no dynamical validity in this, it
is purely empirical; the surface forces may really be subject (as we shall
see, are subject) to other unknown laws as well, which will not, with the
assumed energy-function of the medium, allow of the desired solution.
The process would then only prove that the assumed energy-function is
untenable.
28. The correct method is the one indicated above. The energy of
the medium is associated with the medium in bulk, is located in its
elements of volume. In Gauss’ theory of capillarity it is true that inter-
facial energy is contemplated, but that is only the actual excess or defect
of the energy in the very thin layer of transition over what its amount
would be if the transition was supposed sharp and the density of the
energy in the elements of each medium near the surface were unaltered
by the neighbourhood of the other medium. It is this portion of the
energy that produces superficial effects such as surface-tension, though
owing to the thinness of the interfacial layer it forms only a very minute
fraction of the whole energy, the distribution of the other part being uni-
form. Now the propagation of vibrations across the interface is an affair
of the redistribution of the energy of the medium en masse; if we make
the ordinary optical hypothesis that the layer of transition is very thin
compared with the length of a wave, we may be certain that there is no
superficial term of sensible importance in the vibrational energy of the
system. The only superficial forces which can come in are, then, those
which enter logically in the dynamical analysis of the motion, on the basis
of a volume distribntion of energy in the medium, the determination of
whose form is part of the problem. Until the possibilities of this state-
ment of the problem are exhausted, it would appear to be gratuitous and
unscientific to assume the existence of unknown surface-forces; and more-
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. 369
over, as these forces could only arise from the existence of a finite layer
of transition, so not only would their assumption be purely empirical, but
the present method of investigation of the problem of reflexion would
actually no longer apply : if there is to be a finite layer of transition, the
postulation of material continuity of the media across it by means of a
single set of surface conditions would be meaningless.
29. In the light of these remarks it will be of interest to follow some-
what in detail Kirchhoff’s discussion of the general problem of crystalline
reflexion and refraction, to find out how far his imposed surface forces
satisfy the conditions that we here demand of them, namely, of being
deducible from a bodily energy-function. Kirchhoff restricts himself to
an elastic solid wether; three sets of waves will thus be possible with a
given front; the restriction that the displacement for two of these waves
shall be in the plane of the front confines the energy-function to Green’s
well-known form.!
He then neglects the first term involving the compression, in Green’s
formula, on the ground that in the transverse waves the density of the
medium remains unaltered,? so that such a term can have no influence on
the equations. If he had definitely omitted this term from the energy,
the analysis, as carried out by him without an introduced pressure, would
have shown that the function so modified belongs to a medium in which
a compressional wave is propagated with null velocity, in fact a medium
which (like Lord Kelvin’s foam) opposes no resistance to laminar com-
pression, though it does resist wniform compression with a finite volume-
elasticity. Green was not able to do away in this manner with the terms
producing a normal wave, because he thought his medium would be un-
stable ; and possibly the same idea suggested Kirchhoff’s cautious pro-
cedure.
This energy-function F, with the compression omitted, is easily ex-
pressed, in the notation of § 11, in the form
sume gy) GG 2)
F=U aT eS ae Sere, eats
ols bp ate atE ry! ©
2s | Gy tte ay
20 Say f? + dag? + dggh? + 2agh + 2ashf+ 2a2f9,
(f, 9, h) being the curl of the displacement (4, n, 6) of the medium. By in-
tegration by parts, all the terms of the volume integral /Fdr except U are
clearly expressible as surface integrals; while U, the remaining volume
distribution, is identical with the complete energy-function of MacCullagh’s
medium. The interfacial part of the energy F', when thus expressed, is
(l,m, n), being direction cosines, the difference in value on the two sides
of the interface of the expression
d d ae
—2a,, (mn = —nb ay —2age(né © UE = —2aga(1E 5 —mn =)
d d d .
—2( arog, tangle") (E+ mn +nZ)
dé .dn dé
aes”
where
+2(a31E +a3;mn +a, ,nZ) (
1 G. Green, Cambridge Phil. Trans., 1839,
nea explicitly recognised by MacCullagh. See Sir G. G. Stokes’ Report.
3. BB
370 REPORT—1893.
If we take for an instant the plane of (ay) to be the interface, so that
(1, m,n)=(0, 0, 1), this expression becomes
d d
26 { (Ay9+023—a1) 9° — (233+ 42241) 7 \ .
Now on any form of interpretation of MacCullagh’s theory, no ex-
traneous interfacial forces at all are required to satisfy the boundary
conditions ; if the present theory is to agree with it, we might expect that
there will be required only interfacial forces such that their activity will
for the actual motion just undo the variations of this surface-energy.
But the boundary conditions of MacCullagh are (§ 9)
> al) dU
E (Set is
ane dg ET
all continuous, where |Udr is the statical energy; and these do not
suffice to make this surface-energy constant, z.e., the time variations of
the above expression continuous across the interface. As already re-
marked, the theories of Kirchhoff and MacCullagh are formally identical ;
therefore there must be some discrepancy here. It is in fact the circum-
stance that this surface-integral part of the energy has lost its correct
location, and does not really belong to the place with which it is now
analytically associated.
Again, Kirchhoff’s actual procedure is to take the tractions (X, Y, Z)
and (X’, Y’, Z’) on the two sides of the interface that are derived in
Lagrange’s manner from the energy-function, and to equate to nothing
their activity
dé dy dé
—X’') ~—4+(Y-Y’) 2 | nes
cs dat | Sh ee Lil
If &, n, f are quite independent this will give three boundary conditions
just as before, and will be no help. But in the motion to which he
restricts himself, £, 7, are the displacements in a plane-wave, and so are
functions of the same linear function of 2, y, z and ?¢; he finds that the
introduction of this restriction reduces the conditions to two, and so
allows further progress.
The reason which Kirchhoff assigns for the two theories of himself
and MacCullagh being analytically in agreement is that they can only
differ as to boundary conditions, that he gets to a definite theory by his
principle of extraneous forces, and that MacCullagh’s definite theory also
satisfies this principle from the simple fact that there are no extraneous
forces. But then the energy-functions are not the same in the two
theories. The Fresnel laws of reflexion are obtained by Neumann really
by the hypothesis that for rays, 7.e., for simple wave-trains, no loss of
energy occurs in the reflexion. This is a much narrower priuciple than
its generalisation by Kirchhoff; and, as we have seen, to make his
generalisation work, the latter has to return practically to Neumann’s
form in which it is restricted to plane-waves.
These considerations are set forth as showing the artificial character
of Kirchhoff’s principle, and illustrating the various mistakes and mis-
conceptions which may arise in connexion with a subtle point of analytical
dynamics, of which the physical bearing has not, I think, been realised
by many of the writers on this subject.
ON THE ACTION OF MAGNETISM ON LIGHT. afl
In contrast with these explanations, the real reason why the theories
of MacCullagh and Kirchhoff agree in their results will now be stated.
It is simply that, when £, n, ¢ are functions of a linear function of a, y, z
and ¢, and therefore are the displacements in a plane-wave of some form,
the unmodified expression for Kirchhoff’s energy-function F reduces to
MacCullagh’s energy-function U, the various Jacobian expressions
d(n, £)/d(y, z), &e., contained in it being all null. For a wave with a
spherical or other curved form of front, these terms would not thus dis-
appear; and the boundary conditions could not, I think, be reduced to
the proper number by Kirchhoff’s process. The conclusion to be drawn
from this would be as before mentioned, not that reflexion cannot be
explained, but that Green’s expression for the energy, as employed by
Kirchhoff, is untenable.
We have seen that a labile ether gives results conjugate to, but
not the same as, those of the rotational ether corresponding to Mac-
Cullagh’s equations. It is also known that Neumann’s simple theory
which can be expressed by means of rays, without technical considera-
tions of elasticity, leads to the same results as MacCullagh’s; and we
now see that Kirchhoff’s method would lead to the same result. Now
the elastic solid theory of Kirchhoff is in its elements just the same as
the labile zther elastic solid theory; and yet Kirchhoff gets a different
result out of it. This demonstrates still further the faultiness of his
procedure: he is not entitled to throw away the Jacobian terms in the
energy because they happen to be null for the plane-wave kind of motion
which he assumes to be the only one to which the reflexion will give
rise ; though he happens to be led to the correct result by equilibrating
them, as he can clearly do for this particular case, by extraneous surface
tractions of nullactivity. Further, it thus appears that, according to the
form he takes for his extraneous forces, he can arrive from the same
data at either of two conjugate theories of reflexion.
Mechanical Illustrations of MacCullagh’s Theory.
30. The conclusions here arrived at naturally tempt one to pursue
the invention of mechanical illustrations of the ether. Lord Kelvin
_ proposes to realise and illustrate his labile contractile sther by a homo-
geneous mass of foam free from air. Such a medium, when distorted, will
have its equilibrium disturbed, and will tend to recover itself; when
uniformly compressed it will exhibit volume-elasticity. But when it is
compressed in one direction only in plane layers, there will be no
tendency to recover: its Young’s modulus will be null, and so there will
exist a fixed ratio between its compressibility and its rigidity, an inter-
esting result which it would be rather difficult to investigate directly.
_ Longitudinal waves will thus not be propagated in the medium.
We have also two types of Lord Kelvin’s gyrostatic zthers, one of
_ them with pure rotational elasticity and no compressional or distortional
elasticity, the other incompressible but with no distortional elasticity ;
_ either of them will represent MacCullagh’s equations. A mechanical
realisation of an ether of the second kind has been proposed by Fitz-
Gerald as consisting of a web of long vortex filaments, interlaced together
in homogeneous frictionless incompressible liquid, with any desired iso-
tropic or crystalline quality: but even if we could be assured that such
a system could subsist, and not be at once hopelessly entangled and
BB
one REPORT—1893.
destroyed owing to instability, as seems likely, its elasticity would appear
at first sight to depend on angular velocity and not on angular displace-
ment, so that it could not have the properties of MacCullagh’s ether.!
Lord Kelvin has recently occupied himself? with the dynamics of media
composed of gyrostats mounted on framework having various degrees
of mechanical freedom. It is possible to imagine frames devoid of dis-
tortional elasticity and either incompressible or devoid of compressional
elasticity, one of the former class being simply composed of rectangular’
parallelepipedal webs hinged together, each web consisting of three
systems of parallel rods freely jointed at their points of meeting.
But we ought not to lose sight of the fact that a gyrostatic sether
will be effective, whatever be its modulus of compressibility, provided it
has no purely distortional elasticity. Thus FitzGerald’s fluid need not
be incompressible ; an oblique parallelepipedal frame on which to mount
the gyrostats will do equally as well as a rectangular frame ; and we may
also have more complicated forms.%
The wide field of physical theory which is opened up by this
remark that in a rotational ether, however heterogeneous it may be, com-
pressional waves are propagated in perfect independence of rotational
waves, must be reserved for future consideration. A generalisation of
Maxwell’s electrodynamic equations has been already proposed and dis-
cussed by von Helmholtz, which introduces the possibility of compres-
sional disturbances ; but that theory is on quite a different footing from
the one here suggested, in that Helmholtz’s compressional wave interacts
with the rotational one, getting mixed up with it at each refraction into a
different medium.
The only optical phenomena which the compression can affect, on
MacCullagh’s theory, appear to be magneto-optic reflexion and possibly
other such secondary disturbances, depending on the introduction of*
terms of higher orders into the energy-function.
The Bibliography of Solution.—Report of the Committee, consist
ing of Professor W. A. TILDEN (Chairman), Dr. W. W. J. Nicon
(Secretary), Professor H. McLeop, Mr. S. U. PICKERING, Pro-
fessor W. Ramsay, and Professor SYDNEY YOUNG.
Tur Committee regret that but little progress has been made with their
work since the date of the last report. They hope, however, to complete
the work this year, and arrange it in a form suitable for publication.
They therefore desire reappointment without a grant.
1 See, however, Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), ‘ On the Propagation of Laminar-
Motion through a turbulently-moving inviscid Fluid,’ Phil. Maq., 1887.
? Lord Kelvin (Sir W. Thomson), Collected Papers, vol. iii. 1890, pp. 466-472.
3 Of. J. Larmor, ‘ On Possible Systems of Jointed Wickerwork, and their Degrees--
of Internal Freedom,’ Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., 1884.
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 373
The Action of Light upon Dyed Colowrs.—Report of Committee,
consisting of Professor T. E. TaorPr (Chairman), Professor J. J.
Hume. (Secretary), Dr. W. H. Perkin, Professor W. J. RussEt1,
Captain Aspnry, Professor W. Stroup, and Professor R. MELDOLA.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)
‘Tue object of the Committee appointed to study this matter has been to
‘determine by experiment the relative fastness to light of the colours dyed
on textile fabrics with the various natural and artificial colouring matters.
For this purpose patterns of silk, wool, and cotton have been dyed
with equal percentages (2 per cent.) of the various commercial artificial
colouring matters. With the natural colouring matters the patterns were
‘dyed to approximately the same depth of colour.
The patterns were exposed to light at Adel, a country district about
five miles to the north of Leeds, in order to avoid the influence of town
smoke, sulphurous acid, &c., the prevailing winds being westerly. The
patterns were pinned on deal boards covered with white calico, fixed in a
vertical position in glazed wooden cases, so arranged as to permit free
circulation of the air and moisture after filtration through cotton wool to
exclude dust, &c.
The exposing cases were set up in the grounds of Jas. A. Hirst, Esq.,
to whom the best thanks of the Committee are due for his kind permission
to do so.
Hach dyed pattern was divided into six pieces, one of which was
protected from the action of light, while the others were exposed for
different periods of time. The shortest period of exposure, or ‘ fading
period,’ was about three weeks (May 24 to June 14, 1892), and a record
of the fading power of this period was kept by exposing along with
the patterns a special series of ‘standards’ dyed with selected colouring
matters. These standards were removed from the action of the light along
with the first set of dyed patterns at the end of the first ‘fading period ’
(May 24 to June 14, 1892). The faded standards were then at once
replaced by a fresh unexposed series, and these were allowed to fade to
the same extent as the first, when, a second period of exposure equal in
fading power to the first having thus been marked off, a second set of the
dyed patterns were removed from the action of light along with the second
series of faded standards. The latter were again renewed as before to
mark off the next ‘fading period.’ The fourth and fifth sets of dyed
patterns were submitted to an exposure equivalent to two or three ‘fading
periods’ in order that the fifth set might have an exposure of one year.
The above method was adopted in order to be able to expose dyed
patterns to an equal amount of fading in different years, irrespective of
’ the time of the year or the conditions of light, moisture, temperature, c&c.
Tt was rendered necessary indeed in consequence of the practical impos-
sibility of exposing simultaneously a complete set of dyed colours.
During the year 1892-93 the red dyes on wool and silk have been
exposed. For want of sufficient exposing space, however, the Congo
colours and some others, as well as the reds dyed on cotton, had to
be omitted. During 1893-94 the orange and yellow dyes are being
exposed, and the remaining colours will be exposed in subsequent years
374 REPORT—1893.
until all have been examined. There is no doubt but that the behaviour
of dyed colours towards light and other agencies depends upon several
factors, e.g., the chemical constitution of the colouring matter itself, the
kind of fibre to which it is applied, the method of application, &c. With
so many variables a full and complete examination of the question of the
fastness of dyes proves to be one of extreme complexity and difficulty,
Even to determine effectually the nature of the relationship existing be-
tween the molecular constitution of colouring matters and their behaviour
towards light seems to necessitate the employment of chemically pure
dye-stuffs, and that the dyeing should be so arranged as to have an equal
number of molecules of colouring matter on a given weight of textile
material. Having regard, therefore, to the difficulties connected with the
purification of such a large number of colouring matters as are now in
use, their varying colouring power, the different degree to which they
exhaust the dye-bath, &c., it seemed better, for the present at least, to
confine our attention to a comparison of the relative fastness to light of
the various distinct commercial colours, the results of which might form
a basis for a further examination in the direction alluded to.
The dyed and faded patterns have been entered in pattern-card books
in such a manner that they can be readily compared with each other.
The following tables give the general result of the exposure experi-
ments made during the year 1892-93, the colours being divided, according
to their behaviour towards light, into the following five classes: Very
fugitive, fugitive, moderately fast, fast, very fast.
The initial numbers refer to the order of the patterns in the pattern
books, The 8. and J. numbers refer to Schultz and Julius’ ‘ Tabellarische
Uebersicht der ktinstlichen organischen Farbstoffen.’
Cuass I. Very Fuerrive Conours. (Wo0t.)
The colours of this class have faded so rapidly that at the end of
the first ‘fading period’ (May 24 to June 14, 1892) only a very faint
colour remains, and at the end of the fifth period (one year) all traces
of the original colour have disappeared, the woollen cloth being quite
white or of a yellowish tint.
Triphenylmethan Colours. Phthaleins.
Wool Book II.
Eosins. 1. Kosin A. Alkali salt of tetra-brom-fluorescein. S. and J. 319.
at 2. Erythrosin G. Alkali salt of di-iodo-fluorescein. §. and J. 324.
5 3. Methyl-eosin. Potassium salt of tetra-brom-fluorescein-methyl-ether.
S. and J. 320.
i 4. Erythrosin JN pure. Sodium salt of tetra-iodo-fluorescein.
= 5. Hosin 8. Potassium salt of tetra-brom-fluorescein-ethyl-ether. §S. and
Jroel.
- 6. Hosin F. Same as 4.
FF 7. Phloxin P. Potassium salt of tetra-brom-di-chlor-fluorescein. §. and
J. 325.
re 8. Eosin BN. Potassium salt of di-brom-di-nitro-fluorescein. S. and
J. 322.
59 9. Erythrosin B. Sodium salt of tetra-brom-tetra-chlor-fluorescein.
8. and J. 328.
: 10. Cyanosin (spirit soluble). Potassium salt of tetra-brom-di-chlor-fluores-
cein-methyl-ether. 8. and J. 326.
si 11. Cyanosin B. Sodium salt of tetra-brom-tetra-chlor-fluorescein-ethyl-
ether. 8S. and J. 329.
* 12. Phloxin tetra (pure). Same as 9.
a“. ~.s = ~~
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 375
Wool Book II.
Eosins. 13. Rose Bengale NTO. Alkali salt of tetra-iodo-dichlor-fluorescein.
a 14. Phloxin. Same as 9.
# 15. Rose Bengale NT pure. Same as 13.
4 16. Bengaline PH. Sodium salt of tetra-iodo-tetra-chlor-fluorescein.
+ 17. Bengal Red B. Potassium salt of tetra-iodo-tetra-chlor-fluorescein.
8. and J. 330.
a 18. Cyclamine. EHosin from thio-dichlor-fluorescein. §. and J. 334.
Azine Colours. Safranines, Sc.
Basic Reds. 6. Safranine B extra. From 1 mol. p-phenylene-diamine and 2 mols.
aniline. 8S. and J. 356.
a 7. Safranine 'T extra, From 1 mol. p-toluylene-diamine, 1 mol. aniline,
1 mol. o-toluidine. §. and J. 358.
s 8. Diamido-phenazin-nitrate. Tolu-safranine-nitrate.
+ 9. Neutral Red. From dimethyl-diamido-toluphenazine hydrochloride.
8. and J. 353.
5 11. Fuchsia. From 1 mol. dimethyl-p-phenylene-diamine and 2 mols.
aniline. 8. and J. 357.
Induline Colours. Rosindulines.
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds. 9. Rosinduline 2G. Constitution not published.
3 30. Rosinduline G. Constitution not published.
Azo Colours.
Acid Reds. 43. Roxamine. From azo deriv. of naphthionic acid and dioxynaph-
thalene (2°7).
Norss.—Among the eosins, eosin BN is distinctly faster than the rest ;
cyanosin B fades as rapidly as the rest during the first ‘ fading period,’
but the pale tint then left is remarkable for its fastness, since it remains
almost unchanged even after a year’s exposure.
The eosins, rosindulines, and roxamine do not alter in tint when
fading, but the safranines leave, at the end of the first ‘fading period,’ a
dull brownish-pink tint.
Crass II. Fvuarrmve Coxrours. (Woot.)
The colours of this class show very marked fading at the end
of the second ‘fading period’ (June 14 to July 21, 1892), and after a
year’s exposure they have entirely faded, or only a tint remains.
Triphenylmethan Colours. Rosanilines.
Wool Book II.
Basic Reds. 12. Fuchsin MN. Rosaniline hydrochloride.
a 13. Para-rosaniline. Para-rosaniline (base).
2 14. Rosaniline. Rosaniline (base).
x 15. Acetic acid Rubin. Rosaniline acetate.
“si 16. Magenta. Rosaniline hydrochloride.
4 17. New Magenta. Tri-methyl-p-rosaniline-hydrochloride.
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds. 99. Acid Magenta. Alkali salt of rosaniline-tri-sulphonic acid. S. and
J. 279.
Phthaleins.
Wool Book II.
Basic Reds. 1. Rhodamine. Phthalein of diethyl-m-amido-phenol (basic hbydro-
chloride). §S. and J. 331.
at 2. Rhodamine B extra. As No. 1.
376 REPORT—1893.
Wool Book II.
Basic Reds. 3. Rhodamine 8. Succinein of diethyl-m-amido-phenol-hydrochloride.
S. and J. 333.
“ 4. Rhodamine § extra. Succinein of di-methyl-m-amido-phenol-hydro-
chloride. §S. and J. 332.
Diphenylmethan Colours.
‘3 10. Pyronin G. Tetra-methyl-diamido-oxy-diphenyl-carbinol hydro-
chloride. §S. and J. 261.
9 5. Acridine Red 3 B. A yellow shade of pyronin.
Azine Colours. Safranines.
* 18. Magdala Red. Diamido - naphthyl -naphthazonium chloride.
8. and J.
Azo Colours.
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds. 12. Acid Ponceau. From f-naphthylamine-mono-sulphonic acid and
B-naphthol. S. and J. 92.
s 16. Double Brilliant Scarlet G. From £-naphthylamine-mono-sulphonic
acid (Br.) and 8-naphthol. 8S. and J. 94.
A 50. Phenanthrene Red.
+ 54. Cresol Red. From amido-ortho-cresol-ethyl-ether and 6-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid R. 8. and J. 57.
; 58. Milling Red G. Constitution not published.
5) 59. Clayton Cloth Red. From dehydro-thio-p-toluidine-sulphonic acid
and f-naphthol. 8. and J. 99.
+ 60. Cloth Red 3G extra. From amido-azo-toluene and £-naphthylamine-
mono-sulphonic acid Br. S. and J. 116.
5 61. Caroubier.
* 62. Fast Red A. From naphthioniec acid and f-naphthol. S. and J. 84,
a 68. Fast Red BT conc. From a-naphthylamine and f-naphthol-mono-
sulphonic acid 8. 8S. and J. 62.
y 73. Cloth Red 3 B extra. From amido-azo-toluene and 6-naphthylamine-
mono-sulphonic acid 8. 8. and J. 115.
3 76. Ponceau 2 8 extra. From amido-azo-benzene and f-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid R. 8. and J. 110.
5 83. Naphthorubin. From a-naphthylamine and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid. §S. and J. 63.
5 84. Thiorubin. From dehydro-thio-p-toluidine and §-naphthol-di-sul-
phonic acid R. §. and J. 68.
5 88. Orchil substitute N. From p-nitraniline and a-naphthylamine-di-
sulphonic acid. 8. and J. 39.
sy 89. Bordeaux BX. From amido-azo-xylene and B-naphthol-8-mono-sul-
phonic acid. §. and J. 117.
Y 90. Orchil substitute V. From p-nitraniline and naphthionic acid.
8. and J. 36.
a 92. Milling Red R. Constitution not published.
5 94, Orchil substitute 3 VN. From p-nitraniline and a-naphthylamine-
mono-sulphonic acid L. §. and J. 38.
re 96. Fast Red B. From a-naphthylamine and £-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid R. S. and J. 65.
Natural Colowring Matters.
Wool Book II.
Acid Reds. 7. Lima-wood red (alumina mordant).
5 8. Lima-wood red (tin mordant).
op 9. Cam-wood red (alumina mordant).
Norrs.—The magentas are peculiar by becoming at first much bluer,
so that at the end of the first ‘fading period’ they appear somewhat darker;
———— re
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. ate
the purplish colour produced soon fades, however, and at the end of a year
a pale grey remains. Acid magenta becomes duller but not bluer,
The rhodamines, pyronin G, and acridine red become yellower.
Cloth red 3 G extra and 3 B extra become distinctly yellower;
ponceau 2 S extra becomes much bluer.
Cam-wood red is remarkable for becoming quite brown and appear-
ing, therefore, darker at the end of the first fading period. This colour
soon fades, however, and leaves at the end of a year a pale drab tint.
Crass III. Moperarery Fasr Conours. (Woot.)
The colours of this class show distinct fading at the end of the
second period (June 14 to July 21, 1892), which becomes more
pronounced at the end of the third period (July 21 to August 14, 1892).
A pale tint only remains at the end of the fourth period (August 14
to February 16, 1893), and at the end of a year’s exposure the colour
has entirely faded, or, at most, mere traces of colour remain.
Azo Colours.
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds. 3. Scarlet G. From xylidine and B-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid R.
8. and J. 49.
Bs 4. Scarlet B.
+ 5. Brilliant Scarlet GG. From m-xylidine and 8-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid R. SS. and J. 50.
oe 7. Lake Scarlet GG. Same as 5.
cs 10. Brilliant Scarlet G. Same as 3.
os 11. Scarlet GR. From xylidine and 8-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid S.
S. and J. 47.
* 14. Lake Scarlet R. Same as 3.
se 15. Ponceau R,
a 17. Scarlet R. From p- and m-xylidine and f-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid R.
4 21. Scarlet 2 R. Sameas 5.
x 22. Double Brilliant Scarlet 2 R.
a 23. Pyrotin Red 3 RO. From f-naphthylamine-sulphonic acid D and
a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid C.
Ss 25. Persian Red.
s 27. Crocein Scarlet OXF. From naphthionic acid and 8-naphthol-mono-
sulphonic acid B. S. and J. 86.
‘3 28. Ponceau 2 R. From amido-azo-benzene and 8-naphthol-mono-sul-
phonic acid Band 8. §S. and J. 108.
“ 29. Cochineal Scarlet 2 R. From toluidine and a-naphthol-mono-sul-
phonic acid C. §. and J. 40.
By 31. Cochineal Scarlet 4R. From xylidine and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic
acid C. S.and J. 45.
a 32. Ponceau 3 R. From amido-ethyl-dimethyl-benzene and 8-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid R. S. and J. 51.
Si 33. Coccin BB.
> 34. Naphthol Scarlet. From naphthionic acid and 8-naphthol-sulphonic
acid,
3 37. Cochineal Scarlet R.
” 38. Anisol Red. From ortho-anisidine and 8-naphthol-mono-sulphonic
acid 8. §. and J. 54.
By 39. Ponceau 4 R. From cumidine and #-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid R.
S.and J. 51.
5; 40. Azo-eosin. From ortho-anisidine and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid
NW. §. and J. 55.
a} 41. Coccinin. From ortho-amido-phenetol and 8-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid R. §. and J. 41.
378
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds. 42.
a 49,
Es 52.
‘ 64.
+ 66.
» 67.
x 69.
” 70.
9 71.
5 U2:
- 74,
ee 15.
" 17.
. 79.
8 80.
fs 81.
a 86.
5 78.
2 82.
Wool Book II.
Acid Reds. 3.
” x.
REPORT— 1893.
Crystal Ponceau. From a-naphthylamine and 8-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid G. §. and J. 64.
Fast Red E. From naphthionic acid and §-naphthol-mono-sulphonic
acid S. §. and J. 87.
Cloth Scarlet G.
Fast Red C. From naphthionic acid and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic
acid NW. 8. and J. 85.
Crocein Bb. From amido-azo-benzene and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid Sch. 8S. and J. 107.
Cloth Red G. extra, From amido-azo-toluene and §-naphthol-mono-
sulphonic acid 8. 8. and J. 113.
Bordeaux G. From amido-azo-toluene-mono-sulphonic acid and
8-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid 8. 8. and J. 126.
Orchil substitute G. From para-nitraniline and 8-naphthylamine-mono-
sulphonic acid Br. 8S. and J. 37.
Granat liquid. From a-naphthionic acid and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid (3°6).
Cloth Red No. OG. Same as 67.
Cloth Scarlet R.
Buffalo Rubin. From a-naphthylamine and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid Sch. 8. and J. 61.
Qnanthin. From naphthionic acid and naphthol-di-sulphonic acid.
Azo Red A. From amido-azo-naphthalene and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid.
Wool Red.
Fast Red D. From naphthionic acid and B-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid
R. S.and J. 89.
Palatine Red. From a-naphthylamine and naphthol-di-sulphonic acid.
8. and J. 66.
Induline Colours. Rosindulines.
Rosinduline B. Constitution not published.
Rosinduline BB. Constitution not published.
Natwral Colouring Matters.
Cochineal crimson (alumina mordant).
Kermes crimson (alumina mordant).
Cuass IV. Fast Cotours. (Woot.)
The colours of this class show comparatively little fading during the
first, second, and third periods. At the end of the fourth period a pale
shade remains, which at the end of the year’s exposure still leaves a pale
tint.
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds, 1.
s 2.
ss 6
% 8
sin, whic
eS
~) 19
Azo Colowrs.
Ponceau 4 GB. From aniline and §-naphthol-mono-sulphonic-acid 8.
8. and J. 27.
Ponceau 2 G. From aniline and §-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid R.
8. and J. 29.
. Ponceau RT, From toluidine and §-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid R.
S. and J. 42.
. Milling Red FGG. Constitution not published.
. Wool Scarlet R. From xylidine and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid Sch.
S. and J. 46.
. Azo Coccin 2 R. From xylidine and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonie acid
NW. S. and J. 44.
. Brilliant Crocein MOO. From amido-azo-benzene and 8-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid y. S. and J. 109.
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. a7e
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds. 20. Palatine Scarlet. From m-xylidine and naphthol-di-sulphonic acid.
S. and J. 48.
$5 24. Cotton Scarlet NT. From amido-azo-benzene and f-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid G.
" 26. Crocein Scarlet 3 B. From amido-azo-benzene-mono-sulphonic acid
and §-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid B. 8. and J. 120.
% 35. Double Brilliant Scarlet 3 R. From 8-naphthylamine-sulphonic acid
: Br. and a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid NW. S. and J. 95.
+ 36. Cochineal Red A. From naphthionic acid and f$-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid G. §. and J. 88.
+ 44, Fast Ponceau B. From amido-azo-benzene-di-sulphonic acid and
B-naphthol. §. and J. 121.
45. Milling Red FR. Constitution not published.
A 46. Erythrin X. From amido-azo-benzene and 8-naphthol-tri-sulphonic
acid. §.and J. 111.
i 47. Orocein Scarlet 7 B. From amido-azo-toluene-mono-sulphonic acid
and B-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid B. 8. and J. 125.
“1 48. Ponceau S extra. From amido-azo-benzene-di-sulphonic acid and
B-naphthol-di-sulphonic acid R. 8. and J. 122.
re 51. Phoenix Red A. Constitution not published.
7 53. Cloth Red G. From amido-azo-benzene and a-naphthol-mono-
sulphonic acid NW. 8. and J. 106.
fs 55. Ponceau 6 R. From naphthionic acid and 8-naphthol-tri-sulphonic
acid. §. and J. 90.
a 56. Coccinin B. From amido-p-cresol-methyl-ether and 8-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid R. 8. and J. 56.
rf 57. Brilliant Crocein 9 B. Constitution not published.
63. Crocein AZ. From amido-azo-benzene and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid.
) 65. Erythrin P. From amido-azo-benzene and an unknown naphthol-
sulphonic acid.
pS 85. Crocein 3 B. From amido-azo-toluene and a-naphthol-di-sulphonic
acid Sch. S. and J. 112.
“p 87. Cloth Red B. From amido-azo-toluene and a-naphthol-mono-sul-
phonic acid NW. S. and J. 115.
3 91. Orseillin BB. From amido-azo-toluene-mono-sulphonic acid and
a-naphthol-mono-sulphonic acid NW. S. and J. 124.
1 93. Cloth Red No. OB. From amido-azo-toluene and f-naphthol-di-
sulphonic acid R. §S. and J. 114.
* 97. Azo Fuchsin G. From sulphanilic acid and di-oxy-naphthalene
(1°8)-a-mono-sulphonic acid. 8S. and J. 229.
i) 98. Azo Fuchsin B. From toluidine and di-oxy-naphthalene (1°8)-a-mono-
sulphonic acid. §. and J. 228.
Wool Book II.
Chromotropes. 3. Chromotrope 6 B cryst. Constitution not published.
i 4. Chromotrope 8 B cryst. Constitution not published.
: 5. Chromotrope 10 B cryst. Constitution not published.
Induline Colours. Rosindulines.
Wool Book I.
Acid Reds. 95, Azo Carmine. Sodium salt of phenyi-rosinduline-di-sulphonic acid.
S. and J. 369.
Cuass V. Very Fast Conours.
The colours of this class show a very gradual fading during the
different periods, and even after a year’s exposure a moderately good
colour remains.
Azo Colours.
Wool Book II.
Chromotropes. 1. Chromotrope 2 R cryst. Constitution not published.
% 2. Chromotrope 2 B cryst. Constitution not published.
380 REPORT— 1893.
Oxyquinone Colours.
5. Alizarin Red (alumina mordant).
10. Alizarin Turkey Red (cotton).
Natural Colouring Matters.
. Madder red (alumina mordant).
- Cochineal scarlet (tin mordant),
. Kermes scarlet (tin mordant).
Ne
SILK PATTERNS.
The foregoing colours were dyed on silk, employing 2 per cent.
colouring matter, and the patterns were exposed to light, along with
those on wool, with the result that the relative fastness of the various
‘colours was practically the same as on wool.
GENERAL RESULT.
The experiments extend at present over too limited a number of
colouring matters to enable one to draw fixed general conclusions, but it
may be well already at this point to record the following observations.
The most fugitive reds on wool and silk are the eosins and allied
colours. Curiously enough, the introduction of the methoxy group, as in
methyl-eosin, &c., increases the fastness, not of the colour as a whole, but
of the pale faded tint which results after the first few weeks’ exposure.
As already stated, this tint remains practically unchanged even after a
whole year’s exposure. This is specially noticeable on the silk patterns.
With respect to the rosindulines, it is interesting to note that the
G shades are very fugitive, while the B shades are moderately fast.
All basic reds belong to the more or less fugitive class, including,
namely, the magentas, safranines, and rhodamines, The nature of the
-acid with which the colour base is combined seems to have no influence
upon the fastness of the dyed colour.
Comparatively few (about twenty) of the azo reds examined are
fugitive, and these belong chiefly to the simple monazo colours.
The great bulk of the fast and moderately fast reds belong to the azo
-colours, the so-called secondary disazo colours being generally faster than
the rest. It is evident, however, that the fastness of these azo colours
depends, not only upon the base which is azotised, but also upon the
character of the naphthol-sulphonic acid employed. This is especially
noticeable in the chromotropes, in which a particular dioxynaphthalene
disulphonic acid is employed, and all of which are remarkable for their
fastness. The particular azo compound and phenol united together is
also of importance.
With respect to the milling and cloth reds, it does not appear that the
use of mordants with them increases their fastness to light.
The number of very fast reds is extremely limited, but it includes both
natural and artificial dyes—namely, madder, cochineal, kermes, alizarin,
and the chromotropes 2 R and 2B. When it becomes possible to expose
the Congo reds, one or two others will no doubt have to be added to the
list of very fast artificial red dyes. In this connection it may be pointed
out that certain reds obtained from the natural dye-stuffs are fugitive,
namely, those obtained from Lima-wood, Cam-wood, and the allied woods.
It is well to add that there are no sharp lines of division with respect to
ON THE ACTION OF LIGHT UPON DYED COLOURS. 38
fastness to light among the various reds, and each of the five classes into:
which they have been here arbitrarily divided includes colours which differ
from each other more or less in this respect.
The Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in presence
of Oxygen.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. J.
RussELL, Captain W. pe W. Asyey, Professor W. N. Hartiey,
Professor W. Ramsay, and Dr. A. Ricwarpson (Secretary).
Since the last report was presented the attention of the Committee
has been directed to a consideration of the conditions necessary to start
the decomposition of moist gaseous hydrogen chloride, and of aqueous
solutions of the acid when exposed to the combined influence of sunlight
and oxygen. It has been repeatedly noticed that, although decomposition
of the gaseous mixture, when once started, proceeds at a fairly uniform
rate in different samples, yet the time of exposure necessary to start
the decomposition varies within very wide limits, although the con-
ditions under which exposure is made appear to be the same in each
ease. It was also noticed that there was more difficulty in starting de-
composition in hard than in soft glass tubes. This seems to indicate
that the nature of the glass itself materially affects the initial stage of
decomposition, which is dependent upon the length of time during
which the acid has been kept in contact with the glass, as is borne out
by such results as the following. Nine glass tubes having been filled
with aqueous solutions of the acid of varying strength were exposed to.
sunlight. At the end of six months it was found that the most concen--.
trated of these solutions had been decomposed, the others being un-.
changed, while after twelve months the three strongest of the remaining:
solutions showed by their yellow colour that they also had been decom-
osed.
F This is quite explicable on the ground that the stronger acid more-
rapidly dissolves out the constituents of the glass, and suggested that the:
presence of some metallic chloride is required to start the decomposition.
of the acid. Following up this line a large number of experiments have:
been made on the influence of metallic chlorides in promoting decom-
position, and, although the results are not sufficiently advanced to allow
of our giving full details at present, they appear fully to bear out the:
above hypothesis. For instance, it was found that the addition of a
minute quantity of pure dry alumina to a tube containing moist hydrogen
chloride and oxygen brought about rapid decomposition of the acid on
exposure to light, while precisely similar samples to which no alumina
had been added remained stable for long periods.
The Investigation of Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Seventh
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. TILDEN
and Professor H. E. ArMstRonG (Secretary). (Drawn up by
Professor ARMSTRONG.)
In previous reports attention has been over and over again directed to
the alpha-law of substitution as the dominant law in the case of naphtha-
382 REPORT—1893.
lene, and to the numerous apparent departures from this law observed in
the formation of sulphonic acids. Most interesting examples of the for-
mation of a-derivatives are afforded by Cleve’s recent invaluable obser-
vations on the behaviour of the chlorides of ten of the chloronaphtha-
lenesulphonic acids on nitration (‘Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-
Akademiens Forhandlingar,’ 1892, No. 9: presented November 9; 1893,
Nos. 2,3, and 5: presented February 8, March 14, May 9). His results
are displayed in a subsequent diagram, in which also the properties of
the various derivatives are indicated, as the Swedish publication in
which they are described is not generally available. The formula of
the chlorosulphochloride is given in the first column of symbols; that
of the resulting nitro-derivative or derivatives in the second; and that
of the corresponding trichloronaphthalene obtained by the action of
phosphorus pentachloride in the third. In the table of (-derivatives
the results obtained by Dr. Wynne and the writer on sulphonating
the £-chlorosulphonic acids! are included for comparison with those
obtained on nitrating their chlorides. It will be seen that in the case
of the a-chloro acids the nitro-group in every instance takes up the
‘ opposite’ a-position; only in two cases are (-compounds obtained. In
the case of the /3-chloro acids the nitro-group assumes the a-position con-
tiguous to the (-chlorine atom—a most interesting and significant result.
The results obtained on nitration are strikingly different from those
attending sulphonation; it can scarcely be doubted, however, that in the
case of sulphonic acids the formation of (-acids is due to secondary
changes, but opinions differ as to the nature of these. It appears to be
commonly supposed that when sulphonation takes place at high tem-
peratures, and in presence of excess of acid, a-sulphonic groups become
split off, and that sulphonation then occurs in /-positions; Dr. Wynne
and the writer have been unable to discover any proof of direct sulpho-
nation of the /-position, and incline to the belief that the formation of
}-sulphonic derivatives is either the outcome of isomeric change or—
and probably most frequently—of polysulphonation followed by hydro-
lysis. Thus, naphthalene--sulphonic acid is not improbably the final
product of the following series of changes :
AA AA RU Boers Ts
SQES@GEsohesaaele
SI ee MOA
PS) Ss 5
1 The results of our examination of the sulphonation products of all the obtain-
able chloronaphthaienesulphonic acids are yet to be published. It may not be out
of place to state that the work which was expressly reserved in 1890—the examina-
tion of the sulphonation products of the chloronaphthalenemonosulphonie acids
(first notice, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1890, p. 131), and of the corresponding naphthyl-
aminemonosulphonic acids (first notice, Proc. Chem. Soc., 1890, p. 128)—is nearly com-
pleted. As the object of the work is the determination of the positions assumed by
the entering sulphonic radicle in the two classes of derivatives, there is little to be
gained in publishing the results until the constitution of each disulphonie acid has
been ascertained beyond question. This has involved characterising the trichloro-
naphthalenes more definitely than by melting-point determinations, and, as in the
ease of the dichloronaphthalenes (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1890, p. 77; Brit. Assoc. Rep.,
1891), this is being carried out mainly by examining the acids obtained by sul-
phonating each of the fourteen isomeric trichloronaphthalenes (first notice, Proc.
Chem. Soc., 1890, p. 76).
ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 383
We have in a previous report directed attention to the fact that the
polysulphonic acids which can be obtained by sulphonation are of certain
types, and that there is, in fact, an invincible objection on the part of two
$O3H groups—under conditions thereby prevailing—to remain in either
contiguous, or para-, or peri-positions. During the year we have been
able to examine three of the naphthalenedisulphonic acids which cannot
be obtained by direct sulphonation, 7.e., the 1 : 2,1: 4, and 1: 1’ acids,
having prepared these, and the 2 : 3 : 2’-naphthalenetrisulphonic acid by
an indirect method communicated to us by Dr. Duisberg.! With the aid
of these acids and of others prepared by the same method we hope to
further elucidate the phenomena of sulphonation.
We have ascertained that of the three acids prepared by sulphonating
chloro-G-naphthylamine hydrochloride, viz.—
cl cl cl
és in NH, ae : NH, sf i _ NH,
WV DAY |
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
Nos. 2 and 3 are of independent origin; in other words, that, although
both can be obtained from No. 1, No. Y is not convertible into No. 3
under the conditions which admit of the conversion of No. | into Nos. 2
and 3. It is noteworthy that, in the formation of the No. 2 and No. 3
acids, chloronaphthylaminedisulphonic acids always accompany the two
monosulphonic acids, and the investigation of these compounds, so far as
it has progressed, affords further evidence in favour of our view of the
complexity of the phenomena underlying the formation of /-sulphonic
acids.”
Another case which may be referred to is that of the formation of 1: 2
a-naphthylamine /3-sulphonic acid from naphthionic acid (1 : 4), which is
effected by heating the sodium salt of the latter at about 200°. It appears
probable to us that the change involves the formation of a disulphonic
acid, which then undergoes hydrolysis, yielding the ortho-acid, thus :—
NH, NH, NH,
oo as (oaae
ria | seks
eo Sans WK
The production of disulphonic acid may be the outcome either of
direct interaction of two molecules of the monosulphonic acid or of the
action of acid sulphate formed by the agency of traces of water unavoidably
present in thesalt. It hasactually been observed that hydrated potassium
1: 2:4 a-naphtholdisulphonate yields the ortho-mono-sulphonate when
heated. The superior stability of the ortho- as compared with the para-
sulphonate thus brought into evidence in the case of both naphthol and
naphthylamine is highly remarkable, bearing in mind the extreme in-
stability of the corresponding benzene derivatives, and is evidence that the
1 Cf. Chem. Soc. Proc., 1893, p. 166.
2 Dbid., 1890, p. 133.
3 Cf. Conrad and Fischer, Liebig’s Annalen.
384 REPORT—1893.
mere contiguity of an amido- or hydroxyl-group does not condition insta-
bility. The special properties of the -sulphonic derivatives of naphthalene
are doubtless a consequence of a structural peculiarity of the cycloid. It is
especially from this last point of view that observations such as are here
alluded to are of particular interest, and it may be permitted to draw atten-
tion to them as illustrating the circumstance that facts which in themselves
are of no special value may become of more than usual interest when con-
sidered in connection with the larger problems underlying all investigations
of details.
In the course of the further study of the action of bromine on
beta-naphthol derivatives interesting results have been obtained which
may be here mentioned. If an aqueous solution of potassium 2 ; 2’ beta-
naphthol-sulphonate be subjected to the action of even a large excess of
bromine, potassium bromohydroxynaphthaquinone sulphonate is pro-
duced, together with a very small proportion of dibromohydroxynaphtha-
quinone; but if an aqueous solution of this quinone sulphonate be
warmed with bromine it becomes oxidised to a brominated sulphophthalic
acid ; apparently, in the former case, the presence of hydrogen bromide
in excess prevents the bromine acting as an oxidising agent. It is easy
to obtain a monobromosulphonate and the quinone sulphonate by the
action of bromine on an aqueous solution of Schaeffer’s salt, but the
preparation of the intermediate di- and tri-bromosulphonates is very
difficult. If, however, the salt be suspended in muriatic acid it is easy to
convert it wholly into tribromosulphonate and to avoid the production of
quinone sulphonate. Recently it has been ascertained that if 2 : 3’ beta-
naphtholsulphonic acid be dissolved in muriatic acid it is wholly con-
verted into tetra-bromo-beta-naphthol by the mere addition of an excess
of bromine; as the product of the action of an excess of bromine on
beta-naphthol is a mixture of the tri- and tetra-bromo-derivative, which
are separated only with difficulty, this observation affords a welcome
method of preparing tetra-bromo-beta-naphthol. The readiness with which
bromine, in presence of muriatic acid, displaces the sulphonic radicle-
from the acid, but not from the salt, is calculated to excite surprise.
Melting-point of
Chloro-nitro-sulphonic
a- Chloro-derivatives 3 3 :
s 8 =
Saal eps
&
ta Cl
a Cl
| | > | 151° | 220° | 116°
Cl 7s
. No, Ot
is
“ Cl Cl
S Wa Nol Ns: NO, Cl ASX cL
ie) —> | 182° | 231° | — hs
75°
ON
a- Chloro-derivatives
Cl
AN
ile)
SEAGA our ®
Cl
ey
wr
NO,
Cl
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ek “
tS)
Cl
1893.
y
3
NO
XN
2
ee
eo
2
fe}
;
ZZ
a2)
2
ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES.
Melting-point of
| Chloro-nitro-sulphonic
2 3
i) Q a
er aes
Bled lee
gO? tage | —
ee | Wet |
160°) 238° | =
TUS) ag2 | <=
|
re gee et re
| 161° | 188° | 128°
116° | 208° | 9°
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ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 387
Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.
—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor,
Dr. MarsHaLtL Warts, Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors DEwar,
LivEING, ScHuUSTER, W. N. HartLey, and WouLcott Gipps, and
Captain ABNEY.
Air (Spark Spectrum).
Neovius (‘ Bihang till K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handlingar, Bd. xvii. 1891).
(Drawn up by Dr. MARSHALL Warts.)
Trowbridge and. Hutchins give also strong air-lines at 4816°60, 4802°37, 4782°62,
4694:15, 4638°90, 4583°15,
* double.
1 Intensity of oxygen line 4.
§ probable impurity.
T. & H. Trowbridge and Hutchins.
Th. Thalén.
H. Huggins.
+ Probably due to copper.
Wave-length
Intensity and
Previous Measurements
Oscillation Frequency |
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) in Vacuo
5768-5 N 3 57683 Th. 17330
57475 N 3 5746-4 ,, 17394
5731'5 N 1 57274 ,, 17442
57123 N 6 57123, 17501
5686-3 N 5 56867 ,, 17581
5679°8 N 12 56794, 17601
5676-0 N 5 56759 ,, 17613
5667°1 N 9 5667-4 ,, 17640
5593-0§ At 17874
55660 N 24 | 17961
5551:0 N 3 55501, 18009
5543-0 N 3 55423, 18035
5535°2 N 6 55353, 18061
553074 N 3 5dS31l'1l 18077
5526-4 N 1 18090
5496-6 N 6 5496-2 ,, | 18188
5479'8*N 5b 54801 ,, | 18243
54628 N 5 54627 ,, | 18300
5453°S*N 5 54541 ,, | 18330
5432°3 N <1 / . 18403
54111 N 1 | 18475
5401:0 N <1 18510
5393-5 N 1 18535
5379:0§N <1 18585
5373-25N <1 18605
5367°8SN <1 18624
5356-9 N 1 18661
5351-7 N 1 53521 ,, 18680
5339:7 N 1 53405, 18722
53291 N 1 18759
5320°6 N 1 53210 ,, 18789
5312-0 <1 18819
5289-0§ <1 18901
5281'8 N 1 18927
5250°7 N <1 19038
5213-8 <1 19174
52067 O <2 5206 H. 19200
52009 N 1 19221 |
5190:8*NO 1 5190°6 19259 .
5185:0*N 1 51856 19281
cia Z
388
REPORT—1893.
AIR (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-length
Intensity and
Previous Measurements
Oscillation Frequeney
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) in Vacuo
5180:0 N 5 casi, 19299
5176-7*NO if pate 19312
5172°5*N 1 51728 19327
5161-0 O 1 5164 H. 19370
50740 N 1 5072 19703
5063-0 N <1 19745
50457 N 7 50457 Th. 19813
50258 N 3 5025-7 Th. 19891
50233 N 3 5022-95 T. & H. 19901
5016-5 N 3 50168 Th. 19928
5011-08N 5 5011-06 T. & H. 19950
5007:3 N 5 5007°5 Th. 19963
50057 N 10 50060, 19978
50027 N 10 5003-0 ,, 19983
49949 N 6 4994-4, 20014
4991-2 N 1 20022
4987°6 N 4 4987-7, 20044
4965°3 N <1 20134
49552 O 1 4955-16 T. & H. 20167
4942-7* 3 4942-0 ‘Th. 20226
4935°1*N 2 4932 HL. 20257
4925-2 O 2 49253, 20298
4915-0 N <1 4915-12 T. & H. 20340
4907°3 O 2 4907°67 4s 20372
48965 N 4 48966 Th. 20417
4891: O 1 4891-27 T. & H. 20438
4879:°7 N 2 487990 20487
4872:0 O 1 4873 HH. 20519
4867-0 N 1 4867 4, 20540
4861-0*N 3b 4859, 20566
48563 O 1 4gn4 ©, 20586
4848-0 N i 4850 ,, 20621
48108 N 3 20780
4806-2 N 3 20800
4803°6 N 7 48047 Th. 20811
47942 N 3 See Iron 20853
47885 N 6 4788-27 'T. & H, 20877
4780°1 N 5 47801 Th. 20914
47746 N 3 4775-07 T. & H. 20938
4768-25 ba 20966
47651 N 2 20980
4752-0 O 2b 21038
47421 O 1 21081
4736-1 N 3 21108
47263 N 3 21150
4721-9 N 1 21172
4718°5 N 3 21187
any N <1 4712-872 T & H. 21213
47101 O 5 : 21225
\.4709°7 N eat ple 21226
47056 O 6) ae 21245
4703-0 N <2) 0b og 21248
46997 O Ken's 4699-40 4, 21272
4698-0 N <In 21279
4696:0*NO <2b 21288
4692-0 O <1 21307
46765 O 6 46764 21377
46743 N 4 4c749 sy, 21385
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 389
AIR (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-length Intensity and Previous Measurements | Oscillation Frequency |
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) in Vacuo
4670°9*N 3n 21403
46681 N 3 21416
4661:9 O 5 4662°6 Th. 21444
4658-1 N 1 4658-05 T. & H. 21462
46548 N 3 4654°85 1 21477
4651:0 NO 4 4651-02 + 21494
4649°2 O 8 4649-25 - 21503
4643-4 N 9 4643°45 5 21529
4641:9 O 9 464190, 21536
4640°5 N 1 4640°75 4 21543
: 4639-0 O 5 4639-00 x 21550
4634:0 N 3 4634-00 = 21573
4630°9 N 12 4630°73 Ss 21588
4622:0 N 3 4621°42 r 21629
4614:°2 N 8 4614°05 3 21666
4609°6 NO 2 4609°45 os 21687
4607:2 N 8 4607:20 33 21699
4601:3 N 9 4601'37 +, 21726
45966 O 6 4596-20 i 21749
se 4590°95 "3 oer
4591-150 7b one 21776
4579'2 N 2 4578552, 21831
45650 N 2 21899
4552°6 N 3n 21959
4545-1 N 3 4544502, 21995
4535'1 N <1 22043
4530°3 N 6b 22067
4523:0 N lb 22103
4518-0 N <1 22127
| 45143 N 3 22143
45116 N 1 4511:85 y 22158
} 4507-7 N 6 4507-72) ay 22178
4491:2 O <lb 22259
4488:0 N <2 4487-94 an 22275
4482:1 N 1 4481°87 iy 22309
4478:0 N 3 4477-87 + 22325
4475:0 N 1b 22340
4469°6 O 3n 4469:50 % 22367
4467°8 O 4 446802 a 22376
4465°4*O 4 4465°40 3 22388 |
4460:0 N 3 4459-90 9 22415 |
4452'7 O 3 4452-40 is 22452
4447:°3*NO! 12 4447-09 22479
44432 O 1 4443°0 =n 22500
44344 N 3 4434-27 9 22544
4432:0 N 3b 4431-90 5F 22556
4430°4 N 3 4430-04 Rs 22566
4426'1 N 5 4426-00 % 22587
44173 O 9 4417-17 es 22632
4415:0 O 9 4415-00 1) 22643
4401:3 N 3n 4401-22 _ 22714
43961 O 3n 4396-30 a) 22741
4392-4 N <1 22760
4385°8 N <1 4385-40 59 22794
43797 N 3 4379-70 5, 22826
4375'2 N 1 22849
¥ 4371:4*N 3 4371:40 re 22869
4369°7 O 3 4369-60 4 22887
390
REPORT—1893.
AIR (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued,
Wave-length
Intensity and
Previous Measurements
Oscillation Frequency
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) in Vacuo
4368°8 O a 22883
4367:0 O 6 4366°92 T. & H. 22892
4362:1 N <l 22918
4356°7 N 1b 4356-62 = 22946
4351°6 O 6 4351:40 F 22973
4349-4 O 8 4349-30 Pr 22985
fem 4347-94 5
4347:9*NO 6 4347-47 ‘ 22993
43458 O 6 4345-52 A 23004
4341'8 N 1b 23025
4337:1 O 3 23050
Btn Z 4332-40 A
4331:7*NO 3n 4331-20 i 23079
4328°5 O 1 4328-42 23096
43273 O 3 4327-60 3 23102
4325°9 O 3 4325-90 _ 23110
4319:9 O 4 4319-50 a 23142
43171 O 4 4317-20 “4 23157
4303°4 O 1b 4303-80 Ry, 23230
4292:0 O 1b 4291:90? ,, 23292
4282°9*NO 1b 4282-40 PA 23342
42752 NO 1 4274-82 “4 23384
4266-7 N <2 4266-32 7 23430
4254-1 O ib 4253-42 y 23500
4251:0 N 1 23517
42421 N 6b 4241-92 bs 23566
4237:0 N 6b 4236-67 i 23595
4228°9 N 6b 4228-52 aS 23640
4295:1 N 1 23661
4293°4 N 4 4223-17 3 23671
4222'2 N 1 23677
42192 N <1 23694
42156 N 1b 42170 H&A 23714
4211-4 N 1 23738
42072 N 1b 4206:92 T. & H. 23762
4198:2 N 4b 4199-22 3 23813
4196°5 N 4s 23822
4193°2 N I! 4193-77 a 23841
4190°0 O a 4190-00 of 23859
4185'8 O 7 4185-32 3 23883
4180°3 N <2n 4179:92 T.& H. 23915
4176-7 N 5b 4AVIT-4 H.& A. 23936
4172°0 N <2 417212 T.& H. 23962
4169'5 O 3 4169°47 of 23977
4167:2 N 1 4166-72 3 23990
41584 N ii 41586 H.& A. 24041
4156°7 O 3 4156-79 T.& H. 24050
4153'7 O 6 415357 rr. 24068
4152:0 N 5 4151-92 e.| 24078
4145°9*NO 7 4145-87 33 24113
4143°8 O 4 24125
4142°38 N <1 24131
41424 O 1 24133
4140°'7 N <1 24143
4137:'8 N 1b 4137-7 Th. 24164
4134-2 N 6 4133°79 T. & H. 24181
41329 O 6 4132-82 8 24189
4129:°3 O 1 24210
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
AIR (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-length
Intensity and
391
Previous Measurements _| Oscillation Frequency
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) in Vacuo
4124:0 NO 5 4123°82 T. & H. 24241
4121-8 O 4 4121-56 - 24254
4120°6 O 6 4120-46 3 24261
41194 NO 9 4119°36 = 24268
41168 N <1 24283
4114-2 O 1 24299
4112-4 O 3 4112716 =n 24309
41110 O 2 4111-01 fe 24318
4105-2 O 4b 4105°21 3 24352
4103:4*N 4b 41033 H.& A. 24363
4097-°3*NO 8b 4097-49 T.& H. 24399
4093'1 O 4 409309 aif 24416
4089°3 O 1b 4088-64 5 24447
4085°3 O 3 408524 + 24470
4081:'7 N iz 24492
4079:1 O 3 4078°83 rp 24508
40763 O 9 407619 re 24525
4072:4 O 9 4072°34 3 24548
40701 O 8 4070-24 = 24562
4063'7 N 1 40641 H.& A. 24601
405638 N 1b 4057-9 24643
40415 N 6b 4041°39 T. & H. 24736
40352 N 5b 403534 3 24774
40259 N 2b 40262 H.& A. 24832
4019-4 <1 24871
4014-3 N L 24903
4011-1 <1 401134 T. & H. 24923
3995°2 N 12 399510 sé, 25022
39829 O 4 398297 _,, 25101
3973°5 O <2 397360 ss, 25159
39686 N 1 3968°70 i, 25191
39616 O 1 25234
3956°1 N ts 3956°17 25270
39546 O 5 3954°85 25272
39475 O 3 25325
3945°3 O 4 39453 H.& A 25339
3939'7 N <2b 3939°80 T. & H. 25375
39347 N 1b 393510 ,, 25400
3928°8 <2 3929'S H.& A 25445
3919:2*NO 10 3919-25 T. & H 25507
3912°2 O 5 3912°30 Si, 25553
3909'2 N 1 25573
3907°8 O 1 25581
3898'9 O 1b 25640
3893-4 N 1b 389350, 25676
3882°6 O 3 388245 i, 25748
3875°9 O 1 25793
38647 O 3 386490 _,, 25867
3863°6 O 2 3863°80 __,, 25875
3861:'7 N 3 25888
3860°5t 3 25896
3857'2 NO 4b 3857'40 i, 25918
3851-6 O 2 25956
3850°6 N 3 385070 ig, 25962
3848°1 NO In 25979
3845°3 N 3 25998
3844:0 O 1 26007
3843'1*N <2 384300 _,, 26013
392 REPORT—1 893.
AIR (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-length Intensity and Previous Measurements _| Oscillation Frequency
(Rowland) Character (Rowland) in Vacuo
3839°8 N <2b 3839-28 T. & H. 26035
38310 N 1b 3830°60 26095
38244 O In 38244 H.& A. 26140
3809°9 N ait 26239
38043 O In 3804-4 % 26278
3782°3 N <<aill 37827 fF 26431
37791 O <1 26447
3770°9 N 1 37721 fs 26511
37646 O <1 26555
3759'9 O 1 37599 * 26588
37585 N 1 26598
37571 O 1 26608
37546 O In 3754-0 % 26626
3749°7 O 6 3749°80 T. & H. 26661
3744°4 <1 26698
3741°3 O ail 3740°3 H.& A. 26721
37369 O <i, 26752
3729'4 N 3 26806
57274 O 5 3727:0 5 26820
3712°9 O 3 37127 5 26925
3709°3 O <1 26951
5707-2 O <1 26966
3703'3 O <1 3702-4 5 26995
Correr (Arc Specrrum).
Kayser and Runge (‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ Pt. V. Berlin, 1892).
* See Iron. + ‘ Bihang till K. Sv. Vet. Akad. Handl.,’ xvii. p. 69. Neovius
gives also lines at 4758°5, 4556°2, 4228-0, 4043°8. ft See Barium.
§ See Calcium. { See Mercury. || See Zine.
** See Bismuth. tt See Cadmium.
Reduction
Wave- Limit | Intensity Previous to Vacuum Oscillation
length of and Measurements Frequency |,
(Rowland)| Error |Character (Rowland) a+ | t— | in Vacuo
A
*5782°30 | 0:03 8s 5782'5 Neovius f 5782-4 Th.) 1-70 51 17289:0
573253 0:03 Is 1:69 5s 17439:2
5700°39 0:03 8s 5700°8 8 5701'8 ,, | 1°68 5:2 17537°5
5646°93 0°30 In 1:67 Be 17703°5
*5555'16 0:10 4s 1-64 53 18996-0
5536-06 0:40 4b a EF 18058°1
5432°30 | 015 2n 1-61 5-4 18393°9
5408-56 015 2n 1-60 5:5 18483°7
*5391°89 0715 4n 1:59 ms 18540°9
5360:22 0:05 2s “f - 18650°8
535520 0°20 2n 1:58 56 18667°8
5352-87 0:05 2s » ” 18676:0
5292-75 0:05 6s 5293:0 i 5293:1 Th. | 1°57 5 18888-2
*5250°78 0-15 2b 1:55 34 19039-2
5220°25 0:05 6s 5 57 191505
521845 0:10 10brr 4*/5218-4 BY 52181 ,, 5 A 19157°1
5201:10 0:10 4b 1:54 . 192210
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
CoprEeR (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
| (Rowlané)
515333
5144°35
5105-75
5076°42
5034°48
4866°38
4794-23
4767-69
4704:77
4697-62
4674-98
4651-31
4642-78
4587°19
4539°98
4531-04
4513-39
4509-60
4507°62
4480-59
4415°79
4397-42
4378'40
4354-91
4336-17
4329-00
4275'32
4267-48
4259-63
4253-53
4249:21
4249-49
4231-20
4177'87
4123-38
4080:70
4073-28
4063-50
4062-94
40568
4022-83
4015-8
4010-96
4003°18
3925-40
3921°38
3899-43
3861-88
3860-64
3825°13
3821-01
*3812-08
| 8805-33
5158°53
| Reduction
Limit |Intensity| Previous Measurements | asl eas
of and (Rowland)
Error | Character 1
el |
Ar
015 1b 1:53 | 5:7
0:20 8nr 4*/5153°6 Neovius 5153°3 Th.| ,, 5:8
015 2b 152 ‘
0:05 8r 5105:9 Fe 5105°5 ,, 5) |
015 2b TEGO! ||, Rs
0-15 1b 149 |,
4955°8 af 4956°5 ,, |
0:20 2n 4932-5 5 4933'4.,, | 244 | 6:
0:20 2n 4911-0 33 4912:3 ,, | 1:42 | 6:2
0:20 2n +5 Het dl Ja
0:05 8s 4703°2 is 47040 ,, | 140 | 63 |
0°10 4n SOD late et 4}
0:10 6b A 6:4
0:10 8s 46513 oh 4651°5 ,, | 1:38 »
015 2n Ri 4
015 10n 4587°4 = 1:36 | 65
015 8br 4540'1 3 1:35 6°6
0:10 8brr 44)4531-1 e 3 i
0:10 2b 1:34 i
0:05 4s 4509°9 5 hs iy
0:20 6n re 4
0:10 8brr 4F/4480°6 a 1:33 :
0:10 6b 1°32 6:7
0:15 In a1 6:8
0:05 8r 4378°2 ee 5 &
0:20 2n 1:3 6:9
0:10 2b 1-29 ¥
015 2n oe ee
0:05 8r 4275°3 i 42755 ,, | 1:28 7:0
0:15 1b 127 is
0:10 6b Me "i
0:10 2b x ps
0:05 4s |4249-4 3 is
0:10 2b 4249-7 3 Tus a peie
0:10 ln 1:26 ee
0:10 4b 1:25 vane
0:10 2b 1:23 72
0°10 2n 1°22 T3
0:15 2n P TA
0:20 In 4063-0 Pe . Re
0-10 10by 5* i +
0:50 2br x A
0:10 10bv 5* |4022°9 cy 1:21 75
0:50 1bt 1:20 Fi
0:20 2n + 3
0:05 2s > %
0:05 2b 1:18 74
0:05 1b 118 (irs
0:10 Ib Hey
0:20 2b 5 1:16 78
0:05 4b 3850°7 -
0:20 lb 5t 1:15 79
0:05 1b
0:05 1b
0:05 2b 114
| Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
193879°7
19399°1
19433°0
19580-0
19693-1
19857°2
20543°1
20852°2
20968°3
21248°7
21281°1
21384'1
21492°9
21532°4
21793°3
22019'9
22063°4
22149°7
22168°3
2217871
22311°9
22639°3 |
22733'8
22832°6
22955°7
230549
23093°1
23383'1
23426-0
23469°2
23502°9
23526'8
23564°5 |
23627-0 |
23928°5. |
24244-7
24498°3
24542°8
24601°9
24605°3
24642°6
24850°6
24894-1
249242
24972°6 |
25467°7
25493°7
256371
258873
258946
26135°0
26163°2
26224°5
262710
393
|
|
394
REPORT—1893.
CoPPER (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
| 3759-53
| 3741-32
| 3734:27
| 3712-05
| 3700°63
| 3688-60
3684-75
367697
3665°85
3659'44
365690
3655°99
3654-6
3648-52
3645-32
3641-79
3636-01
3627-39
3624-35
3621-33
3620-47
3614-31
3613'86
3602-11
3599-20
3546°54
3545-05
3533-84
3530-50
3527-55
3524-31
3520-07
3512-19
3500°37
#349811
3488-89
| §3487-62
3483-82
3476-07
3454-76
| *3450-47
3422-29
3420-20
3415-94
3413-41
| 3404-73
3396°39
3393-09
3392710
3391-09
3771°96
3672:00 |
3652°56 |
*3402°28 |
3395-52
Limit of
Error
0:05
0:05
Reduction to
Intensity] Previous Measurements Vacuum | Oseittation |
and (Rowland) ; Frequency
Character xl we in Vacuo
| A
4b 114 8:0 265034 |
2b 1:13 81 26591:0 |
4b 1:13 26720°4
2b 1:13 26770°9
2b 1:12 26931-2 ©
4b » 82 | 270142
2n 6* |3686°6 Nevius 1-11 | 27102°4
2b 27130°7
2b 271881 |
2b 27224°9
2b 8:3 27270°5
1b 1:10 | 27318°3
1b 27337°3
2 273441
2n 6* 273545
In | 27369°8
Ib | 27400°1
2b | 27424:
2b 27451°7
2b 27494-4
4b 8-4 27559°6
2b 27582°8
4b 1:09 27605°8
2b 27612°3
1b 27659°4
2b 27662°8
6b 3599°7 27753°1
6b 3597°7 H. & A. | 277756 |
lb 1:07 | 86 | 28187-9
2b 28199°7
4b 28289-2
tf 283160
4b 28339°7
2b 3524-4 > 28365°7
4b 28399-9
6b 3511-1 oH 1:06 8-7 28463°6
1b 28559°7
2b 28578'2
1b 28653-7
1b 28664°1
4b 3483:2 28695°4
4b 3478°8 ? 28759-4
4b 3455°8 1:05 88 28936°8
6b 3450°1 28970°3
2n 1:04 8-9 292119
1b 29229-2
2b 29265°6
2b 29287°3
2b 9:0 29361°9
2b 1:03 29383°1
1 29434-0
2b 29441°6
2 29462-7
1 29471°3
2n 29480°0 |
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 395
CopPpEeR (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
3384-88
3381-52
3375-74
3365-46
3354°57
3349-38
3342-99
3337-95
3329-68
3319-76
3317-28
3308°10
3292-95
3290-62
3282-78
3279:89
3277-35
3274-06
3266-05
3247-65
3243-21
3235-74
*3231-19
3226-61
3224-69
3223-47
3211-47
320832
3194-17
3175°81
3169-73
3160-09
3161-67
3146-93
*3149-47
3140-42
3128-73
#3126-22
*3120°53
3116-48
3113-59
3108-64
3099-97
3094-07
307389
3070:86
3063-50
3057-73
3053°52
3052'73
3044-18
3036-17
#3030°33
| | 3025-07
| 3388-21
Limit of era Previous Measurements
Error [oy a ter (Rowland)
0-15 1b
0:05 2b
0:05 4b 3381:0 H. & A.
0°05 2b
0-10 4b
0:10 2b
0:10 4b
0715 In
0:05 4
0:05 4b
0:05 4b
0:05 4b
005 | 8b |33068 _,,
0:05 2
0:05 on 3289°9 &
005 | 4b |32821 ,,
0:05 2 3280'1 2? ”
0:05 1
0:03 10r 327322 as
0:05 2b 3265:2 7%
0-03 | 10r 32469,
0:05 4b 3243°9 ? 5
0:05 4b Boothe
0°05 4b
0°05 2b
0°05 2b
0°05 2b
0°10 2
0°05 4
0:05 4
0:10 2n
0°05 4b
0:05 2
0:05 2b
0:05 4n
0:05 4n
0:05 4b 3139°7 2? ee
0:05 4b
0:05 6b 3123°7 ”
0:05 2b
005 | 4b |/31157 = ,
0:05 2b
005 | 6b |31074 _,,
005 | 4b |30978 =»
0:05 2
0:05 4
0:10 1b
0:05 6
0:05 2
0:10 lb
0°10 1b
0:05 2b
005 | 6 30356,
0710 2b
0710 2b
Reduction to
Vacuum
oe
At r
103 ; 90
10°2 91
9-2
1:01
9:3
1:00
9-4
0:99
9°5
0:98
0-97 96
SEG
0°96
9°8
0°95
9:9
0-94
10:0
0:93
1071
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
31952°0
319777
320360 |
320777
32107°5
32158°6
322485
32310-0
32522°2
325542
32632-4
32694 0
32739°1
327476
32839°6
32926°1
32989°6
330470 |
396 REPORT—1893.
CoPpPpER (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
‘de roth Limit of dunes. Previous Measurements Veen ci
(Rowland) ne Character pened) x 1_ ‘| in Vacuo
HL ae
|
3022°65 | 0-10 4b 3023-4 H. & A. 33073°5
§3021:73 | 0-10 2b 33083°5
3012-07 | 0:05 4b 0:92 | 10-2 | 331896 |
3010:92 | 0:05 4 332022 |
| §2997-46 | 0-05 4 333514 |
| 2991-91 | 0-10 2n 10°3 |- 33413:2
| 298610 | 0:10 4n 33468-7
| 2982-91 | 0:10 Qn 335140
| 2979-52 0-10 2n 335522
| 2978-42 | 0-10 2n
|
335646 |
|
2961:25 | 0:10 6r 29596, 0-91 | 10-4 | 33759:1
2951:38 | 0-10 4b 10°5 | 33872:0 _'
| J2925°65 | 0-10 2b 0:90 | 106 | 341698
2924:99 | 0:10 1b 34187°5
| 2911-29 | 0-10 2 343384 |
2891:77 | 0-10 2n 0:89 | 10-7 | 345702 |
2890:97 | 0-10 2n 34579°8 |
2883-03 | 0:05 4 gge24. >, 346750 |
2879:04 | 0-20 2n 28774 ,, 347231
287566 | 0:20 2n 108 | 347638 |
287460 | 0:20 2n 347766 |
| 279207 | 0-10 2n 0°87 | 11-1 | 358046 |
278665 | 0-10 2n 11-2 | 358742
2783°67 | 0-10 2n 0:86 359126
278273 | 0-10 2n 35924-7
| 2769°37 | 0-20 1b 36097°1
2768-94 | 0-10 4b 27691, 36103°7
276650 | 0:05 6bYr | 27662 ,, 36135°6
2751:86 | 0:20 1b 11:3 | 363281
2751-38 | 0-10 4n 36334-1
2724-04 | 0-10 4n DTU. gs 11-4 | 366988
| 271567 | 0-10 4n 27131 os 0-85 | 11:5 | 36811°8
\**2696-83 | 0-15 1b 0°83 | 11:6 | 37069-0
2687°85 | 015 1b 26888, 37192-9
2681:16 | 0-15 1b 37285°7
267659 | 0:10 2bY 0:84 | 11:7 | 37349°3
267224 | 0-15 2n 0°83 3741071
*2651:78 | 0:10 2n 11:8 | 37698-7
2649-93 | 0:10 2n 2643-5 5, 37725°0
2645:45 | 0710 2n 37788°9
$2635:02 | 0-10 4n 0°82 | 11:9 | 37938°5
2630715 | 0:10 4n 38008°7
2627-49 | 0-10 2n 38047°2 |
2618-46 | 0-05 | 10r \SEI7S 43 12:0 | 381784
2605:08 | 0-15 In 38374'5
2580°52 | 0:05 2n 0°81 | 12:2 | 38739°7 |
257940 | 0:05 2n 38756°5
2570°76 | 0:05 2b 388868 |
2569-99 | 0:05 2n 388985 |
256717 | 0:05 Ten 2565S? ,, 389412 |
*2563°54 | 0:05 2b 0:80 38996-4 | |
2553°38 | 0:05 Iby |25522 ,, 12:3 | 39151°5
254767 | 0:05 2by | 2544-6, 12-4 | 39239-2 |
2494-97 | 0:05 2 2494-4 ,, 0-79 | 126 | 40068-0:
249222 | 0:05 6r 24894, 40112°3
———————— ————— Oe
ON WAVE-LENGITH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
CopPER (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
\ deg Limit of mee! Previous Measurements
| (Rowland) Hire Character Rupwiand)
| 2460:98 | 0°15 2b
*2458:97 | 0-15 2b 24582 H. & A.
| 2441-72 | 0-05 6r 24416,
| *2406°82 | 0-15 Sby | 24043,
240018 | 0:05 4 24001,
239271 | 0°05 Sb'r | 23922 ,,
_ 2369:97 | 0:05 6 23701 4, 2369-9 T.&S.
| 2363-28 | 0-05 1 :
| 235668 | 0:05 4 23550 ,, 23567 ,,
| 2345:59 | 0:05 2 23462 —,, 23462 ,,
| 9319°70 | 0-05 4b
| 230318 | 0:05 6 23038,
| 2294-44 | 0:05 2 22950 ,, 22944 ,,
_ 2293-92 | 0:05 | 10r 22946 ,,° 22939 ,,
+42288-:19 | 0:05 4 2286-72 ,, 2286-72 ,,
228220 | 0-15 1b DG. Oise 5
2276:30 | 0:05 4 22770 ,, 22763 |,
2263-20 | 0:05 6r 92632 , 2263-2 ,,
2260:58 | 0°05 4r
!2247:08 | 0-05 4b 2247-7, +««2247-:0_—,,
2244-36 | 0-05 1 2244-0 _,,
| 2242-68 | 0:05 4 OHH «.) BET |.
| 2240°89 | 0-20 1b
223852 | 0-05 2r
223640 | 0:05 Ir
223016 | 0-05 8r 2230:0 ,, 22301 ,,
222895 | 0-05 4 92991 ,, 22989 ,,
2227°85 | 0:05 8r 2298-1. 4 22978 ,,
222577 | 0-05 6r 22260 ,, 22257 ,,
2218-21 | 0-05 2 SIGE) BRIS.
2215'78 | 003 | 6r D215 Sees DON as
2214-68 | 0:03 8r Q214-1.'.. 9914-4 .,
2210:35 | 0-05 2 22108 ,, 22103 ,,
219977 | 003 sr 21998 ,, 21993 ,,
| 219235 | 005 | 2b 21920 H. A, 2192-4 T.&S8.
| 218969 | 005 | 2 21896 ,, 2189°9 ,,
2181-80 | 0:05 4r 9181:0 ,, 2181-8 ,,
| 2179-41 | 0-10 4 21790 ,, 21795 ,,
| 217897 | 0-05 6r PUTO cy
| 2171-88 | 0-20 | Ir
| 216949 | 005 | 1
| 216520 | 005 | 4r
2149:05 | 0:05 2 21488 ,, 21492 ,,
| 2136-05 | 005 92 21358 ,, 21361 ,,
212611 | 0:05 2 9194-4, 21962.,,
212306 | 005 2 2122-1 ,, 21231 ,,
211219 | 005 | 1 21105 ,, 21122 ,,
2104-88 | 005 4 21030 ,, 21049 ,,
208540 | O10 1 20855 ,,
2068-45 | 010 1 2068°3
2061-:77 | O10 | 1 2062-7?
205508 | 010 | 1 20551 ,,
| 2043-73 | 0-10 | 1 2075:02
| 203728 | 010 | 1 2037°3,,
| 203590 010 | 1 20360 ,,
Reduction to
Vacuum
1
A+ x
0-78 | 12:8
O77 | 12:9
O76 | 13-2
13:3
O75 | 13-4
13°5
13°6
0-74 | 13-7
073 | 13°9
14:0
0-72 | 14:1
14:2
0-70) 143
0°69 | 14:4
145
146
|
| Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
40621°4
406546
40941°8
41535-4
41650°3
41780°3
42181-2
42300°6
42419-1
426196 |
43095°3
434043
43569°7
43579°6
43688°8
43803°4
43916°9
441711
44222°3
444880
44541°9
445753
446109
44658°2
44707°7
44825°6
44850:0
44872°1
449141
450672
45116°6
45139'1
45227°5
45444°9
45598'9
45654°3
45819-4
46028°8
46170°8
47019°9
470874
47329°8
47494°1
47937°9
48330:9
48487°4
48645°3
48915°5
49070°5
491037
397
458697 |
458789
46079°5 |
46527°8 |
46801-0 |
‘
398 REPORT—1895.
CopPER (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to
| aes Limit ae Precaus Wleesurements You | eens
| length of and | (Rowland) i | Frequency
(Rowland) | Error ie | Ne = in Vacuo
2025°14 0:20 2r 2025°7 T. & 8. 49364°7
2016°76 0°20 1 20169 ,, | 14:7 | 49569°8
2015°53 0:20 1 20158 ,, 49600-0 |
2013°19 0-20 1 2013'2 ,, 49657°7
2009°31 0:20 1 49753°6
2003°50 0°20 1 148 | 49897°9
199968 020 1 1999'9 ,, 49993°2
199516 0:20 1 501065 |
1989-24 0°20 1 1989-4 ,, 50255°7 |
1979-26 0°20 1 19794 ,, 5050971 |
197199 0:20 1 1970-4 ,, 50695-4
1956°83 20) ieee 51088°3 |
1943°88 Q:20) 2 1944-1 ,, 514287 |
The lines marked 4* 5* and 6* form a series of pairs, of which the oscillation
1
frequency can be calculated from the formula 10* x = 4-m~—cn, where
a@=31591°6 for the first line, and 31840°1 for the second line of the pair, b=131150,
c=1085060. For those marked 4f and 5f the values are a=31591°6 or 3184071,
b=124809, c= 440582.
Sirver (‘Arc Specrrom).
Kayser and Runge (‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ Pt. VI. Berlin, 1892).
* See Iron. § See Bismuth. t See Cadmium.
| | | Reduction to
Wave- | Limit | Intensity) previous’ Measurements Vacuum Oscillation |
length of | and (Rowland) iF Frequency
| (Rowland)! Error Character) ah. 1_ | in Vacuo
| A
5667-72 | 020 | 4n | [eL67 pb 17638°6
5545°86 | 0:20 4b" | | 164 | 53 | 180262 |
5471-72 0:05 6 4*| 5471:0 Thalén | 162 | 54 | 182704 |
546566 | 0:05 | 10r 5465°2—i,, ie 55 * 18290°6
54360 | 0°50 2n | 1:61 55 18390°4
Boose | O50 | 2br | | 1:58 5°6 18743:8
532993 | 0:20 | 4bv pie, 4 187564
5276-4 0:50 1b | 1:56 i 18946°7
*5209°25 0:05 10r 4*} 1:54 5°7 19190:9
| *5123°85 0:20 | Ib 1:52 58 19510°8
4993-2 050 | In 1:48 59 20021°3
4888-46 0:10 2b 1:45 61 20450°2 |
4874:36 | 0-15 4by 48750. ,, " H 205094 |
4848°33 0:25 4n | 1-44 4s 20619°6 |
47970 | 050 | 2n 1-42 6:2 20840-2
4678-04 0:20 4b 1:39 6:3 213702
4668:70 | 0-10 8by 4t 46676 , H 6-4 21412°8
_ 461603 | 020 | 4n 1:37 » | 216572
| *4556-13 | 0:20 | 4n 1°36 65 | 21942:0
| *4476°29 010 | 6by 4t 44759, 1:33 6°6 22333°3
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
Wave-
length
SILVER (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Limit of
(Rowland) |
|
!
4396-49 |
4379°45
4311:28
421271
405544 |
3991-9
3981-87
3943/1
3940°3
390763
*3841°3
3810°6
371071
36818
3624-0
3557°3
3547°3
3505°43
3501-90
3499-65
3383°00
3327°82
3305°77
3280°80 |
3232-94
3170°66
3130-09
3099-19
$2938:42
*2824-50
2721:84
*2575:70
2447-94
2437-84
2413-26
2375'1
| *9331-41
2324-73
2320°31
2317°10
2312:5
2309-74
2248-79
2246-46
3914-47 |
3542-67 |
|
Error
ea Previous Measurements
Character eapiand)
2b 4396°8 Lecoq de B.
4b
4bv
8r 5* 4212:0 L. & D.
6r 5* 40539,
In
5by 5t
1b
1b
2n
2n
2b 5t
2n 6*
In 6+
2b? 6*
in
1b
1b
4b 35422 H. & A,
lb 7*
4b
1b
10r 3383° -
1b
2b 3308-4 33
10r 3281°6 A
4b 3233'3 ty,
4b
6b 3129-4 ‘s
2
6b 2937°9 i
8b
4 Par Pa leks is =
6b
2 24477 ~~ ,,
4 2437-7,
4 2413°7 “:
10 23759 im
4 2332°1 a
4 2325°'8 s
4 2321°1 op
4 23179 a
8n
| 10r 2310°5 os
2250:1 #
2247°'8
Reduction to
399
Vacuum
x 1
ee
1:31 68
” ”
1:26 (Geil!
ele eae:
1:20 i)
1:19 76
1:18 a
” ”
a it
SALT a
1:15 78
“ 73
1:12 81
Ura lah 8-2
; 1:10 8-4
| 1:08 8°5
1:07 86
” ”
1:06 87
3” ”
” ”
1:03 9-0
1-01 9-2
” ”
1:00 9:3
0:99 9°5
0-97 SELL
0°96 9°8
0°95 SRS)
/ O91 | 10°5
| O88 | 11:0
0°85 | 11:5
O81 | 12:2
0:77 | 12:9
% 13-0
0-76 | 13:2
| O75 | 13-4
O74 | 13:7
J 39 ”
a) 13:8
| ” ”
| 0-72 | 14:2
”
Oscillation
Frequency |
in Vacuo
22738°6
22827-1
23188°1
237340
24650°8
25043°2
251062
25353°2
25371:2
25538°5
25583°3
26025°1
262347
26945-4
27152°4
27585°4
28102°7
28181°9
28218°7
28518°5
28547°2
28565°6
29550°6
30040°5
30240°9
30471:1
309221
31531:7
31938°2
322566
34021-4
35393°5
36728°3
388122
40837°8
41006°9
41425°6
42090°1
42878°8
43002-0
430840
43143°6
43229-4
432762
44454-2
445003
For the lines marked 4* 5* 6* 7* @=30712-4 or 31633-2, b=13062'1, ce =109382- 33
for those marked 4+ 5t 6 a=30696-2 or 31617:0, b=12378- 8, ce =39430°3.
400
Gotp (Arc Spgorrum).
REPORT— 1893.
Kayser and Runge (‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ Pt. V. Berlin, 1892).
t See Bismuth.
* See Iron.
} See Tin.
Reduction to
Waver Limit of arenes Previous Measurements , eet pon
en ne a )
(Rowland) | Error Character ered) ae we fies Vitus
A
6278°37 0°05 4 6277°8 Thalén 1:85 4-6 1592371
5957°24 005 | 4 5956°7 1°75 4-9 16781°4
5863'17 005 | 4 5863: Huggins 1°73 5-0 17050°6
5837-64 005 | 6 5837-7 Thalén Se Pe 17127-2
5656-00 005 | 4 56542 Huggins 1-67 5:2 176751
5230°47 0:05 4 52311 Thalén 1:55 57 19113°0
5064:75 0:05 2 5067°6 Huggins 1:50 5'8 19738°5
479279 0:05 6 4792-7 Thalén 1:42 6:2 20858°5
4488°46 0:05 4 4489°8 Huggins 1:34 6°6 22272°8
| 4437-44 005 4 4437-7 L. de B. 1°32 67 22528°8
| 4364-72 0-10 i 1:30 6:8 22904-2
| 4241/99 | 0:05 2 1:27 | 7:0 | 23566-8
4084°26 0:05 2 1:22 Ge 24476°9
4065:°22 0-05 6 4064-6 a ” T4 24591°5
4041-07 0:05 2 LA ty; fet 24738°2
3909°54 0:05 2 a a 25570°8
389804 | 0:05 4b Perr “y 256462
Be te Wo Os jaeo | 1:08 86 28130°9
3467:19 OF0R I otis | 1:03 8:8 28833:0
3320°32 0:05 4by | 1:01 9:2 301084
3308°42 0:05 2b \ seis * 30216°7
*3265°18 0:05 2b | 30617-0
3230°73 0:05 4b | 1-00 9-4 30943°4
| $204°81 0-05 4b | O98 9:5 31193°6
| 3194:82 0:05 4b | 0:97 9°6 312911
| 3181-90 0-10 1b + 5 31418°2
3127:03 015 1b 0:96 9°8 31969-4
3122°88 0-03 6r 3122°8 L. & D. ” ” 32011°9
3117-08 0-05 4b 1 0°95 a 32071°5
3038:25 0:05 1b 0°93 | 1071 329036
3033°38 0:05 6n ” ” 32956°4
| *3029°32 0:05 6 ” ” 33000°6
1302467 0°15 2n ” ” 33051-4
*3014°32 0°10 2b ae 10:2 33164:8
297573 0:10 1b 0°92 | 10:3 335949
| 297367 0°10 2n 0-91 2 33618-2
| *2970°55 0:10 2b +3 10-4 336534
2963°89 0:05 4b An 3 33729°0
296212 0:10 In ss i 33749-2
2932°33 0:05 6b , 0-90 | 10°5 34092-1
$2913°63 0:05 4 rs 10°6 34310°8
2905°98 0:05 6b e 10:7 34401-1
2892-07 0:05 4b | 0-89 FA 345666
2883°55 0:05 4 \* 34668°8
2748°35 0:05 4r | O86 | 11:3 36374:2
2701:03 0:05 4 0°83 | 11°5 37011°4
2694-40 0:05 1b A 11°6 37102°4
2688°86 0-05 4 ” ” 37188°9
2676:05 0:03 10r 26762 ,, 0:84 | 11:7 373150
2590°19 0:05 4 0°81 | 121 38595°1
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
GoLpD (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.
401
Reduction to
Wave- Limit of Intensity Previous Measurements Vacnum Oscillation
length irron and (Rowland) Frequency
(Row.and) Character a+ | 1L_ | in Vacuo
A
2544-30 | 0:05 4 | 0-80 | 12-4 | 392911
2510°56 0:05 4 0-79 | 12:5 39819°3
2428-06 0:03 10r 2428°0 L. & D. OTe Loa 411720
2387°85 0:05 + | O76 | 13:3 41865°4
2364-69 0:05 4 0-75 | 13-4 42275-4
2352°75 0:05 4 ¥ 13°5 424900
2283°42 0:05 4 | 0-73 | 14:0 43780°0
Kayser and Runge (‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ Pt. VI.
§ See Silver.
Atuminium (Arc Spectrum).
£ See Copper.
Berlin, 1892.)
anh peter
oe etre es t : See
Wave-length ae 233 | Previous Measurements ne age fal ae
(9) Lo
(Rowland) | poole” s (Angstrom) 1— | in Vacuo
ae) A+ x
34 J 396168 | 0:03 | Or | 3961-1 Th. 39609H.&A) 119 | 76 | 252342 |
T13944-16 | 0-03 | lor | 39431 ,, 39432 ,, (118 |_,, 253463 |
Roba04 «| 0-08 | 10s p| 309E SLA D-B0019 yyy.) | OFF) O8 | Beat
| 308227 | 0:03 | 10r |30805 , 30812 , |oo4 | | 32433-7
3066-28 | 0:03 | 6 30650 _,, » | 100 | 32602:8
} 3064-42 | 0:03 | 6 30628, % i 32622°6
3060-04 | 0:03 6 30585, 2 Pi 32669°3
! 3057-26 | 0-03 | 6 3056-4, sy ‘ 32699-0
305481 | 0-03 | 6 30536, i G 32725°3
305019 | 0-03 | 6 3049-2, ‘ x 327748 |
44 J 2660-49 | 0-03 | 10r | 26598, 0°83 | 11:7 | 37575-4
t2652:56 | 0-03 | lor | 2652-0 ”” » | 11:8 | 37687°6
2575-49 | 0-03 | 47 1 | on74.n 081 | 12:2 | 38815-4
2575-20 | 0-03 | lor f ” 2 5 38819°7 |
256808 | 0:03 | lor |2567°5_,, E . 38927-4 |
2426-22 | 0:20 | 4br O77 | 131 | 412033 |
2419-64 | 0-20 | 2br A ae 41315°3 |
6+ (eee 005 | 6r [2378-4 ,, O75 | 13:3 | 42029-7 |
Pees lows a: 2I38HGA.) sor ep| ” | > | auaeg |
237221 | 0-05 | 4r |2372:0 ,, |) ote
2367-16 | 0:03 | 10r |23672 ,, 23669 ,, is 422313
2321-64 | 0-03 | 4 074 | 13:7 | 430593
231912 | 0:03 | 2 ‘ 5 43106-1
2317-55 | 0-03 | 2 » | 138 | 431352 |
231505 | 0-03 | 2 5s 2 431822
2313:60 | 0-03 | 2 A : 432089
§ 231256 | 003 | 2 - ‘ 43228-3
; qx f 228920 | 0:05 | 8 | 2268-7 L. & D. 072 | 14:1 | 44054:3
226383 | 010 | 2r | ooea4 441588
gt £2268°52 | 0-05 '| sr f|“°" ” £ 44164-9
. 2258-27 | 010 | 2 |22573 =, 44267°6
1893. DD
402 REPORT—1 893.
ALUMINIUM (ARO SPECTRUM)—continued.
| ra Reduction
Neate al eS to Vacuum ee
Wavelength | Limit/“232)| Previous Measurements Oscillation
(Rowland) of |2eg (Angstrém) 1 Frequency
Error | & = in Vacuo
ameoa eh es
‘
2231:27 | 0:20 Ney 14:2 44803°4
{ 2225-77 | 0:20 lby 14:3 44914:0
gt f 2210-715 | 0:10 4r | 22100 L. & D. 14-4 45231°4
(2204-73 | 0:10 4r |2205:0 ,, 14:5 45342°5
ant 2199-71f | 0:20 | Ir » | 454460
9* 217413 | 0:10 lr | 2175-0 Cornu 14:6 45980°8
2168°87 | 0-10 ir) 2169:5" 5; 14:7 46092°3
10* 2150°69 | 0°20 ie 2056: 5; 14:8 | 46481°9
214548 | 0:20 Ir (21464 ,, » | 46594°8
qi* J 213481 | 0:20 io) 2034565, 14:9 46825°7
1. 2129:52 | 0:20 UD PALE I Seer 15:0 46943°9
19* J 2123-44 | 0:20 Tr 2022" 55 os 470784
| 2118'58 | 0:20 acu an PD Geon 5 » | 4718674
The oscillation frequencies (in air) of the pairs marked * can be calculated from
1
the formula 10° yaa bn-2—c'n-', when a =48308'2 for the first line, 48420-2 for the
second line of the pair, )=15666-2 and ¢=250533'1; and for the pairs marked +
a@ =48244-5 for the first line and 48356°5 for the second line, b = 12752'7 and ¢ =68781°9,
'The figure preceding the sign * or ¢ shows the value of x.
Inpium (Arc SpEcrRuUM).
(Kayser and Riinge (‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ Pt. VI. Berlin, 1892.)
{ See Zinc. || See Cobalt. § See Iron. + See Thallium.
** See Copper.
| Reduction
Wave- Limit | Intensity | Preyions Measurements to Vacuum | Oscillation
length of and (Angstrém ) Frequency
(Rowland) | Error | Character Nee 1_ | in Vacuo
A
4511-44 0:10 LOrs Si 45102 H. & A. 1:34 66 | 22159°3
$4101°87 0-10 8r3t 41013 5 1:23 73 | 24371:8
3258°66 0:05 Gr Ae 32578 9 1:00 9-4 | 306781
3256:°17 0:05 10r 3255°5 5 0:99 + 30701°5
3039-46 0:05 10m /.4% 3038°7 5 0°93 | 10-1 | 32890°5
2932-71 0:05 Gr 4t 2932°3 7 0°90 | 10:5 | 34087-7
275397 0:05 Gr Ay 2752°8 a 0-86 | 11:3 | 36299°9
2720710 0:20 2nr 0°85 | 11:5 | 367519
2714-05 0:05 Gites (by 27129 5) 0°84 :, 36833 7
2710°38 0:05 10r 2709°3 F 5 3; 36883°7
2666°33 0°20 2b 0°83 | 11:7 | 37493°0
2601°84 0:05 6r Bt 2602°5 1 0°82 | 12:1 | 38422-2
2572°71 0:20 2bv O81 | 12:2 | 38857°3
2565°59 0-20 2n 25647 ay si 3 38965°2
2560°25 0:05 Sr) b* 2559'S ¥ 0°80 iy 39046°5
2523-08 0:10 4a (6% 0:79 | 125 | 39621°6
|]2521-45 0:05 8r 2520°9 o £ 4 39647°2
CO
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
INDIUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
403
Reduction to
| Wave- | imit of | Intensity | Previous Measurements be ks Oscillation
| length Error and (Angstrom) Frequency
(Rowland) Character Nise .- in Vacuo
2470°65 0°15 2 2470°2 H. & A. O78 | 12°38 | 40462°4
2468-09 0:05 4r 6f 2468-4 fo 40504-4
2460714 0:05 6r + 5f 2460°8 3 40635°3
2430°8 0:50 ire 2429-0 ‘ O77 | 13:0 | 41125-7
2429-76 0:20 Ir 2428'6 + ” ” 41143°3
$2399°33 0-15 Art ATE 0-76 | 13°2 | 41665-1
2389-64 0:05 Sr 16* 2388°0 ” ” 13°3 | 418340
$2379°74 0°20 ir §* 0-775 | 133 | 42008-1
2357°7 0:50 lr 8 2357°0 ‘ < 135 | 42400°7
2340°30 0°15 6r 6 0-74 | 13°6 | 42716-0
2306'8 0-50 dist 2306°9 3 0°73 | 13°8 | 43336°3
2278'3 0:30 lr 7 - 14:0 | 43878-4
**2260°6 0°30 Iz) 8S* 0-772 | 14:1 | 44221-9
2241°6 0°30 ibe oh; 14:2 | 44596°8
2230°9 0°30 Jn) 7 /9* 14:3 | 44811°6
**9218°3 0:30 Ir 9f 14:4 | 45065°2
2211:2 0°30 in) 1O* Ae 45209°9
2200-0 0°30 lr 10t 14:5 | 454401
2197°5 0°30 be Sl 5 45491°8
2187°5 0:30 in” 12* 14:6 | 456997
2180-0 0°30 in 13* rf 45857-0
The oscillation frequencies (in air) of the pairs marked * can be calculated from
the formula 10%. =a—bn-?2—en-4;
where @=44515'4 for the jirst line and 46728°6 for
the second line of the pair, )=13930°8, c=131103-2, and for the pairs marked ¢
a@= 44535:0 for the jist line, and 46748-2 for the second line of the pair, b=12676°6,
¢=64358-4. ‘The figure preceding the sign * or ¢ shows the value of n.
THALLIUM.
Kayser and Runge (‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ Pt. VI. Berlin, 1892).
|| See Indium.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
5528°3
5350°65
3775°87
3529:58
3519-39
3229'88
2978-05
| 2945-15 |
Limit of |
Error
0:50
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03
0:03 |
0:20 =|
Intensity
and
Character
2bv
10r
10r
8r
3t
3t
4*
\10r
10r
lby
4t
O15 |
4bv
Previous Measurements
(Angstrém )
5349°6 Thalén
3775°6 L. & D.
3528°3 ,, ~=- 3528'S H&A.
BOLTS) 55 2OlSG. 45. |
5 y)4- i Me 7-4 0
29439 __,,
| Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
18083-4
18683°7
264760
285234
284054
30951°4
33568°7
Reduction to
Vacuum
a et
oe
1:63 5S
158 56
114 8-0
1:07 86
099 | 95
| 0-92 | 10:3
0-91 | 10°5
33943°6
Dpd2
404 . REPORT—1 893.
THALLIUM—continued.
| Reduction to
Wave- | Limit of | Intensity} Previous Measurements Wecie: Oscillation
| length Error and (Angstrém) Frequency
| (Rowland) Character’ Nee 1_ | in Vacuo
\ A
2921°63 0:03 6r 5* | 2921-3 L.&D. 2920°8 H.&A.; 0:90 | 10°6 34216°9
2918-43 0:03 =|10r Olesen Seo LT te 45; re % 34254°4
2895-52 0-15 4bv 289D Ze ooo oD 44, 3 10°7 34525°4
2826:27 0:05 8r 5t | 28258 ,,. 28254 «,, | 0°88 | 11-0 353713
2767-97 0:03 |10r 4* 27671 =, «| O86 | 112 36116°4
2710°77 0:03 ar 6* | 2710-4 ,, 27094 »-,, ©} O84 | Ub | 368784
2709-33 0:03 | 8r 2708°8 ,, 27086 ,, 3 >» | 36898-°9
2700°3 0°50 | 2n 2bOo eee 2100s ae. a FS 37021°4
2665°67 0:05 6r 6t |2665°0 ,, 2665:0 ,, | 0-83 | 11°7 37502°3
2609°86 0-03 4r 7* | 2609-4 } 2608°7 0°82 | 12:0 383052
2609-08 0-03 6r 2608'6) ” = u 7 > 38315°7
2585°68 0:05 4r 7t 0-81 | 1271 38662°4
2580°23 0:03 8r 4t PASS HT) 5p 5 12:2 387440
2553-07 0:10 2r 8* ; ric 0°80 | 12°3 391562
osse-c2 | o10 |6r || 20520 » 25516 | » | 391631
253827 0-10 2r 8t 12-4 393845
2517:°50 | 0-10 Arise aD 7 Ole, | O'79 | 12:5 39709'5
2508-03 0°15 hee hp 3 12°6 39859°3
2494-00 0-10 2r 10x ~ af 40083°6
2487°57 0:20 Ir 10+ 078 | 12:7 40187:2
2477-58 0-710 Ir 11* DAT 6r ee . 40349°3
2472°65 0°20 dr + 12°8 40429°6
2465-54 0:20 Ir 12* s 40546°3
2462-01 0:30 lr 12+ ‘ 40604°4
2456°53 0:20 Ir 13* 40695°0
245387 0:30 Ir 13+ O77 | 12:9 40739°1
2449°57 0:30 lr 14* 40810°6
2447-59 0:30 Ir 14+ | 40843 6
2444-00 0:30 lr 15* 40903°6
2442-24 0:30 lr 15+ 40933°1
2439°58 0°30 lr 16* : % 3 40977°8
2416:78 | 0-15 1b* | 076 | 13-1 413643
2379-66 | 0:03 Srieb*) | 200010 s.. 0:75 | 13:3 42009°5
236216 | 0-15 2br 23648, nee (oS 42320°7
2316-01 | 0:03 6r 4t | O74 | 13°8 431639
2237°91 0-10 6r 6* | 2238-7 Cornu | O-71 | 14-2 44670°3
2210°80 0:10 2r 2210;0) 52.5 | 14-4 452181
2207:13 0°10 4r 6+ 14:5 45293°2
2168°68 0:30 4r 7* \ 2169:0) =, | 14:7 46096°9
2152-08 0°30 Age Tf 25233 oes, 14:8 464519
2129°39 0°30 1. 8* 2028;6) wee : 15:0 46946°8
The lines marked * form a series of pairs for which in the formula
10+ =a—bn-*—cn-*, a=41542°7 for the first line, 49337°6 for the second, b= 132293,
¢=126522°3. For the pairs marked { a= 41506-4 or 49301°3, b=12261-7, e=79068°3.
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 405
Nirrocen (Vacuum Tur).
Ames (‘ Phil. Mag.’ xxx. p. 57, 1890).
Eder and Valenta* (‘ Denkschr, Kais, Akad. Wissensch, Wien,’ Bd. lx. 1893),
* Induction spark between moist carbons in air, which give also the following
ammonia bands: 2594°7, 2593°4, 2586°8, 2585-3, 2478-0, 2476-6, 2470-7, 2469-5.
+ See Hasselberg’s ‘ Positive Band Spectrum of Nitrogen, Indew, p. 213.
Wave-length (Rowland)
Ames
Eder and Valenta
4975-0
4917-1
4813'9
4722°6
4666°35
4648-4
4573°7
4489°6
4415-7
4356°3
4344-4
4269°15
4200°85
4141-2
4094-0
4059-0
3998°0
3942-55
389425
3856°9
3804°85
3755°15
371015
3671-35
3642-0
3576°85
3536°5
3500°15
3469-05
3309-4
32848
3267°5
3158-9
3135°7
3116-4
3103°8
29767
29619
2953-0
2819-7
2814°15
4270
4206
4141
4058
3997
3942
3803
3755
3711
3683
3639
3576
3536
3499
3369
2976
2962
2953
Reduction | ers
to Vacuum Oscillation
Hasselberg + or Frequency
Deslandres 1 in Vacuo
Pde — (Ames)
A
4974-0 H. 1:47 5:9 20094°6
4916°72 ,, 1:46 6:0 29331°2
4813-01 ,, 1:43 6:2 20767-0
4721°61 ,, 1:40 6:3 21168°5
4665°22 ,, 1:39 64 21423°6
4647°30 ,, 1:38 » | 215064
4572°78 ,, 1:36 6°5 21857°6
4488°60 ,, 1:34 6-6 22267-1
4414-68 ,, 1:32 6:7 22639°8
4355°80 ,, 1:30 68 22948°5
2 nr 6:9 23011-2
4268°83 ,, 1:28 70 23416°9
4200°26 ,, 1:26 71 23797°6
4140:24 ,, 1:24 72 24140°4
4093°69 ,, 1:23 T3 24418°7
4058°27 ,, 1:22 74 24629°2
3997:22 ,, 1:20 T5 25005:0
3941°5 D. 1:18 76 25356°7
3893°5 ,, 117 77 256712
38562 ,, 1:16 78 25919°8
3804:2 ,, 1:14 v9 26274:3
3754°45 ,, 1:13 8:0 266221
3709°3 5, 1:12 81 26945-0
3670°5 ,, 111 8:2 27229°7
36409 ,, 1:10 8:3 27449°1
35760 ,, 1-08 85 27949°1
35364 ,, 1:07 8-6 28267°9
34991 ,, 1:06 8:7 28561°5
34681 ,, 1:05 88 28817°3
3445°3,, % 59 29018°7
3370°8,, 1:03 Al 29653°9
333871 ,, 1-02 9-2 29948°5
3308°7 _ ,, 1:01 + 30207°8
32842 ,, 1:00 9-3 30434-0
32671 ,, 3 9-4 30595-0
31583, 096 | 97 | 316469 |
31349 ,, ~ 9°8 31881-0
3115°75 ,, 0:95 FS 320785
3103'2 ,, 3 9°9 32208°7
29761 ,, 0:92 | 103 33583°9
2960°8 ,, 091 | 10-4 33751°7
2952-4 ,, x i 33853°4
28187 ,, 0:87 | 11:0 35453°8
2813°1 ,, y 4 35523°7
This ‘positive band’ spectrum of nitrogen (* Index,’ p- 112) consists of some
seventy or eighty ‘bands,’ each most intense at the least refracted edve, which
generally consists of three ‘ lines’ forming a ‘ head’ to the band, The measurements
of Ames are of the central line of the head.
|
3446-2
3371-2
3338°6
:
406
REPORT—1893.
Carson (Line Spectrum).
Eder and Valenta (‘ Denkschr. Kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Bd. lx. 1893).
* Possibly not carbon lines.
+ Due to cyanogen.
{ Kayser and Runge (on Rowland’s scale).
Wave-length | Intensity
(Rowland)
6584-2
65787
Notseen by | E. & V.
5379'8
51512
51449
51337
45563
42675
3920°8
3883-8
3877:0
$3872°0
3861°6
38545
3848-0
359071
3585°6
3361-0
Notseen by | E. & V.
2993°2
2967°6
2905°4
2837'4
28362
2747°3
Notseen by
2641-4
2567-7
2554°6
2511°8
2508-0
2498-0
2496°8
2479-0
2402°1
2343°5
2342°6
2332°5
2296°8
and
Character
1
1
erg sell ell cell So eels ol cl cl cel el od
——
6B 6B
n
bn
bn
Previous Measurements
(Angstrém )
*6583°0 A. & Th.
*6577°5 4,
56941
5660°9
5646°5
5638°3
5379°0 A. & Th.
51505,
51442,
51330,
4266°3 H. & A.
39195, «=: 39193 L. & D.
38819,
38757 4 38765
3870-7 ,, $3871-5 K.
3861°9
3855-0
3589'9
f35848,, 35859
35833, 3584-1
BLO as
31660 sy,
299371 “ 2995°0 L.
29673, 2968-0
28367 sy, 2837-2
28359, 2836°3
27466 2746°5
2733°2
26400, 2640°7
25116 =, 2511°9
25087 yy 2509:0
247383, 2478°3
PAS) tat Ce 2296°5
& R.
Reduction to
Vacuum
Ag ee
A
1:93 | 4:5
” ”
159 | 55
153 | 58
62) tes
136 | 65
1:27 | 7-0
118 | 7:7
ie
ide |
Pe Nie
” ”
109 | 85
108 | _,,
102°] 94
0:92 | 10:3
0:91 | 10-4
0:90 | 10-7
0:88 | 10:9
0-86 | 11:3
0-83 | 11:8
0-81 | 122
0:80 | 12:3
0-79 | 125
| Tee
0-78 | 12:7
0-76 | 13-2
0-74 | 13-6
ee,
0-73 | 13-9
Oscillation |
Frequency
in Vacuo
15183
15196
18583
19407
19431
19473
21941
23426
25497
25740
25785
25819
25888
25936 |
25980 |
27846 |
28873
29744
33399
33687
33408
35248
36388
37847
38933
39133
39800
39860
40020
40048
40326
41617
42658
42674
42859
43525
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
SInicon.
407
Eder and Valenta (‘ Denkschr, Kais, Akad, Wissensch. Wien,’ Bd. 1x. 1893).
* Characteristic group.
Reduction to |
Waye-length | Intensity Previous Measurements yee Oscillation |
(Rowland) and (Rowland) Frequency |
Character A+ Lea in Vacuo |
A
6366 Salet 1:87 46 1570-
6341 __,, 1°86 Me 1577-
5981 _s,, 1:76 49 1672-
5960, ‘J 1677-
5057, 1:50 59 1977—
5041 __s,, 1:49 # 1983-
4566, 1:36 65 2189- |
41315 4) 1:24 72 24197
4126°5 4f RE a - 24226 |
3905°4 3 3901 _ s, 1:17 TT 25598 |
3862°5 3 1:16 78 25882
38557 3 o ‘s 25928
3834-4 1 115 a 26072
3826°7 1 3 9 26124
| 37959 2 1:14 4 26336
| 3791-1 1 e 26369
3191-1 1 0:97 9-6 31327
3086'8 1 0°94 9-9 32386
2897-2 4 0:90 | 10:7 34505
: 2881°6 10 28815 H.& A. 0:89 i 34692
: 2689°8 1 0°84 | 11°6 37166
| 26774 1 5 1-7 | 37338 |
2673°3 1 0°83 oF 37395 |!
2659:0 1 ” ” 37596
2631°9 8 2631'8 i, 0°82 | 11-9 37983 |
2568°8 2 0-81 | 12:2 38916
25421 8 25415, 0°80 | 12:4 39325 |
2534-7 1 # ; 39440 |
2533°2 4 5 ‘, 39463
2529°0 8 25286 i, . - 39529
2524°1 8 25239 si, 079 | 12°5 39606
» | 25188 8 25189 ss, a 3 39698
25160 10 25159 ss, 43 " 39743
2514-4 il 25140 si, es 55 39758
2506-7 8 25068 _—s,, 9 12°6 39881
2479'8 ] O78 | 12:7 40313
2452°6 3 O77 | 12:9 40760
2446-0 3 ” ” 40870
2443°9 2 * R: 40905
2439-4 2 a Fs 40994
2435°9 8 24358 i, O77 | 13:0 41040
2356°9 1 O75 | 13:5 42415
2303°3 1 O73 | 13:9 43413
2219°5 1 14-4 45041
2218°7 1 = 45057
2217-2 + 3 45088
» | 2212°3 3 _ 45187
2211°5 3 “ 45204
2208°5 3 14:5 45265
2122°8 2 15:0 47093
. 1929-0 1 1929-0 Von Schumann 16-2 | 51824
408
REPORT—1893.
AMMONIA.
Eder (‘ Denkschr. Kais, Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Bd. lx. 1893).
Lecoq de Boisbandran, ‘ C. R.’ ci. 43.
Magnanini, ‘ Atti della Reale Accademia dei Lincei’ (4), v. 1889, p. 900.
Dibbits, ‘ Poge. Ann.’ cxxii. 1864, p. 497.
Hofmann, ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ cxlvii. 92.
* Double.
Flame Spectrum Reauchion:
f sles Intensity t© Vacuum) Oscillation
Lecod We | Eder and ” Frequency
| ues Dibbits | Hofmann) Magnanini | ee Character ee ia Ca evant
a b e d e A
ao, 6666 In 1:96 | 4-4 | 14998d
sia ‘ 15088
geo9 | 96301] 6626 In 1-95.) 25) eraes
cs 6590 J 6602 Is 1:94] ,, ieavnn
ise ee Ps read MM C2
6430 6433 b, 1891) <5, Vee eee
6405 1s 1-88;| 4°6 |! Saeeon
poe = » |.” | 15708d
6366 1s 4°87:)"% |) eee
ee - 186)» | iszopa
6325 | 6330 6329 6b » i] ani) Seegeee
6292 | 6290 6292 6bY 1°86\| 5)" eae
6262 1:86:47) Fae
far Cao 183) » | i6072a
6220 sorte
6180 | 6185 6188 | bby 1-32 | 4° 161554
6170 6170 »4| |) Sees
6130 | 6130 eee
6117 6114)
b 180| ,, | f16405d
oO” (164694
nd 178.) £9 |) ego
6045 | 6060 6060 6050 , | 6 178: 5 Il) eee
6044 | | 6 gts
6020 |. 6030 6022 6 L7nl ., ieee
6014 6 De ees 2
6008 | 5990 | 6010 | 6005) | 6bY vs 3 | on, ed
5970 | 5970 5972 Bn 176) i | weep
5964 5958 5n igs feeeny
Se T1450 |: Feaitod
5912 ae ee
5890 5886 | br al ee
| tis | 173 | » | 470344
| 5869 n ” ”
| 585- 5860 17060d
a | papal
| 583 5832 1:72 | 5B ireora
ieee Pea M2 W71) » | e754
(5754 5787 » |» | 473174
(sree 170} | 173504
5762 br ” ”
5740- | 15746 b eae ae
Ate 2 1°69"! » | t74eed
57% \ r ” 5:2
5710 b ” jo, | 175084
0
Lecoq de
Bois-
baudran
a
5702
5252
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 409
AMMONIA—continued.
Flame-spectrum Reduction
to ae
Intensity | Vacuum | Oscillation
/ Eder and Frequency
Dibbits | Hofmann) Magnanini| (Row- | Character in Vacuo
b ¢ d land) AE bes
e A
5705 5702 6 1°68] 5:2} 17533d
5693 6 55 _ 17560d
5664 5664 by LGM [one 17650da
5640 1663), 17725a
5630 ms 4 17757a
5608 1°66] 5:3) 17827d
5590 5597 1:65] ,, 17862d
5560 5568 } 1:64! ,, 17954d
5557 * > 17990d
5520 5525 1°63 18095a
5485 1°62] 5:4) 18227da
5465 ) bY LéEU |S 18293d
5438 eS 3 18384d
5416 1:60} ,, 18459d
5390 | 5380 5390 n 1:59| 55) 18548d
5339 | ‘ 158| 5°6| 18724d
5303 a (ll aera 18851d
5277 \ Oly 1:56] ,, 18970d
5262 J n \ 5 * 18998d
5253 || nly 1°55} ,, | 19031d
5242 f a 7 o 19071da
5230 n » | 67) 19114d
5212 b 1°54] ,, 19180d
5172 f 5 S:\ 3s 193294
‘ 5166 93 A 19351da
5158 5156 n o 5'8| 19389d
5128 | 5130 5127 b Vc 194994
5111 | b may elas 19560d
5079 5078 | 5079 b, 1°50)| ,; 19683e
4997 | 5007 b 148/59) 19966e
4981 4974 4984 b ” ” 20058e
4966 147! 60! 2013le
| 4924 146)|..,5 20308e
4880 4878 || 4895 + 145| G1) 20423e
4850 4864 Jf 4869 Jf 1-44| ,, 20532e
484? 4839 1:43] ,, 20659e
4782 4789 || 4785 ) b 1:42| 6:2| 20893e
ATT4 S| 4777 J a + 20928e
4747 141} 6:3) 20060e
4700 !
4690 i 4722 b 1:40} 6°3| 2117le
4670 \ i .
4650 f 4678 SOs. 21371le
4662 » | G4| 21444e
46472 4641 1:38] ,, 21541le
4590 a 4620 WEY Gill fe 2 le
4566 1:36| 65| 21895e
4545 4538 4541 Die E355) 955 22016e
4513 4511 1:34/ 66/ 2216le
4492 Jf | 4499 EP a 22220e
4488 Er ny 22275e
4460 1:33] 67} 22415e
410 REPORT —1893.
AMMONIA— continued.
Flame Spectrum Reduction
= 0
Lot de| Eder inte Vacuum peliehes
. ss | requency
at | Dibbits |Hofmann Magnanini or Character la in Vacus
a b ¢ ad e oe, A
4442 1:32| 67| 22505
4419 é << 22623
4350 a 1:30) 6-9| 22982
4338 8 1:29) 23045
4328 hegre s 23098
4306 By * 23216
A289. wh oe 1:28) 7-:0| 23308
4244 a | 1-27! ,, | - 23556
4204 BP | 1:26] 7-1] 23780
4189 SE 1:25) |) ee 23865
4178 aS “aes 23928
4162 aoe| , | 72] 24020
4142 gos | 124] ,, 24136
4099 ES S| 123) 73] 24389
4093 BBs hee 4 24425
3959 52 ]119| 76| 25251
| 3947 “4 Aer | 118! , 25329
3919 ee ne 25509
| 8885 Fig 11g! 25732
| 3797 = 2 1:14| 7-9} 26329
| 3790 6 & ali past 26377
| 3779 eek » | 80! 26454
3750(?) | | 2B 1:13] ,, 26659
| 3748 Sie aa 26673
3740 “eh a tlio: | eeTBO
3682 & 1-11)| “3 27151
3638 1:10) ,, 27480
| 3572 1:08; 85} 28088
|
Reduction | . Reduction! ¢ 5
Intensity ۩ Vacuum | = os : Intensity | * Vacuum) .2 28
y ee oe ———— | Seg
Eder and Sas |). aider and a oS
Character} ) 4 Fes bP nem Character Ta 22's
OC baa x On"
| 3370-0 1:02| 9-1) 29665
oe | 3359-4 » | 29758
3432-2 1:04) 8:9 29127 3353°5 » | 29810
3429-2 , | 29152 || 3340-3 » | 29928
34263 » | 29177 || 3336-0 9:2} 29967
3423-0 » | 29205 || 3382-7 » | 29997
3419-6 » | 29234 || 3329-4 1:01| ,, | 30026
3416-0 » | 29265 || 33258 » | 30059
3412-6 » | 29294 3322°6 » | 30088
3408-9 » | 29326 3318-9 »- | 30122
3405'5 9:0} 29355 3315-9 » | 30148
3401-7 » | 29388 3312°8 1:01}. ,, | 30177
3398-4 1:03| ,, | 29417 3209°6 # 30208
3395-2 » | 29444 | 33065 * | 30234
3391-5 » | 29477 3303°8 Z 30259
3387°8 | » | 29509 3300°8 » | 93] 30286
33843 | | » | 29539 | 32983 | ay liagaog
| 33805. | » | 29572 || 3295-5 » |» | 80335
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
AMMONIA—continued.
Eder
Band vy
a 2718°3
b 2717°2
¢ 2710-0
d 2708°2
Intensity
and
Character
Reduction
to Vacuum
0°85 |11°5
”
0:84
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
36776
36791
36889
36913
A shading of fine lines here which
could not be measured.
Band 5
a 2594-7
b 2593-4
c 2586'8
d 2585°3
2583°0
2581°8
2580°5
2579°6
2578°6
2577°3
2576°3
2575°1
2573°6
2572-4
2571°2
2569°9
2568°3
2567-0
2565°3
2563°7
2562°2
2560°6
2558°9
2557°3
2555-4
2553-7
2551°7
2549°9
2549°0
2548-0
25470
2546:0
254571
2543°9
2543°1
2542°3
2541°5
2540°2
2539°2
2537°8
2536°9
2535°4
2534-1
BeBe eee bb wWwWwWWWWWWWwWWwWwwwWwwHwwPr bd wh
nebulous
0°81 |12°1
0:80
12:2
12:3
12°4
38528
38547
38646
38668
38688
38721
38740
38754
38769
38788
38803
38821
38844
38862
38880
38900
38924
38944
38970
38994
39017
39041
39067
39092
39121
39147
39177
39205
39219
39234
39250
39265
39279
39297
39310
39322
39334
39355
39370
39392
39406
39429
39449
Eder
Intensity
and
Character
ee | bo bo bo bo bo bo BD bn bo Bo BO © OD 9 OD 0D OO Oo GD OD 6D OD C0 He HP Oo Wo Wo OT bt
nebulous
Reduction
to Vacuum
1
ig ie
0:79 12°5 |
12°6
0°78 |12°7
12°9
0°77
13:0
13°1
13:2
411
ency
acuo
Oscillation
u
in +
Fre
412
REPORT—1893.
AMMONIA—continued.
Reduction | g ». 5 Reduction | 2 >. ,
ES Intensity to Vacuum bs 2 8 iA ee to Vacuum Be Z 5
er and a5 er el
Character es gn Character hes",
A+ |=] BES x-| 6a=
2413:0 | 1 41429 2336-2 4 42791
2410°8 1 41467 *2334'8 3 42816
| 2409°3 1 41493 |, *2333-4 2 13°7| 42843
2407'8 1 41518 || 2332-0 1 42868
2406°3 1 41544 23316 1 42875
2330°6 ie 42894
Band ¢ 2329°9 1 42907
2399- 4999:
a23707 | 2 0-75|13-4| 42168 || 23200 | 1 sees
sys 2328°5 1 42932
b 2369°9 3 42182 207-7
an : 2327-6 1 42949
c 2364'1 2 42286 Banc
Ans nA 2326°9 1 42962
2363-0 | 4 42306 || Saog1 | 1 49977
| 2361-4 2 13°5| 42334 Bane: 4
| 926 BY. 2325°3 1 42992 |
23605 | 2 42351 954A.
2359: 9 nes 2324-6 1 43004
2359°9 2 42361 9292. ‘
ces z 5): 2323°5 1 43021
| 2359:°0 3 42377 299. .
) sane : 2323-0 1 43034
| 2358'8 42381 eed
ral 2391-9 | 1 43054
| 2357-4 4 42406 Sane ange
lesen = 2321-4 1 43064
| 2356°5 4 42422 aan
See ag 2320°4 1 43082
2355°5 4 42440 1570; ;
Batic 2319°7 43095
2354:7 4 42455 Se .
A 2317-9 13°8| 43129
23540 | 4 42467 mee td =
ee : 2316°5 43154
2353°2 4 42482 ee EB
or Ps 23151 g 43181
| 2352°4 4 42496 2313-1 3 43218
| 2351-4 | 4 42514 aeqHie 3 é
| . o
| Brads ier 2311°6 g 43250
| 2350°7 4 42527 ' ‘ |
E E 2309-4 43287
Set) 2061 || aag7:4 0-73 43325
2348-4 4 13°6| 42569 %
| 2347°4 4 42587
| 2346-4 4 42505 || Band n
aie. | i sane || Ti 1 0°73 14:0| 4402-
93447 | 4 0-75 42636 |
246 : say || b2270 1 14:1} 4404—
2343°0 4 O74 42667 © 2264 1 4416
2341-7 4 42690 a 2969 1 4419_
2340-4 4 42714 a ¥
23391 5 42723 | A shading of fine lines extending to
23378 5 42761 2210
Carson.
Kayser and Runge (‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ Pt. II. Berlin, 1889).
s Strong. n Nebulous. * Double. dg Dark ground.
Reduction| .5,. | Reduction | 5 5 5
ae Intensity |t0 Vacuum Be a 5 | i Intensity | to Vacuum 3 5 8
NST and a ee es = and beer (a
length | Character LY) es A length | Character 1} 3 S a
K | OE A Se
Second Carbon Band | Third Car)bon Band
| 6635-43 | Ist edge | 1:66] 5:2|17739-6 | 5165-30 Ist edge} 1°53) 5:7 | 193543
| 5585°50 2ndedge} 1:65} 5:3) 17898-2 | 5165-12 s 19354°9
5540°86 | 3rd edge| 1°64] 5°3|18042-4 || 5164-84 19356:0
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 413
5164:59
5164-46
5164-28 |
5164-04 )
5163°87 § |
5163-62
5163-49
*5163°16 }
5162-96 |
5162°60
5162-41
5161-95
5161:77
5161-40
5161-23
5161-08
5160-79
5160-43 |
5160-31 f
5159-92
5159°66 )
5159°50 f
5159-10
5158°69 |
5158-58 J
515817
5157:79 )
5157-66 f
5157-24
5156-71
5156°61
5156-17
5155:70
5155:56
515525
5155-07
5154-49
5154-35 f |
5153°82
5153-32
5153-21
5152-97
515256
5151-97
5151-87
5151-57
5151-22
5150:73 )
5150-61 f
5150-20
5149-83
5149:33
5149-14
5148:65
5148-36
CARBON—continued.
Reduction
Intensity to Vacuum
and —————
Character 1
A+
1:52
in Vacuo
Oscillation
Frequency
19356°9
19357°4
193581
19359°0
19359°6
19360°6 |
19361:0
19362°3
19363°0
193644
19365:1
19366'8
19367°5
19368-9
19369°5
19370°1
193712
19372°6
19373:1
193744
19375:4
193760
19377°5
19379:0
19379°4
19381:1
19382°5
19383-0
19384°5
19386°4
19386°8
19388°5
19390°2
19390°7
19391-9
19392°6
19394:8
19395°3
19397°3 |
19399°2 |
19399°6
19400°5 |
19402:0
19404°3
19404°6
19405°8
1940771
19408°9
19409-4
194109
194123
19414:2
19414°9
19416°8
19417°9
Wave-
length
5147-73
5147-15
5146-85
5146°52
5146-23
514613
5145°52
5145-27
5144-98
5144-72)
5144-62 f
5143-91
5143-64
5143'37
5142-98 )
5142°89 f
5142°15
5141-93
5141°69
5141-37
5141-26 f
5140-41
514018
5139-95
5139°49 J
5139°39 f
5138:56
5138-34
513813
5137-72
5137-62
5136-71
5136-47
513631
5135°701,
5135°63 f
5134-70
513453
5134-34
*5133'79
5132'74
5132:52
5132-40
*5131°68
5130:62
5130°46
5130°32
5129°67
5129°36
5129-20
5128-93
5128-72
5128°51
| 6128 23
514789
and
Character
| Reduction
Tattaeistty | to Vacuum
At+
ate
|
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
19419°5
194201
19422°4
19423°6
19424°8 |
| 19425°9 |
(194263
194287 |
19429°5 |
, 19430°6 |
19431°6 |
19432-0__
19434-7
19435-7 |
19436-7
194382
19438°5
19441-4
194421
19442-2
19443-1
19444-7
19447-9
19448'8
19449-6
19451-4
19451°8
19454-9
194559
19456-5
19458'1
19458°5
19461°9
19462°8
19463-4
19465-7
19466-0
19469°5
19470-2
19470-9
19473-0
19477-0
19477°8
19478:5
| 19483-0
19485-2
19485-6
19486-2
| 19488-6
| 19489°8
194904
19491-4
19499-2
19493-0
19494-1
414
Wave-
length
5128-02
5127-73
5127-38
5127-26
5127-038
512688
5126-73
5126°30
512613
5126-04
5125-71
512553
5125-30
5124-90
5124-82
5124-11
5123'87
5123°34
5123-21
5122°88
5122-46
5122-36
5121-76
*5121-°52
5120-71
5120:39
5119-72
5119-40 |
*5119-21 |
5118°85
5118-17
5118-08
5117-38
5116-93
*5116°74
5116-30
5115°84
5114-99
511448 )
5114-31
5113°76
5113-17
5112-41
5111-87 )
5111-71
5111-42
5110°77
5110:10
5109-79
5109°35 |
5109-17 s
5108-45
5107:97
5107-67
*5106:98
}
|
Intensity
and
Character
m
wD
?7]
n
n
n
REPORT—18938.
CARBON—continued.
Reduction Bho |
to Vacuum Be g 5 | wWave- Intensity
P= => | length and
ee eee ee | Character
Xx ig _
194949 || 5106-60
19496:0 | 5106-44 } a
19497°3 || 5106-00
19497°8 || 5105-44
194987 || 5105-11 n
19499°2 | 5104-67
19499: | 5103-95
19501-4 | 5103-80 | a
19502°1 || 5103-43
19502°4 || 5103-17
19503°6 || 5102-93
19504°3 || 5102°53 s
/19505:1 || 510158
| 195068 |) 5101-10 7
/19508°1 | 5100-95
(195098 || 5099-89 8
19510°7 || 5099-27
119512°7 | 5098-34
195132 | 5098-19 =
19514°5 || 5097-80 n
19516-1 || 5097-51 n
19516-4 || 5097-36 n
19518-7 || 5096-84 s
19519-7 | 5095-98 n
195237 || 5095°36 1 "
195250 | 5095-22 f
195265 | 5094-83
/19527°7 || 5094-13 s
19528-4 | 5093-74
19529°8 || 5093-45 n
19532'4 || 5092-88 n
19532°8 || 5092-52
195354 soon
19537-2 || 5091-85
19537°9 || 5091-51
19539°6 | 5091-29 n
19541°3 || 5090-94 s
19544-6 || 5090-51 n
19546°5 || 5089-43)
19547-2 || 5089-29 / B
19549°3 | 5088:55
195516 | 5088*11
195545 || 5087:°53
19556°5 || 5087-09
19557°1 || 5086-91
195582 | 5086-43 , :
19560°7 || 5086-31 £ =
| 19563°3 || 5085-12
19564:5 || 5084-80 s
19566°2 | 5083-93 n
19566°9 || 5083-24 1 ;
19569°6 || 5083-08 f
19571°4 || 5082:35 n
19572°6 || 5081-86 | s
195752 || 5081-42
Reduction
to Vacuum
>i ee
1:52 | 5°8
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
19576°7
19577°3
19579-0
195812
195824
19583°1
19586°9
195874
19588°9
19589°8
19590°8
195923
19595°0
19597°8
19598°4
196025
19604:9
196084
19609°0
19610°5
19611°6
196122
196142
19617°5
196199
19620°4
19621°9
19624°6
19626°1
196273
19629°5
19630°9
1963175
196334
196348
19635°6
19636°9
19638°6
19642°7
19643°3
19646-2
19647°9
19650°1
19651°8
19652°5
196544
19654°8
19659°4
19660°7
196640
19666-7
19667°3
19670°1
19672-0
19673°7
a
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 415
CARBON—continued.
Reduction Hino pein i be
Wave- ‘gapeeris a cian | B2 } Wave- a fos | = 5 2
length iarantak ins aa | length Character a om
5080°45 19677°5 || 5050°86 s,n | 19792°7
5080°15 . 19678°7 | 5049°89 19796°5
5080-03 f 1967971 || 5049-68 s 19797°3
507844 8 19685°3 |, 5049-52 | 197980
5078'16 19686°4 | 5048-61 | 19801°5
5077°70 19688'1 |, 5048°46 19802°1
5077°52 19688°9 || 5048:27 | 19802°9
5076°83 S 19691°5 | 5047-68 n 19805°2
5076°70 19692°0 | 5047-41 19806°2
5075°42 19697°0 | 5047-16 19807°2
5075:03 19698°5 | 5047-02 19807°8
5073°64 19703°9 || 5045°39 s 19814°2
5073°53 19704°3 | 5044-87 1:49 19816°2
507316 19705°8 | 5043°81 n 19820°4
507261 19707°9 | 5043-42 n 19821°9
* 5072:48 n 19708°4 || 5041°47 s 19829°6
5071°88 s 19710°8 || 5040°86 n 19832°0
*5070°46 19716°3 || 5040°54 19833°2
5070°20 = 19717°3 | 5039-88 Ss 19835°8
5070:08 19717°8 | 5038°60 n 19840°9
5069-86 197186 j 5038°22 19842°4
5068°73 s 19723°0 || 5037°82 s 19844-0
5068°28 19724°8 || 5037-57 19844-9
5067°91 197262 || 5037-42 19845°5
5067°59 n 19727°4 || 5035-79 n 19852°0
5066°91 } - 1973071 || 5035-14 n | 19854°5
506681 f 19730°5 |) 5034-46 | 19857°2
5066-46 19731°9 || 5034-27 19858-0
506632 } [ 19732°4 || 5033°84 = 19859°7
5066°07 19733°4 |\*5033°68 j 19860°3
5065°56 19734°4 || 5033-08 19862°7
5065°41 19735°9 || 5032°18 s 19866°2
5065°18 19736°8 |\*5031:91 19867°3
5065°09 s 19737°2 || 5030°48 19872°9
506459 n 1:50 19739°2 || 5030°05 8 19874°6
5064°32 19740°2 || 5029-60 19876-4
5063°67 8 19742°7 || 5028°54 n 19880-0
5063°39 5°8 | 19743°8 || 5027-94 19883-1
5062-46 5°9 | 19747°4 || 5027°65 19884-0
5061°81 19749°9 ||*5025:92 s 198910
6061°53 19751°0 || 5025-49 n | «* | 19892-7
5059°94 197572 || 5024-22) " 19897-7
5059°85 19757°5 || 5024-09 | 19898-2
5059°34 n 19759°5 || 5022-07 s 19906:3
5058:91 19761°2 || 5021-72 19907°6
5058-06 s 19764°5 || 5020-89 19910°9
5056°80 19769°5 || 5020-79 19911:3
5056-30 ) - 19771°4 || 5019-87 | | 19914-9
505621 / 19771°8 || 5018°58 n 19920-1
5055-88 n 19773°0 |*5017°83 Ss ,19923-0
5054°73 s 19777°5 || 5017-28 19925-2
5054°37 19779°0 || 5017:13 | 19925-7
5053°66 19781°7 || 5016-712 | 19929-8
| 5053°14 19783°8 || 5015-29 n 199331
| 5052°75 s 119785°3 || 5014°84 n 1 19934°9
416
CARBON— continued.
REPORT—1893.
Reduction
Reduction
: 8 Se : Es
Wave- Intensity to Vacuum = g 2 ee: Intensity to Vacuum = 3 S
eee Character x LE aie: 3 e aeneth Character 1 5 ge
+ = Sa A+ r | Oar
501389 s 19938:7 | 4957-42 20165°8
5012-42 n 19944°5 | 4956-08 8 20171°2
5011-66 19947°6 | 495470 20176:9
5010-03 199541 || 4954-25 | 20178°7
5009'62 | . 19955°7 | 4951:50 s 20189°9
5009:53 f 19956°1 || 4950°69 20193°2
5009-18 199574 || 495020 20195'2
5007-82 19962°9 | 4949-14 20199°5
5007-27 n 199651 | 4946-46 s 20210°5
5006-50 nD 19968'1 | 4946-08 202120
5006-24 19969-2 | 4944-69 20217°7
*5005°55 8 19971°9 || 4942-94 20224:9
5004-37 19976°6 | 4942-62 20226°2 |
5003-20 19981°3 || 4941-92 1:46 20229°1
*5002°68 19983'4 | 4940-90 202332
*5001:09 8 19989°7 | 4937:37 20247°7
5000°32 19992'8 | 4936°83 20249°9 |
4999-91 199945 |) 4935-11 20257°0 |
4999-65 19995°5 | 4933-27 20264-5
4999-32 19996°8 | 4932°18 20269-0
4999-09 n 19997:7 || 4928:52 202841 |
*4996°99 8 20006'1 || 4926-96 20290°5 |
4995°16 D 20013°5 || 4924-87 20299'1
4994-68 n 20015'4 | 4924-28 20311°6
4993°39 20020°6 | 4918-05 20327'3
4992-89 20022°6 |) 4916-96 20331°8 |
*4992-44 8 200244 | 4915°16 20339°3 |
4991-50 | 20028-2 || 4914-63 20341°5 |
4991-12 20029°7 || 4912-23 203514 |
4990°64 20031°6 | 4906-86 1:45 20373°6
4990:12 n 20033°7 |, 4905-88 20377°7
4988-27 8 20041°1 || 4905-42 20379°6
4987:44 | 200445 || 4901-96 20394-0
4986-70 n | 20047°5 || 4900:90 203984
4985°96 20050°4 || 4899-98 204021
4983-62 s 20059°8 || 4897-56 20412°1
4981-79 20067°2 || 4896°52 6:0 | 20416°6
4979°36 8 20076:0 || 4893-72 61 | 20428-2
4976:97 200867 | 4890-89 20440°1
4975°69 n 20091'8 | 4887-01 20456°3
4974:58 8 20096-2 || 4886-14 s 20460:0
4973°69 20099°9 || 4885-64 20462-0
4972-78 20103°6 || 4885-05 20464:5
4971°54 20108'6 || 4881-19 20480°7
4970°25 s 6:0 | 20113:7 || 4877°33 20496:9
4967-84 20123°4 || 4875°51 20504-6
4967-53 201247 || 4870:58 20525°3
4965°39 8 20133°4 || 4867-52 20538-2
4963-60 20140°7 || 4864-86 20549°5
4963-02 20143:0 || 4859-88 20570°5
4960-96 8 20151°4 || 4858°55 20576:2
4959-19 20158°6 || 4857-68 20579-9
495859 20161:0 || 4855°95 20587°2 |
495816 20162°6 |) 4854-11 s 20595-0 |
4957-73 201645 || 4853-67 20606°9 |
——
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 417
CARBON— continued.
Wave-
length
4852-44
4848-93
4847-66
4843-11
4842-31
483799
4837°59
4832-80
| 4832-13
4827°38
482687
, 4825°88
| 4821-80
4820°93
4817-14
4815°66
4811°99
| 4811-50
4809-63
4804-35
4801°03
4798-79
| 4798°32
4796-24
4792-92
4786°88
| 4785°63
| 4781-46
4779-44
4775°32
477218
4769°87
4763°86
4758°33
4752-06
4746°55
| Intensity
| and
| Character
|
|
Fourth Car bon Band.
473718
4737-01
— 473633
473613
473581
4735-44
4735°04
4734-59
4734-06
4733°54
4732-96
4732°33
4731-93
4730-92
4729-99
4729°33
1893.
Reduction |
to Vacuum
|
208435
20857°9
| 21112°8
Oscislution
| 20822°6
| 20832°4
| 20916'8
| 21109°4
Frequency
in Vacuo
206121 |
20617°0
20622°4
20641°8
20655°2
20663°6
20665°4
20685°9
20688°7
207091
20711°3
20715°5
20732°9
20736°7
20753°0
207594
20775°2
207773
20785-4 |
20808°6
208544
208842
20889°7
20907°9
209384'8
209486
| 20958°7
| 20985:2
/21009°6
21037°3 ||
21061:7 |
|
Wave-
length
Intensity to Vacuum,
and
Character
1
A+
| A
4728°37
4727-61
4727-09
4726°43
4726-11
4725°62
4725-05
| 4724-47
47 23°97
4723°50
| 4722-23
4721°19
4719-87
4718°76
4717°30
4716-70
4716°10
4715°31
4715°14
471457
4714-04
4713-45
4713-21
4712-69
4712-22
4711-67
2 (leita
4710-40
| 4709°85
— 4709-12
4708°58
4707-60
4707-18
4706°87
470588
4705°39
4705-15
4703-96
| 5703-64
21103°3
211042
21107°2 |
21108:0
2V1T11
211149 |
21117°2 ||
21119°5 |
21122°1 |
211249
21126:7
21131-2
21135-4
21138°3 ||
4703716
4702°53
4702-03
4701-46
4701-05
4700°39
4700716
4699-84
4699°35
4698°84
4698°37
|| 4697-57
4697-14
4696-74
4696-41
4695-95
i
n
e |
s | |
| HG |
|
n
Reduction
121151°3 |
in Vacuo
Oscillation
Frequency
21142°7 |
21146°0 |
211484
21152°7 |
21154-9 |
21157°5
211601
211619
211644
211702
21174:8
21180°7 |
21185°7
211923
21195-0
211977
21201°2 |
212020 |
21204:5
21206:9
21209°6 |
212106 |
21213-0 |
21215°1
212176
21220°1
21223'8
21225'8
21229-1 |
21231°5 |
21235:9
21237°8
21239-2
21243-7 |
21245'9
21247°0 |
21252°4
| 21253'8 |
212560
21258'8
| 21261-1 |
21263'7
21265°5
21268°5
21269°6
212710
21273:2
21275°5
21277°7
/21281°3
21283°3
21285'1
21285°6
21287°6
EE
418 REPORT— 1893.
CARBON—continued.
Reduction
= Reduction |
A to Vacuum! .& a | +, | to Vacuum
Wave- pene poe ose = 5 eal © Wave: Intensity
length Obueactse 4. ee a length | op a . 1
shy LY) Seis aracter} ., | 1_
A | Oe | rN
4695°58 21290°3 || 4688-24
4695°22 | 1:39 21292:0 || 4687-93
469455 | 21295:°0 || 4687°34 |
4694-20 21296°6 |). 4686°92
4693°83 | = s 21298°3 || 4686°56
4693°23 | 21301°0 || 4686714
4692-97 21302°2 || 4685-87
4692-70 21303°5 || 4685°47
4691-97 21306°7 4684°94
4691°12 21310°6
469066 | $s | "218197 |. d
469018 | 913151 | Fifth Car bon Band E.
4689-43 | i 2151873 | 4381:93 1°31) 6:8
4688-98 213203 || 4371°31
4688-68 213217 | 4365-01 |
CyanoGen (Arc SpecrRuM).
| 21336°3
Oscillation
Frequeney
in Vacuo
|
|
|
|
21323°7
21325'1
21327°8
21329°7
21331°3 |
213332
213345
21338°7
Kayser and Runge, ‘ Ueber die Spectren der Elemente,’ pt. ii. Berlin, 1889.
* Eder and Valenta observed (Denkschr. Kais. Ahad. Wissensch. Wien, 1x. 1893) in
the spark-spectrum between carbon-electrodes in air the ‘edges’ 4216, 4197, 4181,
4167, 4157 of the second band; 3883:8, 3872-0, 3861-°6, 3854°5 of the third band ;
3590:1, 3585°6, 3584 of the fourth band ; and 3361°0.
| | Reduction Eb | Reduction . Bee
Wavye- | Intensity eS B6& S ‘| Wave- Intensity | * Vacuum 3 s 5
length | and [ion = > || length ons i fe 25
) = | |} o4 = iD
(Rowland) Nee A+ | = ZEE | (Rowland) aracter at [57 Ze8 |
| © “O05 734:3 |
Second Band of tho Cyanogen Spectrum|| are 8 \eotan i
¥*4216°12 Istedge| 1:26| 7-1 | 23711-4 4211-51 8 23737°4 |
421596 23712'5 4211°32 23738:4 .
4215°78 | 23713°5 || 4210°$8 23740°3 |
421562 | 8 | | 937143 || 4210-77 3741-5 |
4215-47 | 2371571 || 4210°37 23743°2 |
4215°26 8 | 23716°3 421018 8 | 237448 |
421499 | 8 | 23717'7 | 4209°83 | 93746:8 |
4214-71 8.n 23719°3 || 4209°57 | 8 | 237483
4214-40 d | 237211 | 4209-20 | 23750°4
4214°15 \ 8 23722°5 || 4208°93 8 |23751°9 |
4214-03 23723°2 || 4208-51 | 237543
fae 8 23724°6 i 420824 | 8 23755°8
4213°66 2372572 || 4207:89 d 23757°8
4213-37 | 8 23726°9 || 420754 | 8 23759°8
421324 f 237276 * 4207-09 23762°3
4212°97 ) | 8 237291 || 420680 | 8 | 237639 |
4212°80 \ | | 237301 4206°54 23765°4
4212-52 | 8 23731-7 || 420632 | 23766°7
4212-34 | | 23732°7 || 4206-03 | 8 23768°3 |
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 419
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction Reduction
r=] Ep
Wave- | Intensity | © Vacuum 2: 5 ts Sa “Intensity to Vacuum aes
length as Be || (Rowland) Character BS
‘ 1 3 1 oo
(Rowland) | Character a+ | an bee | No ele eaee
4205-78 23769:7 || 4189°63 | 8 23861:3
4205°53 237711 || 4189-02 | 8 23862°8
4205-25 | 8 237727 || 418850 | n 23867°8
4204-99 237742 || 4188-14 23869°9
4204-71 23776°8 || 4187-74 | 238721
4204-41 | 8 237774 || 4187-40 238741
4204-10 23779°2 || 4187-11 23875°7
4203°86 23780°6 || 4186-65 | 23878:3
4203-56 | 8 23782°3 || 418641 | 23879°7
4203-29 23783'8 || 418584 | 8 | 23883-0
4203-01 237854 || 4185-04 | 8 | 23887°5 |
420265 | 8 23787-4 || 4184-45 | | 238909 |
4202-38 237889 || 4184-17 | | 23892°5 |
420212 | 8 23789°4 || 4183-73 | | 23895-0
4201:73 23792°6 || 4183:33 | | 23897°3
4201:47 237941 || 4183-04 238990 |
4201°15 23795°9 || 418239 | 8 | 23902-7
420080 | 8 23797°9 || 4181-89 | 23905°5 |
4200-47 237998 || 4181-47 | 8 23907°9 |
4200°22 | 23801-2 || 4180-987 | | 23910°7
4199-82 | 8 | 23803-4 || 4180-49 f | 23913-5
4199-48 23805-4 || 4180°31 23914°6 |
4199:21 | 238069 || 4180-11 | 23915-7
419881 | 8 23809:2 || 4179:89 239170 |
4198-43 | 23811:4 || 4179:58 23918:7
4198-19 | 238128 || 4179-33 23920°2
4197:77 | 8 | 238141 |] 4179-01 | 23922:0
4197-50 |23816°6 || 4178:70 | | 23923°8
*4197:24 | 2ndedge} 1-25} 7:1/ 238181 || 4178-48 | | 23925-0
4197-02 238193 || 4178-29 | 239261
4196'89 |23820°1 |] 4177:96 | 8 23928-0 |
4196:69 | 23821°2 || 417748 | 8 23930°8 |
4196-50 23822°3 || 4177:05 | 23933-2 |
4196-28 23823°5 || 4176:51 | | 22936:3
419605 8 238248 || 417643 | | 23936'8
4195-771} 4 238264 || 4176-05 23939-0 |
4195-46 f 8 23828-2 || 4175:75 | | | 23940°7 |
4195°14 23830:0 || 4175°54 23941°9
4195-03 23830°6 || 4175-28 | 23942-4 |
4194-77 23832'1 || 4174-99 8 | 23945-1
4194-61 23833-0 || 4174-42 | 23948-4
4194-37 238344 || 4174-13 | 23950-2 |
4193-97 23836:7 || 4173-80 239519 |
419382 23837°5 || 4173-41 239541
4193°51 23839°3 || 4173-14 | 23955-7
4193-31 23840°4 || 4172-98 | 239566 |
4193:03 | 8 23842-0 || 4172-53 23959-2
4192-67 23844-0 || 417218 | | 23961-2
4192-51 238450 || 4171°82 8 23963°3
4192-15 23847-0 || 4171-09 | 23967°5
4191-95 238481 || 4170-63 23970°1
4191-46 | 8 23850°9 || 4170-22 | 23972°5
4190°86 on 238541 || 4169-59 n 2397671
419054 | 238560 | 4169-31 |23977-7 |
4190-25 | 8 | 23857°8 | 4168-83 239804
EE 2
420
REPORT—1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM) —continued.
Reduction|
Bins Reduction Ebio
Wave- | Intensity |! Vacuum) 722 | wWave- | Intensity | Vacuum | 3 & 8
Ea ieee et ge = aS length and | = 2S
rle aracter , ene LOW eter | Dy See
(Rowland) eter) . 4 x Bes | (Rowland) |Character| ) 4 =| as
|
4168°55 239821 | 4151-73 | 240792
4168-20 239841 || 4151505 24080°5 |
4168-09 1239847 | 4151°15 } 24.082°5
4167°77 | |23986°5 | 4150°82 24084-4
4166-90 f /23991-6 | 4150:47 24086°5
4166-71 | 23992:7 | 4150:17 240882 |
416642 239943 | 4149-89 24089°8
4166-14 /23995°9 | 4149-61 /24091°5
4165°85 | 1239976 | 4149-26 | 8 240935
416549 8 | 239997 | 4148-81 240961
416519 8 240014 | 4148-58 / 24097-4
cane | 24003°6 | 4148:21 | 24099°6 |
416437 | | /24006-1 | 4148-00 24100°8 |
| | 24007°6 | 4147-65 24102'8
4163-92 7-2 240085 | 4147-28 24105°0
4163-49 | 8,n /24011:1 | 4146-86 241074
4163-06 (240136 | 4146-69 241084
4162:76 /24015°3 | 4146-41 24110°1
416254 240166 | 4146-16 24111°5
4162°39 240175 | 414601 | 8 | 24112 4
4162-07 24019°3 | 4145-62 /24114-6
4161-75 8 24021:2 || 4145°37 2411671
4161-38 8 240233 | 4145716 | 24117:3
416089 240261 | 4144-88 (241189
4160°38 24029°1 | 4144-72 24119°3
4159-96 8 24031°5 || 4144-31 24122-3
4159-71 240329 || 4144-03 24123-9
4159-47 24034:3 || 4143-72 241256
4159-29 240354 | 4143-51 241269
4159-01 240370 , 4143-07 | 8 24129°5
4158-74 240385 |) 4142-91 241304
415850 1:24 240399 | 4142-60 24132°2
4158-17 s,n 24041°8 || 4142-19 24134-6
4157:89 24043°5 |) 4141-95 24126-0
415755 24045°4 || 4141-70 | 24137°5
4157-32 [ 24046'8 || 4141-39 | 24139°3
4157-02 24047°5 || 4141-15 241407
4156-63 240508 | 4140°89 | 8 | 24149-2
4156°35 240524 | 4140-71 | 24143°3
415606 /24054-1 | 414029 | 8 24145-7
4155-90 24055'0 | 4139-96 | 24147-6
4155/8 24055'7 | 4139-79 | 24148-6
415553 n |24057'1 4139-56 | 24150-0
4155-39 240579 | 4139-30 | BAIBL-5
4155-02 | 2406071 | 4139-14 24152-4
4154-74 |24061'7 |, 413883 24154-2
41553 | | 24062°9 | 4138-66 24155°2
4154-24 |24064°6 | 4138°39 241568
4153-98 (240661 413811 24158-4
415359 7-2) 240684 | 4137.75 24160°5
415334 | |24069°8 | 413739 8 24162°6
4152°88) | 24071°5 | 4137-18 /24163°9
4152-67 | 24073°7 | 4136-95 24165:2
4152°40| | 240753 | 4136-73 24166°5
4152-02 | 24077°5 | 4136-46 24168-1
A
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 42]
CyanoGEn (ARC SPECTRUM) —continued.
Reduction 5 », . Reduction
ae Intensity to Vacuum 3 2 2 Wave- | Intensity to Vacuum
ength Pail = 33 || Jength and) |———
(Rowland) | Character itd ics 3” (Rowland) | Character 1
A+ |7| 6am | Ae
4136°17 24169°8 || 4117°32
*4135°87 24171°5 || 4116-98
4135753 24173°5 4116°68
4135-10 241760 4116°57
4134-94 2417775 4116°29
4134°70 241784 || 4115-93
4134-27 24180°9 || 4115-53
4133°76 8 24183°9 4115-38
4133°39 8 24186:0 || 4114-81
4132°73 24189:°9 || 4114:67
4132°51 24191°2 || 4114-30
4132°31 1:24 | 7:2 | 24192°3 || 4114-15 8
4132-11 24193°5 4113°73
| 4131°88 24194°9 || 4113-25
4131°55 24196°8 4113-08
4131:19 8 24198°9 4112°65
4130-76 24201°4 4112°33
4130740 24203°6 || 4112-14
4130°20 24204:7 4111°88
4129°61 24208:°2 4111°57
4129-43 24209°2 4111:03
4129-04 24211°5 4110°83
4128°74 242133 4110°46
412814 8 24216°8 || 4109-99 8
4127°91 24218:1 4109°55
4127-51 24220°5 4109°29
4127:15 24222°6 || 4108-90
412691 24224:0 4108-60
4126-67 8 24225°4 || 4108°39
412617 242298-4 4108°16
4125:97 24229°5 || 4107-89
4125°54 242321 || 4107-59
4125°25 24233°8 || 4107-30
412501 1:23 24235°2 4107:05
412462 24237°5 || 4106°73 8
4124°25 8 24239°6 || 4106°28
4123°80 24242°3 || 4105-78
4123-40 24244-6 | 4105-45
4123:09 242465 | 4105-13
4122-89 242482 | 4104-80
4122°30 8,n 24251'L | 4104°58
4121°86 24253°7 410416
4121°53 24255°6 | 4103°86
4121:19 24257°6 || 4103°61
4120°89 24259°4 || 4103°33
4120°60 24261:1 | *4102°84 | 8
4120°30 | 242629 || 4102-26 n
412011 24264:0 || 4101-65
4119-43 8 242680 || 4101-38
4119-09 24270°0 | 4100-94
4118°65 |24272°6 | 4100-64
4118°31 242746 | 4100°32
4118-00 73 242767 | 4099:°96
4117-84 24277°3 || 4099-58
4117°66 24278°3 || 4099-22 8
| 24360°0 |
Frequency
in Vacuo
Oscillation
24280°3
24289'3
24284°1
24284-8
24286'4
24988°5
24290°9
24291°8
2495-2
24296-0
24298-2
24299°1
24301°5
24304-4
24305-4
24307°9
24309'8
24310°8
24312°5
24314:3
24317°5
24318°7 |
24320-9
24323°7
24326°3
24327°8
24330°1
24331°9
243331
243345
24336'1
24337-7
24339°6
24341-1
24343-0
24345°6
24348 6
24350°5
2435264
243544
24355°7
243582 |
243615 |
24363°2 |
243661 |
24369°5 |
243731 |
243747
243774
24379°1
24381-0
24383°2 |
24385°4
24387°6
,
REPORT—1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC
SPECTRUM )—continued.
Reduction g5., | Reduction | - ».
Wave- | Intensity | Vacuum| 5 22 | Wave- | Intensity | Vacuum) -£ a8
length and —— | 2S | length and SSS 2S
(Rowland) | Character 1 | $2 | (Rowland) | Character wee 1) 825
a oe | ke Ca
4098°95 24389°2 | 4079712 24507°8
4098°65 24391:0 || 4078°71 24509°3
4098°38 24392°6 | 4078-43 24511°9
4098°15 24394:0 i 4078:°15 24512°6
4097°82 24395°9 || 4077-84 8 2451575
4097-61 24396°2 4077°63 24516°7
4097-29 243981 | 4077°31 24518°7
4096°99 8 24400°9 l 4076°97 24520°7
4096°65 24402°9 || 407662 24522°8
4096:02 n 24406°6 4076°30 245248
4095°58 24409°3 407601 8 24526°5
4095°34 244107 | 4075°66 24528°6
4094-98 24412°8 || 4075°25 24531°1
4094-71 24414°5 i 4074°65 24534-7
409439 n 244164 || 4074-24 24537°2
4093°88 24419°3 | 4073°92 24539°1
4093°55 24420:9 || 4073°69 8 74 | 24540°4
4092:93 | 8 244250 | 407328 24542'8
4092°47 24427°3 || 4073710 24543°9
4091:97 24430°8 | 4072-49 24547°6
4091-61 24433-0 || 4071°98 24550°7
4091-25 24435°1 || 4071-61 24552'9
4090-90 8 24437-2 || 4071°13 24555'8
4090:20 8,n 1:22 24441°4 4070°70 24557°4
4089-60 244450 || 4070°37 24560°4
4089-30 -24446°8 || 4070-04 24562°4
4088°88 n 2444973 4069°71 245644
4088°34 24452°5 || 4069°33 8 24566°7
4087°88 8,n 24455°3 || 4069-00 24568°7
4087°14 24459°7 4068°67 24570°7
4086°80 24461:3 4068°27 24572°1 |
4086-58 244630 || 4068-05 24574-4
4086730 24464°7 4067°68 24576°6
4085°85 24467°4 406749 24577°8
4085°54 24469°3 4067717 245797
4085-20 24471°3 4066°83 24581°8
4084°86 244733 4066°56 24582°4
4084-61 24474°8 || 4066°22 24585°5
4084°51 24475°4 || 4065°66 24588°9
4084-07 244781 || 4065-20 24591°6
408394 244789 | 4064°85 24593°8
408370 24480°3 | 406444 24596°2
4083°43 24481°9 4064°10 24598:3
4083°26 8 24482°9 || *4063°15 24604°1
4082-89 244852 4062°63 24607°2
4082°59 1:22 | 7:3 | 24487°0 4062°26 24609°4
4082-29 24488°8 4062-01 24611°0
4081:94 24490°9 || 4061°53 246143
4081-48 24492°6 4061:15 24616°4
4081°19 24495°4 4060°73 24618°7
4080°84 24497°5 4060°34 24621°1
4080°54 24499°3 || 4059-92 24623°6
4080°33 24500°5 || 4059-48 24626°3
4079°96 24502°7 || 4059-11 24628°5
4079°52 24505-4 || 4058:°67 24631°2
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 423
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued,
Reduction
|
| |
Reduction | dite I ei fers |
Wave- | Intensity |*° Vacuum = se | Wave: Intensity |" ecan | Be a8 :
length and rani = | length | and |= beer ei |
(Rowland) |Character | , , 1 | 826 | (Rowland) | Character | real ae SS |
ot | Om" i | + FY eogir=
4058:31 | 246334 | 4037-25 | | 24761°9 |
4058-04 246350 | 4036-85 | 24764-4 |
4057-68 24637°2 | 4036-60 24765:9 |
4057°33 246394 | 4035°83 247707 |
4057-15 | 24640°5 ! 4035-49 / 24772°7
4056'83 246424 || 4035°17 | 24774-7
4056:55 246441 | 4034-98 | | | 24775-9
4056-12 1-22] 7-4/24646-7 | 403456 8 24778°5
4055°75 24648°9 4034-20 24780°7
4055°42 1:21 24651:0 | 4033°70 | 24783°7
4054:92 24653°6 | 4033-15 24787-1
4054-56 246565 | 4032-50 24791-1
4054:14 24658°7 | 4031-76 (Q4795°7
4053°87 246604 | 4031-50 | | 247973
4053-58 24662°2 4031-16 (247994
4053°35 | 8 24663°6 4030-88 2480171
4053-00 | 24665°7 | 4030°57 24803-0
4052-70 24667°5 | 4029°75 | n 75 24807°9
4052-38 24669°5 4029-30 248109
4052-09 24671:2 | 4028-85 24813-7
4051-66 24673°8 | 4028-41 24816-4
4051-00 | 8 246779 | 4028-09 24818-4
4050°61 24680°2 | 4027-74 | 24820°5
4050°31 24682'1 | 4027-01 24825-0
4050:16 246830 4026-64 1:21 | 7:5 24827-1
4049-87 246848 | 4025-13 24836-4
4049-62 246863 4024-88 24838:0
4049-14 24689°2 | 4024-64 | 24839-4
4048-74 246916 4024-34 24841°3
4048-37 24693°9 4023-92 24844-0
4047-74 24697°7 4023-69 24845°4
4047-31 247004 | 4023-14 | n 24848°7
4047-03 247021 | 4022-67 248516
4046°68 24703-2 | 4021-90 248564
4046-33 247064 | 4021-57 248584
4045°73. | |24710:0 | 4021-14 | 24861-1
4045°35 247123 | 4020-71 | | 24863°7
4044-93 247149 4020-43 | 24865°5
4044:63 24716°7 || 4019-73 | 1-20 | 24869°6 |
4044-48 247177 | 4019°32 | 24872°3 |
4044-22 247192 | 4018:83 | | | 248754 |
4043-94 247216 | 4018-53 | 24877°2
4043-65 ) 247227 | 4018-19 24879'3
4043-43 | | 24724-1 || 4017-80 2481-7
4042-53 | on | 247296 | 4017°57 | | | 24883-2
404214 | | | 24732-0 || 4017-26 24885'1
4041-53 | 24735°7 | 401681 on | 24887°9
4041-28 247372 4016-08 | 24892-4
404055 on | | 2474-7 || 4015-45 24896°3 |
4040-28 247434 4014-94 | (24899°5
403940 on 247488 4014-64 | 24901°3 |
4038-79 247525 | 4014-32 24903°3 |
4038-40 — 247549 | 4013-80 24906-6 |
4038-09 | 247568 4013-56 | 24908-0
4037°31 | ; 247585 4013-28 |} | 24909°8 | ,
424 REPORT— 1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Reduction |
| Reduction) gyi, | piece
; Wave- | Tutensity t@ Vacuum) 3 2 3 | Wave- Intensity © Vacuum| 3 = 3
| length | anaes Ss 3,5 || length ie Boa
| (Rowland) Character 1 BS, || (Rowland) | character 1 5 af.
| | A+ |x| 6am A+ Ch Seo
}
4012-97 /24911-7 | 387550 Q5795-4 |
4012-72 | 249132 || 3875-23 | n 257972 |
| 4011-82 24918°8 | 3875-14 257978
| 4011-60 24920:2 3874-93 25799:2
| 4011-32 24929'0 | 3874-76 25800°3
| 4010-47 24927-°2 || 387432 | 8 | 25803°3 |
4009°68 244322 | 3874-16 /25804:3
4009-44 24933°6 || 3873-92 | | 25805°9 |
4009-18 24935°3 || 3873-70 | 25807°4
4008-94 24936°8 | 3873-52 | 25808°6
400857 24939:1 | 3873:34 | 25809°8 |
| 400812 | | 249419 | 3873-12 | 8 | 25811°3 |
4007-73 | 24943°3 || 387288 | 8 25812°9
400750 24945:7 | 387265 | n 25814-4
4006-72 on 24950°6 | 3872:37 | 8 258163
400551 | | 249581 || 3872-20 25817°4
! : 3871-91 25819°3
nek 4 3871-7 20:
[Third band of the Cyanogen Spectrum Serie ond edge| ote /
3883:55 | Istedge|1:17 | 7-7 | 25741°9 dl
3883'16 257445 dg |
3883-01 25745'5
3882°85 (257466 |
3882°67 25747°8 | 3871-17 | 258243
| 3882-50 1257489 | 3871-02 | 25825°3
| 3882-27 |25750'4 3870°83 25826°6
3882-05 1257519 | 3870°68 25827-6
3881:79 257536 || 3870-50 25828°7
| 3881-51 |25755-4 | 387027 | 8 25830°3
3881-21 (257575 || 387007 | 8 258316
3880:89 1:17 |7:7 | 25759-6 || 3869-78 25833°6
388058 | 8 | 25761:6 | 3869-53 25835°2
3880-49 257622 | 3869-31 258367
3880:21 | 8 257641 || 3869-20 25837-4 |
3880:14 |25764-6 | 3868-94 78 | 25839°1
387985 | 8 25766°5 || 3868-73 || dg 25840°5 |
3879°74 | 257672 || 3868-56 | 25841°6
3879-45 | 8 (25769-1 | 3868-29 | 25843-4
3879°36 | 257697 386814 | | 258444
387903 | 8 | 257719 || 3867-94 | © 8 25845°8
| 3878-91 25772°7 || 3867-77 25846°9
3878-60 [257748 | 3867541) | 258484
3878:46 25775°7 || 3867-40 f| “S&S 25849-4
3878-13 25777°9 || 3867171 | 4 258509
3878-00 257788 | 3866-95; | ¢& 25852'4
| 8877-65 257811 386668) | 4 258542
| 3877-50 1:16 257821 | 386657 /¢| C8 258549
3877-14 25784°5 || 3866°37 25856'3'
3876-99 25785'5 ssoo2s | dg (25856'9
3876:83 257866 || 3866131] 8 | 25857-9
| 387662 | 25788-0 || 3865°78 25860°2
| 3876-48 | 25788°9 | 3865°67 | dg 25860°9
| 3876-07 | 8 (257916 | 3865°50 , 25862'1
| 3875-90 (25792°7 | 3865301] 4 1:16| 7:8 | 25863-4
| 8875-77 | | {257936 |) 386517f| SS | 258643 |
|
— a — << es -,-L.rt‘“‘ié i tt*;~;tS
ON
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)— continued.
WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
425
ny, Reduction Eb |
Wave- fe to Vacuum | -5 S 5 | Wave- Intensity
| length and wees length and
| (Rowland) | ae nea Nee Bes: || (Rowland) Character
| | x Om '™ ||
B86477 |g 25867°0 | 3855-06 | 4thedge
as6z66f © 8 25867°8 | 385499 |
3864-44 | 8 25869°2 | 385482
3864°24 25870°5 | 3854-70
3864-16 258711 | 3854-48| | 4
3863'80 ) | 268735 || 3854-21 f| “5
3863°70 dg 258741 | eel
386352!) 8 25875'3 || 3853-88
386328 258769 | 3853-65
3863-09 25878-2 || 3853°53
3862°85 25x79°8 || 3853-36
3862°64 (| 84 25881-2 || 3853-19
3862-48 | g 25882'3 | 3853-06
3862-12 25884-7 | 3852°86
3861-98, | 8 25885°6 | 385254 | 8
3861-86] | 3rdedge 258864 | 3852-29
dg | 3852-01 |
: | 3851-82
| | 3851-68
| || 3851-41 | 8
3861-70 26887°5 | 3851-30 |
3861-45 258892 | 3851-02) _
3861-30 258902 | 385080!
3861°15 25891-2 | 3850-66 | | ©8
3860-99 25892°3 | 3850-44)
386078 | 8 258937 | 385030) 8
3860°59 258950 | 385007! dg
3860-37 258965 | 3849-88 | |
386011|) dg 258982 | 3849-61) g
3859°80 f 8 25900°3 | 3849-4675) °8
3859-57 25901°8 || 384914 | 8
385940) g / 259030 | 3848-98, | n
3859307, “8 25903'6 | sas76]
3859-09 259050 | 3848-45)
3858-96 25905°9 | 3848-357) °8
385881) 8 25906-9 | )
385862; dg 259082 | 3847-98] | 8
3858" P| 25909°8 | 3847°59, |
3858-26) 25910°6 || 3847-41] |
iret) oe 259122 | 3847-11), dg
3857-82) 25913'6 | 3846-95
3857-63 259148 | 3846-79
3857-49 25915'8 | 3846-65
385729 259161 | 3846-44
3857-07 259186 | 3846-13
385682 8 25920°3 3845-93
3856-58 116 | 7:8| 269219 384538 | 8
3856°39 | 259232 | 3845-46
3856°17 (269247 | 3845°37
3856-03 (25925°6 3845°15
3855°76 | 8 25927-4 | 384501 | 8
3855-56 | 259288 | 384480)
3855°45 /25929°5 | 3844577 | 8
3855:26 | 259308 | 384435) | 8
| | 384413
Reduction
to Vacuum
eal
A
Oseillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
(259321
25932°6
| 25933-7 |
25934-6
|
|
25936°0 |
25937°9 |
25939°2
25940°1 |
25941°6
25942-4
25943°6
25944-7 |
25945°6
| 259469
25949°1 |
25950°8
25952°7 |
25953°9 |
| 25954-9
25956°7
25957°5
25960°8
| 25959°3 |
25961°8 |
25963'3 |
259642
25965°8
25967-0
25968°9
25969-9
, 25972-0
| 25973°1
259746 |
|
25976°7
259774 |
259782
25979°9 |
25982°5
25983°7
25985°7
25986°8
25987:9
25988°8
25990°3
25992°4 |
25992-7
2599671
25996°9
25997°5 |
| 25999-0
| 25999°9
26001°3 |
26001°9 |
26004°4
| 26004°9 |
426 REPORT—1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)-- continued.
Reduction’) gy | i
are Intensity to Vacuum | = 2 || 4 eee 2 oo |
length and pl 2.3 bo ea ee =e 2 |
: | Soe ens ==
(Rowland) | Character re | Ses |CBovdand) Character ee i ca |
‘ i |
eae dg (2 OU81l | 3831-33 26092°8
3°58 26009°5 | 3831-15 8 26094:0 |
3843°46 26010°4 || 3830-95 26095:4
3843-35 |26011-2 || 330-75 Ee
3843°12 8 ee eal 8015 8 26096°7
SS 26012 7 3830-47 260987
mess 26015°0 || 3830-17 | 261007 |
2 5 260165 | 3899-98 26102°0
381234 |26018:0 || 3go9-74 | 8 26103'6
= 26019°8 | 3699-57 26104:8
| 86 | 8 /26021-2 3899-46 26105°5
| 3841-62 260229 , 3899-17 26107°5
| 3841-54 260234 | 3898-97 26108-9
3841-28 | 260252 3828-81 26110-0
3841-07 260266 | 3998-60 (26111-4 |
| 384058 8 260299 3898-31 | 8 261134 |
| 8840-22 260324 | 3898-05 ) | | 2115-2
| ses86 8 26084-2 eee dg 115) 7-9} 261172 |
38398 260340 | 3827-49 | | 261189 |
Ses00 __ |. 260366 | 3827-04 261220 |
ee | 1:15] 7-8 26037°3 || 3896-84 | 8 26123°3 |
foneie 8 | 26038-7 || 3826-61 | 26124°9
38°85 |26041-7 || 3896-44 | 26126-0 |
3838-47 (260443 | 3826-30 | 261270 |
3838:30 /26045°4 | 3896-17 26127-9
3837-97 8 | 26047°6 | 3826-03 261288
3837-75 26049°1 3825-77 26129°6
3837-54 260506 3825-40 | 8 26132-2
S837 12 260514 3825-27 261340
a 260527 3825-09 1:15! 7-9 | 261353
37°0 260542 3824-89 261366
383664 | 8 260567 | 3824-65 261383
3836-44 | 260580 3824-47 26139°5
3836-23 | | 96059°5 | 3824-16 26141-6
3835-91 260616 3823-90 | 8 26143-4
3835-67 260633 3823-64 26145-2
3835-48 260646 3823-40 26146°8
383529 | 8 260659 3823-18 261483
3835-02 1260677 | 3822-95 26149-9
383496 260681 3899-74 26151-3
383472 | dg | 260697 | 3822-43 | 8 26153°5
S858 | 96070:7 | 3892-17 26155°2
as 26071°3 | 3821-88 | 8 26157-2
3834 dg 26073°7 | 3821-53 | 26159-6
3833-93 | 8 26075°1 3821-30 26161-2
3833°73 260765 3820-89 | 8 261640
3833'56 26077°6 3820-69 26165-4
3833°31 260793 3820-50 26166°6
3833-18 (260802 3820-24 26168°5
3835-00 260814 3820-03 26169-9
oe 26082'9 | 3819-84 | 261712
oie 8 | 260845 3819-52 | | 26173°5
oem | 26086:1 | 3819:36 | 8 261745
881-06. | 8 | 1260885 | 3819-15 | | 26175°9
3831-75 26089:9 | 3818-79 | 261784 |
ee
|
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 427
Wave-
length
pUscertand) Character} ) +
381856
3818-34
3818-21
3817-95
3817-79
3817-48
3817-24
3817-11
3816-71
3816-36
381624
- 3815-89
381561
3815°33
3815718
3814:95
381467
3814:44
3814-08
3813°92
3813°58
3813:42
3813-20
3813-08
3812-99
3812-64
381229
3812711
3811-78
$811°44
3810°88
3810-65
3810°37
3810-04
3809-82
8809-55
3809-23
3809°13
3808°80
3808748
3808°24
3808-04
3807°75
3807:60
3807-23
380694
3806 72
3806°51
380624
3805'88
3805-60
3805°50
3805°24
380481
3804-68
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
=
Intensity to Vacuum
and
ao
oo
ies)
1:15) 7:9
ies)
foe}
ie/2)
1:15] 7:9
Reduction
e ris ap.
Be ge | Wave- | Intensity | t® Vacuum Se 5 |
= aS I length and = = = 5
$2 | (Rowland) | Character UP CRT
OR: |! NO ie >
26180-0 | 3804-25 1:14 | £6278°5
26181°5 || 3804-04 | 26279-9
26182-4 || 3803-74 | 26282-0
26184-2 || 3803-62 | 26282°8
26185:3 || 3803-27 | 26285:3
26187°4 || 380316 | 8 | 26286:0
26189-0 3802'88 | 26288°0 |
261899 | 380230 26292:0 |
26192°5 3801:94 26294°5 |
261951 | 3801-71 962961
261959 3801-43 8 | 26298:0
261983 3801-21 | 26299°5
262002 | 3800-96 / 26301°3
26202:2 || 3800-74 26302'8
26203-2 || 3800-65 | 26303°4
26204°8 | 3800-41 | 26305:1
262067 | 380014 | 8 26306:9
26208°3 | 3799-73 8 26309°8 |
262107 | 3799-26 | 26313°0 |
262118 | 3798-98 | 26315-0
26214-2 || 3798-71 | 26316°8
26215°3 3798:60 263176 |
26216°8 | 379817 26320°6 |
26217°6 || 3798-00 | 8 | 26321:8 |
26218-2 || 3797-78 | 26323°3 |
26220°6 || 3797-55 26324-9
26223:1 || 3797-29 | 26326°7 |
26224-3 | 3797:02 | 8 | 26328°6 |
26226°6 || 379667 26331-0
262289 | 3796°40 | 26332°8
26232°8 || 3796-23 | 8 262340 |
26234:3 || 3795-85 | 263367
26236°3 || 3795-43 26339°6 |
26238°5 || 3795:13 26341°7
26240:1 || 3794:96 26342°8
26241:9 || 3794-67 26344-9
26244-1 || 3794-45 26346-4
26244°8 || 3794-21 26348:1
26247°1 || 3793-84 8 | 26350°6
26249'3 | 3793-52 | 26352°8
26250°6 | 3793:23 263549
26251:9 | 3792-98 | 26356°6
26254:0 | 3792:70 | 8 | 26358°5
26255:1 | 3792-48 | 263601
26257°8 || 3792-22 | § 26361:9
26259°9 || 3791-96 263637
26261°5 || 3791-73 | 26365°3
26263-0 | 879153 | 268667
262649 | 3791-28 26368-4 |
262672 || 3791-17 26369°2
26269:2 | 3790°91 26371:0
262698 | 3790:60 26373'1
26271°7 | 3790-23 26375'7
262746 || 3790-04 26377:0
26276:2 | 3789-89 26378'1
428
REPORT— 1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction | Reduction Bee
Wave- | Intensity te Ween ee 8 Wave-_ | Intensity yee s g 5 /
leneth and eres Pet o> | length and rab ree BES
| (Rowland) | Character} ,, | 4_ Gea | (Rowland) |Character} ,, | !_ gfe |
3739758 263802 3776-45 26471:9 |
3789'11 26383°5 | 3776°28 26473°1
3788-93 26384°8 || 3776-07 | 8 264746 |
3788°75 26386-0 || 3775°59 1:14| 8-0 | 26477-9 |
3788-58 26387-2 || 3775°35 | 8 26479°6 |
378833 26389-0 || 3775-08 26481°5
378818 26390°0 || 3774-91 26482°7
3788-04 26391-0 || 3774-68 | n 26484:3 |
3787-96 26391°5 || 3774-40 26486°3 |
3787-54 263945 || 377416 | 8 26488-0
3787:27 | 8 26396°3 | 3773:84 26490-2
3787-01 26398-2 || 3773-60 | 8 26491°9 |
3786'82 26399°5 || 3773-31 26494-0 |
3786°57 26401:2 || 3773-05 26495°8
3786°32 26403-0 || 3772°65 26498°6
3786-05 | 8:0 | 264047 || 3772-56 26499-2
3785°87 26406-0 ||. 377224 | 8 26501'4
3785-64 26407°6 || 3771-87 | 8 26504-0
3785°42 26409-1 || 3771-48 26506'8 |
3785°11 26411'3 || 3771-21 26508°7
3784-86 | 26413:1 | 3770-96 26510°4 |
378452 | n | 264154 3770:70 26512°1
378395 26419-4 || ° 3770°32 265149
378360 | 8 26421'8 3770-09 26516°6
3783°34 264237 | 3769°85 26518°3 |
3783°13 26425'1 | 3769-60 26520:0 |
3782-69 264282 | 3769-44 26521°1 |
3782:48 26429'7 | 3769-00 26524-2 |
3782-36 26430°5 || 3768:73 1°13 2652671
378225 26431°3 || 376837 | 8 26528°7 |
3781-99 264331 | 3768-25 26529°5 |
3781-75 | 8 26434:8 | 3767-90 26532:0
3781:52 26436:4 | 3767-66 26533°7
3781:31 26437°9 || 3767-51 26534-7
3781-11 26439:3 || 3767°37 26535°7 |
3780-95 26440°4 | 3767-27 26536'4
3780°85 264411 | 3767-02 26538-2 |
3780°58 26443:0 | 3766-96 26538°6
3780°35 264446 | 3766-63 26540°9
3780°11 264463 || 3766-50 26541°8
377987 | 8 264479 | 3766:39 26542°6 |
3779°59 26449'9 | 3766°16 26544-2 |
3779°36 26451°5 | 3765-89 2646-1 |
3779-01 264540 | 3765-65 26547°8 |
377887 26454-9 || 3765-40 26549-6
377859 264569 | 3764-97 1:13 | 8:0 | 26552°6
3778-41 26458-2 ! 3764-70 26564'5 |
377821 26459°6 || 3764-41 | 8 26556'6
aves | 8 264612 | 3764-16 26558'3
3777-77 26462°6 | 3763-90 26560:2 |
3777-52 264644 | *3763°65 265619 |
377737 26465-4 | 3763:35 265641 |
3777-18 | 8 26466°8 | 3763-05 26566:2
377692 264686 | 3762-91 26567°2 |
37767 26469°5 || 3762-41 | 8 26570°7 |
|
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.
429
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction Bibs | | Reduction Eb
Wave- | Intensity taiVeran UG 8 | Wave- | Intensity to Vacuum) ..5 a 5
leneth and 1 a o> peda ee | 1 ES as
> wr : SS | y ¥ vo
(Rowland) | Character} ) . x- Ges | (Rowland) | Character) y+ <— EE
3762:11 (26572:8 | 3746°52 26683°4
3761-60 265741 | 3874615 | 8 26686:1
8761:69 26575°6 | 374594 8&1 | 26687°5
3761°47 26577:2 | 3745°69 | 26689-0
3761-08 | 8 2658071 | 3745-44 | 266911
376064 26583°2 || 3745:15 | 26693'1
3760-42 | 8 265843 | 374478 26695-7
3760714 265867 | 374419 26699°9 |
3760-04 265875 3744:07 8 26700°8
3759'82 26589-0 | 3743-74 267030
375-24 265931 | 3743-49 | 26704:9
3758°62 126595°5 | 3743-06 26708°0
375840 | 8 26597-1 | 374267 26710°8
375810 265992 | 3742:33 267132
3757-90 266026 | 3741-96 | 8 26716-0
3757-60 | 26604-7 | 3741:80 26717:0
3757°40 | 266061 | 3741:37 | 26720-1
3757-14 266080 3741-20 | | 96 721-3
3157-02 26608'8 || 3740-96 26723-0
3756:72 26611-0 | 3740°60 | 26725°6
3756-40 | 8 |}26613-1 || 3740-42 26726'9 |
375€-11 26615:3 || 3740-14 267289
3755°90 26616°8 || 3739°86 | 8 267309
3755°58 26619:0 || 3739°63 | 267315
3755°39 26620°4 | 3739-24 26725°3
3755°25 | 26621°4 || 3739-07 267365
3754-91 26623'8 || 373851 | 8 26740°5
3754 63 26625°8 || 3737-93 | 267447
3754°37 26627°6 || 3737-74 26746°0
BI54:13 26629°3 || 3737-53 26747°5
3753-69 26632-4 || 3737-23 | 267497
3753-49 | 26633°9 || 373658 | 8 1:13 | 8-1! 2967543
3753-27 26635:4 || 3736-17 | n | 26757°3
3752°95 26637°7 || 3735-73 26760-4
3752°66 26639°8 373557 267616
3752°33 8 | 26642°1 | *3735-29 26763°6
3752-07 (266440 | 3735-00 26765°7
3751-82 | 26645-7 |. 3734-64 26768:2
3751°58 (266474 | 3734-41 | 26769°9
BT5L15 | (266505 873406 on 26772°4
3750°87 | /26652°5 | 373350 | 8 26776-4
3750-64 266541 | 3733-13 | 2677971
3750-27 (26656°8 | 3732-98 | 96780-2
3749-94 | 26659-L || 3732-70 26782-2
3749-61 | 266614 || 3731-89 1:13 | 26788-0
3749-25 | 266640 || 3731-65 | 1°12 | | 26789°7
3748°95 | | 2666671 || 3731:37 | 8 267917
374873 26667°'7 | 3731-01 267941
3748:43 26669'8 | 3730-74 26796-2
374821 266714 | 3730-44 267984
3748-06 26672'5 | 3730716 26790°4
3747-76 | 266746 , 3729°73 | n 268035
3BT47°52 /26676:3 , 3729-21 8 26807°2
3747°14 |26679:0 | 3728-82 | 8 | 26810:0
3746°67 | | 26682 4 || 3727-74 | 26817°8
430 RErORT—1893.
CYANOGEN ‘ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction Bo | | | Reduetion | Eb.
| Wave- | Intensity |" Vague, 88 || Wave- | Intensity along Bes
j) length | and ; =2ZS | length and Pr? = aS
| (Rowland) | Character} ) . =| ges | (Rowland) Character) . | Zea
| |
372748 26819°7 || 3705-47 | | 269789
3727-27 | 26821-2 || 3705711 | 8,n (269815
372707 | 8 | 26822°6 || 3704-20 | 26988°2
3726:86 | 26824-1 || 3703-86 | n /26990°7 |
3726-62 | 268259 | 370353 | | 269931
3726:23 | 26828-7 || 3703:32 | 269946
3725°75 | 26832:1 | 3703-10 | 26996-2
3725°33 (268352 || 370292 | 8 26997'5
372491 | 8 268382 | 3702-62 | 26999°7
3724-47 26841-4 || 3701-98 | | 27004-4
372398 | 268449 3701°65— | | 27006°8
372360 | 268476 | 3701-54 | 27007°6
372319 | 26850°6 | 370110 | 270108
372294 | | 268524 || 370071 | 8 27013 6
372274 | 8 268538 | 3699-94 27019°3
372227 | (26857-2 || 3699-43 27023-0
| 3721-41 (268634 | 369911 |” 270253
| 3720-94 26866'8 | 3698-90 | | 27026-9
3720°56 | 8 | | 26869°6 | 3698-70 | 27028°3
372008 8 | | 268730 | 369848 8 27029°9
371957 268767 | 3698-26 | | 270381°5
3719-03 | |26880°6 || 8697-94 | 1:12| 8-2) 27033-9
371880 | | | 268823 | 3697-47 | 27037°3
| 371856 | 26884:0 || 369712 | 8 27039°9 |
| 371838 | 8 | | 26885°3 || 369685 | 27041°9
| =3717-58 | n (268915 | 369658 27043'8 |
| 8717-11 1268945 || 3696-24 8 27046°3
| 3717-01 | /26895°2 || 369531 a | 27049°5
371650 | | 26898-9 || 3695-13 270544
871619 | 8 | 26901-2 || 3694-95 270558
3715°74 | | 26904-4 || 3694-76 | 27057:2
371532 | | | 269075 || 3694-27 | 270608
3715-00 | | | 26909°8 || 3694-01 8 27062°7
3714-68 | | 269121 | 3693-74 270646
3714-40 | |26914°2 || 369317 n 27068'8
371899 | 8 }26917-1 || 3691-75 | 8 27079°2
3713-61 | | /26919°9 | 3691-17 | 27083°5
8713:02 | 8 | | 269242 | 3690-05 27091:7
371229 | n | | 26929'5 | 3689-76 27093'8
3711-81 | 8 | 269329 | 3689°51 | 8 27095°7 |
3711°39 | 269360 3689-21 27097°9 |
371104 | 269385 | 3688-47 | 27103°3
3710-71 26940°9 | 3687°65 | 37109°3 |
3710-41 | : 26943°1 || 3687-26 27112-2
a7os¢1 | 82)! || 26948-9 || 3686-86 Q71152 |
3709-40 | 26950°4 | 368658 27117°2
3709-05 | | 269530 | 3685-97 27121:7
3708-41 269574 | 368525 | 27127-0 |
3708-02 | 8.1 269605 368501 | 8 27128°8
370766 | 8-2 | 26963'0 3683-98 | 271364 |
3707°38_ | 26965°0 368369 | 27138°5
3707-07 | | |26967-3 || 3683-29 27141-4
3706-72 | (269698 || 368278 | 8 | 27145-2
3706°40 | |26972-2 || 3682-45 | 27147°6
370571 | | | (26977-2 || 3681-93 | 27151°5
ON WAVYE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 431
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Wave-
length
(Rowland)
3681°33
3680°51
3679°75
3679°36
3679°11
3678-77
367852
3678-26
3677-98
3677°66
367740
3677°20
3676754
367627
3676°01
3675°51
367514
367477
3673-75
367358
3673-04
3672°47
3671:98
3671-64
3671°50
3670°65
3669°74
3669°26
366808
3667°86
3657°68
3667°19
3667-00
3666°69
_ 3665-95
3665°61
3664-77
3664:44
3664:11
3663°95
3663°21
3662°97
3662-53
3662°22
3661-86
366123
— 3660°39
3660°29
3659°67
3659°32
3659-08
3658°83
3658-60
3658°31
365805
|
|
|
]
Reduction | Eb, I | | Reduction Eko
Intensity to Vaeunm| a8 3 | Wave- | Intensity ee S35
gon, ral BES | sepa le and 3 Be
Sharacter} y+ =| abs \‘ ed haracter) y 4 -| 6£8
8 |27155°9 | 3657-36 : 27333'8
8 271619 | 3657-03 | 27336°3
(271676 | 3656-76 | 27338°3
8 ,27170°1 3656-50 27340°3
1271723 | 3656-26 (27342-1
(271748 | 3656-08 27343-4
| |27176-7 | 3655°82 | 8 27345°3 |
8 | 1:11| 82/ 271786 | 3655-44 | n /27348-2
271806 | 3655-00 27351°5 |
271830 365436 on | 27356°2
27184-9 | 3653-62 | 8 27361'8
271864 || 3653-23 | 273647
271913 || 3652:86 2736675
i 27193°3 | 3652°55 | 27369'8
8 1271952 || 3652-23 | 27372°2. |
271989 || 3651-41 | 8 | 27378-4
272016 | 2650-79 n 27383'0
272044 || 3849-74 | 27390°9
8 27211'9 | 3649-44 | | 27392°2
27213°2 || 3649-18 | | | 27395-1 |
27217-2 || 3648-81 | 83 27397°9 |
| 272214 || 3648-51 274001
272251 | 3648-29 | 27402°8
272276 || 3647-99 | 8 274041 |
8 27228-6 || 3647-67 27406°5
272349 | 3647°36 27408'8
8 27241-7 | 3647-00 (274115
8 27245°3 | 3646-79 | | 27413-1
|27254-0 | 3646°34 | (274165
|27255:7 | 3645:92 | 27419°8
|27257-:0 | 3645-40 | | 27423°6 |
27260°5 | 264514 | | 274255
8 | 272620 | 3644-80 | | | 27428-0
|27264°3 | 3644-67 | | 27429-0
| 272698 | *364426 | 8 (274321
: 272723 | 3643-56 | 27437°4
8 |27278°5 | 3643°35 | | 27439:0
(27281-0 | 3843-10 | 27440°8
| 272835 | 3642-81 27443:0
| 272846 | 3642-63 | 8 | 27444 4
|27290°2 | 3649-27 | n 27447-1
1272920 3641-91 27449°8
8 272952 | 3641-47 27453°1 |
8,n | |27297°5 | 3641-11 | 8 27455'8 |
| 27300-2 3640-70 | 27458°9 |
n | 273049 || 3640-46 8 27460°8
| 27311-2 | 3640-29 27462-0
/27311-9 | 2638-29 | 8 (2747-1 |
1:10 '273166 | 3637-27 8 27484°8
|27319°2 | 3636-35 | 8 : | |27491:8
273210 | 3636-06 | | 27494-0
273228 | 3635-64 | | | 974972
273246 | 3635-48 | 27498-4
27326°7 || 3635-20 | 8 | 27500 5
8 27328°7 | 3634-67 | n 27504-5
Wave-
length
| (Rowland)
REPORT—1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Intensity
and
haracter
Reduction |
to Vacuum
|
A+
3634-10
3633-85
3633-44
*3633-05
3632 66
3632-22
3631-91
3631-61
B6BL-21
3630-80
3630-62
| 3630-03
3629°89
3629-64
3629-31
3629-18
3628-86
3628-47
328-15
3627-87
3627-71
3627-57
| 3627-18
| 3626-99
' 3626-46
3626-25
3625°80
3625-68
362533
3625:00
3624-72
362418 |
3624-01
3623-66
3623-41
3623-14
3622-73
3622°58
3622-14
3621-84
3621-60
3621-17
3621-02
3620:55
3620-34
3619 90
3619°62
3619-32
3619-13
3618-91
3618-73
3618-43
3618-16
3617-76
3617-61 |
1-09
oO
rs
St
| 276342
DNNWNWNWNNWNNNNNWNW WWW bw
| 27599°6
Se:
= S5 Wave-
= eid | length
32 = | (Rowland)
Sas
27508°8 3617°30
2751077 | 3617-19
27513'8 || 3617-03
3616-48
bo
=I
cor
—
cE
iva)
27519°7 | 3616-23
276231 | 3615°91
275254 | 3615°38
27527-7 | 361518
275307 | 361481
275338 3614-46
27535°2 | 361430
27539:7 | 3614:09
27540°7 | 3613-78
27542°6 361341
275452 3613°26
275461 | 3612-74
27548°5 3612°56
27551-4 | 3612-22
275539 361205
75560 361184
75572 3611-70
7558°3 3611-42
75612 3611-20
75627 | 2610-90
7566'7 3610°69
75683 3610°53
7571-7 | 3610°35
75726 3610-16
75753 3609°84
75778 3609-69
75799 3609-48
7583-1 3609°33
7585°3 3699°17
75877 | 3608-98
75893 3608'8t
275911 3408-70
27595'1 3608-46
1275962 360833
3608°17
3607 88
3607°69
276019
27603°7
27607-0 3607-40
276081 360727
27611:'7 | 3606-94
27613°3 | 3606-79
27616-7 3606°47
276188 360628
27621:1 3606-01
27622°5 3605-78
27624:2 3605°56
27625°6 3605-31
Y7627:9 —-B605-09
276300 = 860482
3604-69
360457
27633-0
_ Intensity
and
Character
Reduction
‘to Vacuum
xe
r
n
n
io .4)
1-09) 8-4
|
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
| 27636°5
27637-4
| 27638°6
27642°8
276447
27647°2
(276512
| 27652°7
27655°6
| 27658'3
(27659°5
2766111
| 27663:5
| 27666°3
27667°4 |
27671°4
27672°8
v7675"4
27676°7
27678°3
27679°4
(27681-5
| 27683-2
| 27685°5
| 27687-1
27688"4
27689°7
27691-2
(27693-7 |
27694'8
27695'4
27697-6
27698°8
27700°3
2701-3
27702°4
2704-3
27705°3
277065
27708°7
27710-2
277124
(277134
277159
277171
27719°6
/27721°0
27723'1
(2724-9
| 27726'5
| 27728 5 |
27730°2 |
| 27732°2 |
| 277332 |
| 277842 |
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 433
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction Bio Reduction Bing
Wave- | Intensity to Vaeunm 25 g Wave- | Intensity toVacuum SG 8
length and : = oe ees Ld and Take i a se
(Rowland) | Character] ) . + gee (Rowland) | Character} ) . = gers |
3604-23 8 277368 3592°69 27825°9
3603°76 n 27740°4 3592°34 278286
3603°36 27743°5 3592-00 27831°2
3603°21 277447 3591-62 278342
3602:92 8,n 27746°9 || 3591-28 8°5 | 27836°8
| 3602°61 27749'3 3591°12 27838'1
' 3602-49 27750°2 || 3591-03 27838°8
| B602°35 27751°3 3590°82 27840°4
| 3602-18 27752'6 |
| 601-89 arees Fourth Band of the Cyanogen Spectrum
| 3601°67 27756'5 3590°48 | 1st edge |1:09 |8°5 | 27842:9
| 3601°58 277572 3590713 27845°6
3601°44 27758°3 359001 27846°6
3601°27 27759°6 || 3589°87 27847:7
3601°12 277607 3589°71 27848°9
3601:01 27761°6 3589°58 27849°9
3600°68 277641 3589°43 27851°1
3600°60 27764°7 3589°24 27852°6
3600°25 27767°5 3589-06 27854-0
3599-89 n 27770°2 3588°87 27855-4
3599-60 n 27772°5 || 3588-67 27857:0
3599°37 277742 358844 27858°8
3599°19 277756 358822 27860°5
359899 27777-2 3587-98 27861°3
3598-85 277783 3587°71 27864-4
359860 27780°2 3587°46 27866°4
359846 27781:3 3587°21 27868:3
3598-26 27782'8 358691 278706
3598-12 27783°9 3586 °64 n 27872°4
3597°85 8 277860 || 3586-28 n 1:08 27875°5
3597°57 27788°2
3597-45 27789'1 8585:95 |2nd edge 278802
3597°25 27790°6 || 3585°63 27880°6
3597:09 27791°9 3585°35 27882'8
3596°89 277934 3585°20 27883'9
3596°73 27794:6 358504 278852
3596°55 277960 || 3584°88 27886-4
3596°38 27797'3 358473 27887°6
3596°19 27798°8 || 3584°62 27888°5
3596-04 27800:0 3584-44 27889'9
3595°82 27801°7 || 3584-21 278917
3595-63 27803'1
3595°45 278045 3584-06 | 3rd edge 278928
* 3595-23 27806'2 3583°83 278946
* 3595-01 27807'9 3583°58 8 278966
3594-75 27809°9 3583°44 27898-4
3594:55 27811°5 3583°09 27900°4
3594-26 8,n 27813°7 || 3582-84 27902°3
3594-07 27815°2 3582°69 27903°5
3593°82 8 27817°1 3582-53 27904-7
3593-61 278188 358244 27905°4
3593°40 8 27820°4 3582°31 27906°4
3593-05 278231 || 358215 27907'7
| 8592-92 278241 3581°97 8 | 27909°1
1898. FF
434 REPORT—1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction Ho Reduction Bo
Wave- | Intensity ye ai 8 Wave- | Intensity io Varnes B§ 8
lenvth and 1 (8 Se length Be | >
(Rowland) | Character} y + x-| 6 ‘& || (Rowland) | Character] ,4 | =_ Ges
|
3581°72 8 | 27911-0 || 3571:10 279941
3581°53 | | 27912°5 || 3570°91 27995°6
3581°35 27913°9 || 3570°55 8 27998'4
3581-08 n 27916°0 || *3570°40 27999°6
3580°88 n 27917°6 || 3570°20 28001-1
3580°69 27919'1 || 3569:92 8 28002'3
3580°59 27919°9 || 3569°85 8 28003°9
3580°35 8 27921°7 || 3569°64 28005°5
3580710 27923'7 || 3569°38 28007°6
3580°03 | 8,n 27924'2 || 3569°13 8 28009°5
3579°81 27925'9 || 3568-90 28010°3
3579°63 27927:4 || 3568°75 28012°5
3579°48 27928°5 || 3568°58 28013°9
3579°22 | 8,n 27930°6 || 356840 8 28015:3
3578°89 8 279331 || 356815 28017°2
3578°58 8 1:08 | 8°5 | 27935°5 || 3568-02 28018°3
3578°46 27936°5 || 3567°86 28019°5
3578°24 8 27938°2 || 3567-70 28020°8
3578°03 27939°8 || 3567°49 8 2802274
3577°89 27940°9 || 3567°30 28023'9
3677°67 279427 || 3566°98 8 28026°4
3577°56 27943°5 || 3566°89 8 28027°1
357743 27944'5 || 3566°63 28029-2
3577:19 8 27946°4 || 3566°48 28030-4
3576°84 8 279491 || 3566°23 8 28032°3
3576'72 27950°1 || 356601 280340
3576°44 8 27952°3 || 3565°72 28036°3
3576°26 279537 || 3565°55 28037°4
357607 27965°2 || 3565-45 28038-4
3575°69 8 2795871 || 3565°14 1:08 | 8°5 | 280409
3575°56 27959°2 || 3564:91 8 28042°7
3575°43 27960°2 || 3564°70 280444
357527 27961°4 || 3564°53 280457
357509 8 27962°8 || 356422 28048°1
3574°86 27964°6 || 3564:06 28049°4
357467 27966'1 || 3563°92 8 28050-4
357446 8 27967°8 || 3563°54 28054:1
357424 27969°5 || *3563°32 28055°2
357403 279711 3563712 28056°8
3573'83 8 27972°7 || 3562/97 28058-0
3573°57 279747 || 3562-82 28059-2
3573°32 27976°7 || 3562°66 28060°4
3573:19 27977°7 || 3562°39 28062-6
3573-06 27978°8 || 3562°31 28063°2
3572°88 27980'2 || 3562°15 280644
3572°74 27981°3 || 3562:02 28065°5
3572°56 8 27982°7 || 3561°86 28066°7
3572°35 27984°3 || 3561°56 8 a 280691
3572-24 27985'2 || 3561-38 st g 28070°5
357205 27986°6 || 3560:97 28073°7
3571°89 8 27987:9 || 3560-71 8 28075'8
3571°67 27989°6 || 3560°38 28078-4
3571-51 27990'9 || 3560°24 28079°5
3571°37 279920 || 3560-07 280808
3571:23 8 27992-1 3559°95 28081°8
I Ea
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 435
Wave-
ength
1
(Rowland) |Character} ) +
3559°83
3559°71
3559°39
3559°25
3559°11
3558-99
3558°70
355859
3558-47
3558716
3558-00
*3557°84
3557-64
3557°51
3557°30
3557°15
3556°85
3556°63
*3556°41
3556-09
3555°86
3555°51
3555°32
3555°16
3555-00
355481
355463
*3554-44
3554'20
355400
3553°81
3553-68
3553°49
3553°32
3553°13
3552°94
3552°82
3552°45
3552°23
3552°04
3551°88
3551°77
3551°61
3551°42
3551°18
3550°94
3550°66
3550°35
3550:00
3549-89
3549°64
3549°48
3549-20
354907
3548°78
Intensity
ao
ao
ies)
fo)
oo
ao
and
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction
to Vacuum
>~le
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
Wave-
length
(Rowland) |Character
Intensity
and
1:07 | 8°6
28082°7
28083°7
28086:2
28087-3
28088°4
28089-4
28091-7
28092°5
28093'5
28095°5
28097°1
280984
28100°0
28101°1
28102°7
28103°9
28106°3
28108-0
28109°7
28112°3
281141
28116°9
28118-4
28119°6
28120°9
28122°4
28123°8
28125-3
28127°2
28129°0
28130:2
281312
28132°8
28134-4
281356
28137-1
28138-1
28141-0
28142-7
28144:2
28145°5
28146-2
28147-6
28149-2
28151:1
28153-0
28155°2
28157°6
28160°4
28161:3
2816373
281645
28166°8
28167°8
28170:1
3548°63
3548°32
3548-09
3547-95
3547-75
3547-52
3547-31
354714
3546°90
3546°71
3546°58
3546°40
3546:27
3545°99
354588
3545-69
3545-41
3545-07
3544-70
3544°36
3544°23
354411
3543-74
3543°61
3543°46
3543-26
3543-08
3542°85
3542°77
3542°60
3542°36
3542-07
3541°77
3541°43
3541°25
3541:06
3540°88
3540°49
3540-06
3539°76
3539°52
3539°35
3539°19
353899
3538°87
3538°58
3538°37
353821
353811
3537°91
353762
3537°39
3536'87
3536°64
353627
8
8
op
bp 0
Reduction
to Vacuum
a+ |
A
Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo
281713
28173'8
28175°6
281767
28178°3
28180°1
28181°8
281831
28185-0
28186°5
28187°6
28189:0
28190°0
28192°3
28193°1
28194-7
28196°9
28199°6 |
28202'5 |
28205°3
28206'3
28207°2 |
282102 ©
28211:2
28212°4
282140
28215-4
282173
282179
28219°3
28221°2
28223°5
282259
28228°6
28230°0
28231°5
28233°0
2823671
28239°5
28241°9
28243'8
28244:2
28246°5
28248'0
28249:°0
28251°3
28253°0
282543
28255°1
28256°7
28259:0
28260°8
28265-0
28266°8
28269°8
¥F2
436 REPORT—1893.
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction Ho Reduction Bing
Wave- | Intensity he ae 5 gs | Wave-_ | Intensity bo Veciee + 5
length and =a length and ee Sep
(Rowland) | Character] 4 4 + aes | (Rowland) | Character} y + -- Ges
3536714 28270'8 || 352236 | n 28381°5
353599 28272'0 || 3522-07 28383°8
3535-79 | n 28273°6 || 3521-85 28385°6
353566 28274:7 | 3521-65 28387-2
3535-51 | n 28275°9 | 3521-36 28389'5
3535-28 1:07 | 8:6 | 28277-7 || 3521-15 28391-2
3535-01 282799 | 3520-94 28392°9
3534-71 | 8 28282°3 || 3520°78 28393-2
3534-22 | n 282862 || 3520-53 28395:2
3533-86 282891 || 3520-28 28397°2
353364 | no 28290°8 | 3519:97 | 8 28400:7
3533°40 28292°8 || 3519-73 28402°7.
3532-99 282960 | 3519-23 284067
3532'88 282969 | 3519-00 28408°6
3532-70 28298-4 | 3518-80 28410:2
3532°53 282997 | 3518°57 28412-0
3532°36 28301'1 || 351814 | n 28415°5
3532-02 28303°8 | 3517-91 28417-4
3531-73 | n 2830671 | 3517-68 28419-2
3531-43 283085 || 3517-40 28421°5
353113 28310°5 || 351712 | 8 28423'8
3531-08 | n 28311'3 | 3516-64 28427-7
3530°72 283142 | 3516-42 8-7 | 28429°3
3530°62 28315'8 | *3516°31 28430:2
3530°31 | 8 28317°5 || 351598 | n 28432:9
3530-23 28318-2 || 3515°87 28433'8
| 3529-94 28320°5 || 3515-18 28439°3
| 3529-72 28322'3 || 3514-90 28441°6
| 3529-46 283245 || 3514-65 28443°6
| *3629°23 | no 283262 || 3514-40 28445°7
| 3528-71 | 8 28330°4 || 3514:15 28447'7
| 3528-40 28332°9 || 3514-02 28448:7
| 352810 | n 28335°3 || 3513°83 1:06 28450°3
| 3527-70 | 8 283385 || 3513-22 28454-2
3527-46 283404 || 3512°75 | 8 28459:0
| 3526°95 28344°5 || 3512-49 28461°1
| 3526-78 28345'9 || 3512°32 28462°5
| 3526°56 28347°6 || 3512-20 28463'5
| 3526°40 28348°9 || 3511-92 28465°7
3526°20 28351°5 || 3511-61 8 28468°3
| 3526-04 28351°8 || 3511°29 | n 28470°9
| 3525°80 28353'8 || 3510°53 28477-0
3525°60 28355°4 || 3510°34 8 28479°6
3525-47 28356'4 || 350981 | n 28482'9
| 3525-28 28357°9 || 350944 | 8 284859
| 3525713 28359'1 || 3509-10 28488°6
| 3524-66 | 8 28362°9 || 3508-45 28493'9
| 352447 | 8 28364°5 || 3508-33 28494°9
| 3523-99 28368'3 || 3507:87 28498°6
| 3523°73 28370°4 || 3507-72 28499'8
| 352347 | 8 28372°5 || 3507-52 28501°5
| 3523°23 28374-4 || 3507-23 28503'8
| 3623-00 28375°3 || 3507-03 28505°5
352282 28377°8 || 350661 | 8 28508'9
3522°49 98380°4 || 350638 285107
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 437
CYANOGEN (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
|
|
Reduction) g ate | tee EB b.o
Wave- | Intensity es Ba 5, 8 Wave- | Intensity mapseunm $68
a oa Ges cia plan Charact r aoe
me an ‘acte a
(Rowland) Character| ) + x ée8 | (Row ) arac A ZES
350612 | 28512°9 3494-91 28604°3
3505°64 285168 | 349452 28607°5
3505°38 285189 | 3494-00 28611°8
3505°18 28520°5 | 3493-80 28613°4
350469 28524°5 3493°67 28614°5
3504°52 28525°9 || 3492-73 28621°2
350414 28529'°0 || 3492-29 286258
3503°79 8 28531'8 | 3491°93 1:06 | 8°7 | 28628°8
350324 285363 || 3491-50 28632°3
3502°88 28539°2 | 3491-07 28635°9
3502°73 28540°5 || 3490-72 28638°7
3501-90 28547°2 || 3490-48 28640°7
3501°63 8 28549°4 || 3490-19 28643:'0
3501°33 28551°9 3489°39 28649°6
3501-02 28554°4 || 3488-87 28653°9
3500°50 28558°7 | 3488-49 286570
3500°36 28559°8 | 3488-19 28659'5
3499-72 28565°0 3487-61 28664°2
3499-39 285677 || 3487-09 28668°5
3499-09 28570°2 || 3486-33 28674°8
3498°64 | 28573°8 || 3486 06 28677°0
3498°25 | 28577:0 || 3485-37 28682°7
3497°85 28580°3 || 3484-99 28685°8
3497-17 8,0 28585°8 || 3484-59 28689°1
3496°57 28590°8 || 3483-81 28695°5
3496°33 28592°7 || 3483-05 28701°8
3496:03 285952 3482°74 28704°3
3495°42 | 28600°2 || 3482-41 28707°1
3495-22 } 28601°8
An International Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel.—
Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C.
Roserts-AusTEN (Chairman), Sir F. Apet, Mr. E. RILey,
Mr. J. SPILLER, Professor J. W. LANGLEY, Mr. G. J. SNELUS,
Professor TILDEN, and Mr. THomas TuRNER (Secretary). (Drawn
wp by the Secretary.)
In the previous report of this Committee it was mentioned that, so far as
the original four steel standards were concerned, the work of the British
analysts was completed. It was also stated that the American Committee
had nearly finished its labours on these standards, and hoped to publish
the results in a few months. Owing to the long distances over which the
members of the American Committee are scattered, and the fact that some
of the members of the Committee have still been labouring at the question
of methods of carbon determination, it was not found possible to hold a
meeting as originally intended, but the results of the analyses were to be
communicated to, and the questions raised discussed at, the World’s Con-
gress of Chemists at Chicago. Professor Langley has, however, forwarded
an advance report of the analyses, which is appended, together with the
438 REPORT— 1893.
values obtained by the British analysts, which are added for comparison ;
the American results are subject to slight revision at Chicago, and should
any alterations be made these will be inserted before this report is finally.
published.
I.—Mean Results of the Analyses by the American Committee.
Standard No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4
Carbon . 2 ; : 1-44 “80 “454 18
Silicon . F ; : ‘270 "202 152 “015
Sulphur . : “ 4 004 004 004 038
Phosphorus. 5 : 016 010 015 088
Manganese . : "254 124 140 098
Il.—Mean Results of the Analyses by the British Committee.
Standard | No. 1 | ING, 2 No. 3 No. 4
lo et a | (eid |) Be 476 ‘151
Silicon i eae 263 | -191 141 008
Sulphur, not more than ., 006 =| ~—-007 008 039
Phosphorus ‘018 | ‘014 021 ‘078
Manganese |} Boge) Pei 145 ‘130
|
A report has also been forwarded by Professor Akerman on behalf of
the Swedish Committee, but as the results included in this report have
not yet been revised, they are intended for the guidance of the other com-
mittees, and not for publication. It may, however, be stated that the
agreement between the Swedish and British reports is quite as good as.
that between the two above given.
Standard 5, the preparation of which was mentioned in the previous
report of this Committee, has been hermetically sealed in glass tubes, like
Standards 1, 2, 3, and 4. It was thought well not to proceed with the
analysis of this standard until an opportunity had been afforded of com-
paring the results obtained by the various committees on the analyses of
the standards already under examination. Otherwise, after the work of
the British analysts was completed, questions as to methods of analysis
or other points of detail might have arisen, without a convenient oppor-
tunity being afforded for their investigation.
Now that reports from three out of the five International Committees
are at hand for comparison, they will be considered by this Committee,
and the analysis of the remaining standard completed.
On Solution.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
W. A. TILDEN (Chairman), Dr. W. W. J. Nicou (Secretary),
and Professor W. Ramsay.
THe Committee have continued their work on the lines laid down in the
report of last year, but the progress made and the results obtained are
not such as to warrant the publication of any general conclusions at
present. The Committee intend to continue their investigations, and
therefore desire reappointment without a grant.
ON THE SILENT DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY ON OXYGEN, ETC. 439
The Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and
other Gases.—Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor
H. McLeop (Chairman), Mr. W. A. SHENSTONE (Secretary),
Professor W. Ramsay, and Mr. J. TupDor CunDALL. (Drawn
up by the Secretary.)
Tuis Committee was first appointed in 1885; grants of money were made
in that and in the succeeding year. The expenditure of these grants
has already been duly reported. It therefore only remains to give an
account of the work that has been done. This has already been fully
described in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society’ and elsewhere, and
consequently it will be sufficient now to give an outline of the results
obtained, with references to the fuller descriptions.
I. The Preparation and Storage of Oxygen.!
In this note a method of preparing oxygen from a mixture of the
chlorates of sodium and potassium was described. The process recom-
mended has been found to be very convenient, and has since been adopted
by other investigators. Its advantage lies in the ready fusibility of the
mixture, and the consequent reduced risk of breaking glass apparatus in
which the chlorate must be submitted to repeated fusion and solidification
in the course of generating oxygen from it.
II. Ozone from Pure Oxygen. Its Action on Mercury, with a Note on the
Silent Discharge of Hlectricity.2 By W. A. Suenstone and J. Tupor
CUNDALL,
The experiments described in this paper showed that a good yield of
ozone (7°5 per cent.) is readily obtained from carefully dried oxygen.
It has lately been suggested by Professor Armstrong that, in spite of
the care taken, it is possible impurity may have been introduced into
the gas by the action of the discharge, which might conceivably detach
adherent moisture from the glass surfaces of the apparatus. Moreover,
when these experiments were made the only liquid that was available for
use in the manometers was oil of vitriol, and though this was screened
from the dried oxygen by phosphoric anhydride, its use introduced a fresh
element of uncertainty.
On the other hand, the proportion of ozone obtained was, considering
the form of apparatus employed, sufficiently high to suggest that the con-
ditions of the experiment were very favourable to the production of a
high yield of ozone, and the mixture of ozone and oxygen obtained by the
discharge was apparently without chemical action on mercury, which is
inconsistent with the idea that moisture was present in it, whilst it is
stated by Brodie in his ‘Classical Research’ that in order to obtain a
high yield of ozone dry oxygen must be employed.
The later experiments described in section III. will make it possible
to investigate this point more severely than in 1885, and therefore this
important question will very shortly be re-examined.
1 British Assoc. Rep., 1886. 2 Journ. Che
440 REPORT—1893.
III. Studies on the Formation of Ozone from Ozxygen.}
By W. A. SHENSTONE and Martin Prigst.
The introduction of improved methods of working with ozone have
enabled the authors of this paper to study the influence of various con-
ditions on the converting of oxygen into ozone with increased exactness
and facility.
The results obtained show that—
1. Under constant conditions it is possible to obtain concordant results
in converting oxygen into ozone by the silent discharge.
2. That the maximum yield of ozone is nearly independent of the
difference of potential employed to produce the discharge (the range ot
potential difference employed was from 33 to 69 C.G.S. units), provided
that the path of the discharge be not too short.
3. That if the path of the discharge be very short, then the maximum
yield of ozone has an inverse relation to the difference of potential
employed.”
4. The rapidity with which the discharge converts oxygen into ozone
is greater when great potential differences are employed than for smaller
differences.
5. That the maximum yield of ozone is less when the number of dis-
charges is very great in unit time than when it is smaller. But the yield
is not affected by moderate variations of rapidity of the discharge.
6. The greatest yield of ozone was obtained by using an ozone gene-
rator made of the thinnest possible glass, and with closely fitting tubes.
In one case 17°15 per cent. of ozone was obtained at 0°.
7. Under equal conditions less ozone was produced by the discharge
obtained by means of a Wimshurst’s machine than when a large induc-
tion coil was employed.
It has been suggested that this last phenomenon may be due to a
difference in the quantity of electricity acting in the two cases, but the
authors point out that under the conditions of their experiments‘ the
‘quantity ’ of the discharge inside the ozone generator depends on the
difference of potential of the inducing charge, and that as the ozonising
effect of the discharge is, under suitable conditions (see 2 and 3 above),
independent of the potential difference of the inducing charge, it would
seem that this suggestion does not afford a clue to the cause of the phe-
nomenon. Moreover, it was found in the experiments made with the
plate machine that when the quantity of the inducing charge was raised
or reduced, by means of condensers, the yield of ozone remained un-
affected.
Although a good deal of progress has now been made, much of the
work undertaken remains to be done. As, however, no further grants are
likely to be asked for, and as it is probable that in the future the work
will be mainly in the hands of one member of the Committee, the
Committee now recommend that they be not reappointed.
1 Journ. Chem. Soc., 1893.
? This is attributed to the difficulty of maintaining a sufficiently regular tempera-
ture of the gas under these circumstances.
3 This is also probably due to imperfect refrigerating.
* Ozonisers of Brodie’s type were employed.
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 441]
Bacteriology in its Relations to Chemical Science-—By PERCY
Frankuand, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in University College, Dundee, St. Andrews University.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
IN science as in politics there are certain territories which. whilst unable
to fully assert their own independence, are yet so jealously watched by
their powerful neighbours that deliberate annexation by any one of these
is impossible. Such semi-independent states usually become successively
subject to the influence of their more powerful neighbours, each of which
is anxious to acquire an ascendency in their councils.
In science such a semi-independent state is bacteriology, of hardly
sufficient importance to stand by itself, but surrounded as it is by its
great neighbours Botany, Medicine, and Chemistry, to each of which in
part it owes its present prominent position, both in the scientific and
unscientific worlds.
Originally an offshoot of Botany, from which also in its early infancy
it received such powerful support through the memorable ministrations
of Cohn, of Naegeli, and of Brefeld, but although thus under obligation
to the parent science, the greatest impulse given to the study of bacteria
will always be associated with Chemistry in the person of M. Pasteur,
whilst there can be no doubt that by far the greater part of our more
recent knowledge concerning these micro-organisms has been acquired
through the indefatigable labours of medical men, so many of whom have
been fired by the brilliant discoveries of Koch, Metchnikoff, and Behring.
In these bacteriological investigations, however, the medical man has
been constantly brought more and more into the domain of Chemistry,
so that, starting with phenomena which he at first regarded from a
purely biological, 7.e., a more or less superficial and empirical, point of
view, he has by more profound study in many cases reached the chemical,
physical, and mechanical foundations on which all biological phenomena
must of necessity rest.
-As, therefore, the history and development of bacteriology are so
intimately connected with Chemistry, and as it is to chemical science that
we must ultimately look for the elucidation of innumerable bacterio-
logical phenomena, it is only natural that our President should have
desired to see this subject brought before this Section. It is, however, with
extreme diffidence and hesitation that I have undertaken at his request
to introduce this discussion to-day, as from the great breadth of the
subject, with its numerous ramifications into other sciences, the task is in
many respects peculiarly arduous and beset with extraordinary peril. I
will, however, at once state that I have no intention of burdening you
with a detailed survey of the present position of bacteriology, but that it
is only my purpose to refer to some matters which have recently been
attracting the attention of investigators, and which may possibly interest
the members of the Chemical Section.
Methods.—What may be called modern bacteriology commences with
ithe introduction, now some twelve years ago, of the systematic methods
of obtaining pure cultivations of micro-organisms ; for although a number
442 REPORT —1893.
of bacteriological problems can be, and have been, solved by experimenting
with casual mixtures of microbes, progress in many directions was neces-
sarily barred until particular organisms could be obtained and maintained
in a state of purity for investigation.
That these methods have now reached a high state of perfection is
attested by the fact that, in spite of the great number of persons who are
constantly using them in all parts of the world, no changes of any great
importance have been made during the past few years. A general under-
standing of these methods of bacteriology may now be said to constitute
almost an integral part of a liberal education, although, judging from the
flagrant inaccuracies which are to be found in the numerous references to
matters bacteriological in the. daily press, it is evident that the news-
paper correspondents who undertake to inform the public on these topics
have not, as a rule, had the benefit of the liberal education in question.
Perhaps the circumstance most calculated to impress the British
public with the present importance of bacteriology is that pure cultiva-
tions of micro-organisms have now for some years past become actually
articles of commerce. Not only are pure yeasts, prepared according to
Hansen’s methods, in circulation all over the world, but pure cultivations
of pathogenic and other bacteria can now be purchased at catalogue
prices, to the great convenience of the investigator, in much the same way
as we have been in the habit of procuring pure and inaccessible chemicals
from Kahlbaum’s. Again, bacterial poisons have been employed in
various parts of the world for combating animal plagues, whilst domesti-
cated bacteria have been used for the preventive inoculation of cattle and
other animals.
If, however, the general methods of bacteriological study have under-
gone but little change recently, the greatly increased attention which
has been given to the study of particular forms isolated by these methods
has led to some important developments in our views concerning bacteria
in general.
Although the discovery of the existence of micro-organisms was neces-
sarily made with the microscope, and the earlier information concerning
them obtained almost exclusively by means of this instrument, the intro-
duction of the modern bacteriological methods soon relegated the micro-
scope to a secondary position for the purpose of their differentiation and
diagnosis. It was early found that bacteria which were perfectly
undistinguishable when viewed through the microscope might exhibit the
most marked differences in their macroscopic appearances and in their
functions. Using the modern methods of bacteriological study, indeed,
the investigator generally becomes acquainted with such macroscopic
differences amongst micro-organisms before the microscope is brought
into requisition at all. It results from this that in examining any given
materiai the number of different bacteria discovered by cultivation
methods will generally greatly excecd that revealed by microscopic
examination alone. Upon the introduction of these cultivation methods
there rapidly followed, then, the discovery of a large number of different
kinds of bacteria obtained from the most varied sources, tissues healthy
and diseased, soil, water, air, &c. These different kinds of bacteria were
distinguished by more or less well-marked characters, e.g., the liquefaction
or non-liquefaction of gelatin, the appearances of the growths in various.
culture media, the production of pigments, the pathogenic or non-
pathogenic properties on different animals, whilst in some cases the ability
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 443.
or inability to bring about certain chemical reactions was relied on as a
means of diagnosis.
The more careful and prolonged study of individual kinds of bacteria
by these methods has shown, however, that the differentiation between
bacteria is a matter of even still greater difficulty than was hitherto sup-
posed. Thus during recent years there are perhaps no two bacterial.
forms which have been so closely and carefully studied as Eberth-Gaffky’s
typhoid bacillus and Koch’s cholera spirillum. The result of this con-
centrated study has been to reveal an ever-increasing number of forms,
so closely allied to each that their differentiation becomes more and more
difficult, and is based on more and more refined and artificial distinc-
tions.
The extraordinary difficulty with which this branch of bacteriological
practice is at present attended is well illustrated by the following remarks.
of M. Metchnikoff'! on Dr. Koch’s last paper on the subject of the
diagnosis of the cholera bacillus :—
‘The characters which were formerly regarded as specific to the
comma bacillus, such as the form of the bacteria, their motility, the
manner of their growth in gelatin, suffice no more. M. Koch himself
describes a case of cholera in which the comma bacilli liquefied the gelatin
so slightly that the colonies had the form of shields (boucliers). On the
other hand, in the vibrio of Massowah (obtained in a cholera epidemic
there) we have an example of a comma bacillus which liquefies the
gelatin much more than the typical forms. On this account M. Koch
now abandons as useless the stab-cultures in gelatin. The examination
of drop-cultures becomes of similarly small importance, because it has
been shown that indisputable comma bacilli can be completely deprived
of motility, whilst other vibrios can be very motile.
‘The form of the vibrios is again very variable. Besides the vibrios
which are bent and thick, there are found forms which are slim and thin,
sometimes hardly bent at all.’
But perhaps nothing shows the inadequacy of morphological methods.
alone for purposes of diagnosis more conspicuously than the recent in-
vestigations which have been made by those newly perfected modes of
mordant staining devised by Loeffler, and by means of which some of
the finest bacterial structures—the cilia or flagella—are rendered visible
with a degree of precision hitherto unequalled. The observers who have
hoped to establish a basis of differentiation on such minute microscopic
distinctions as these beautiful staining methods reveal have had their
hopes rudely shattered by the extraordinary variability which is exhibited
by one and the same form in this respect.
This variability is most strikingly exhibited by the plates of Nicolle
and Morax ? of the cilia found on the cholera bacillus and its allies, as well
as on the typhoid bacillus and bacillus coli communis: these plates show
that there are as great differences in the number and arrangement of the
cilia on cholera spirilla obtained from different sources as amongst spirilla
generally acknowledged to be of different kinds. Thus practically all
morphological distinctions, both micro- and macro-scopic, have had to be
abandoned as a means of final diagnosis in the case of the cholera bacillus.
1 «Recherches sur le Choléra et les Vibrions,’ Ann. de U Inst. Pasteur, vii. (1893),
p. 563.
2 «Technique de la Coloration des Cils,’ Nicolle and Morax, Ann. de UInst.
Pasteur, vii. (1893), p. 560.
-444 REPORT— 1893.
To what tribunal must the bewildered bacteriologist have recourse? In
Dr. Kech’s last paper, ‘ Der augenblickliche Stand der Choleradiagnose ’
(Zeitsch. f. Hygiene, xiv. [1893], p. 335), the final referees in this diagnosis
are (1) the so-called indol reaction and (2) the pathogenic effects of
‘inoculation into animals. Thus the morphological have had to give way
»to chemical and physiological tests.
An almost precise parallel is presented by the history of the diagnosis
of the typhoid bacillus. In the first instance morphological tests for its
identification were in vogue, more especially its great motility in broth
-and its almost invisible growth on potatoes; both of these criteria have
had to be abandoned, inasmuch as they are possessed also by closely allied
organisms, and the tests which at present serve at any rate for its ready
-distinetion from the bacillus coli communis are (1) the absence of indol
‘reaction, (2) the non-coagulation of milk, and (3) the non-fermentation
-of dextrose and meat extract.
Thus, whilst morphological methods may serve to distinguish the
‘typhoid bacilli from a number of other forms, it is to chemical tests that
‘we must have recourse in order to differentiate it from its closest allies.
I do not, however, for a moment wish to convey the impression that
“such chemical tests are altogether unassailable—far from it, for I have
‘had abundant opportunities of observing their inconstancy and treacherous
‘variation. It is, however, highly significant that in the diagnosis of the
‘two micro-organisms, upon which almost more attention has been recently
‘showered than upon any others, the tests universally acknowledged to be
the most reliable are in both cases chemical ones. It is, moreover,
-obvious that these chemical differences will in the future have to be far
more closely and systematically studied than in the past, as they are
‘doubtless capable of very great extension for purposes of diagnosis.
Thus, the only other chemical tests which have hitherto been in any
sway extensively introduced are—
(1) The reduction of nitrates to nitrites.
(2) The ammoniacal fermentation of urea.
Of these the first is particularly available, as a comparatively large
‘number of bacteria have the power of effecting this change, whilst
hitherto, curiously, only one organism has been found possessing the
‘power of bringing about the oxidation of nitrites to nitrates.
Fermentations.—T hese chemical tests to which, as I have pointed ont,
‘we are now so often obliged to resort in bacteriological diagnosis naturally
lead us to a consideration of some of the more striking chemical changes
induced by micro-organisms, and which we generally group together
“under the name of Fermentations.
Of these fermentations the most important, from a practical point of
view, is still, of course, the alcoholic fermentation induced by yeast, and,
-as is so well known, the practical application of this fermentation has
-been put on a sound scientific basis through the researches of Chr. Hansen,
whose pure yeasts have, however, hitherto found less favour in this
country than elsewhere, although they have been employed on a large
-experimental scale by Mr. Horace Brown and Dr. Morris, whilst more
recently, in a few English breweries, the pure yeasts have been adopted
‘to some extent in actual practice. The principal difficulty in the way of
these pure yeasts being employed for English beers appears to be that,
until recently, none of them was capable of bringing about that ‘after-
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 445-
fermentation ’ which is so essential to the ‘conditioning’ of the beer.
Quite recently, however, this difficulty is said to have been overcome by
Van Laer, who has succeeded in obtaining a yeast in a state of purity
which is endowed with this power.
In this connection it is worthy of remark that, during the past year,.
there has been established, at Burton-on-Trent, ‘The British Pure Yeast
Company,’ under the direction of Dr. Van Laer, from which it is hoped
that the British breweries will be gradually induced to adopt the employ-.
ment of pure yeast fermentations.
In his last publication Hansen (‘ Untersuchungen a. d. Praxis der
Garungsindustrie,’ Munich and Leipzig, 1892) gives a list of the various
breweries in which his method has been adopted, and of which the
following table is a summary :—
BREWERIES USING HANSEN’S APPARATUS.
(1) Bottom Fermentation.
Denmark 7 Holland . 4 N. America b 5 10
Norway 4 Switzerland 1 S. America ‘ . 13
Sweden 5 Finland . 1 Australia . A ere |
Germany . . 65 Russia . 5 by Talal Japan ; : ae:
Austria 3 Poland . 1 Manilla . me tk
France 2 Spain Ht
(2) Top Fermentation.
Denmark . ; ; 4083 Holland 2
Germany . 5 5 Fe wed Belgium 5
France . x A “ibe FinJand 1
(3) Distilleries and Pressed-yeast Manufactories.
Denmark . F - ay al Argentinia . 1
Germany . = : il Madras 1
France. - ; acini | Manilla 1
Russia - =
Althongh in this table given by Hansen—he does not refer to any
English breweries using his apparatus—he states that he believes there
are now one or two in which it is beginning to be regularly employed.
Speaking of this country, Hansen says that English brewers were
more disposed to talk than to experiment, and, after referring to the for-
mation of the British Pure Yeast Company, he remarks that ‘ there is
now a prospect of the new advance shortly taking root in the great conservative
island-empire ! ’
As regards the mechanism of the alcoholic fermentation of sugar, the
ingenious theory of Pasteur, which ascribed it to the life of the yeast
organism in the absence of oxygen, has now been generally abandoned ;
in fact, the recent experiments of Adrian Brown conclusively show that
a given number of yeast-cells actually produce more alcohol when
abundantly supplied with oxygen than when this gas is excluded. It
has long been admitted that the vegetative activity of the yeast is
increased by the access of oxygen, and with this increased activity its
specific power of decomposing sugar is heightened also.
Of greater interest to the chemist than the ordinary alcoholic fer-
mentation are those numerous and much more diversified fermentative
446 REPORT—1893.
‘decompositions which are induced by bacteria, for the discovery of so
many of which we are indebted to Pasteur and Fitz. The substances
which have already been shown to be capable of undergoing fermentative
change through the agency of bacterial life, although numerous, are
practically confined to the carbohydrates, polyhydric alcohols, and oxy-
-acids.
Moreover, the products obtained in these numerous fermentations are,
if we except comparatively minute traces, still more limited in number.
‘The most common are—
Alcohols: Ethyl, butyl, amyl.
Polyhydric Alcohols: Mannitol.
Monobasice Acids: Formic, acetic, propionic, butyric, valerianic.
Oxyacids: Lactic.
Dibasic Acids: Succinic.
Gases: Carbonic anhydride, hydrogen, marsh gas.
In almost all cases the products formed in these fermentations are of
‘simpler molecular structure than those from which they have been
derived, the most conspicuous exception to this general rule being the
fermentative synthesis of butyric from lactic acid.
Tn almost all cases, moreover, the fermentative decomposition includes
‘a process of oxidation and reduction, one part of the original molecule
being oxidised at the expense of the other. Thus, one of the commonest
forms of fermentation is that in which a fatty acid and an alcohol,
-generally the one corresponding to the acid in question, are simultaneously
produced.
Two questions naturally suggest themselves in connection with these
‘bacterial decompositions :—(1) Does the same substance yield different
products when fermented by different micro-organisms P (2) Does the
same micro-organism produce the same products in the fermentation of
‘different substances ?
The first of these questions has been answered by the researches of
Fitz, who found that one and the same substance was capable of yielding
different fermentation products, according to the fermenting material
employed. Nor is this result in any way modified by the fact that we
have no guarantee that the ferments used by Fitz were pure cultivations ;
in fact, in many cases, they were admittedly mixtures.
On the other hand, the answer to the second question can obviously
only be furnished by experiments made with pure cultures of fermenting
organisms.
IT have for some time past been conducting experiments on this
subject, and, as far as these have yet proceeded—for they are necessarily
of the most laborious character—they clearly show the most striking
tendency for the products elaborated by one and the same organism from
different fermentable substances to be the same. Thus I have shown
that one and the same bacillus, operating on such different substances as
dextrose, galactose, maltose, milk-sugar, mannitol, arabinose, glycerin,
and glyceric acid, yields qualitatively the same products—viz., ethyl
alcohol, acetic and formic acids (traces of succinic acid), carbonic
anhydride, and hydrogen.
Similar results have more recently been obtained by Grimbert, who
has studied the fermentation induced in starch, inulin, dextrose, maltose,
cane-sugar, invert-sugar, milk-sugar, arabinose, mannitol, and glycerin
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 447
by the B. orthobutylicus, and has found that in all cases the products
were qualitatively the same—viz., acetic and butyric acids, normal
butylaleohol, carbonic anhydride, and hydrogen.
I do not, however, for a moment suppose it likely that one and the
same organism will decompose all substances, so as to form the same
products; but it is sufficiently remarkable that the same products should
be obtained from such comparatively different parent substances, a
phenomenon which is most probably explicable by the assumption that
the several substances are, in the first instance, broken down into
some intermediate substance which then undergoes further transforma-
tion.
Thus, probably the fermentability of bodies depends upon their being
able to yield such intermediate substances with facility. A substance
that doubtless plays an important part as an intermediary in such fer-
mentation decompositions is lactic acid, which is known, indeed, to be
capable of yielding a number of different products under bacterial action—
€.g., valerianic, butyric, propionic, and acetic acids, besides butyl and ethyl
alcohols. In this connection it is worthy of note also that the only sugars
which are capable of undergoing fermentation by yeast are those which
contain three or some multiple of three atoms of carbon in the molecule ;
moreover, even towards the bacterial ferments, with their more catholic
tastes, the carbon compounds containing such a tri-carbon nucleus appear
to offer peculiar facilities for attack. That intermediate reactions of
various degrees of complexity take place in these fermentative decom-
positions again is shown by the several kinds of lactic fermentation, to
which I will refer presently.
In these fermentation phenomena formic acid appears to play a very
important part; the presence of this substance among fermentation pro-
ducts has been observed by a number of investigators. It is frequently
mentioned as occurring, generally in small quantities, by Fitz, and simi-
larly by Grimbert, in the butyric fermentations, to which I have already
referred. In my experiments, however, I have found that the amount of
this formic acid may be very greatly increased by special conditions.
Thus in those fermentations conducted in flasks closed only with cotton-
wool plugs the proportion of formic acid was generally only very insignifi-
cant, whilst in the case of fermentations carried on in closed vessels
provided only with a delivery-tube dipping under mercury for collecting
the evolved gases the proportion of formic acid produced was invariably
very considerable; and, further, in these closed fermentations in which
the gases were collected I have always found that the carbonic anhy-
dride and hydrogen were evolved in approximately the proportions in
which they are present in formic acid—viz., equal volumes. In these
closed fermentations it was, moreover, found that the fermentation was
less complete than in the flasks plugged with cotton-wool only. Now it
has been shown by Duclaux (‘ Annales de |’Inst. Pasteur,’ vi. [1892], 598)
that free formic acid is a powerful antiseptic, and it is highly probable,
therefore, that the production of this formic acid in the closed fermentations
is the cause of their being prematurely arrested by this toxic product.
Whether the formic acid is not produced at all when the fermentation
takes place in the open flask, or whether the organism is capable of de-
composing it in the presence of air under these circumstances, I have not
yet determined. Duclaux (loc. cit.) has shown that moulds are capable
of destroying free formic acid in the presence of air; but the action of
448 REPORT—1893.
moulds when growing superficially on organic liquids is, so far as we
know, entirely different from that of bacteria, inasmuch as the moulds
simply convert the organic elements into their ultimate products of oxida-
tion, and do not excite fermentations in the stricter sense of the word.
Recent Additions to Knowledge of Lactic Fermentation.—The lactic
fermentation, which was one of the earliest-known fermentations, and
with the investigation of which the names of Pasteur and Lister are
associated, has recently formed the subject of some researches, which
appear to me to be of particular interest from a chemical point of view.
In the ordinary lactic fermentation, as is well known, the lactic acid
obtained is inactive, irrespectively of whether it is derived from starch,
milk-sugar, cane-sugar, dextrose, or mannitol. By employing different
lactic fermentation bacteria, however, both the active lactic acids have
been obtained by direct fermentation. Thus Nencki and Sieber (‘ Berlin.
Berichte,’ xxii. c. 695) have discovered a lactic ferment which yields sarco-
lactic acid (7.e., dextro-rotary lactic acid) in the fermentation of dextrose ;
whilst Schardinger (‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ Abstr., 1891, p. 666) has de-
scribed the preduction of levo-rotary lactic acid in the fermentation of cane-
sugar. How are these three different lactic fermentations to be interpreted
by the light of our present knowledge of the constitution of the sugar
molecules, which is based on those researches of Emil Fischer, which
have excited such profound and widespread admiration ?P
Taking the now generally accepted constitutional formule of dextrose,
levulose, and mannitol—
CH,OH CH,OH CH,OH
| | |
+CHOH +CHOH + CHOH
| |
+ CHOH + CHOH +CHOH
Dextrose | Levulose | Mannitol |
+CHOH +CHOH + CHOH
| |
—CHOH CO +CHOH
| |
COH CH,OH CH,OH
in which the several asymmetric carbon atoms are indicated by the signs
+ or — according to the relative arrangement of the groups around
them. It is easy to see how the carbon-skeleton of dextrose can yield by
simple decompositions, in which the terminal groups—COH or CH,OH—
are converted into COOH, either the dextro- or the levo-rotary lactic
acid, according to the particular asymmetric carbon atom in the dextrose
which is made to form the asymmetric carbon atom in the lactic acid,
thus :—
CH, CH,
| |
—CHOH +CHOH
COOH COOH
Leevo-rotary Dextro-rotary
lactic acia. lactic acid.
Again, by such simple decomposition, the levulose molecule should
only be capable of yielding the dextro-rotary lactic acid; and similarly
the mannitol molecule should only be capable of yielding the dextro-
rotary lactic acid; for it is obvious, again, that, if the terminal groups
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 449
only are converted into COOH, the resulting lactic acid will have its
asymmetric carbon atom, with the sign + before it. It is unnecessary
to point out that all these signs may also be directly opposite to the
actually observed rotation, so that the speculation may be more correctly
and briefly summarised in the words, that whilst both active lactic acids
are theoretically obtainable by the simplest decomposition of deatrose, only
one and the same of the two active isomers should be similarly obtainable
from either levulose or mannitol.
On the other hand, it is equally obvious that in order to obtain inactive
lactic acid from any of the above molecules it is necessary either that
there should be an intermediate product formed in which the asymmetric
carbon atom of the ultimate lactic acid has lost its asymmetry, or that the
two active lactic acids should be formed in exactly equal molecular pro-
portions, and thus destroy the rotatory power. On the latter supposi-
tion, inactive lactic acid should only be readily obtainable from dextrose,
as neither the levulose nor the mannitol molecules are theoretically
capable of yielding, by simple conversion, more than one of the isomeric
active lactic acids, but it is experimentally certain that inactive lactic
acid can be obtained by the fermentation of pure mannitol.
In these decompositions effected by micro-organisms a remarkable
feature is not unfrequently observed which must be of great significance,
both from a chemical and biological point of view—I refer to the pheno-
menon of selective or preference fermentation. This phenomenon was first
observed by Pasteur (‘Jahresbericht d. Chem.,’ 1860, p. 250; ‘ Comptes
Rendus,’ xlvi. p. 615) inthe case of tartaric acid,who found that both bacteria
and moulds attacked the dextro-rotary modification by preference; simi-
larly, Lewkowitsch (‘ Berlin. Berichte,’ 1883, pp- 1568, 2722) found that in
the case of mandelic acid the levo-rotary isomer is first destroyed by the
mould Penicilliwm glauewm. More recently I have shown that by the
fermentative action of the Bacillus ethaceticus on glyceric acid the levo-
rotary acid is first decomposed, obtaining in this manner a dextro-rotary
glyceric acid, which is of particular interest and value, inasmuch as it is
the simplest active acid which can be obtained in practically unlimited
quantity, and by means of which the laws regulating the rotatory power of
active bodies in general can be investigated in their simplest form. Of
this new substance no less than twenty active derivatives have already
been prepared in my laboratory, and have served to throw light on the
more recent speculations concerning the peculiarly fascinating subject of
the asymmetric carbon atom. Still more recently I have obtained by
this selective fermentation the dextro-rotary lactic or sarcolactic acid,
which, although long known, has hitherto been only obtainable with great
difficulty. I hope, however, by this means to render it as accessible as
the dextro-rotary glyceric acid, and the study of its derivatives, which are
as yet almost wholly unexplored, should also furnish important data for
stereo-chemical theory.
The cause of this remarkable phenomenon of selective fermentation is
at present wholly wrapped in obscurity, but I would venture to suggest
that it is to be sought for in the differences which such optical isomers
only unfold when they are combined with other active bodies. Thus,
when the optically isomeric tartaric acids are combined with the optically
active base cinchonine, for instance, the resulting cinchonine dextro- and
levo-tartrate exhibit marked differences of solubility from each other. Is
it not highly probable that optically active substances which are invariably
1893. a@
450 REPORT—1893.
present in living cells may enter into combination with these optically
active fermentable isomers, and by thus establishing differences—e.g., of
solubility—between them render one of them—probably the more soluble
one—more accessible to the specific decomposing influence of the cell-
protoplasm P
Whether in such selective fermentations it is invariably the same
optical isomer or not that first disappears under the influence of vital de-
composition has not been with certainty ascertained. Pasteur, however,
found that it was the dextro-tartaric acid which was first destroyed,
irrespectively of whether a bacterial fermentation or a mould combustion
was employed. Similarly, in the case of lactic acid, it was the levo-rotary
acid which first disappeared in my bacterial fermentation, already referred
to, as well as in the mould combustion of lactic acid, studied by Linossier
(‘ Berlin. Berichte,’ xxiv. c. 660). On the other hand, Lewkowitsch (Joc.
cit.) records the preferential decomposition of one optically isomeric man-
delic acid by the mould Penicillium glaucum, and of the opposite isomer by
a bacterial ferment. As this is, so far as I am aware, the only instance of
the kind, it is highly desirable that it should be reinvestigated, and either
confirmed or disproved.
It must not be supposed that in this selective fermentation one of the
isomers is necessarily quite unfermentable, for, as far as this matter has
been carefully investigated, it would appear to be only that one of the
isomers is relatively less fermentable than the other. Thus in the
fermentation of lactic acid, which I have recently studied, I found that
if the fermentation was allowed to finish the whole of the lactic acid was
broken up into other products; but if arrested at an intermediate stage
the lactic acid remaining undecomposed always contained sarcolactic
acid, showing that the levo-rotary lactic acid had been decomposed by
preference.
In the fermentation of glyceric acid the selective phenomena are
extremely remarkable. Thus when I first isolated the Bacillus ethaceticus
some years ago I found that its powers of fermenting glyceric acid in the
form of calcium glycerate were very feeble, and that even when the
fermentation was allowed to complete itself practically the whole of the
dextro-rotary glyceric acid remained untouched by the bacillus. But on
continuously cultivating this bacillus in soiutions of calcium glycerate I
found that its power of decomposing this substance was becoming markedly
greater ; thus, not only did the fermentations last longer, but the propor-
tions of undecomposed dextro-rotary glyceric acid remaining at the end
of the fermentations became less and less. In order, therefore, to obtain
a satisfactory yield of the residual active glyceric acid, it now becomes
necessary to arrest the fermentation, and thus save the dextro-glyceric
acid from destruction. We can alsostill obtain a satisfactory yield of the
active glyceric acid by using for the fermentation ethacetic bacilli which
have hitherto been strangers to solutions of glyceric acid; these bacilli
then only decompose the levo-glyceric acid, the dextro-glyceric acid
molecules being untouched by them. In fact, in this manner the
fermentative activity of this Bacillus ethaceticus can be regulated with
the greatest nicety and precision, and this forms a good example of the
profound modifications which can be effected in micro-organisms by what
may be called educational culture.
Modifications effected in Micro-organisms by Educational Culture.—
This subject of the modification of micro-organisms by artificial means is
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 451
of such far-reaching importance that I must ask you to permit me to
devote a little further attention to it. There are an immense number of
isolated and incidental observations concerning such induced modifi-
cations distributed through bacteriological literature, but there are
comparatively few connected researches which have been made with the
object of deliberately ascertaining what are the limits within which such
modifications can be made.!
That bacteria are peculiarly liable to present the most extraordinary
changes in form was demonstrated already twenty years ago by Professor
Ray Lankester’s observations on the Beggiatoa roseo-persicina (‘ Quart.
Journ. Mic. Sci.,’ xiii. 1873), whilst during recent years the examples of
variation, both in form and function, which have been observed are so
numerous that even a mere enumeration of them would involve more
time than I have at my disposal. It is not, however, perhaps out of
place to give those of you who are less familiar with this subject an
instance of the profound morphological change which can be impressed
on a micro-organism by artificial means. To my mind perhaps the most
striking instance of this kind is the artificial production by Chamberland
and Roux of a variety of anthrax bacilli, which are incapable of produc-
ing spores under any known conditions whatsoever. This fundamental
metamorphosis in the morphology and physiology of the organism is
effected by cultivating the ordinary anthrax bacilli in broth, to which a
small proportion of potassium dichromate (5,155), or phenol (about +5855)
has been added. This sporeless, or asporogene, anthrax is equally virulent,
and in all respects resembles the ordinary anthrax bacilli, excepting in
the particular of inability to form spores. This peculiarity is, moreover,
so permanently stamped upon it that it persists even after passing the
asporogene bacillus through the bodies of animals.
T ought also to mention similarly profound and permanent morpho-
logical changes which Hansen has made in yeasts by prolonged culture
in aérated wort near the maximum temperature. In this manner yeast
varieties were obtained which had entirely lost their power of producing
spores under whatever conditions they might subsequently be cultivated
(Hansen, ‘ Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.,’ vii. [1890], p. 795).
Equally striking are the changes in the functions of bacteria which can
be artificially produced.
Into the artificial and permanent diminution of the virulence of
pathogenic micro-organisms it is not necessary for me to enter, as the
production of attenuated viruses or vaccines for the purposes of preventive
inoculation is already carried out on what may be called an industrial
scale. But the converse operation may also be effected, that is to say, an
organism possessing only a low degree of virulence may by artificial
means have its virulence increased beyond that which it normally
_ exhibits in nature. This has been done by Malm, for the bacillus of
anthrax, by passing this organism through animals which, like the dog,
are naturally very refractory to this disease, or which have been rendered
artificially refractory by vaccination (‘Ann. del’Inst. Pasteur,’ vii. [1890],
p. 532). Hitherto, however, such increased virulence has not been
‘A useful summary of the principal instances of recorded variations amongst
bacteria, more especially those of a pathogenic nature, was contributed to the
Pathological Section of the meeting of the British Medical Association, held at
Nottingham in July of last year, by Professor Adami (Medical Chronicle, September,
1892).
ea 2
452 REPORT—1893.
imparted to bacteria by more purely artificial means, e.g., by subjecting
them to chemical treatment, nor has it yet been found possible to convert
a perfectly harmless micro-organism into a pathogenic one.
Instances of artificially induced changes of bacterial function, other
than pathogeneity, are far more easy to study with accuracy and precision
as the complicating differences of animal organisation are eliminated.
Thus, whilst any two animals selected for experiment must necessarily
differ in more or less important respects, any number of test-tubes con-
taining a culture medium of precisely the same composition can be
prepared.
Changes of Function—Everyone who has cultivated bacteria over long
periods of time will probably have noticed more or less conspicuous
changes in some of their functional activities, ¢.g., that the power of
liquefying gelatin, possessed by some, has become diminished, or that
the power of producing pigments has become impaired, or perhaps has
actually disappeared altogether. Or, again, it may frequently be observed.
that an organism which had originally the power of fermenting some
particular substance has lost this power through prolonged culture, and,
indeed, even a single passage through gelatin may sometimes apparently
destroy the capacity to exercise this function. Thus, I have in my
possession a bacillus which has the power of fermenting calcium citrate,
and this function it continues to exercise for years if grown in suitable
media. On submitting such a fermenting solution of calcium citrate to
plate cultivation, colonies make their appearance in due course; but on
transferring one of the colonies to a sterile solution of calcium citrate it
invariably fails to set up a fermentation, the bacillus having by mere
passage through the gelatin-medium lost its fermenting power. If,
however, a similar colony be put into broth containing calcium citrate:
the latter is readily fermented ; on now inoculating from this to a weaker
broth containing calcium citrate this also is put into fermentation, and
by successively passing in this manner to weaker and weaker broths con-
taining calcium citrate we may ultimately set up fermentation in a
calcium citrate solution which was absolutely unfermentable when the
bacilli were taken directly from the gelatin plate (‘ Micro-organisms in
their Relation to Chemical Change,’ Royal Institution, 1892).
A striking example of permanent loss of function is described by
Laurent (‘ Ann. de I’Inst. Pasteur,’ iv. [1890], p. 465) in the case of the
Bacillus ruber of Kiel; an organism which, as its name implies, pro-
duces a red pigment. Laurent found that if cultures of this bacillus were
exposed to bright sunlight for a period of three hours the subsequent
cultures were almost invariably colourless, and so permanent was this.
loss of pigment-producing power that thirty-two successive cultures,
carried on over a period of a year, failed to restore it.
If such numerous bacterial varieties can be artificially induced in the
laboratory, it is surely highly probable, in fact all but certain, that
similar modifications have been, and are still, continually arising amongst
the bacteria growing amidst natural surroundings This anticipation is
fully borne out by the direct examination of the bacterial forms occurring
in nature. It is a most striking and significant fact that in the case of
almost any micro-organism which has received special attention on
account of some particular property which it possesses, e.9., pathogenic
power, a careful examination of the natural habitat of such an organism
has almost invariably led to the discovery of one and often many other
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 453
bacteria resembling the particular one in question in almost every
respect, but differing in one or more details—certainly not more important
details than those which we have seen can be artificially produced in the
laboratory. Let me cite a few examples of such natural varieties, as we
may call them.
The bacillus of anthraw we know under natural conditions may, and
frequently does, temporarily reside in the soil; it would not be surprising,
therefore, to find in the soil some organism presenting more or less
likeness to this bacillus. As a matter of fact, not only has an organism
indistinguishable from anthrax in all save its pathogenic properties been
discovered in the soil by Hueppe and Cartwright Wood, but these investi-
gators further proved the excessively close relationship of this soil bacillus
to the anthrax bacillus by the observation that rabbits and even mice
inoculated with the soil bacillus were protected against subsequent
inoculation with virulent anthrax, as though they had been vaccinated
with an attenuated anthrax virus (‘ Lancet,’ February, 1889; ‘ Berlin.
klin. Wochenschrift,’ No. 16, 1889).
The diphtheria bacillus of Loeffler (‘Centralbl. f. Bakteriol.,’ ii. [1887],
p- 105) was found by him in the false membranes of the throat associated
with another bacillus, almost indistinguishable from it, excepting that it
had no toxic effect on animals. Roux and Yersin (‘Ann. de |’Inst. Pasteur,’
iv. [1890], p. 385) have, moreover, found that this Bacillus pseudo-
diphthericus, as it is called, is frequently present in the pharyngeal mucous
membrane of healthy children.
The cholera bacillus of Koch, again, as we have already seen, is not
only subject to very considerable variations in form and functions accord-
‘ing to the particular place or epidemic from which it has been obtained,
but its natural habitats—the human intestine and natural waters—have
both been found to yield forms which are distinguishable from it only
with the greatest difficulty.
The typhoid bacillus of Eberth-Gaffky, again, is distinguishable only
with the greatest difficulty from a number of pseudo-forms occurring in
its natural habitats—the human intestine and natural waters.
Closely connected with these phenomena are doubtless also aérobic
and anaérobic growth. As is well known, bacteria may be divided into
three classes, according to their relationship to oxygen :—
(1) Compulsorily aérobic, or those organisms which will only grow
in the presence of free oxygen; (2) facultatively aérobie and anaérobic,
or those organisms which can grow either in the presence or absence of
free oxygen; (3) compulsorily anaérobic, or those organisms which will
only grow in the absence of free oxygen. The phenomenon of aérobic
growth would appear, of course, to be the normal one; but in many of
the decompositions brought about by bacteria such large quantities of
gases—especially carbonic anhydride and hydrogen—are evolved that
all free oxygen is rapidly swept out of the medium in which the bacteria
‘are carrying on their operations. Under these circumstances, then, any
bacteria which are entirely dependent on oxygen would have their
vitality either destroyed or suspended, whilst those which can maintain
themselves either temporarily or permanently in the absence of oxygen
must be at a great advantage, inasmuch as they can continue their vital
processes in the oxygen-deprived medium which they have themselves
created. In this way we can imagine how originally aérobic organisms
endowed with the capacity of decomposing certain substances with the
454 REPORT—1893,
evolution of gases (CO,, H, &c.) have gradually become modified so as
to endure for longer and longer periods of time the exclusion of oxygen;
and finally some forms have become so far modified as to only find the
means of livelihood in the entire absence of oxygen, or, in other words,
they have become obligatorily anaérobic.
Thus, whilst Pasteur ascribes fermentation to the life of micro-organ-
isms in the absence of oxygen, it appears to me that the life of micro-
organisms in the absence of oxygen is necessitated by their power of
bringing about fermentative changes which banish oxygen from the
medium ; in fact, the fermentative capacity is probably antecedent to the
anaérobic capacity.
Direct experiments as to how far aérobic micro-organisms can be
trained to thrive in the absence of oxygen, and vice versd, are urgently
wanted ; but there is already sufficient evidence that fermentative capacity
is not dependent on absence of oxygen. Ihave already referred to this sub-
ject in connection with yeast fermentation, but it is equally true of bacterial
fermentations also; thus my Bacillus ethaceticus ferments most vigorously
in the presence of air, but it would, of course, not be a fermenting organ-
ism in the commonly accepted sense of the word if it could not also
ferment in the absence of air, because in ordinary fermentations, as there
is no provision made for the continnous supply of air, if the organism
were obligatorily aérobic, the fermentation would at once cease as soon
as the oxygen initially present was used up.
These views are moreover in entire harmony with the observations of
other investigators concerning fermentation bacteria. Thus amongst the
most obligatorily anaérobic organisms with which we are acquainted is
the common butyric ferment, the so-called Bacillus amylobacter, which
can only be cultivated in the entire absence of oxygen. It must not,
however, be imagined that the butyric fermentation is dependent upon
the absence of oxygen, for Hueppe has isolated and described a bacillus
which, whilst bringing about the same butyric fermentations as the B.
anylobacter, is aérobic. Of the primitive bacteria possessing the power
of exciting butyric fermentation we must conclude, therefore, that the
ancestors of the B. amylobacter became so far modified by long-continued
residence amidst anaérobic surroundings as to have apparently lost the
power of aérobic growth altogether, whilst the ancestors of Hueppe’s
butyric bacillus, having undergone less specialisation, can still flourish
either in the presence or absence of air.
These instances which I have selected are only a few out of a large
number of similar cases which are recorded in literature, but they are:
sufficient surely for anyone whose mind is not burdened and biassed by
preconceived ideas concerning species to draw their conclusions as to the
mutability of bacteria, whilst they show the rare opportunities which are
afforded by these micro-organisms for experimentally studying some of
the phenomena of evolution.
Sanitary Aspects of Bacteriology—The advances in bacteriology which
have probably excited most general interest are those which have refer-
ence to the maintenance of the public health; the bacteriology of air,
water, soil, and articles of diet, disinfection, and the like. It would be
impossible for me in the time which is available to present to you even
the merest outline sketch of the enormous amount of work which has
been done during recent years in this department. I will confine myself
to a few points which appear to me to be of more particular interest to
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 455
chemists. Thus the investigation of numerous hygienic questions, more
especially relating to water supply and sewage disposal, forms a very
important part of professional chemistry, and the bearing of recent
bacteriological research on these questions must of necessity, therefore,
be of peculiar interest to many chemists. When the bacteriological
examination of water first came into vogue some eight or nine years ago
there was a general impression amongst enthusiasts for the new science
that it would, in a very short time, entirely supersede the chemical ex-
amination owing to the inability of the latter to distinguish between dead
and living organic matter, and to reveal the presence of disease-producing
organisms. From the newly established bacteriological .laboratories
on the Continent there emanated in rapid succession publications in
which standards of bacteriological purity for water were hastily set up
by men who, whilst doubtless very skilful bacteriologists, were quite
ignorant of the subject of water supply, with its numerous complicating
factors. It is quite unnecessary for me to enter into a discussion of these
standards of purity, because happily they have been banished from the
vocabulary of those who have had any considerable experience in these
matters.
Many persons, again, have been, and are still, under the impression
that the main object of an examination of water is to ascertain whether
it contains materials capable of causing disease, and that the inability of
chemical analysis to answer this question proves its inutility. The
absurdity of this view is so manifest, and the misconception to which it
is due so obvious, that its wide prevalence is my only excuse for referring
to it. A water examination which only reveals the unsuitability of the
water when disease germs are actually present in it can surely be of
little value indeed, inasmuch as the mischief will in all probability have
been already done before the examination has been made or thought of.
The object of a water examination should obviously be to ascertain
whether a water is liable to be a source of danger, and not whether it
is actually dangerous at the moment of examination. Now] have no
hesitation in saying, and I have frequently expressed it as my opinion
during this controversy, that a proper chemical analysis is able to throw
more important light on this question than a bacteriological examination.
On the other hand, I have from the very first turned to bacteriology
for an answer to some questions concerning the hygienic aspects of water,
which I am equally strongly of opinion cannot be answered by chemical
methods of examination at all. Already in 1885 I pointed out in a paper
to the Royal Society, ‘On the Removal of Micro-organisms from Water,’
and elsewhere how the then recently introduced methods of bacterio-
logical research enabled us for the first time to ascertain the real hygienic
value of methods of water purification, both artificial and natural, such as
sand filtration, subsidence, precipitation as in Clark’s process, natural
filtration through porous strata, &e.
Thus I showed that the improvements effected in the quality of water
by sand filtration, by Clark’s process, and by subsidence are quite insig-
niicant—from a chemical point of view—as compared with their bacterio-
logical efficiency. The bacteriological effect of these processes may be
ges by means of the following tables summarising some of my
results.
Thus the first two tables show the remarkable efficiency of sand-
filtration in removing micro-organisms from water: —
456
REPORT—1893.
1886.—Number of Micro-organisms in 1 ¢.c. of River Thames Water before
and after Filtration.
DESCRIPTION OF WATER.
(Percy Franxuanp.)!
— Unfiltered | Chelsea cilia Bee i. Lambeth
January 45,400 159 180 2,270 4,894 2,587
February 15,800 305 80 284 208 265
March 11,415 299 175 1,562 379 287
April . 12,250 94 47 T7 115 209
May 4,800 59 19 29 51 136
June . 8,300 60 145 94 17 129
July . 3,000 59 45 380 14 155
August 6,100 303 25 60 12 1,415
September . 8,400 87 27 49 17 59
October 8,600 B4 22 61 te 45
November . 56,000 65 47 321 80 108
December 63,000 222 2,000 1,100 1,700 305
Average for year 20,255 146 234 524 630 475
1886.—Percentage Reduction in the Number of Micro-organisms present in
the River Waters before delivery by the Companies.
DESCRIPTION OF WATER.
West
_ Chelsea Maddleses Southwark oe Lambeth
January 99°7 99°6 95:0 89-2 94:3
February 98:1 99°5 98-2 98:7 98°3
March 97:4 98°5 86:3 96:7 97°5
April . 99°2 99°6 99:4 99-1 98°3
May 98°8 99°6 99-4 98°9 97:2
June . 99:3 98°3 98:9 99:8 98°5
July 98:0 98°5 87°3 99°5 948
August 95:0 99:6 99:0 99°8 76°8
September . 99-0 99°7 99:4 99°8 99°3
October 99°6 99°7 99:3 BASEN 99°56
November . Shs) 99°9 99°4 99°9 99°8
December 99:7 96°8 98°3 97:3 99°5
Average reduction 98°6 99°1 96°7 98:2 96:2
In the following table are recorded the results obtained in two
experiments, made in 1885, on the softening of water by Clark’s process
on the large scale :—
Number of Micro-organisms in 1 c.c. of Water.
Unsoftened deep well water obtained from chalk .
Unsoftened deep well water obtained from chalk after softening
by Clark’s process
Reduction = 99 per cent.
Unsoftened deep well water obtained from chalk . , c :
Unsoftened deep well water obtained from chalk after softening 4
Reduction =98 per cent.
(Percy FRANKLAND.)
322
182
The following table exhibits the remarkable manner in which bacteria
} Taken from the monthly reports presented to the Local Government Board for
the year 1886.
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 457
in water are carried down and removed from suspension by the sub-
sidence of solid particles of different kinds :—
Removal of Micro-organisms by Sedimentation, (Percy FRANKLAND.)
Agitation for 15 minutes with Chalk.
Untreated water contained . F ‘ F P . 8,000 in 1 cc.
After agitation : : - : : 270 in 1 c.c.
Reduction = 97 per cent.
Agitation for 15 minutes with Coke.
Untreated water contained . ; : : é - Innumerable
After agitation 3 ; 5 : ; - . None
Reduction = 100 per cent.
Agitation for 15 minutes with Animal Charcoal.
Untreated water contained . F , : . 8,000 in 1 c.c.
After agitation : : : é ; 60 in 1 c.c,
Reduction =99 per cent.
Agitation for 15 minutes with Vegetable Charcoal.
Untreated water contained . , . , : . 3,000 in 1 c.c.
After agitation 5 : , < : ‘ 3 1.) 220lin' I e-c;
Reduction =96 per cent.
I have recently extended these observations to the subsidence of
bacteria in water during storage in large reservoirs.
Reduction in number of Micro-organisms effected by storage of Water in
Reservoirs. (PrERcY FRANKLAND.)
New River Company.
Water in cutting above reservoir . : g A SP AE
Water at outlet of first reservoir . ‘ 4 3 : 560 in 1 c.c.
Water at outlet of second reservoir : . ji 5 183 in 1 e.c.
West Middlesex Company.
Thames water from Hampton : : ; 1,437 in 1 c.c.
Thames water from Hampton after passing through one
storage reservoir . : : ; : 3 318 in 1 cc.
Thames water from Hampton after passing through two
storage reservoirs . 6 é : i : - 177 in 1 cc.
The above figures show the importance of storage as a means of
removing bacteria from surface waters,
Another important matter, again, in connection with the hygiene of
water, on which bacteriology alone can throw light, is the fate of patho-
genic bacteria gaining access to water. This inquiry has been pursued
by a number of investigators, and has led to many interesting results.
Amongst the most important of these I may specially mention—
(1) That in some exceptional cases pathogenic bacteria are destroyed
with remarkable rapidity, in a few hours, when introduced into ordinary
potable water.
458 REPORT—1893.
(2) That in the majority of cases they can retain their vitality and
virulence in potable waters for considerable periods of time—days, weeks,
and in the spore form for months or even years—but that their longevity
is almost invariably, and often very greatly, curtailed by the common
bacteria present in all natural waters. They are thus generally far more
persistent when introduced into sterilised than into unsterilised water.
(3) With few exceptions the pathogenic bacteria which have been
experimented with do not undergo any extensive multiplication in potable
waters, although such multiplication is frequent in the case of foul waters
like sewage.
Bacteriological examination, again, has greatly fortified the now
generally accepted views as to the communication of typhoid fever and
Asiatic cholera through the medium of drinking water by the actual dis-
covery of the typhoid and cholera bacilli in waters which had been
suspected of distributing these diseases.
It is precisely in this particular of bacteriological water examination
that great advances have been recently made. The searching for patho-
genic bacteria in a potable water must always be very much like looking
for a needle in a haystack, and it has been abundantly shown that the
ordinary process of plate-cultivation is, excepting in rare cases, quite
inadequate for this quest, owing to the crowding out of the few patho-
genic by the overwhelming majority of non-pathogenic forms. It has, in
fact, become more and more evident that, in order to discover any
particular organism—pathogenic or otherwise, for the matter of that—
which is present in a very small minority, it is necessary to submit the
water or other material under examination to a preliminary treatment
before proceeding to plate-cultivation. This preliminary treatment must
be so conceived and executed as to foster the multiplication of the
particular organism of which we are in quest relatively to that of those
organisms which are of no interest, and thus secure a majority of the
former at the ensuing plate-cultivation, when no difficulty will arise in
detecting its presence. Such special methods of examination are now in
constant use for the detection of both the cholera and typhoid bacilli in
water.
It will thus be seen that by combining chemical and bacteriological
methods of examination our knowledge of water hygiene has been very
greatly extended during recent years.
In the matter of sewage treatment the most laborious investigations,
in which both chemical and bacteriological methods of examination were
simultaneously employed, have been made by the Massachusetts Board
of Health. The results of these investigations show, as would indeed be
expected, that intermittent filtration through soil, if properly carried out,
is the most efficient not only from a chemical but also from a bacterio-
logical point of view, and in the chemical precipitation of sewage there is,
in general, a much greater removal of micro-organisms than of organic
matter, or, in other words, the bacteriological efficiency of these precipita-
tion processes is generally much greater than their chemical efficiency.
Bactericidal Action of Light.——Although I have not time to enter into
the subject of disinfection in its entirety—i.e., the destruction of bacteria
by chemicals and other agencies—there is a section of this subject on
which I should not omit to say a few words, viz., the disinfecting or
bactericidal action of light.
Very soon after bacteria bad been introduced to the general public
ee
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 459
through the earlier researches of Pasteur, Lister, Burdon Sanderson, and
Tyndall, now about a quarter of a century ago, the important discovery
was made by Downes and Blunt that these minute organisms were
remarkably susceptible to direct sunshine.! Notwithstanding the
novelty of the subject and the peculiar difficulties which then attended
such researches, these two investigators worked out their discovery in
such a very complete manner that I am of opinion it should be regarded
as one of the most important additions made to the subject of bacteriology
prior to the introduction of the more modern methods of studying
bacteria. They clearly showed that this bactericidal action of sunlight is.
independent of any rise in temperature ; that they are the rays at the blue
end of the spectrum which are the most effective, the red rays being
almost quite inert; further, that the action is highly favoured if not
entirely dependent on the simultaneous presence of oxygen. Again,
they showed that the action was quite independent of the presence of any
eulture medium, for if bacteria which had been suspended in distilled
water were allowed to become air-dry on glass they were destroyed by
subsequent insolation. Again, they found that the culture media which
they employed (Pasteur solution) were not rendered unfit by insolation
for the subsequent cultivation of micro-organisms. Another highly
important point to which they drew attention was that the action of sun-
light is much less effective if the bacteria are suspended in water than if
they are present in culture solutions. They further showed that mould
and yeast forms were less susceptible to light than bacteria, and they
even extended their investigations to the soluble ferment invertase, the
activity of which they also found succumbed to insolation. These classical
investigations have been confirmed in practically every detail by the
subsequent researches made with pure cultures of particular bacteria by
Duclaux,? Arloing,? Straus, Roux, Gaillard,® Uffelmann,’ Panzini,®
Laurent,’ Santorini,!° Janowski,!! Geisler,!? Kotljar,!* Buchner,'*
Momont,'? Marshall Ward, and myself.'®
Of special interest in connection with this subject are some recent
experiments by Richardson,'’ who shows that when urine is exposed to
direct sunshine peroxide of hydrogen is formed, the presence of which
prevents the development of growths. There are several very interesting
and important points arising out of this investigation :
1, There can be no doubt that peroxide of hydrogen was formed in.
' Proceedings Royal Society, 1877 and 1878.
2 Comptes Rendus, c. and ci. (1885).
8 Tbid., c. p. 378; ci. p. 511; civ. p. 701; Archives de Physiol. norm. et Path.,
i. (1886), p. 209.
* Société de Biologie, 1886, p. 473.
5 Annales de Inst. Pastewr, i. (1887), p. 445.
& De UInfluence de la Lumiétre sur les Micro-organismes, Lyons, 1888.
7 Die hygienische Bedeutung des Sonnenlichtes, 1889.
& Rivista d’Igiene, 1889.
® Ann. de V Inst. Pasteur, iv. (1890), p. 478.
0 Bull. della Accad, Med. di Roma, xvi. (1889-90).
" Centralbl. f. Bakteriolegie, viii. (1890), pp. 167, 193, 230, 262.
2 Thid., xi. (1892), p. 161.
18 Thid., xii. (1892), p. 836.
“4 Thid., xi. p. 781; xii. p. 217.
8 Ann. de l’ Inst. Pasteur, vi, (1892), p. 21.
16 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1893.
" Trans. Chem. Soc., 1893.
3.
460 REPORT—1 893.
Richardson’s culture medium (urine) during insolation, and that this
insolated urine possessed antiseptic properties. In this respect Richard-
son’s experiments confirm certain previous observations made by Roux,
but are in opposition to those of all other investigators who have devoted
attention to this point. Thus Roux found that by the insolation of broth
in the presence of air it became unfit for the germination of anthrax
spores. Several other investigators, including Panzini and Janowski,
have repeated this experiment with different culture materials, but have
failed to confirm it. Roux’s results were, however, so very definite that
it has always seemed to me impossible to doubt their accuracy, and I
have attributed the discrepancy between his results and those of others
to some difference in the conditions under which the experiments were
made. The definite proof which has now been furnished by Richardson
that peroxide of hydrogen is formed in some culture media by insolation,
and that the conditions necessary for the formation and preservation of
this antiseptic substance are by no means perfectly understood, clearly
shows that Roux and his opponents may both be right, and that the
different results arrived at depend upon differences in the conditions under
which the experiments were carried out, the nature of which differences
is at present not understood. That Roux’s insolated broth was rendered
unfit for the germination of anthrax spores by the presence of peroxide of
hydrogen is almost certain also from the fact that he found such insolated
broth to recover its original nutritive properties if it was kept in the dark
or in diffused daylight for a certain length of time.
2. The proof of the formation of peroxide of hydrogen during
insolation naturally suggests the question whether the whole bactericidal
effect of light is due to this material, or whether it only partially accounts
for the phenomenon. This important question is one which it is far from
easy to answer owing to the almost insuperable difficulty of securing
conditions under which the generation of peroxide of hydrogen is
impossible. We will examine some of the experiments which bear on
this point :—
(a) Downes and Blunt found that germs which had been air-dried on
glass were destroyed by subsequent insolation.
(b) Momont found that anthrax spores dried for twelve hours by means
of a sulphuric acid vacwwm subsequently withstood insolation for upwards
of 100 hours. -
(c) Marshall Ward dried anthrax spores on glass at 70° C., and
found that they were subsequently rapidly destroyed by insolation.
In none of these three sets of experiments can the conditions be
regarded as precluding the possibility of the formation of peroxide of
hydrogen. Moisture must certainly have been present in Downes’ and
Blunt’s experiments, and in smaller quantity in Marshall Ward’s. In
Momont’s experiments the desiccation was doubtless the most complete,
and at first sight the long insolation endured by his desiccated spores is
very significant ; but I do not regard it as wholly conclusive owing to
the impossibility of comparing the deportment of spores of different
origin, and also to the fact that Momont used the more delicate method
of detecting their vitality—viz., subsequent cultivation in broth—whilst
Marshall Ward used, I believe, agar or gelatin; and Downes and Blunt,
Pasteur solution—culture media which are not as sensitive as broth.
There are other experiments, again, which bear upon the same subject.
Thus Richardson has shown that the formation of peroxide of hydrogen
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 46F
is due to the presence of some ingredient or ingredients in the urine, and
that it is not formed by the insolation of water, or even of a solution of
urea. If, then, the bacteria are suspended in water during insolation,
there can be no generation of peroxide of hydrogen in the liquid. Now,
as I have already pointed out in connection with my own experiments, a
number of investigators are agreed that bacteria are much more resistant
to insolation when suspended in water than when suspended in culture
materials. It is, however, equally certain that they are actually de-
stroyed, and sometimes even with great rapidity, when suspended in
water. Now this at first sight would appear to demonstrate that the
bactericidal effect of light, although accelerated by the generation of
peroxide of hydrogen, may also take place without it. But we have
already admitted the possibility of the generation of peroxide of hydrogen
within the cells of imperfectly dried bacteria and their spores, so that it
is surely still more easy to believe in the production of this materiab
within the cells suspended in water to which air has access.
The evidence so far would appear to indicate, therefore, that, whilst
the generation of peroxide of hydrogen is undoubtedly in many cases an
active factor in the bactericidal influence of light, it is still uncertain
whether it is indispensable for the process.
The question obviously raises another and far more general question
which has long been before the chemical world—viz., as to how far
oxidation can take place at all in the entire absence of water-vapour—and
the evidence on this larger question goes entirely to show that all
apparently direct low-temperature oxidations require the presence of
water vapour. And, inasmuch as the bactericidal action of light is
unquestionably a case of low-temperature oxidation there is the strongest
presumptive evidence, as well as weighty experimental evidence, that
water vapour, which practically means peroxide of hydrogen or some
similar material, is essential for its manifestation.
One of the most important circumstances, from a practical point of
view, connected with this bactericidal action of light is the greatly
increased resistance which is exhibited by bacteria when suspended in
water. On this subject I have for some time past been conducting some:
experiments, and although these are not yet by any means concluded, I
may take this opportunity of referring to some of the results at which I
have arrived. In the first place, I would point out how fallacious must
be any comparison between the length of insolation withstood by even
one and the same micro-organism in the hands of different observers, as.
so much depends upon their previous history and treatment. Thus I
have found that the spores of anthrax produced at the ordinary room
temperature (18-20° C.) are far more resistant than anthrax spores
which have been obtained in an incubator at 35-38° C. It is necessary,
therefore, in all such investigations, if comparisons are to be made,
that the organisms should be taken from one and the same cultivation.
In endeavouring to ascertain the greater susceptibility of bacteria to light
when exposed in culture media I am proceeding by way of synthesis,.
making various additions to distilled water, and then determining how
such additions affect the influence of insolation. In this manner I have-
already made some preliminary experiments with common salt and’
sodium sulphate.
The results of one series of these experiments are recorded in the:
following table :—
462 REPORT—1893.
Action of Sunshine on Anthrax Spores suspended in Water.
(Percy FRANKLAND.)
Spores produced at 18-20° C. Spores produced at 38° C.
| |
|
3 hours’ Sunshine Darkness 3 hours’ Sunshine Darkness
240 490 4 476
Pane Lt be polite ale ts eee ME cies Sa
| | | | | | | |
NaCl Na,SO, NaCl Na,SO, NaCl Na,SO, NaCl Na,SO,
1% .117 239 450 474 19 ia. 40 0 314 390
3%. 81 218 384 426 396 a lib 1 132 343
10% . 46 187 150 622 10%. O 0 115 220
The figures refer to the number of anthrax spores contained in a cubic
centimetre of water.
These results clearly show that the bactericidal action of light is very
considerably greater in water containing common salt (1, 3, or 10 per
cent.) than in distilled water; whilst, on the other hand, the addition of
sodinm sulphate in the same proportions has little or no influence in this
respect. It is worthy of note also that an addition of 10 per cent. sodium
chloride appears to exercise even a considerable bactericidal effect in the
dark.
The specific effect of the sodium chloride in enhancing the bactericidal
action of light is even still more conspicuously brought out by the series
of experiments—also on anthrax spores—recorded in the following
table :—
Action of Sunshine on Anthraw Spores suspended in Water.
(Percy FRANKLAND.)
Spores produced at 18-20° C.
|
Sunshine Darkness
|
Insane | | | frais | | |
No addi- 1% 3% 10% No addi- 1% 3% 10%
; tions NaCl NaCl NaCl tions NaCl NaCl NaCl
4 Hours. 16,000 14,000 8,000 5,000 13,000 13,000 9,000 12,000
11 Hours . 12,000 8,000 3,000 485 15,000 13,000 16,000 14,000
21 Hours . 378 39 49 0 18,000 15,000 14,000 9,000
The figures refer to the number of anthrax spores found in a cubic
centimetre of water.
In addition to those departments of bacteriology which I have briefly
touched upon in this survey, there are many others, also of great interest
to chemists, which might have been appropriately introduced had time
permitted. Thus the more important subjects which I have had to pass
over are—
1. The discoveries in the bacteriology of agriculture, including such
important chemical changes as nitrification and the fixation of free
nitrogen by leguminous plants (which must be regarded as some of the
most important contributions to vegetable physiology ever made) have
shown that really the most important fermentation industry, and which
is far more extensive than all other industries put together, is agriculture.
ON BACTERIOLOGY IN ITS RELATIONS TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 463
2. The production of ptomaines and poisonous albuminoids.
8. The phenomena of natural and artificial immunity, including the
much-vexed questions of phagocytosis and the bactericidal properties of
blood-serum and animal fluids.
In all these branches of bacteriology there is not only much that is of
interest to chemists, but there is urgent need in the interests of science
that these subjects should receive the attention of chemists, for almost in
every direction in which bacteriology is advancing it is abutting on
problems which will require the most profound knowledge of chemistry
for their elucidation. In many respects, moreover, chemists are at a
great advantage in the investigation of bacteriological problems, inasmuch
as their thorough experimental training and manipulative skill afford the
very best preparation for the study of this subject, in which the inductive
method and a due appreciation of all the complicating factors which
surround an experimental inquiry are in continual requisition. It must
not, however, be supposed that a chemist can apply any bacteriological
method with the same readiness that he can carry out some new chemical
preparation from a published description. In the management of living
bacteria there are a number of points which have to be carefully borne in
mind which do not enter into one’s consideration in dealing with inanimate
matter. But this step from the inanimate to the animate is not more
difficult for the chemist than for the vegetable or animal morphologist ;
indeed, it is perhaps not as difficult, for, whilst the morphologist is oc-
cupied only with statical considerations, in modern Chemistry our attention
is turned more and more to dynamical problems.
In view of the vast fields of fruitful research which lie in this province
of Biological Chemistry, it appears to me that the curriculum of chemical
training should be more and more framed with a view to their successful
exploitation. It is desirable that chemical students should take zoology,
botany, and physiology as subsidiary subjects more frequently than they
do at present in order that the barrier which is often felt to exist between
Chemistry and Biology may be broken down and abolished.
The Circulation of Underground Waters.—Nineteenth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Hutt (Chairman),
- Rev. Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Sir D. Gatton, J. GLAISHER, PERCY
KENDALL, Professor G. A. LEBour, E. B. Marten, G. H. Morton,
W. PENGELLY, Professor J. PRestwicu, I. Roperts, Tuos. S.
Stooxr, G. J. Symons, W. TopLey, C. TYLDEN-WRiIGHT, E.
WETHERED, W. WuiTakEerR, and ©, E. De Rance (Secretary).
(Drawn wp by C. E. DE Rance.)
THE inception of this committee was due to Professor Hull, who was
appointed Chairman at Belfast in 1874, with your reporter as Secretary,
for the purpose of investigating the circulation of underground waters in
the permeable formations of England and Wales, and the quantity and
character of the waters supplied to various towns and districts from these
formations. It was felt last year that the labours of the Committee were
nearly completed, and that they could not terminate their labours at a
464 REPORT—1893.
more appropriate place of meeting than Nottingham, supplied as it is by
a magnificent volume of underground water of absolute purity, and it is
of interest to note that the Chairman of the Committee, Professor Hull,
was consulted when these works were first initiated by the late Mr. M. D.
Tarbotton, C.H.
It was last year resolved by the General Committee that your reporter
“be requested to draw up a final report embodying the whole of the facts
obtained in counties,’ and ‘ that it is advisable that the report in question
Should be issued as a separate publication.’
In compliance with this resolution your reporter has commenced the
work of combining and systematising the previous eighteen reports, but
he regrets that through pressure of official and other duties it has been
impossible for him to complete the same, but he trusts to do so before
the meeting at Oxford in 1894, when your committee will complete the
twentieth year of their existence. The counties will be divided into five
groups, and the report into as many separate sections, which your Com-
mittee recommend be sold separately.
Your reporter would in any case have ventured to suggest the con-
tinuance of the Committee for another year, in consequence of the excep-
tional season experienced, which has rendered it highly important to
endeavour to trace the effect of the drought on underground water
supply, and to institute a special inquiry as to the downward movement
of the underground waiter line throughout the porous rocks of the
country, and also as the rate of replacement of water by subsequent rains.
From observations made by Mr. EH. J. Lowe, F.R.S., at Shirenewton
Hall, Worcestershire, it appears that the entire rainfall of March and
April was only 0°6 in., that from March to August 17 only 9°7 in., that
48 rainy days occurred, and 122 days without any rain: this, combined
with an almost continuous high temperature, caused excessive evapora-
tion of such rainfall as took place, the shade temperature being above
eighty degrees seven days in April, one in May, six in June, five in
July, and eight in August up to the 17th. Before the thunderstorm
of June 15, on which 1:01 inch fell, the ground was dry to a depth of
fifteen inches, but the rain only penetrated two inches from the surface.
The drought has made clearly apparent the weakness of gravitation
supplies, the quality of the water in the best reservoirs steadily deterio-
rating as the quantity stored is reduced. The great value of underground
supplies is as strongly brought out by the present yield of the Gains-
borough Local Board well. It was sunk by Messrs. Timmins, Runcorn,
at the recommendation of your reporter. The boring is now 1,351 feet in
depth, and gives, in spite of the drought, the magnificent yield of 20,000:
gallons per hour. The boring is artesian, the water rising from beneath
725 feet of Keuper Marls, being derived from the New Red Sandstone
several miles distant.
Your Committee seek re-election, and reserve details received this
year for incorporation in their final report next year. The Committee
regret to have to note the death of their able Leicestershire member,
Mr. James Plant, F.G.S., whose work has been of great value to the
Committee and to the inquiry generally.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. 465
The Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.—Tenth Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor T. WirsHtrEe (Chair-
man), Dr. H. Woopwarpd, and Professor T. Rupert JONES
(Secretary). (Drawn wp by Professor T. Rupert JONES.)
[PLATE I.]
ConTeENTs.
I. Phyllocarida, from North Wales. III. Hstherie, from Bohemia.
Il. ZHstheri@, from the Wetterau and IV. Phyllocarida, from Iowa and
the Nahe, Germany : Indiana.
| 1. Estheria striata (Miinster), V. Anomalocaris, from Canada.
. var. Muensteriana, nov. VI. Caryocaris Salteri, from Australia.
: figs. 1 and 2. VII. Aptychopsis anatina (Salter) and
| 2. HL. Reinachit, sp. nov., fig. 3. Peltocaris Marrii, sp. nov.
3. H. Geinitzii, sp. nov., fig. 4. VIII. Geological Distribution of the
4, H.—, var. Grebeana, nov., fig. 5. Paleozoic Peltate Phyllopoda.
I. The Phyllocarida, from North Wales, referred to in the last report
(for 1892, p. 299) as having been lent by Mr. G. J. Williams, F.G.S., of
Blaenau-Ffestiniog, have been duly examined, and several described and
figured, together with some other specimens, in the ‘ Geological Maga-
_ zine’ for May, 1893, pp. 198-203, plate 10, by T. R. Jones and H. Wood-
_ ward. These comprise Peltocaris Salteriana, sp. nov. (fig. 1), Diptero-
_ caris Etheridge, J. and W., 1884 (fig. 3), Aptychopsis Williamsit, sp. nov.
: (fig. 7), Ceratiocaris insperata, Salter, 1866 (figs. 8 and 9); besides a
_ fragment? (fig. 6), an undetermined specimen (cut, p. 203), a Conularia
(fig. 2), and two Mytiloid shells (figs. 4 and 5).
The other specimens were :—
7
:
Hymenocaris vermicauda (Salter). Four pieces from the Middle Lin-
gula-flags at Borth, and (Middle?) in the cutting near Wern; and (not
_ rare) from the Upper-Tremadoc beds at Garth Hill; all near Portmadoc.
| Saccocaris major (Salter). Small individual from the Upper Tremadoc
at Tuhwnt i’r Bwleh.
Lingulocaris siliquiformis (Jones). From the Upper Tremadoc, at
Garth Hill.
II. Several Hstherie, from the Permian strata of Germany, submitted
for examination by Baron Albert von Reinach, of Frankfort-on-the-Main,
prove to be—
1. Estheria striata (Minster), var. Muensteriana, nov., Plate I.,
figs. 1, 2.
Length, 3-66 mm.; hinge-line, 2°46 mm. ; height, 2°0 mm.
Near to the var. Betnertiana, Jones (‘Monograph Fossil Estherie,’
-Paleont. Soc., 1862, p. 25, pl. 1, figs. 11-14), but more angular and
sloping posteriorly, and not nearly so truncate on that border as in var.
Binneyana, Jones, loc. cit., fig. 9; nor rounded, as in var. Tateana, Jones,
loc. cit., figs. 15 and 18.
; Like the before-mentioned varietal forms of Estheria striata, this has a
straighter back than shown in the figures given by Goldfuss and De Ko-
ninck, and a sharper postero-dorsal angle than seen in any of the published
ae may mention that fig. 8, pl. 1, ‘ Monogr. Foss. Esther.,’ is less
93. HH
466 REPORT—1893.
oblong than the original figures referred to above, and is deeper (higher)
posteriorly ; fig. 9 is more truly oblong; figs. 11 and 13 are more oblique,
sloping posteriorly ; fig. 15 is oblique, but shorter than figs. 11 and 13 ;
and fig. 18 is shorter and subquadrate.
The indications of interstitial ornament are feebly evident in some of
those mentioned above, and we cannot find any in these now under ex-
amination.
Differing from the foregoing varieties it should be regarded, we think,
as another variety, which we wish to specialise as Hstheria striata, var.
Muensteriana, thus naming it after Count Minster, who was one of the
earliest observers of these Paleozoic Phyllopods and of other fossil
bivalve Entomostraca.
In its postero-dorsal angle and long hinge-line this form much
resembles the recent Estheria Rubidgei, Baird (‘ Proceed. Zool. Soc.,’ 1862,
pl. 15, fig. 3).
Fig. 1 illustrates the two valves lying together on the matrix, and
in fig. 2 the left valve is seen without any perspective.
It is in bluish-grey Lebach shale of the lower part of the Rothliegende
(Permian), at Altenstadt in the Wetterau, Grand Duchy Hessen, where
it was discovered by Baron A. von Reinach with other fossils, namely,
Xenacanthus Decheni, Goldfuss ; Acanthodes, sp.; Branchiosaurus amblyo-
stomus, Oredner (Protriton petrolei, Gaudry), and some of the leading
plants of the Permian series.
In these Lower Lebach shales from Altenstadt, Wetterau, A. von
Reinach also found numerous small Ostracodes, which T. R. Jones and
J. W. Kirkby have determined! as—
Leperditia Okeni (Miinster), very common.
5 » var. acuta, J. and K., 1
AF He ee oblonga, J. and K; ess common.
x x » parallela, J. and K., rare.
if Youngiana, J. and K., rare.
Cythere superba ? J. and K., common.
Bairdia ? &c.
The series of formations yielding these Phyllopoda and Ostracoda
have been especially studied of late years,” and belong to the Roth-
liegende of the Permian system of the Middle Rhine, Main, and Wetterau
(equivalent to that of the Nahe and Saxony).
Part OF THE PERMIAN SYSTEM.
F Kreuznach Beds.
Upper Rothliegende Wodem Reds:
Upper Sdtern Beds.
Middle > Lebach Beds ) Tholey Beds.
Lower Rothliegende < Lower Lebach Beds.
or
U j .
poe ‘ Cusel Beds tee Cusel Beds.
Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., vol. xxi. pt. 3, 1891, pp. 137-142, with plate.
2 See Ch. E. Weiss, Possile Flora der jiingsten Steinkohlenformation und des
Rothliegenden im Saar-Rhein- Gebiete, 1869-72, p. 6; Kayser’s Lehrbuch der geolo-
gischen Formationskunde, 1891, p. 149; and A. von Reinach, ‘ Das Rothliegende in
der Wetterau und sein Anschluss an das Saar-Nahegebeit,’ Abhandl. Konigl. Preuss.
Geol. Landesanstalt. Neue Folge. Heft 8, 1892, p. 3.
t Report Brit. Assoc. 1893.
PALHOZOIC ESTHERLE.
Illustrating the Report of the Committee on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Paleozoie Rocks.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALAOZOIC ROCKS. 467
CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.
Upper, Middle, and Lower Ottweiler Beds.
Upper, Middle, and Lower Saarbriick Beds.
Estherice are also known in the Lower Lebach Beds at Baerweiler-on-
the-Nahe.
2. Hstheria Reinachii, sp. nov., Plate L., fig. 3.
Length, 3°2 mm.; hinge-line, 1:73 mm.; height, 1:86 mm.
This suboval Hstheria, represented by two united valves (concave and
one imperfect), is shorter and proportionally higher than fig. 2, and has
a much shorter hinge-line, which is straight, and not quite equal in
length to the height of the valve. The umbo is not so near to the
antero-dorsal angle as it is in figs. 1 and 2, and therefore the ridges or
lines of growth are less obliquely concentric with the umbo; they are
also wider apart.
This form is not so bluntly rounded at the ends as H. tenella
(‘ Monogr. Foss. Hsther.,’ p. 31, pl. 1, fig. 26; pl. 2, fig. 39; and pl. 5,
figs. 1-7) ; and it is much too angular and sloping posteriorly to match
Goldenberg’s pl. 2, fig. 9. In this last-mentioned feature it shows an
alliance with Hstheria striata; but its shape and proportions decidedly
separate it as a species, and we give it the name H. Reinachii, after
Albert von Reinach, who discovered it in the light-grey shale of the
Upper Lebach Beds in the Engelthal, near Altenstadt, in the Wetterau.
3. Estheria Geinitzvi, sp. nov., Plate I, fig. 4.
Length, 1-4 mm.; hinge-line, 1:0 mm.; height, 1:05 mm.
This (left valve) is subquadrate, with the anterior and ventral more
fully rounded than the posterior border. The back is straight, and the
ambo is at its front end.
This somewhat approaches to the shorter and deep (high) forms of
Estheria minuta (‘ Monogr. Foss. Esther.,’ pl. 2, figs. 1, 5), but is readily
distinguishable. It is still nearer in shape to a form of EH. Mangaliensis,
op. cit., pl. 2, figs. 20, 28, but the latter has not the postero-dorsal
angle sufficiently pronounced. LH. subquadrata (‘ Geol. Mag.,’ 1890, pl. 12,
fig. 2) has some resemblance to the form shown by fig. 4, but it is not
truncate anteriorly, and its postero-dorsal angle is weak.
The steep slope of the front edge, the full ventral curve, the contracted
posterior moiety, and the well-pronounced postero-dorsal angle distin-
guish this form from any yet published. We dedicate it to our old friend
Hofrath H. B. Geinitz, of Dresden, who has always been deeply inter-
_ ested in fossil Entomostraca and in the strata from which those of the
_ Wetterau have been obtained.
This short form, deep (high) in its anterior moiety, is abundant
(gregarious) in a dark greenish-grey, nearly black shale, ferruginous on
_ one face, of the Lebach Beds, from the Boos Tunnel, on the Rhine-Nahe
_ Railway, and on the same geological horizon as at Altenstadt.
A. Estheria Geinitzii, var. Grebeana, nov., Plate I., fig. 5.
Length, 1-2 mm. ; hinge-line, 1:05 mm.; height, 0-9 mm.
Fig. 5 (right valve) is subtriangular and differs from fig. 4, owing to
the great proportional length of the hinge-line and the less fully rounded
HH 2
468 REPORT—1893.
free margins. The front border is truncate, sloping downwards and in-
wards; and the hinder margin slopes downwards at once and forwards,
and not partly outwards as in fig. 4.
These differences in outline do not seem to be due to bad preservation,
for the ridges are truly concentric with the margins, as far as they are
exposed; but they are varietal, if not sexual. Hence fig. 5 may be
distinguished as var. Girebeana, after Herr Grebe, of the Prussian Geo-
logical Service, who found it crowded together with H. Geinitzi_in the
hard, dark-coloured Lebach shale from the railway tunnel near Boos, a
village about a kilometre from Miinster-on-the-Nahe.
III. In Katzer’s ‘ Geologie von Bohmen,’ III. Abtheilung, 1892, the
following fossil Phyllopoda are mentioned :—
P. 1169, Estheria cyanea, Fr., from Lubna? (Lubno).
P. 1156 » tenella (Jordan), from Niirschan (Nyfany), | Post-Car-
P. 1156 » 8p., from Tremosna, boniferous..
Since that date our friend Dr. Anton Fritsch has shown us some
figures of Phyllopods which probably comprise those referred to above..
These figures are, 1, an Hstheria, from the lowest horizon of the Permian
system of Bohemia, in the bituminous shale of Nyran, near Pilsen; 2,
E. cyanea, sp. nov., Fritsch, from the Middle Permian, in bituminous
shale from Kaunova; 3, an Hstheria, from Upper Permian bituminous
shale at Kastialov ; 4, an Hstheria from the limestone with Paleonicus-
Vratislavensis of the Uppermost Permian at Braunau; 5, an Hstheria,.
also from the Uppermost Permian Limestone. These, with some Ostra-
codes, will be published in due course by Dr. A. Fritsch in his ‘ Fauna.
der Gaskohle,’ some parts of which have been already issued.
IV. S. S. Gorby, State Geologist, has issued some ‘ Advance Sheets.
from the Highteenth Report of the Geological Survey of Indiana,’ 8vo,,
Indianapolis, September, 1892, in which the Paleontology is done by
S. A. Miller and S. A. Casseday (see p. 23). Some Phyllocaride of
the family of Pinacaride are treated of, and at p. 77, pl. 9, fig. 37,.
the post-abdomen (trifid) of Mesothyra Gurleyi, n. sp., from the Kinder-.
hook group, at Le Grand, Iowa, is described and illustrated; and at
p- 78, pl. 9, figs. 48-46, Maerocaris Gorbyi, n. gen. et sp., from the
Keokuk group, at West Point, Indiana. Of this latter form fig. 43.
shows the interior of the carapace-valves and four abdominal segments.
Fig. 44 gives four and part of another abdominal segment, and the post-.
abdomen slightly broken at the end. Fig. 45 is eight abdominal seg-
ments and the post-abdomen. Fig. 46 is a tooth, found in the same
rocks, that may possibly belong to the internal masticatory apparatus.
V. In the ‘Canadian Record of Science,’ vol. v. No. 4, October,
1892, pp. 205-208, Mr. J. F. Whiteaves gives a ‘ Description of a new
Genus and Species of Phyllocarid Crustacea from the Middle Cambrian of
Mount Stephen.’ The fossil is shown by a figure at p, 206, and named.
Anomalocaris Canadensis, gen. et sp. nov. The diagram and description.
do not make it appear to us to be a Phyllocarid.
VI. Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun., in the ‘Records of the Geological
Survey of New South Wales,’ vol. iii. part 1, 1892, pp. 5-8, pl. 4,
describes and figures four specimens of the Hymenocaris Salteri, M‘Coy,.
and states his belief that they belong to Lingulocaris; and, as there is.
a L. Salteriana, he thinks that they should be called L. Maccoyiz.
ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALEHOZOIC ROCKS. 469
One or more specimens of this Australian species had been seen by
Mr. J. W. Salter, and referred by him to Caryocaris with some doubt.
We have adopted Mr. Salter’s conclusion, both in a former report (for
1883) and in the ‘ Monogr. Brit. Palaoz. Phyll.,’ Pal. Soc., 1892, p. 93.
Comparing Mr. Etheridge’s figures with those given of Oaryocaris by
ourselves (op. cit., pl. 14, figs. 11-15), we find that one of ours is as
large as any of the former, and that the modified shape of the ends of
the valves does not necessarily remove them from Caryocaris.
VII. With respect to Aptychopsis cordiformis, sp. nov., and Peltocaris
anatina, Salter, mentioned at page 299 of the report for 1892, Mr. J. E.
Marr informs us that the words ‘Coll. Marr’ should not have been
attached to the former in our ‘ Monogr. Pal. Phyll.,’ part 2, 1892, p. 103,
pl. 15, fig. 2, for it was collected long ago, being the only Paleozoic
shield-shaped Phyllopod in the Cambridge Museum when Salter labelled
it Peltocaris-anatina, overlooking its real generic character, and perhaps
regarding it as a distorted specimen. By this name the specimen has
‘been referred to in lists of fossils as from the ‘Wenlock,’ and the real
Peltocaris, which we have named P. anatina (‘ Monogr. Pal. Phyll.,’
p. 114, pl. 16, figs. 4-9), is a ‘ Llandovery’ fossil. It seems to be ex-
pedient to give the old name anatina, instead of cordiformis, to the
Aptychopsis (p. 103), as intimated by Mr. Marr in the ‘ Geol. Mag.’ for
December, 1892, p. 585; and to distinguish the Peltocaris (p. 114),
some specimens of which were collected by Mr. Marr, as P. Marri.
VIII. We here append a table showing the Geological Distribution
of the several Peltate Phyllopods described and figured in our Mono-
graph and referred to at page 298 of the report for 1892.
Aptychopsis prima, Barrande
=) » var. longa, J. and W. BHtage Ee 1, Bohemia.
‘3 » var. secunda, J. and W.
Fo Barrandeana, J. and W. Birkhill group (upper part of
the Moffat series).
s » var. brevior, J. and W. Birkhill group P
ms anatina (Salter). Lower Wenlock, Ulverston.
,. lata, J.and W. Gala series.
Ay glabra, H. Woodward. Gala series.
~ Wilsoni, H. Woodward. Riccarton series.
Gala series.
a Lapworthi, H. Woodward<¢ Birkhill group.
Skelgill Shales, Lake district.
- ovata, J.and W. Gala series.
65 Salteri, H. Woodward. Wenlock Shale, South Wales.
in subquadrata, J. and W. Upper Silurian, Ireland.
Upper Silurian, Ireland.
5 angulata, Baily Brathay Flags (?), Lake district.
Birkhill group ?
Riccarton series.
“ oblata, J. and W.<¢ Gala series.
Birkhill group.
Gala series.
Birkhill group.
~ Birkhill group.
a Marrii, J. and W. { Skelgill Shales.
Peltocaris aptychoides, Salter {
470 REPORT—1893.
: Birkhill group.
Peltocaris patula, J. and W. { Skelgill Shales.
os Carruthersii, J.and W. Birkhill group.
. . . Upper Silurian, Kendal.
Pinnocaris Lapworthi, Eth. { Lower Silurian, Girvan.
Discinocaris Browniana, H. Woodward { Stell Shales,
- ovalis, J. and W. Birkhill group.
3 undulata, J.and W. Birkhill group.
; Birkhill group.
» gigas, H. Woodward { Skelgill Shales.
_ Dusliana, Novak. Etage Ee 1, Bohemia.
The general order of the strata is—
4, Pentland or Riccarton Series. Brathay Flags. (Wenlock Beds.)
3. Gala Series.
3. Birkhill group. Skelgill Shales. (Llandovery
: Beds.
Zo et gE EEOs 2. Hartfell eet
1. Glenkiln group.
1. Arenig Series.
The Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. H. Traquarr (Chairman),
Professor T. RuPERT JoNnES, and Mr. MaLcoLm Laurie (Secretary).
(Drawn wp by Mr. M. Laurin.)
In pursuance of the object for which the Committee were appointed Mr.
Laurie spent three weeks in the Pentland Hills superintending the ex-
cavations necessary to expose the fossiliferous beds. Three men were
employed on this work, and the grant was more than expended on wages
alone. Considerable difficulty was experienced in clearing the beds
owing to the constant falling in of the superincumbent rocks, which are
much shattered. The fossiliferous beds were removed in as large masses
as their highly-jointed condition would allow; and it seemed best to
convey the material to some place where it could be examined at leisure.
Part of the material (about one and a half ton) lies at present at Mr.
Laurie’s home in Duddingston, and the rest is safely deposited at Carlops,
not far from the spot where it was procured.
Owing to considerable delay and difficulty in obtaining permission
from the proprietor to make the excavations in question, Mr. Laurie has
not had time to examine more than a very small quantity of the material
procured.
The results, so far as they go, are promising, some half-dozen good
specimens—including a large Lurypterus ? sp., Stylonwrus ornatus, Dre-
panopterus Pentlandius, &c.—having been found, together with a large
number of fragments of various forms.
Your Committee desire to be reappointed, and request that a further
sum of 10/. be granted to provide assistance in developing the material
which has been procured from the excavations.
ed
———s
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 471
The Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its Neighbourhood.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. BAUERMAN,
Mr. F. W. Rupter, Mr. J. J. H. Tea, and Professor H. J.
JounsTon-Lavis. (Drawn up by Professor H. J. JOHNSTON-
LAVIS.)
Vesuvius.—During the first week of June 1892 much dust-bearing
vapour escaped from the crater, but on the seventh of the month incan-
descent lava-cakes were being ejected, and a greater flow of lava was
visible in the Atrio del Cavallo. The central crater increased in activity
during the 8th and 9th, but on the 10th much dusty smoke issued during
the day, but at night no reflection was visible. The following day less
vapour was emitted, which only occasionally was darkened by dust.
During the 12th, 18th, 14th, and 15th very little vapour was visible
about the crater; a little more, sometimes white and sometimes dark
from dust, issued from the last date till the evening of the 22nd, when a
fresh gush of lava came forth in the Atrio del Cavallo, and a few incan-
descent cakes were ejected from the crater. On the 23rd more lava and
high jets of incandescent lava-cakes were thrown out from the crater.
The volcano was much quieter the next day, followed by marked repose
during the rest of the month.!
During the next two months little of note occurred. The lava some-
times increased, and at other times it diminished, but it practically never
stopped flowing. The central crater also varied within narrow limits,
the vapour being occasionally charged with dust when a bit of crater
edge collapsed and partly choked the main vent.
During September much the same state persisted. No reflection was
ever visible from the central crater, though the usual column of vapour
escaped freely, and was accompanied from time to time by dust and sand.
The month of October was a most unfavourable one, as for more than
half of the month the cone was enveloped in cloud ; but neither during this
month nor during November and December did any marked change occur
at the central crater. Occasionally a faint but uncertain glimmer was visible
on some evenings over the main vent. Lava, as usual, continued to pour
forth, flowing first to one side and then to the other of the Atrio, so that
the point of its exit described in the former report has been raised, and a
hill sloping away to the W., N., and E. continues to rise and to obliterate
part of the space between the great cone of Vesuvius and the escarpment
of Monte Somma.
During November the highest point of this boss, in the Atrio del
Cavallo, piled up as it had been by the constant guttering forth of lava,
was crusted over and surmounted by some ruined spiracles formed in
June of the same year (1892). At certain points of this crust most
beautiful sublimations of aphthitalite were deposited at a low red heat. In
removing these deposits they were found to be of a dull red incandescence,
but digging a few centimetres deeper amongst the scoriz, of a bright red
1 For much of the daily record I am indebted to Signor Avv. Bartolo Longo, pro-
prietor of the observatory of the Valle di Pompei, and to Signors C. M. Tosti and
Professor V. Capaccio, the observers. Unfortunately the record is not continuous,
but what I have been able to obtain has been carefully checked and much extended
by my closer observations on the volcano.
472 REPORT—1893.
heat ; a little hematite was visible, and that quite close to the aphthitalite
near the cooling surface.
The aphthitalite occurred in thin plate-like crystals, very much resem-
bling those of specular iron. They were simple hexagonal plates or com-
pound feathers; only in the smaller crystals were the rhombohedral faces
developed along the edges of the plate. Some were white with a faint
opalescent tinge, but that variety was rare. Others were more opalescent
and some quite milky. These latter shaded into examples of the most
beautiful cerulean blue, and thence through varying tints of bird’s-egg
green to light chrome green and greenish yellow. The blue was due to
copper impurities, and the green to iron and copper sulphates combined.
The crystallisation was best developed in the whiter or more translucent
specimens. Crystals of different tints were often blotched with a reddish
coppery lustre, due to the contemporaneous deposition of fine transparent
laminze of hematite. :
In some fissures of the hot lava were moss-like deposits of the
mineral euchlorine (called by Scacchi ewclorina), of bright emerald green
colour. The deposit of this, however, was very limited. Several rifts
in the new lavas have been most beautifully coated with very delicate
feathery deposits of mixed sodium and potassium chlorides. Some had
grown to such dimensions and solidity that they could be removed. This
form of sublimate, although one of the commonest, is extremely rare in
collections, for it is so fine and light that the slightest current of air
reduces it to a fine powder.
At other spots thick saline crusts were deposited, but these proved to
be very composite in nature, consisting of mixed sulphates and chlorides
of the alkalies and alkaline earths, with much iron and a little copper.
If we carefully examine the history of eruptions at Vesuvius in which
a record of the time and place of sublimates is made, and if we make
constant observations of the vapour components, one fact becomes evident.
The vapour that first escapes from boiling lava when it reaches the
surface of the earth consists in great part of sulphurous acid and
probably alkaline sulphites. Later, and more slowly, the hydrochloric
acid and chlorides volatilise. Thus, when much new lava is issuing
sulphurous acid is very obvious at the central crater, and around this
incrustations of sulphur and sulphites prevail over chlorides, which are
only deposited or produced by the escape of hydrochloric acid gas at
more distant fumaroles. At the point of exit of the lava sulphites are
deposited, but after the lava has flowed some distance chlorides are more
abundant.
In May of this year when visiting the Atrio at the point of exit of the
lava a phenomenon, of which I have never seen or heard of the like,
could be studied. One of the curious conical spiracles, similar to those I
described in the report of this committee for 1891, was puffing away with
violent intermittent but not rhythmic blasts, and with the occasional
escape of small fragments of lava. Watching this action, the cause of
which has always appeared to me obscure, I noticed a large ball of
incandescent pasty lava appear at the mouth of the spiracle at intervals,
and as soon as the high pressure vapour found exit by its side it again
fell back, and for a moment or two almost completely stopped any vapour
escaping. It seemed to have nearly blocked the lower opening from
which at times it was blown up by the vapour when the pressure in-
creased. In fact it was somewhat like a ball valve. After watching this
ON THE VOLCANIC PHENOMENA OF VESUVIUS. 473
lively display for nearly an hour we were at last rewarded by the spiracle
clearing its throat of this obstruction, and its puffing became much more
regular, softer, and more constant. I secured this expectorated ball which
the spiracle had been so long in ejecting, and after allowing an hour for
it to cool brought it home as an addition to my collection. I found
round this spiracle several other such balls some 15 to 20 cm. in diameter,
showing that the process had been repeated several times. The balls
might be well taken for the so-called bombs, and is an explanation of a
new though unimportant source of some of the structures included under
the indefinite term of volcanic bomb.
It is deeply to be regretted that the numbering of the dykes in the
Atrio del Cavallo, which cost so much labour and even money, is rapidly
disappearing.
Campi Phlegraei.—The tunnel for the upper sewer in Naples has
traversed the trachyte and entered a series of tuffs; but I propose to
treat of these, as well as the peculiar piperno-like deposit of the Corroglio
sewer, in another report or elsewhere, as the work is not yet quite
complete. Here the peculiar piperno-like deposit has been traversed and
a yellow tuff reached.
Few facts of importance, either of a local or general vulcanological
interest, have during the year come to light; but while in Naples I
continue to keep a sharp look-out, and record any facts of interest.
The reporter has to state that most of his available time during last
winter was occupied in working out the eozoonal-like structures of the
altered limestones of Monte Somma, a memoir on which subject has
been presented to the Royal Dublin Society by Dr. J. W. Gregory and
himself, in which they hope to have proved that these structures are all
the result of metamorphism.
The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES
GEIKIE (Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. TEMPEST AN-
DERSON, Dr. VALENTINE Bai, Mr. James E. BEDFoRD, Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins, Mr. James W. Davis, Mr. Epmunp J. Gar-
woop, Mr. WiLLIAM Gray, Mr. Ropert Kinston, Mr. ARTHUR
S. Rem, Mr. R. H. Tippeman, Mr. W. W. Warts, Mr. Horace B.
Woopwarp, and Mr. Osmunp W. Jerrs (Secretary). (Drawn
wp by the Secretary.)
Your Committee have the honour to append to this their fourth report
a list of geological photographs added to the collection during the past
year. The number shows an increase as compared with the previous
year, and probably indicates the average number now to be expected
within a similar period, if the operations of the Committee be continued.
For the greater part, the photographs included in the present list are
recent, having been taken during 1892-93, while those inserted in previous
lists included a number which were photographed some years ago. It
may be concluded that, among photographs of older date, the most
474 REPORT—1893.,
important are already registered in the collection, and that future addi-
tions will consist chiefly of new photographs. The Committee will, of
course, gladly receive copies of older views showing features of geological
interest, whenever such can be obtained, as these are frequently valuable
for purposes of comparison with more recent pictures.
The Committee are again pleased to report a higher scientific quality
of the views sent in, showing that the object of the Committee in securing
illustrations of natural features of geological importance is becoming
better appreciated.
The number of photographs received and registered from the date of
the last report (June 1892) to the end of July 1893 is 140, bringing
the total contents of the collection to 840. The new additions illustrate
localities in the following geographical areas :—
ENGLAND AND WALES:
Cheshire . : - : E ; . pees lt!
Devonshire : : c : . . at lis}
Dorsetshire . : : : - - 2 2
Hampshire
Hertfordshire - : ; :
Kent . : . : : 5 2 . ipl
Lancashire
Middlesex .
Montgomeryshire
Nottingham
Staffordshire
Surrey
Yorkshire .
RPwWNNDRFwWwNNww
_
105
CHANNEL ISLANDS . : : - 5 - = 3)
IsLE OF MAN . . : : < 3 é < 1
SCOTLAND:
Edinburgh
Fife . 5
Haddington
Moray
Perth
| DoHas
Total . ; : ‘ . eae i 140
GENERAL SUMMARY.
England . : : ; ; : F : ; :
North and South Wales . : 3 4 4 4 P ee
Channel Islands ‘ : : : ; : ‘ yi ‘ 3
Isle of Man a ; 4 : ‘ ; . ; ; ~ 2B
Scotland . : A ; ; : ‘ ; ; : . ee
Treland . i : : ; é ‘ ; : , Be 3)
Microscopic Sections ‘ - ¢ : . : . f-Z
Total . 5 . : 5 : 4 A ; . 840
No contributions have been received from Ireland since the last report.
A further series of views is, however, being prepared for the Committee
by Miss M. K. Andrews, of Belfast, and by Mr. Wm. Gray, Belfast.
The completion of photographic records of the various counties will
be a work of time. Local societies are now giving greater attention to
the subject, and when these efforts are systematically conducted the
result will doubtless be satisfactory. The Committee are indebted to the
delegates of the corresponding societies for their aid in bringing the
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 475
matter so prominently before their members. It is hoped that by next
year contributions from several localities not hitherto represented in the
collection will be received as the result of the special efforts now being
made with this object.
Your Committee held a meeting at Edinburgh on August 5, 1892,
and discussed plans for the furtherance of the work. Among other
matters it was decided to obtain an expression of opinion from members.
who are practical photographers as to the best form of camera for use in
the field. In geological expeditions it is necessary to consider the weight
of impedimenta when the distance traversed is long or arduous. Several
members advocated a small }-plate camera or ‘Kodak,’ from the negatives
of which enlargements can be made—a plan successfully adopted in several
instances. Mr. J. Hopkinson finds this form of instrument less successful
with Tertiary sections, and writes: ‘They require monochromatic or
orthochromatic plates.’ The best photograph for the Committee’s purpose
is that which shows the details of rock-structure most clearly, irrespective
of size of plate. The Committee will be glad to hear the further opinions
of members as to suitable instruments for field photography.
Several applications have been received for the loan of photographs
from the collection for the purpose of being exhibited at soirées and
meetings of local societies. In view of the risk of loss and deterioration
of photographs so transmitted and for other obvious reasons, the Com-
mittee, while appreciating the general interest shown in their scheme,
regret their inability to sanction the loan of any part of the collection.
In order, however, to meet the wishes of societies who may desire to show
their members examples of the photographs collected by the Committee,
it has been decided to form an album containing duplicates of selected
views, which will be available for the use of societies who may apply for
the same for purposes of exhibition. Donations of duplicate prints will
be welcomed for this purpose. Applications for the loan of an album of
duplicate views should be addressed to the Secretary. Up to the present,
only some half-dozen duplicates have been received ; but it is hoped that
this number will be considerably augmented. It is proposed to include
in the ‘duplicate’ series about fifty photographs. These will be useful
in spreading information in various quarters as to the requirements.
of the Committee and the progress of their scheme for the collection of
geological photographs, and will doubtless lead to an extended interest
being taken in the subject.
It may be mentioned that the Secretary was enabled during last.
winter to deliver several lectures on the work of the Geological Photo-
graphs Committee in Liverpool, Chester, Manchester, Birkenhead,
Rochdale (on the invitation of the Rochdale Literary and Scientific
Society), and elsewhere. The lectures were illustrated by lantern slides
taken from photographs in the collection and from other sources.
At the Edinburgh meeting a large selection from the collection was
exhibited in a room placed at their disposal by the Committee of
Section C. The series was augmented by special exhibits of enlarge-
ments by Dr. Tempest Anderson and Mr. W. Lamont Howie, to whom
the Committee beg to tender their thanks. In this room were also
exhibited a series of photographs taken under the superintendence of the
Geological Survey of Scotland.
The number of photographs now brought together precludes the
possibility of the whole being arranged for exhibition at every meeting of
476 REPORT— 1893.
the Association, but, so far as local arrangements permit, it is proposed
to continue the exhibition of a selection of the views, including the
photographs presented since the previous meeting.
The system of mounting, in order to preserve the photographs from
injury (alluded to in the last report), has proved to be satisfactory ; and
the mounting and arrangement of the entire collection are now being pro-
ceeded with. The mounts adopted are of standard size, 154 x 12 inches,
provided with perforated edges to facilitate proper arrangement. These
will be supplied to donors of photographs who are willing to mount their
own Views.
Reference has been made in former reports to a proposed publication
consisting of reproductions of selected typical geological photographs.
Having fully considered the proposal, the Committee have come to the
conclusion, having strict regard to the objects for which they were ap-
pointed, that this matter lies beyond their province ; they will be glad,
however, to afford assistance to any publisher or other person who wishes
to undertake the suggested publication, so desirable from an educational
point of view.
It is with much regret that the Committee have to record the decease
of another of their members. In Mr. J. W. Davis, F.G.S., of Halifax,
they had an esteemed colleague and an active member. The fine series of
photographic illustrations issued by the Yorkshire Geological and Poly-
technic Society was presented through Mr. Davis, whose influence was
always exerted towards the furtherance of the work of the Committee.
Owing to the illness of the Secretary the completion of the task of
arranging the mounted photographs in portfolios has had to be deferred.
The Committee request reappointment and renewal of the grant
(which was not drawn this year) in order that further progress may be
made with the collection, with a view to its being rendered as complete
and as widely representative as possible.
Several photographs were received during the year without any par-
ticulars of locality or even of photographer. These could not be included
in the following list. It will greatly aid the work of the Committee if
photographs presented are accompanied by as many details as may be
possible. When not mounted on the standard mounts, prints should be
forwarded flat (not rolled). Copies of forms for the insertion of descrip-
tive details, and of the circular of instructions (the purpose of which is
to secure uniformity of action), will be supplied on application to any
member of the Committee.
FOURTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(to suLty 1893.)
Norr.—This list contains the subjects of geological photographs,
copies of which have been received by the Secretary of the Committee
since the publication of the last report. Photographers are asked to
affix the registered numbers, as given below, to their negatives for
convenience of future reference.
Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
either from the photographer direct or from the officers of the local
society under whose auspices the views were taken.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 477
The price at which copies may be obtained depends upon the size of
the print and local circumstances, over which the Committee have no
control.
The Committee find it necessary to reiterate the fact that they do not
assume the copyright of any photographs included in this list. Inquiries
respecting them, and applications for permission to reproduce photographs,
should not be addressed to the Committee, but to the photographer
direct.
ENGLAND AND WALES.
CHESHIRE.
Photographed by HE. Timmins, C.H., Runcorn, Size 6 x 4 inches.
Regd. No.
701 Runcorn . i - . Red marl and waterstones
Photographed by F. J. Eaton, Roseville, Maghull, Lancashire.
Size 6x4 inches. (Per Osmunp W. JEFFs.)
1-742 Storeton . PF 5 . Footprints of Cheirotheriwm Storetoniense
(Morton) on slabs of Keuper sandstone
(two specimens)
743 ~««,z, 5 : . . Footprints of Rhynchosaurus (Keuper)
744 _ ‘ A 5 ‘ Pr PA with ripple-marks
in Keuper
745-746 3 : : ° . Footprints of Rhynchosaurus of various (1)
Saurians (species undetermined)
Photographed by Epwarp Ward, 249 Oxford Street, Manchester.
(Per Osmunp W. Jurrs.) Size } plate.
805 Helsby Hill 4 : . Keuper resting on Bunter
806 An A 5 . Fault at roadside, foot of hill
807-809 Norton F : é . Fault with slickensides
815 Acton Grange - rr 9
816 Pool Hall . . . . Slickensided surface (and other views along
the course of the Manchester Ship Canal)
DEVONSHIRE.
Per W. A. E. Ussuer, F.G.8., 5 Hoe Park Terrace, Plymouth. (Series of
views illustrating Granite Structures.) Size 6x4 inches. Photographer
not stated.
761 Dartmoor . : . . The Sphynx,’ Tavistock
762 53 : : : . Vixen Tor Ke
763 as A - : . Kestor, Chagford
76% iy ; 7 ae . Bowerman’s Nose, Chagford
765 a2 Z - - . Hound Tor
766 = ‘ : ; . Hey Tor, from the east
767 a . oF a west
Photographed by Miss M. EH. Jounson. Size 4x3 inches.
768 Salcombe, mouth oof Contortion in‘ green rock’ series (altered
estua: diabase)
772 Tinsey Head, N. of Start Devonian rocks
Point
478 REPORT—1893.
Photographed by A. R. Hunr. Size 4x3 inches.
Regd. No.
769 Seacombe Sands . Platform of (so-called) ‘Chloritic Series’
with mica schist interstratified
770 4 * - . ‘Green rock’ (altered diabase) with mica
schist, affected by small faults
Photographed by Miss AticE Wuipporne. Size 8 x6 inches.
773 Thurlestone Beach . . Sea-stack. 7? Permian
77% Elbury Cove, Brixham . Upper Devonian limestone ; inverted fold in
red shales
Photographed by ARcHIBALD Coke. Size 6 x 4 inches.
775 Westward Ho! ThePebble Middle Culm Measures forming cliffs
Ridge
Photographer not stated. Size 6 x4 inches.
771 Sharp Tor, Bolt Head . Rugged weathering of mica schist
776 Clovelly . . - . Eggesford grit (Upper Culm Measures)
777 \lfracombe. 5 5 . Inverted anticlinal of Ilfracombe slates
(Middle Devonian)
778 Great and Little Hangman ‘Hangman grits,’ overlain by Middle
Hills, West Challicombe Devonian
Bay
Dorset.
Photographed by Captain Marsnatt Hatt, J.P., F.G.8., Easterton Lodge,
Parkstone, R.S.O. Size 6 x 4 inches.
749-750 Hanworthy (Railway Junc- Bagshot sands, with beds of pottery clay
tion) and ironstone
Photographed by Goprrey Bineuey, Leeds. (Per J. E. Beprorp, F.G.S.,
Leeds Geological Association.) Size 6 x & inches.
779-781 Swanage, Tilby Whim . Portland beds
818-819 Durlston Head . : i 5 ee
782-786 Stair Cove, Lulworth . Contorted strata
822-823 Durlston Bay . ; . Cliff sections
790 Swanage, Studland Bay . Chalk
791-792 Ballard Head “ ‘ my
793 ‘Old Harry’ Bay - . Isolated pillar of chalk
824 Lulworth Cove. E . General view
Photographer not stated. Size 3 plate.
825 West Bay, Bridport . . Fault (Lias)
826 Bridport, North Allington. Junction of Upper and Middle Lias
HAMPSHIRE.
Photographed by Goprrey Bineuey, Leeds. (Per J. E. Beprorp, F.G.S.,
Leeds Geological Association.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
787-789 Bournemouth, Shelly Chine Bagshot beds
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 479
HERTFORDSHIRE.
Photographed by Joun Horxinson, F.G.S., The Grange, St. Albans.
Size 4x 3 inches.
Regd. No.
732 Radlett (roadside section Upper Chalk, capped by Reading beds
between Radlett and Col-
ney Street)
733 St. Albans (railway cutting Boss of Upper Chalk, capped by Reading
13 mile north of station) beds, Glacial gravels, &c.
73 St. Albans (gravel pit) . Hertfordshire conglomerate and disturbed
Reading beds
Kent.
Photographed by Wu. Goovr, Mulgrave Road, Sutton, Surrey.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
704 Tunbridge Wells . . The ‘Toad Rock’
Photographed by H. D. Gowsr, 16 Wandle Road, Croydon, Surrey.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
706 Tunbridge Wells ci . The ‘Toad Rock’
Photographed by Captain McDaxin, 15 Esplanade, Dover. (Per East
Kent and Dover Natural History Society.) Size 8 x6 inches.
707 Newington, Folkestone . Landslip
708 x iz - ‘Combe’ (or ‘cwm’) in chalk
709-710 Cornhill cliffs . 5 . Chalk
795 St. Margaret’s Bay, looking Upper Chalk
south
796 St. Margaret’s Bay, looking 2
north
797-798 West of Dover (railway Indication of raised beach
cutting)
799-800 Sandgate . : - . Folding and fracture of wood; effect of
landslip
LANCASHIRE.
Photographed by R. G. Broox, St. Helens. Size 8 x 6 inches.
702 St. Helens . : é . Section in Coal Measures
736 35 Quakers’ Burial Large erratic boulder
Ground
Photographed by Joun Jackson, South Dene, Rochdale. (Per S. S. Puart,
F.G.S., Borough Surveyor, Rochdale.) Size 9 x6 inches.
728 Cowm Top, Castleton, near Large boulder (andesite) removed to Public
Rochdale Park, Rochdale. Weight of boulder 7 tons
480 REPORT— 1893.
Photographed by Epwarp Warp, 249 Oxford Street, Manchester.
Size } plate.
Regd. No.
810, 813-814 Warburton ‘ . Red marls; fault
817 Manchester : . Large boulder, found in Oxford Road, im situ
MIDDLESEX.
Photographed by Joun Hopxinson, /.G.8., The Grange, St. Albans.
Size 4x3 inches.
729 Harefield; North Chalk pit Upper Chalk
730,731 3 South Chalk pit 33 with glacial gravel and ‘pipes’
MonrTGoMERY.
Photographed by R. G. Broox, St. Helens. Size 6 x4 inches.
735 Tyn-y-wern ; ; . Denuded rock masses broken from the moun-
tain and fallen down the vale
NortrincHam.
Per J. Suipman, F.G.S., Nottingham. Size 6 x4 inches.
Photographer not stated.
747 ‘Himlack Stone’ ‘ . Triassic outlier
7%8 ‘Blidworth Pillar’ . c » (conglomerate)
STAFFORDSHIRE.
Photographed by F. Bonney, F.R.G.S., Rugeley. (Per Professor T. G.
Bonney, F.B.S.) Size 6 x 4 inches.
751 Hednesford (Rugeley and Bunter Pebble Beds
Cannock Railway)
752 Satnall Hills (gravel pit, is ¥
between Rugeley and
Stafford)
SURREY.
Photographed by Wu. Goovr, Mulgrave Road, Sutton. Size 8 x 6 inches.
705 Godstone . “1 ; . Interior of pit, showing termination of
workings
820 a Pits in lower beds of Upper Greensand
821 Tilburstow Hill - . Sand, with irregular beds of ironstone
YORKSHIRE.
Photographed by Goprrey Bincey, Leeds. (Per J. HE. Beprorp, F.G.S.,
Leeds Geological Association.) Size 8 x6 inches.
794 Rowley’squarry,Meanwood Fossil tree in Ganister beds, Lower Coal
Valley, Leeds Measures
OO ES
Photographed by W. GRANTHAM.
Regd. No.
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 48}
(Per J. W. Woopatt, F.G.S., St.
Nicholas’ House, Scarborough.) Size 8 x6 inches.
834,839 Langtoft, near Driffield
835,840
833,836
837,838
831
832
”
Destructive effects of water on chalk hills
Cottage destroyed by flood caused by water-
spout
Rift and detritus on chalk hills
Pond formed by waterspout
Rift probably caused by heavy rainfall in
1673; reopened by a similar fall in 1892
Talus of chalk detritus
CHANNEL ISLANDS.
IshLaAND OF JERSEY.
Photographed by Guo, A. Piguet, 68 New St. John’s Road, Jersey.
Size 8 x 6 inches.
738 St. Lawrence Valley .
739 Gréve-au-Lanc¢on, St. Owens
Do. (mearer view)
740
Schistose rocks
Sea-cliff
Sea-cliff and raised beach
ISLE OF MAN.
Photographed by G. Parrerson, Ramsey (per P. M. C. Kermons, F.G.8.).
Size 8 x 6 inches.
737 Maughold Head
Contorted slates
SCOTLAND.
EDINBURGH.
Photographed by Witsrrt Goopcuitp, 2 Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
712 Craig W. end of Blackford Alternations of lavas and tufts
713 Arthur’s Seat, south side
714
715
Hill
”
Craigs
716 Glencorse
718 Blackford Hill, south side .
Salisbury
722 Salisbury Craigs
72 Corby Craig
726 Pentiand Hills, from Buck.
727 Glencorse, looking north
stone
Agglomerate piercing Carboniferous volcanic
rocks
Roche moutonnée
Spheroidal weathering of dolerite
Conglomerate (Old Red) with intrusive mass.
of felsite
Rock surface undercut by glacial action
Shale in dolerite
Lava
Lavas and tuffs
Screes of felsite
FIFesHIRE.
Photographed by Witzrrt Goopncuiip, 2 Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
711 Craigs, east of Burntisland
717 Kincraig, west of Elie
719 Kinghorn, east of
720-721 Devil’s Cave, west of Elie :
723 Burntisland and Kinghorn
1893.
(between)
Lavas and tuffs
Columnar basalt and tuffs
Ejected blocks of lava
Tunnel eroded by sea
Weathered tuffs
LE
482 REPORT—1893.
HADDINGTONSHIRE.
Photographed by Witzert Goopcuitp, 2 Dalhousie Terrace, Edinburgh.
Size 6 x 4 inches.
Regd. No.
725 Bass Rock, from the south Trachyte
MOoRAYSHIRE.
Photographed by W. Lamont Howtn, Cornbrook House, Eccles.
Size 4x3 inches,
Series of eight views showing pillars of denudation, Old Red conglomerate,
near Fochabers.
753 Valley of Alltdearg Burn . Large pillar at entrance to valley
75% oe 5 . Large pillar at head of valley
755 An 3 . General view
756 i 3 . General view at confluence of Alltdearg with
Spey
757 5 as . View of valley from above
758-759 a5 a . View of valley showing earth-pillar
760 s - . Harth-pillar looking down the river
PERTH.
Photographed by Hnnry Coates, F.R.S.H., Perthshire Society of Natural
Science. Size 8 x6 inches. .
801 Crieff amd Comrie . . Uptilted sandstone
802-803 Crieff - : é . Boulders
Photographed by Wu. Exuison (per Henry Coates, F.R.S.H., Perth).
Size 8 x 6 inches.
804 Craigie Burns Hill, Dun- ‘The Rocking Stone’; mica-schist boulder
keld
The Registration of the Type Specimens of British Fossils.—Fourth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. HENRY WooDWARD
(Chairman), Rev. G. F. Wuipporne, Mr. R. Kinston, Mr. J. E.
Marr, and Mr. A. 8S. Woopwarp (Secretary).
Tue Committee have to report that the number of lists received is still
insufficient to attempt the tabulation of results. During the present
year the Manchester Museum has published a list of its type specimens
of fossils, prepared by Mr. H. Bolton; and the Rev. P. B. Brodie has
furnished a MS. list of the large number of types and figured specimens
in his private collection. A short supplementary list has also been pub-
lished by the Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge (H. Woods, ‘Geol. Mag.,’
Dec. 3, vol. x. 1893, pp. 111-118). Notwithstanding the slow progress,
the Committee feel that their existence has an important influence in
obtaining the registration of specimens which might be overlooked, and
‘they desire to be reappointed.
ON THE SHELL-BBARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 483
The Character of the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava,
Chapelhall, and other Localities—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. J. Horne (Chairman), Mr. Davin RoBertson,
Mr. T. F. Jamieson, Mr. JAMES Fraser, Mr. P. F. KENDALL,
and Mr. DuGaLp BELL (Secretary). (Drawn wp by Mr. Horne,
Mr. Fraser, and Mr. Bett; with Special Reports on the
Organic Remains, by Mr. Rospertson.)
[PLATES -II, III.]
CONTENTS,
I. Introduction . é : ; : ; - é . 483
II. Geographical Position . : : é . 483
III. Previous Observations regarding Clava Shelly Clay. 483
IVY. Detailed Examination of the Shelly oy and Associated Deposits by
Committee . : 484
V. Direction of Ice-flow near - Inverness : 7 : : . 498
VI. Report on Organic Remains by Mr. Robertson, &e. 2 : : - 602
VII. Summary of the Evidence and General Conclusions P 5 ‘ . 511
VIII. Appendix containing ‘Minority Note’. 4 : : C : role
T,—InrTRoODUCTION.
The investigation of the character of the high-level shell-bearing
deposits at Clava, Chapelhall, and other localtties has been undertaken
with the view of re-examining the evidence bearing on the submergence
of Scotland during the Glacial period. Recent contributions to the
literature of glacial geology in this and other countries have raised doubts
regarding the extent of this submergence. Selecting the shelly clay at
Clava as a typical example of the Scottish high-level shell beds, the Com-
mittee have meanwhile confined their operations to this locality. The
grant from the British Association having proved insufficient for the
work, the investigations at Clava have been completed by a grant obtained
through the courtesy of Sir Archibald Geikie from the Council of the
Royal Society of London, and by private subscriptions raised by the
_ Secretary of the Committee.
II.—Groaraputcat Posrrion!:”
The shell-bearing deposit at Clava occurs on the east side of the
valley of the Nairn, and six miles due east of the town of Inverness.
Situated on the south bank of the Cassie Burn, a tributary of Allt Ruadh
(the Red Burn), the latter being an affluent of the river Nairn, the shelly
clay is about half a mile distant from the Nairn, about 200 feet above the
_ level of that river at Clava, and about 500 feet above the sea-level (see
_ map, p. 499).
III.—Previous OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE SHELLY CLay.
The first description of this deposit was given by Mr. James
Fraser, C.E., Inverness,! who made a careful examination of the section
1 See Trans. Geol. Soc. Edinb., vol. iv. Part ii. 1882; also Trans. Inverness Field
Club, vol. ii.
rr2
484 REPORT— 1893.
then brought to light, together with the superficial deposits in the sur-
rounding district. The results obtained by him may thus be briefly
summarised :—
(a) Section:
Feet
1. Soil and gravel 50
2. Boulder clay : ‘ - q ‘ 3 q °
3. Fine sand, stratified . 5 ‘ A - A Fi . 20
4. Shelly clay, bottom not reached . i 5 2 ‘ anther
(b) Chemical analyses (1) of the shelly clay, (2) of the overlying
sand, and (3) of the brown clay, 233 yards south-west of the ‘ main
section,’ by Mr. W. Ivison Macadam, Edinburgh, were given.
(c) A list of the organic remains (comprising several Arctic shells),
determined by Mr. David Robertson and Mr. T. F. Jamieson, was pub-
lished.
(d) From the character of the deposit and the condition of the organic
remains, as described by the foregoing authorities, Mr. Fraser inferred
that the shelly clay was in situ, and indicated a depression of the land to
the extent of over 500 feet prior to the deposition of the overlying
boulder clay.
In 1886 Dr. H. W. Crosskey made an examination of the shelly clay
and glacial deposits in the Nairn Valley ; his conclusions confirmed those
previously published by Mr. Fraser.!
Recently several objections have been raised? against the acceptance
of these conclusions, so that further investigation became desirable.
TV.—Deramep ExamMInaTION oF THE SHELLY CLAY AND ASSOCIATED
Deposits BY THE COMMITTEE.
The shelly clay is found at or under the base of a prominent broad-
topped ridge of drift on the south bank of the Cassie Burn, which there
flows along the foot of a bluff cliff of glacial deposits (see photo-engravings,
Plates II. and III.). This conspicuous ridge is traceable for upwards of
two miles in a north-easterly direction, parallel with the river Nairn, and
for about 1,200 yards in a south-westerly direction, About200 yards nearer
the river, and nearly 100 feet lower, occurs a narrower ridge, along the top
of which runs the Craggie and Cawdor road for more than a mile. These
parallel ridges of drift are flanked on the south-east sides by marshy or
alluvial hollows; indeed, at the point where the shelly clay occurs the
Cassie Burn flows for some distance along the hollow separating the two
ridges. Both ridges have an irregular fall of about 50 feet per mile
towards the north-east ; the upper ridge being nearly uniform, and the
lower one irregular in its fall.
A.—Eacavation of ‘ Main Pit.’
The Committee began their examination of the shelly clay by
excavating a large pit or trench at the base of the cliff on the south bank
of the Cassie Burn. The site of the pit was 430 yards distant from the
junction of the Cassie Burn with Allt Ruadh. At the outset the length
of the trench was 25 feet and the breadth 15 feet at the surface, but as
1 Trans. Inverness Field Club, vol. iii.
4 Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, vol. ix.; Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1892, p. 714.
ee — Se
——_—
ee le dee
.
i wes oly Sa eT
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 485
the work proceeded it had to be made longer and wider, owing to slips of
clay and sand from the face of the cliff. Though the work was seriously
impeded by unfavourable weather, the excavation was eventually suc-
cessful in showing an admirable section of the shelly clay and underlying
gravel, without reaching the solid rock.
The section thus revealed by the exposed surface of the cliff and the
trench was as follows :—
1. Surface soil and boulder clay from top of ridge of drift
=43 feet, of which only the lower 12 feet exposed to
view (see Section of ‘Main Pit, p.15) . ; : awed ws
2. Fine sand. ; ‘ 5 f . : . 20
3. Blue shelly clay . : 3 : : : 4 . 16
4. Coarse yellowish-brown gravel. ; : f 5 = 40
Throughout this report this excavation is referred to as the ‘ main pit’
or ‘main section’ of shelly clay.
A careful examination of these various deposits was made on the
ground by most of the members of Committee, with the following
results :—
1. Boulder Clay, overlying the sand and shelly clay.—As this deposit is
extensively developed in the neighbourhood of Clava, the Committee
selected a typical section for examination, where there is a splendid
exposure of the included blocks. The section occurs on the south bank
of the Cassie Burn, from 130 to 160 yards south-west of the ‘ main pit,’
where the boulder clay also overlies the shelly clay, and where the deposit
resembles in every particular that above the ‘ main pit.’
The deposit is of a light brown colour, and the matrix consists mainly
of fine sand; the stones are more or less well-rounded, varying in size
from fine gravel up to 2 feet in diameter. Many of the blocks of
sandstone are finely striated along the longer axis. The deposit is more
sandy and gravelly than the typical ground moraine or till of Scotland.
But though the proportion of clay among the materials is small, it is
usually sufficient to bind them into a compact mass.
The largest proportion of the included blocks has been derived from
the adjacent Lower Old Red Sandstone strata. Of these many have
been obtained from the micaceous flagstones occurring in situ, in the
Easter Daltullich Burn, the river Nairn, and other localities to the west
and south-west of Clava. On referring to the table of percentages of
stones, which has been prepared to show the variation in the character
of the included blocks in the shelly clay and associated deposits, it will
be seen that while the percentage of Old Red Sandstone blocks in the
overlying boulder clay varies from 56 to 76 per cent., in the shelly clay it
amounts to only 17 percent. No organic remains have been found in this
deposit.
2. Fine Sand.—The sand underlying the boulder clay in the ‘main
pit’ is of a yellowish brown colour and fine-grained. At first sight it
seems to be free from stones, but on closer examination a few may be
detected under a quarter of an inch in size. The lowest 4 feet of sand
overlying the shelly clay is very compact, harder even than the latter
deposit. The line of junction between the sand and shelly clay is nearly
horizontal, and clearly defined by a difference in the colour and texture of
the materials. The boundary line between the sand and overlying boulder
_ clay is less distinct. After a heavy rainfall or the frosts of winter, lines
486 REPORT—1893.
of stratification are visible. No organic remains have been found in this
deposit.
PS. The Shelly Clay.—The highest part of the shelly clay near the
south-east end of the ‘ main pit’ is 503} feet above sea-level. From the
levels taken in 1882, when a small excavation was made by Mr. Fraser,
the height of the shelly clay at the front of the west end of the
present ‘main pit’ was 501 feet. The top of this deposit where visible
rises slightly towards the east or south-east to the extent perhaps of
1 foot in 20 or 25 feet.
The shelly clay as exposed in the ‘main pit’ varied from 14 to 16 feet
in thickness. It is a tenacious clay or silt of a blue dark grey colour,
save the lowest 2 feet, where the tint is brownish grey. At this lower
level there is an admixture of fine gravel. The boundary line between
the shelly clay and underlying gravel is clearly defined. There is no
intermingling of the two deposits.
There are slight traces of stratification in the blue clay. At a depth
of 34 feet a horizontal line was observed in the deposit after exposure for
several days to heavy rain, but scarcely any part of this line could be
traced when a fresh surface was revealed. At a depth of 65 or 7 feet,
horizontal streaks or thin layers of sand or fine gravel occur, but not in
continuous layers.
It is also important to note, as throwing light on the origin of the
deposit, that the silt was traversed at certain levels by annelid burrows,
more or less vertical, the tracks being darker in colour than the sur-
rounding silt. The burrows in most cases were laterally compressed.
Of special interest also is the occurrence of a series of nearly vertical
eracks or fissures traversing the clay in a uniform direction, viz., north-
west and south-east, the tops of the fissures being bent towards the
north-east. An attempt was made to photograph these fissures or cracks,
which formed a conspicuous feature in the deposit.
The upper 12 feet of blue clay is almost free from stones; those
which do occur within these limits vary from the size of peas to
14 inch in diameter as a rule. But they become more numerous and
slightly larger at a depth of about 6 feet. In this upper portion they
are nearly all well-rounded and of the harder varieties. The lowest
3 or 4 feet of the deposit (especially the lowest 18 inches) contains a
larger proportion of stones, varying in size from peas to 2 inches across,
and almost all well-rounded.
At a lower depth than 6 feet a few stones of a larger size than the
foregoing dimensions were found, the largest varying from 3 to 6 inches
across, some being well-rounded and some subangular. The largest
stone met with in the blue clay, measuring 9 inches by 7 inches by
43, inches, consists of dark micaceous. gneiss: it is partially rounded,
ice-grooved on one side, and with the mark where a balanus had been
attached on one end of the grooving. Two small stones with several
nearly entire balani were found at the very bottom of the shelly clay at
the south-west end of the pit.
During a subsequent inspection of the ‘ main pit’ two small striated
stones of fine-grained sandstone were observed in the lowest 6 feet of the
deposit; and about the same level, two rounded stones (4 inches by
3 inches) with fresh balanus marks.
Only three striated stones were met with in the shelly clay, the
general well-rounded character of the stones and the absence of stria-
tions being a striking feature of the deposit.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLaCEs. 487
A careful examination of the included blocks showed the following
interesting results: 59 per cent. consist of micaceous gneiss, about 10 per
cent. of granite, about 12 per cent. of quartz-schist and mica-schist, &c.,
or in all 81 per cent. of the older crystalline rocks, and only about 17 per
cent. of Old Red Sandstone.
One small block of Jurassic grit was detected in the shelly clay which
was sent to Mr. Horace Woodward, of the Geological Survey of England,
now engaged in mapping the Secondary rocks in Scotland, who has
kmdly furnished the Chairman of the Committee with the following note
on the specimen :—‘ There are gritty beds at the base of the Lias, in the
Lower Oolites, and in the Middle Oolites of the Brora country that closely
resemble your specimens. The nearest approach to it is in specimens of
Lower Oolite from Skye and Raasay. This particular bed is part of the
basement beds of the Inferior Oolite at the base of the so-called “ Great
Kstuarine Series.” Curiously enough, we get no exposure of these beds
in the Sutherland region—only the upper parts of the Lower Oolite (with
the Brora coal). Hence my opinion is that your specimen most nearly
approaches in character to beds of Inferior Oolite (basement portion).’
Notwithstanding the strong resemblance of this block of Jurassic grit
to strata in Skye and Raasay, the Committee are of opinion that it has
been derived from some area of Secondary rocks in the North-east
Highlands. The nearest point to Clava where Jurassic rocks occur in
situ is about 12 miles due north of the shelly clay, on the shore of the
Black Isle, at Ethie, near the Sutors of Cromarty. The occurrence of
this solitary block of Jurassic grit is of considerable importance, as will
be readily admitted when we summarise’ the evidence bearing on the
direction of the ice-flow in the neighbourhood of Inverness (see map
for relative positions of Clava and Kthie, p. 499).
Shells are found throughout the whole of the blue clay or at least
from within 5 or 6 inches of the top to the bottom of the deposit. They
are most abundant at a depth of 2 or 3 feet from the top. Many of the
shells are quite whole at all depths, others are partially crushed, others
are in a tender or decaying condition. In the lowest part of the clay
the shells are of a darker colour, and many of them are so decayed that
they will scarcely bear handling. At all depths fragments of Mytilus
are rather numerous, but so decayed that a whole specimen cannot be
obtained. The prevalent shell is Littorina littorea.
In the case cf many of the shells the epidermis is in perfect preserva-
tion, and no indications of ice-markings or abrasion could be detected
on any of them. The absence of ice-markings on the shells is a remark-
able feature, which serves to distinguish the Clava shelly clay in one
particular from the shelly boulder clay of Caithness and Orkney. In
the latter many of the shells are striated like the stones in the deposit:
- It is important to observe, however, that some of the bivalves, such
as Astarte, with both valves attached, showing no signs of abrasion and
otherwise complete, were found with both valves crushed together.
During the examination of the ‘main pit’ on October 15, 1892, the
rine observations were made regarding the position of some of the
shells :—
Astarte, single valve at 6 feet depth, concave side up.
Natica, H § mouth up.
Inttorina (large), Br “3 mouth down.
Natica, mouth down.
” ”
Natica, at 7 feet depth, mouth down.
488 REPORT—1893.
The terminal joints of the great claws of the velvet swimming crab
(Portunus puber) and the spider crab (Hyas araneus) were also observed.
Collections of shells, made by some of the members of the Committee
and by the workmen, were submitted to Mr. David Robertson, of Millport,
for examination, together with samples of the clay in boxes. His thorough
knowledge of the organic remains found in the Scottish shelly clays has
been of invaluable service to the Committee, and at their request he has
prepared a separate report on the materials which passed through his
hands. All geologists interested in these researches will cordially appre-
ciate the value of his special contributions to this report.
With the sanction of Sir Archibald Geikie, the Director-General, Mr.
James Bennie, of the Geological Survey of Scotland, made a collection of
organic remains from the uppermost 6 feet of the shelly clay, the list of
shells being determined by Mr. Sharman, paleontologist to the Geological
Survey of England, and revised by Mr. Robertson.
4, Gravel underlying shelly clay.—This deposit, which was pierced to
a depth of 10 feet in the ‘main pit,’ is of a yellowish brown colour, and of
a coarse, unequal quality. The sand in this gravel is coarse-grained, dif-
fering from the fine sand above the blue clay and from the sandy matrix
of the overlying boulder clay. The deposit is in some parts roughly
stratified. The stones vary in size from fine gravel to blocks 6 or 7
inches across, while a few measure 14 inches in diameter. The largest
block, composed of Old Red Sandstone, measuring 21 inches by 20 inches
by 8 inches, occurred from 2 to 3 feet below the bottom of the shelly
clay. It was flat-shaped, subangular, and in the pit dipped to the south-
west at an angle of about 40° or 45°.
On referring to the table of percentage of stones it will be seen that
there is a wide difference in the proportion of the blocks of Old Red Sand-
stone found in the underlying gravel from that met with in the shelly
clay. Indeed the percentage of Old Red blocks in the underlying gravel
approaches very nearly to that found in the overlying sandy boulder clay.
The blocks of Old Red Sandstone in the gravel were wholly of local
origin ; a few were striated, most of them were rough and angular on
the edges, and several of the flagstone type were highly decomposed. In
like manner the blocks of granite and micaceous gneiss closely resemble
similar rocks in situ in the neighbourhood.
Before closing the ‘ main pit ’ two successful photographs of the section
were taken by Mr. Whyte, of Inverness, at the request of the Committee,
one at a distance of 40 yards and the other near the edge of the pit (see
Plates II. and II.).
B.—Small Excavation 160 yards 8.W. of the ‘Main Pit.’
The Committee made a small excavation on the south bank of the
Cassie Burn, 160 yards south-west of the ‘main pit,’ at the base and west
end of the great section of boulder clay already described, which revealed
a thin layer of shelly blue clay at a height of 512 feet above the sea-
level. The deposit there exposed was only 15 inches thick: it yielded
some of the shells found in the ‘main pit,’ including Astarte, Natica
Grenlandica, Leda pernula, &c., and Foraminifera.
Here the shelly clay was underlain by 10 inches of hard brown clay, the
latter resembling the deposit found on the bank of the Cassie Burn, 233
yards south-west of the ‘ main pit,’ to which we may now briefly refer.
6374 Report Brit. Assoc. 1893. Plate II.
NO. 1—GENERAL VIEW OF MAIN SECTION.
ABOUT 40 YARDS FROM FACE OF CLIFF, CASSIE BURN, CLAVA.
(From a Photograph.)
Illustrating the Report of the Committee on the Character of the
High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapethall, and other
localities...
63% Report Brit, Assoc. 1893. PVaties LL
NO. 2.-VIEW OF SHELLY CLAY, NEAR EDGE OF MAIN PIT, CLAVA.
(From a Photograph.)
The bottom of the shelly clay is at the bottom of the 15 feet measuring staff, and the top
is about 18 inches above the top of the staff.
Illustrating the Report of the Committee on the Character of the
High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall, and other
localities.
al
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 489
At this latter locality (233 yards S.W. of the ‘main pit’) a mass of
fine hard brown clay is exposed at the foot of the cliff, rising to a height
of 8 or 9 feet above the stream, and 5234 feet above sea-level. For a depth
of 6 or 7 feet it is entirely free from stones, but at the level of the burn a
few occur, though very small. Though no organic remains have been
found in this deposit, and though it differs in colour from the typical
shelly clay of the ‘main pit,’ some of the Committee are inclined to regard
it as belonging to the same formation. The chemical analysis of the
material is interesting. It was found by Mr. W. Ivison Macadam, Edin-
burgh, to contain 31 per cent. of ferric oxide, and slightly over 1 per
cent. of aluminic oxide. ‘It is not a clay, strictly speaking, but a sand
bound together by iron.’ '
Clava Shell-bed.—Percentages of stones from the lowest 6 ft. of shelly clay,
and from the highest 9 ft. of gravel below the shelly clay, and also from
boulder clay above shelly clay, from lists written to Mr. Horne’s dictation
on the ground.
Shelly
Te Gravel below Shelly Clay parse hone
| 6 ft.
Description of Stones = =
| Stones Stones Stones | Stones State Stones
from about from mostly £3 S from
1to6in.) 3in. (6to9in.| above9 |. %? ‘6 to 12 in.
diam. diam. | diam. — in. diam.|?": diam. diam.
Micaceous gneiss . : 59 242 193 18 26 14
Quartzite, quartz-schist, 123 ia 1} _ 6 —
and mica-schist.
Granite . 5 : 4 101 8 34. Sali eo
Old Red Sandstone. 5 17 534 724 82 56 | 76
Diorite oO ree 12 2 13 —_ —- | =
Felsite . : ‘ : — 2 — — GEN
Pegmatite 5 = 1 —- -— 2 —
Limestone g ' A — 1 — — ais —
Sundries . — 1 1} — — —
Total . 5 100 100 100 100 100 100
C.—Boring Operations.
On reaching the depth of 10 feet below the shelly clay in the
“main pit,’ the Committee found that they could not carry the exca-
vation further down without timbering the trench; and this could not
be safely done so close to the cliff. Being desirous of reaching the
solid rock near the site of the main section, and also of proving the
horizontal extension of the shelly clay, they resolved to make a series of
bores. For this purpose they employed Mr. Pollock, an experienced
mineral borer from Airdrie.
The accompanying ground plan on the scale of 325 feet to the inch
shows the relative positions of the various bores. In fixing the sites the
object of the Committee was to prove the extension of the shelly clay
along the south bank of the Cassie Burn. Two bores were put down
1 Trans. Geol. Soc. Edin., vol. iv. Part ii,
490 REPORT—1893.
between the ‘main pit’ and the small exposure of the shelly clay 160
yards south-west of the ‘main pit.’ Other bores were put down to the
north-east of the ‘main pit,’ to prove the extension in that direction.
The borer’s ‘Journal,’ stating the nature of the materials with the
respective thicknesses, is givenin a tabular form below. Mr. Fraser, who
made the levelling observations in connection with the work carried out
by the Committee, determined the height of the surface of the ground at
each bore. He has added columns to the borer’s ‘Journal,’ showin
the total depths of the respective deposits and the total heights above
sea level. He has also given the distance of each bore from No. 1 bore
at the ‘ main pit.’
Journal of Bores put down at Clava.
Total | Heights
Depth | gb” | above sea
Ft. In Ft. Ft.
No. 1 Bore—-[at main pit] . — Surface) 495
Turned earth : 20 | 2 | 493
Dark-blue sandy clay . a? 9 | 486
Rough gravel and sandy clay | 15 0 24 471
Brown clay and stones é 21 6 454 4493
Soft brown conglomerated sandstone . its) Bae 4473
Total depth 473) — —_—
No. 2 Bore —[i32 ft, south-west of Bore No. ee — |Surface| 5114
Soils (surface) . 10 1 5104
Sand and a little fine grav el 15 0 16 4955
Dark-blue sandy clay . 46 203 491
Total depth 20 6 —_ —
No. 3 Bore—-[275 ft. south-west of Bore No. a — |Surface| 5223
Surface soil . OF 1 5213
Hard-bound sand and grav el 226) 232 4992
Dark-blue sandy clay . 4 0 274 495+
Total depth Zit IS) _
Wo. 4 Bore-—[590 ft. south-west of Bore No. 41. — |Surface| 520%,
Surface soil . 10] 1 5195,
Sand and fine gravel : 6 0 tf 5135,
Rough coarse gravel and sand 18 0 25 4955,
|
Total depth 25 0 — —
Wo. 5 Bore—[183 ft. north-east of Bore No. ld — |Surface} 5053;
Surface soil . 170 1 50454
Sand (loose). A 6 0 7 4985
Rough gravel and sand 36 103 4945,
Brown clay and stones 10 6 21 484%,
Total depth 21 0 — =
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 491
JOURNAL OF BORES PUT DOWN AT CLAVA—continued.
Total | Heights
Depth | Depth |abovesea
Ft.In.| Ft. Ft.
Wo. 6 Bore—[183 ft. north-east of Bore No.1, and 14ft.| — | Surface 5093
south-east of Bore No. 5]
Surface soil . : : : : : : : a OR 1 5083,
Hard-bound sand and a little fine gravel . ‘ . | 23 0 24 4853,
Brown clay and stones ; F ; . 3 aie 640 30 | 4792
Hard-bound gravel 26| 32% 4765
Total depth . 5 : . | 32 6 — =
No. 7 Bore—[90 ft. north-east of Bore No.1] . ‘
Surface soil . : : 10
Hard-bound sand. 4 : : a : alt ets) 9 497
Blue sandy clay . : ; : : : : -| 26) 11g | 4942
Sand and a little fine gravel 5 36 | 15 491
Totaldepth . ‘ 5 s | 15 0 — —
Notre.—The highest part of the shelly clay at the main pit is 5034 ft. above sea-
level. The shelly clay at pit 160 yds. south-west of main pit is 512 ft. above sea-
level, and the top of the hard clay 233 yds. south-west is 5234 ft.
Fig. 1.—Plan showing positions of Pits and Bores at Clava Shell-bed.
SCALE
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In the course of the boring operations samples of the various materials
were preserved and forwarded to Mr. David Robertson for examination
for the purpose of comparing them with the materials from the ‘ main pit.’
He has prepared the following report as the result of his investigations :—
492 ) REPORT— 1893.
FERN Bank, MILLPORT, July 11, 1893.
Dear Sir,—I have finished the examination of the clays from the
bores at Clava taken at different depths. Very few animal remains
were noticed. I have given the proportions of the mud, sand, and
gravel that each parcel contained, and the relative proportion of
the animal remains, and their names. To save repetition in the follow-
ing list, I may state that the proportion of mud is that which passed
through a sieve of ninety-six meshes to the inch, the sand that which
passed through a sieve of twenty-four meshes to the inch, and the gravel
that which was retained in the same sieve of twenty-four meshes to the
inch. I have kept all the materials of each parcel separately, except the
muds which passed away in the washing. I bave put samples of the
sand into small bottles, so that each parcel can be compared with the
others. The gravels are parcelled up for the same purpose, so that the
different rocks of each can be compared.
The gravels are mostly water-worn, particularly the larger pieces.
No striations were noticed on any of the stones, large or small.
The term ‘floats’ means what is gathered on the surface of the
water when the dry clay is put in it and stirred up. In taking the
proportions, fractions were omitted or lumped.—Yours very truly,
Davip RoBERTSON.
Bores or Crayva Deposit.
No. 1 Bore.—Depth, 9 feet, ‘blue clay’; mud, 60 per cent. ; fine sand,
24 per cent.; gravel, 16 per cent.
CRUSTACEA,
Order Ostracopa.—Cytheropteron Montrosiense, Brady, Crosskey
and Robertson.
ECHINODERMATA.
Order Ecutnoipra.—Kchinus spine, sp. (fragment).
Spatangus sp. (two whole spines and one fragment).
RAIZOPODA.
Order ForamInIFeRA.—Sub-family Polymorphinine. Polymorphina sp.
doubtful (one).
Sub-family Polystomelline. Nonionina orbicularis, Brady (8); No-
nionina Boneana, D’Orbigny (2) ; Nonionina depressula, Walker and Jacob
(3) ; Nonionina stelligera, D’Orbigny (1); Polystomella arctica, Parker
and Jones (4).
No. 1 Bore.—Depth, 14 to 15 feet ; ‘rough gravel and sandy clay’;
mud, 40 per cent.; sand, 30 per cent.; gravel, 30 per cent.
RAIZOPODA.
Order Foraminirera.—Sub-family Fusulinine. Nonionina orbicularis,
Brady (3); Nonionina Boneana, D’Orbigny (1); Nonionina depressula,
Walker and Jacob (2).
Sub-family Polystomelline.—Polystomella striato-punctata, Fichtel
and Moll. (2).
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 493
No. 1 Bore.—Depth, 30 and 40 feet ; ‘ brown clay and stones’; mud,
67 per cent.; sand, 12 per cent.; gravel, 21 per cent.
RaIzoroDa.
Order Foraminirera.—Sub-family Polymorphinine. Polymorphina
oblonga, D’Orbigny (2).
Sub-family Fusulinince.—Nonionina orbicularis, Brady (2); Nonionina
stilligena, D’Orbigny (3).
Sub-family Polystomelline.—Polystomella striato-punctata, F. and
M. (1).
No. 1 Bore——Depth, 46 to 47 feet; rock samples ‘soft brown con-
glomerated sandstone’; another parcel of similar character 330 yards
north-east of main pit near stream Allt Ruadh.
No. 2 Bore.—‘ Sand and fine gravel’ 15 feet thick to bottom of sand ;
sample from 1 to 16 feet; mud, 25 per cent.; sand, 50 per cent.; gravel,
25 per cent.
In this the proportion of gravel and coarse sand is very great, yet
the three largest stones weighed only one ounce.
The ‘ floats’ contained two Foraminifera, Nonionina orbicularis, Brady,
and, as usual, a little vegetable matter and mica scales.
There is no certainty that the two Foraminifera belonged to the clay
in which they were found, when we consider that we occasionally find in
the ‘ floats’ bits of recent plants, some still green, and there are so many
ways that such coald be carried, on workmen’s tools, for example, or on
their feet walking over shelly clay.
No. 2. Bore.—Depth, 18 to 20 feet; ‘dark blue clay’; mud, 50 per
cent.; fine grey sand, 24 per cent.; coarse sand and gravel, 6 per cent..
One of the stones was half the weight of all the others.
CRUSTACEA.
Order Ostracopa.—Cythere Dunelmensis, Norman (one valve).
RuIZOPODA.
Order Foraminirera.—Sub-family Polymorphinine. Polymorphina
lanceolata, Reuss (2).
Sub-family Fusulinine.—Nonionina orbicularis, Brady (common) ;
Nonionina Boneana, D’Orbigny (5); Nonionina depressula, W. & J. (4).
Sub-family Polystomelline.—Polystomella arctica, P. & J. (rare); P.
striato-punctata, F. and M. (common).
No. 2 Bore.—Depth, 20} feet, ‘blue clay’; mud, 50 per cent.; fine
sand, 38 per cent. ; gravel, 12 per cent. (small and mostly angular),
Mo.uvscea.
Family Littorinide.—Lacuna divaricata, Fabr.; Littorina obtusata,
Linn.
CrusTACEA.
Order Osrracopa.—Family Cytheride. Cytheropteron latissimum,
Norman (1). Family Paradowxostomatide.—Paradoxostoma abbreviatum,,.
G. O. Sars (1).
494 REPORT—1893.
RAIZOPODA.
Order Foramryirera.—Sub-family Fusulinine.—Nonionina orbicu-
laris, Brady (rare); Nonionina Boneana, D’Orbigny (rare) ; Nonionina
depressula, W. & J. (rare). Sub-family Polystomeliince.—Polystomella
arctica, P. & J. (rare); Polystomella striato-punctata, F. and M. (fre-
quent).
No. 3 Bore.—Depth, 233 feet ; brown lumpy clay; requires some force
to break it up, but in the dry state it dissolves readily in water ; mud, 34
per cent.; sand, 60 per cent.; gravel, 6 per cent.
Floats contain some vegetable matter, amongst it some bits of recent
green moss, and one little animal, probably alive when packed in the
parcel. Mica scales plentiful; no fossil animal remains noticed.
No. 3 Bore.—Depth, 274 feet; grey clay, dissolved freely in water;
mud, 65 per cent.; grey sand, 30 per cent.; gravel, 5 per cent. All
very small with the exception of one stone about the size of a boy’s marble,
spherical, and well polished.
No. 4 Bore.—Depth, 7 feet ; muddy sand in lumps, brown coloured ;
dissolved readily in water ; mud, 60 per cent. ; sand, 24 percent.; gravel,
14: per cent.
Floats.—No animal remains in the floats.
No. 4 Bore.—Depth, 25 feet. All gravel, mostly angular, the largest
weighed 4 0z. This sample was so free of mud that it required no wash-
ing or looking for fossil remains.
No. 5 Bore.—Depth, 9 feet; rough gravel and sand; ‘stones and a
little small gravel’; the stones are mostly water-worn; one of them is well-
rounded and smoothly polished. Like the above it needs no washing.
No.5 Bore.—Depth, 21 feet ; ‘ brown clay and stones.’ Brown clay not
difficult to break when dry; one little piece, about the size of a small
apple, much whiter and greatly harder than the rest. It did not seem to
belong to the same bore—the other clay dissolved freely. Mud, 61 per
cent.; sand, 24 per cent.; gravel and small stones, 15 per cent., mostly
angular.
Floats.—No animal remains.
No. 6 Bore.—Depth, 21 to 24 feet ; ‘hard bound sand and a little fine
gravel’; mud, 24 per cent.; sand, 73 per cent.; gravel and coarse sand,
3 per cent.
ECHINODERMATA.
Order Echinoide.—Kchinus spine, one fragment, probably H. Dro-
bachiensis.
Spatangus sp., one spine whole.
No.6 Bore.—Depth, 27 feet ; ‘brownclayand stones’; the clay dissolved
readily in water; mud, 76 per cent.; sand, 16 per cent.; gravel and
coarse sand, 8 per cent.
Floats.—Very poor—a few mica scales and alittle vegetable matter
and one crustacean.
CRUSTACEA.
Order Ostrvacoda.—Schrochilus contortus, Norman.
No.7 Bore.—Depth, 8 to 9 feet; ‘hard bound sand’ ; the firstand second
portions of the clay of this bore lay over the surface of the blue clay; it
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 495
washed nearly all away and was difficult to go through the sieve; mud,
91 per cent.; sand, 6 per cent.; gravel, 3 per cent.; none much larger
than a pea.
In this case the clay was washed through a sieve of ninety meshes to
the inch: all the others, with the exception of No. 7 bore, were put through
a sieve of ninety-six meshes to the inch, which would allow more of the
finer portions of the sand to pass through, and give a somewhat higher
percentage to the mud.
Floats contained a little vegetable matter, and mica scales, and a
few fossil remains.
CRUSTACEA.
Order Ostracopa.—Cytheridea punctillata, Brady (1).
Family Polycopide.—Polycope orbicularis, G. O. Sars (1).
Ra#IZOPODA.
FORAMINIFERA.—Sub-family Lagenine. lLagena sp. (a fragment).
No. 7 Bore.—Depth, 10 to 11} feet; ‘blue sandy clay’; this sample
was somewhat bluer than the above, dissolved readily, but more difficult
to pass through the sieve ; mud, 24 per cent. ; sand, 72 per cent. ; gravel,
4 per cent. ; none of it much larger than a pea.
Floats.—Small in bulk, a little vegetable matter, much mica scales,
and a little sand.
CRUSTACEA.
Order Ostracopa.—Cytheridea papillosa, Bosquet, jun.
RAIZOPODA.
Order Foraminirera.—Sub-family Miliolinine. Miliolina sp. (one
imperfect).
No. 7 Bore.—Depth, 14 to 15 feet; ‘sand and a little fine gravel’ ;
sample of sand ochre-coloured, when dry adhering much together and
taking some force to break it up; dissolved readily in water; mud, 18
per cent. ; sand, 78 per cent.; gravel, 3 per cent.
Floats.—A little vegetable matter, a little sand and mica scales; a
lump of reddish brown clay, upper part taken 233 yards west of main
section ; no depth given ; bottom part said to contain small round stones;
mud, 98 per cent.; fine sand, 2 per cent., with a few grains of coarser
sand ; no gravel large or small; no organic remains.
Quantities of clays received and examined from Clava bores :—
Bore No. 1 4 parcels. ; 2.) 8) bv iniall.
Bore No. 2 3 parcels , s . 42 ]b. in all.
Bore No. 3 2parcels . : . 32 ]b. inall.
Bore No. 4 2parcels . c . 382 ]b. in all.
Bore No. 5 2parcels . x 2. Salbi im alk:
Bore No. 6 2parcels . . 32 1b. in all.
Bore No. 7 3 parcels . - . 6 ]b. in all.
496 REPORT—1893.
GENERAL Resutts or Bortnc OPERATIONS.
In considering the results obtained by the boring operations we must
bear in mind that this method of examination is not so rigidly accurate
as excavations from the surface. Even with the most careful manipula-
tion of the tubes it is almost impossible to prevent minute organisms
such as Foraminifera being carried down to lower levels from overlying
deposits. Again, shells might occur in a bed of clay, and yet the sample
of the material brought up by the boring-tube might not yield any traces
of such organisms. A remarkable instance of the latter experience may
here be adduced. In the case of bore No. 1, which was put down at the
edge of the ‘main pit,’ upwards of 7 feet of the dark blue clay was
pierced, and yet not a single shell fragment was found in the sample of
this clay sent to Mr. Robertson nor by members of the Committee on the
spot, though from direct observation in the ‘main pit’ we know that shells
are met with in this part of the deposit.
Important results were obtained from bore No. 1, which was put
down within 5 feet of the edge of the ‘main pit.’ The solid rock, con-
sisting of coarse pebbly grit of Old Red Sandstone age, was reached at a
depth of 454 feet. Though crushed by the borer’s tools the rock was
readily recognised as identical with the coarse grit or fine conglomerate
found at the foot of the cliff near Allt Ruadh, about 330 yards north-east
of bore No.1. No less interesting is the result that the rough gravel
and sandy clay underlying the shelly clay in the ‘main pit’ was
found to rest on 214 feet of ‘brown clay and stones.’ The only
organisms obtained by Mr. Robertson from the sample of this latter
deposit are Foraminifera. From the evidence at their disposal the
Committee do not feel justified in forming a definite opinion regarding
this deposit.
In bore No. 2, 44 yards south-west of bore No. 1, the blue shelly clay
was reached at a depth of 16 feet, or 4954 feet above sea-level. The
sample yielded fragments of the following shells: Lacuna divaricata and
Iittorina obtusata, with Ostracoda and Foraminifera.
In bore No. 3, 92 yards south-west of bore No. 1, dark blue sandy clay
was pierced at a depth of 23} feet, which was recognised in the field as
bearing a close resemblance to the typical blue grey clay of the ‘main
pit.’ Curiously enough, no organic remains seem to have been recorded
from the sample examined by Mr. Robertson.
The blue clay was not found in bore No. 4 at a depth of 25 feet.
Had funds permitted the Committee were anxious to try a deeper bore
on the cliff further south.
At a distance of 61 yards, north-east of bore No. 1, a trial bore,
No. 5 did not encounter the blue clay. Bore No. 6 was sunk 14 feet
further up the face of the cliff, and though again the typical blue clay
was not met with, interesting results were obtained. In the hard-bound
sand, at a depth of 21 to 24 feet, spines of Hchinus and Spatangus were
met with, while in the hard brown clay and stones (depth 27 feet) one |
crustacean was found.
The final bore, No. 7, was sunk 30 yards north-east of bore No. 1: it
pierced the blue clay at a depth of 114 feet from the surface, the thickness
of the deposit amounting to 2} feet. It yielded Ostracoda and Foramini-
fera, while similar organisms were met with in the overlying ‘hard-
bound sand’ at a depth of from 8 to 9 feet.
ee
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES, 497
Eatent of Shelly Clay.—From the excavations and trial bores it
would appear that the shelly clay is continuous for a distance of 190
yards along the south-east bank of the Cassie Burn—viz., from bore
No. 7, situated 30 yards north-east of bore No. 1, to the small excavation
160 yards south-west of the ‘ main pit.’
The Committee regret that, owing to the cost of these trial bores,
they were unable to determine the thickness of the blue shelly clay in each
bore. Had funds permitted they would have traced the extension of the
deposit in the area north of the Cassie Burn and other directions.
Section at ‘Main Prr’ to Sorm Rock.
By tabulating the results (1) of the excavation at the ‘ main pit,’
(2) of bore No. 1, and (3) the section on the cliff above the ‘main
pit,’ the Committee are able to construct the following section, showing
the sequence of deposits at this locality :—
Feet
1. Surface soil and sandy boulder clay . - ; 5 43
2. Fine sand . : F . ° : “ ‘ A ° 20
3. Shelly blue clay with stones in lower part - 5 : 16
4, Coarse gravel and sand . - . ; : . = 15
poy enone! Clay and stones’ sO) Te ag a ee
6. Solid rock, Old Red grit . 5 ° “ : 5 : —
The accompanying section, drawn to a scale of 48 feet to an inch,
shows the above result in diagram form :—
Fic. 2.—Section at ‘Main Pit,’ Clava, to Solid Rock.
jeraeae
Lower Section
500 feet above sea level
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1893. KK
498 REPORT— 1893.
V.—DIreEction oF IcE-FLOW IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF INVERNESS.
The direction of the ice-flow in the neighbourhood of Inverness is
obviously of great importance in relation to the question referred to the
Committee. They have drawn up a list of strie based on observations
made partly by Mr. Horne in the course of his survey of the district,
which are here given with the sanction of the Director-General of the
Geological Survey, and partly by Mr. James Fraser. One instance west
of Ethie has been noted by Mr. Hugh Miller. With the view of present-
ing these observations in a clearer form they have prepared a strie map
of the district extending from Cromarty in the north to Croachy in
Strathnairn in the south (fig. 3).
List of Striated Rock Surfaces near Inverness, represented on the Strie Map.
In Brack Isxz.
Direction of Ice-flow, KE. 25° N.—Locality.—On gneiss 500 yards 8.S.W.
of Upper Ethie farmhouse, about 3} miles S.S.W. of Cromarty. Height
above sea over 600 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, BE. 10°-12° N.—Locality— On Old Red Sandstone
in old quarry near stone circle, 500 yards south-west of Mains of
Belmaduthy. Height about 400 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, EK. 3° N.—Locality—On Old Red Sandstone,
300 yards north-west of Avoch House. Height about 300 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, E. 23° N.—Locality—On Old Red Conglomerate
at roadside, about 300 yards west of ninth milestone from Dingwall, near
Arpafeelie. Height 165 feet.
Direction of Iceflow, H. 30° N.—Locality—On Old Red Conglomerate
at north-east corner of Mains of Drynie farm steading. Height 310 feet.
Direction of ice-flow, H. 12° N.—Locality.—On Old Red Conglomerate,
100 yards north-east of Drumderfit farmhouse. Height 400 feet.
South Sipe or River Nass, Fiera or Inverness AND Moray Fiera.
Direction of Ice-flow, E. 385 N.—Locality—On Old Red Sandstone
about half-a-mile west of Loch Ashie, at the side of the road from Dun-
telchaig to Dares. Height about 750 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, E. 32° N.—Locality—On Old Red Sandstone,
about 4 mile south-west of Essich farmhouse. Height about 600 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, EH. 13° N.—Locality.—On Old Red Sandstone at
old quarry, 600 yards S.S.W. of Essich farmhouse, on end slope of hill,
4 miles 8. by W. of Inverness. Height 540 feet. (The valley of the Ness
widens out eastward at Hssich.)
Direction of Ice-flow.—
Ni iD He ] tri Locality.— All these instances occur on a dip
IN. 38° Bh lee ee slope of Old Red Sandstone, measuring 6 x5
IN: 2° +a yards, east bank of Holm Burn, 1,160 yards
EB. 22° N, J SPOSSSEMY ASE. of Essich farmhouse, and 400 yards
N. 41° E. south of Fir Piantation at Balvonie of Leys.
IN,. 6° to 28°. Wi Height 550 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, N.E.—Locality.-On Old Red Sandstone in Hill-
head Quarry, about a mile E.S.E. of Dalcross station. Height 150 feet.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 499
Fic. 3.—Map of Striz showing direction of Ice-flow near Inverness.
500 REPORT—1893.
Direction of Ice-flow, E. 5° N.—Locality—On granite at Newton of
Park, Kinsteary, 2 miles §.8.H. of Nairn. Height about 150 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, EH. 9°-12° §.—Locality—On granite 200 yards.
south of Park, and about 24 miles S.S.E. of Nairn. Height 266 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, EH. 13°-17° S.—Locality.—On granite, about 400
yards south of Park and over 2} miles §.S.H. of Nairn. Height about
230 feet. (The last three instances are east of the limits of the striz:
map.)
: On Low Grounps in THE Nairn VALLEY.
Direction of Ice-flow, EH. 30°-33° N.—Locality.—On basic igneous rock.
at Mains of Daltullich, 44 miles E.S.H. of Inverness. Height 600 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, N. 20° E.—Locality—On gneiss } mile north-
east of Craggie Inn. Height 650 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, EH, 36° N.—Locality.—On gneiss south of river,.
600 yards 8.S.W. of Daviot Bridge. Height about 550 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, K. 22° N.—Locality.—On gneiss north of river,
about 100 yards north of Faillie Bridge. Height about 150 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, N. 7° E.—Locality—On gneiss near south side:
of river, nearly opposite Beachan farm, or 700 yards north-west of the
Free Church of Daviot. Height about 600 feet. (Not on map, being
near the next observation.)
Direction of Ice-flow, N. 3° E.—Locality—On gneiss, 300 yards S.W..
by W. of the Free Church of Daviot. Height about 650 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, N. 39° E.—Locality—On gneiss, west end of
Creagan-an-Tuirc, close to Brinmore farmhouses. Height 720 feet.
On Hics Levers in toe Nairn VALLEY.
Direction of Ice-flow, N.E.—Locality—On granite 1 mile N.N.W. of
Beinn Bhuidhe Mhor. Height about 1,200 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, N.—Locality—On granitic gneiss on south
shoulder of Beinn-a-Bheurlaich, nearly 2 miles south-east of Faillie Bridge.
Height about 1,230 feet.
Direction of Iceflow, N. 10° E.—Locality—On gneiss at south of
Creagan-Bad-Hach, 1? mile S. 14° E. from Faillie Bridge. Height about:
1,050 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, N. 20° W.—Locality.—On gneiss on top of Meall-
Mor above Inverarnie, 1,100 yards east of Daviot Free Church at Farr.
Height about 1,200 feet.
Direction of Ice-flow, N. 20° W.—Locality.—On gneiss near top of
Creag-a-Chlachain, about # mile north of the outlet of Loch Duntel-
chaig. Height about 1,100 feet.
From the foregoing evidence it will be seen that on the high grounds.
between Moy Hall and Faillie in Upper Strathnairn the strie point on
an average due north; a fact ascribable to the ice moving seawards from
the elevated range between the Nairn and the Findhorn; while further:
to the south-west, near Inverarnie and Loch Duntelchaig, the direction
is N. 20° W. Near the river course from Croachy to Craggie the trend
of the ice-markings is more or less parallel with the course of the valley,
or on an average N. 32° H. In the neighbourhood of Essich, near Loch
Ness, the trend varies from E. 13°-32° N. In the tract between Loch
Ness and Cawdor Castle striz are not easily found owing to the more or
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 501
less continuous covering of superficial deposits; but in Hillhead Quarry,
near Dalcross station, the direction is N.E.; and further on, at Kin-
steary, south of Nairn, from HE. 5° N. to HE. 17° S. (see list of striz).
Proceeding northwards to the Black Isle the striated surfaces between
Beauly Firth and Munlochy Bay clearly prove that the trend of the ice-
flow varied from EH. 12°-30° N. Near Avoch the direction of the ice-
markings is EH. 3° N.; while near Ethie, about three miles south of
Cromarty, it is HK. 25° N.
So far as the strize are concerned the evidence points to the conclusion
that the land ice that passed over Clava did not previously traverse the
Beauly or Moray Firths. It would appear that the ice which glaciated
that portion of the Nairn Valley came from the Great Glen, and from the
mountains to the S.EH. of the loch towards the sources of the Findhorn,
and at some stage of the Ice-age may have traversed part of the bed of
Loch Ness in its onward march.
Transport of Boulders.—In the reports of the Boulder Committee of
the Royal Society, Edinburgh, it is stated that boulders of the well-
known foliated granite of Dirriemore, west of Ben Wyvis, are ‘ scattered
abundantly all over the Black Isle.’ They ‘have been carried across,
not only the ridge of the Black Isle, but what is now the Moray Firth,
to beyond Elgin, and they may be seen on the coast between Burghead
and Lossiemouth.’! They have been found near the Enzie post-office,
but none so large as those dug out during the excavations for the Buckie
Harbour.” The fine-grained pinkish granite of Abriachan on the west
side of Loch Ness occurs in the gravel of Tomnahurich near the town
of Inverness, ‘ and eastwards of this point, on beyond Nairn and Forres,
it is found less in large boulders, though it occurs in considerable masses,
than as forming part of the gravel deposits which are so marked a
feature on the south shores of the Moray Firth.’3 It is further stated
that boulders of the ‘ liver-coloured conglomerate,’ which occurs in situ
between Inverfarigaig and Loch Duntelchaig, are distributed ‘over the
country between Loch Ness and Lossiemouth.’ Cumberland’s Stone on
Culloden Moor, the boulders named Tomriach on the bank of the Nairn,
near Cantraydoun, and Clach-na-Cailliche, near the top of the Hill
of Urchany, south of Nairn, are stated to have been derived from this
area, the general distribution of these conglomerate boulders being to
the N.E. of Caisteal-an-Duin-Riabhaich, near the junction of the Strath-
errick and Dores roads, onwards to Elgin. The grey granite of
‘Stratherrick ‘is found in blocks of different sizes, some of them large,
all over the country east towards Elgin, intermingled with the con-
glomerate just mentioned.’ ‘It is also found in blocks scattered on the
very top of the ridge of conglomerate between Loch Ced-Glas and Loch
‘Ness.’° It is further recorded that boulders of the gneiss of Stratherrick
and the Monadhliath Mountains are found in Strathnairn, near the
Free Church of Farr, Farr House, near Flichity, and again further
down the valley below Daviot, not far from the mansion of Nairnside.®
From the foregoing evidence it is inferred ‘that the general direction
of movement of these blocks has been eastwards, but chiefly from S.W.
to N.E., parallel to the trend of the coast of the Moray Firth at this part.’7
1 See Fifth Report, pp. 68, 69. ? See Sixth Report, p. 49.
3 See Fifth Report, p. 69. 4 Thid., pp. 70, 71.
5 Tbid., p. 72. ® Thid., pp. 72-74.
7 Tbid., p. 75.
502 REPORT— 1893.
VI. Report by Mr. Davip Roserrson, F.G.S., F.L.S., Mem. Imp. Roy.
Zool. Botan. Soc., Vienna.
The portion of shelly clay from Clava entrusted to me for exami-
nation was, with the exception of a small bagful, chiefly in one piece,
taken at 25 feet from the top of the ‘ main section,’ and in a box of broken
pieces of stony clay from the bottom of the same section. I had also
packages of clay, sand, and gravel from other parts of the deposit, as
hereinafter mentioned.
1. The clay in the above-mentioned bag, being taken from different
parts of the section, was considered to be a fair sample of the shelly clay.
It consisted of—
90 per cent. mud ;
ay sand, mostly angular (grey) ;
3 ‘3 stones.
None of the stones was noticed to be striated ; some—chiefly sand-
stones—were angular; the others were mostly water-worn and well
polished. None was much larger than a gooseberry. There may have
been a little more sand in this instance, as some of the finer portion may
have passed off with the mud. Mica scales were plentiful.
The clay seemed to indicate deposition in still water, showing no
traces of strong currents, and containing few stones, and those mostly
small in size.
2. The shelly clay, 160 yards south-west of the ‘main section,’ con-
sisted of—
82 per cent. mud ;
16 ts sand (grey);
2 i stones.
The stones were water-worn. No striation was detected.
3. The sand in a tin box, taken from 2} to 3 feet above the shelly
clay of the ‘main section,’ was in lumps requiring some force to break,
and was still harder when dry. It consisted of—
34 per cent. mud;
G45. oss light-coloured fine sand ;
2 s per cent. stones.
None of the stones exceeded the size of a pea.
The sand is very fine, mixed with a few small stones. No marine
organisms were detected in it. On the whole, it had much the character
of blown sand. It was much lighter in colour than the sand washed out
of the shelly clay, and contained little or none of the dark mica prevalent
in the latter.
4, The stony clay, being bottom part of the shelly clay, near west
end of ‘ main section,’ consisted of—
48 per cent. mud;
ns sand, with many red grains ;
28 a stones.
These stones were water-worn. No striation was noticed.
In this stony clay six Foraminifera and one Ostracod were obtained.
Independently of the finding of Microzoa, I was doubtful whether this
was part of the shelly clay, or had got mixed with it, or whether an
error had occurred in some other way. To make sure of this point
another portion was prepared, and here Foraminifera were still more
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 503
numerous, and a few Ostracoda were also found, leaving no doubt that
they belonged to the deposit.
5. The gravel (in second tin box) taken from 2 feet below the shelly
clay, at east end of the ‘ main section,’ was prepared in the usual way, and
lost little by washing. The stones were all well water-worn, with the
exception of the sandstones, most of which appeared to have been sub-
jected to little or no rolling. A few rootlets and two Foraminifera were
obtained. Although every precaution had been taken to prevent admix-
ture of the materials, still there are many ways in which this might occur,
either in the field or during examination.
The sand from this part of the section is of a light yellowish colour,
and consists chiefly of small well-rounded particles of quartz with
some light grains of mica, derived apparently from the adjacent Old Red
Sandstone. In these respects it closely resembles the sand which overlies
the shelly clay, and differs ina marked degree from that contained in the
shelly clay itself, which, as already mentioned, is dark or dark-grey in
colour, and contains much black mica, apparently derived from the dis-
integration of gneissose rocks.
Remarks.
The deposit in all its aspects, taken in connection with its high level,
is very puzzling. Although its Arctic character is well established, it
differs much from any of the post-Tertiary clays that have come under
my notice, particularly in respect of the small variety of fossil organic
remains found in it, there being very few remains of echini, star-fishes,
worm-tubes, crab-claws, or polyzoa, which are common in the post-
Tertiary clays, both on the east and west coasts of Scotland.
The shells, with the exception of those that are young and friable,
are fairly well preserved, and show no marks of rubbing or polishing, so
far as I could discover. They are chiefly of shallow-water species ; some
may have lived in from fifteen to twenty fathoms, but nearer the shore
as well; and the great majority are undoubtedly of littoral species.
With regard to the physical characteristics of the deposit, the follow-
ing points seem worthy of notice:—(1) The fineness of the sand over-
lying the shelly clay, and its freedom from stones or gravel; (2) the
generally rounded and water-worn appearance of the stones in the clay,
and the small proportion of sand accompanying them; and (3) the
difference in appearance and composition between the sand in the shelly
clay and that occurring both beneath and above it, and the fact of the
different parts of the deposit—clay, sand, and. overlying boulder clay—
being so sharply defined from each other.
The question comes to be, Have the shells lived and died where they
are found? After considering all the evidence that has come under my
own observation I am strongly inclined to believe that they did liveand die
where they are found. If we suppose that a transportation of the deposit
has been effected by ice action, it is difficult to see how the stones could be
so free from striation, or the sand overlying the shelly clay so fine and so free
from stones (those found in it being not much larger than a pea), or how
the different strata of the shelly clay, the sand, and overlying boulder
clay could be laid down so sharply defined, the one over the other, if
_crushed up to their present position by ice in any form.
Davin Rosertson.
504
Lamellibranchiata :
Astarte compressa, Mont. .
Astarte sulcata, Da Costa .
Axinus flexuosus, Mont. . .
Cardium edule, Linn. . ° &
Leda pernula, Mill. . . .
Leda pernula, var. mucilenta,
Steenst.
Leda pygmea, Miinst. . 5
Lepton nitidum, Turton. . B
Mytilus edulis, Linn. . e
Nucula tenuis, Mont. . c ‘
Tellina Balthica, Zinn. >
Tellina calcarea, Chem. : .
Gasteropoda:
Buccinum undatum, Zinn.. .
Fusus antiquus, Zinn. . :
Homalogyra atomus, Phil. c
Littorina littorea, Zinn. . <
Littorina rudis, Maton p °
Natica Groenlandica, Beck . ‘
Pleurotoma turricula, Mont. .
Pleurotoma nobilis . . .
Pleurotoma Trevelyana, Zwurton .
Trochus helicinus, Futr. . .
Trochus Greenlandicus, Chem. .
Trophon clathratus, Linn. . .
Decapoda:
Crab claws, sp. . . . .
Cirripedia :
Balanus balanoides, Zinn. . i
Balanus crenatus, Brug. .
REPORT— 1893.
List of Organisms from
n
"2 | Mr. Robert-
Mr. Fraser’s List (1882) & 2
and Remarks foes
wv | (a) | (b)
an =
I. MoL-
* | One specimen . *
= * *
_— *
* | A small fragment
* | Several . . -| * * *
* | One and a valve #
* | One. ‘ ° : * *
== *
* | Numerous fragments * *
« | Afewspecimens .| x *
* | Three or four, and | x *
fragments
* * *
* | Fragments of several] * *
— *
* | One example . .
* | Most plentiful spe- | x * *
cies
* | Two specimens wall dt * *
* | Moderately common * *
* | Threespecimens .| x * *
— *
* | One, half grown .| x
_— * %
a * *
* | One, in pieces .
II. Crus-
= *
* | Rare ; - PS a * *
* | Small and rare ° * *
NotzEs.—Those in Mr. Fraser’s list were identified by Mr. Jamieson and Mr,
vol. iv. p. 136, and Trans. Inverness Sci. Soc., vol. ii.). With regard to Mytilus, Mr.
but no whole specimens could be found, and fragments were mostly thrown away.’
helly Olay at Clava.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES.
505
’s Lists and Remarks
_ (a) From upper part of
main section
(b) From various
parts of section
Habitat
three larger fragments
Peer. fos
| One small valve and a few
larger fragments
| Oneentireanda fewvalves
A few imperfect valves .
A small fragment .
| Fragments of valves
“One, young . 4
Many ; the prevailing shell
Afew . ‘ é 7
Afew . A Sec tats
I'woplates . 5 ‘
A few plates and a small
clusterattached toastone
obertson from parcels of the clay
‘aser notes that ‘fragments larg:
€ above species are all common
Two fragments .
Valves, moderately
common
Rare and small
A few valves
Rare .
One fragment
A fragment, small
Two imperfect
valves i
A small fragment .
A few fragments,
and one imperfect
Verycommon .
Two . ; 5
Common
Three small .
One whole and one
imperfect
Three . ; .
A few plates, and
on stones
Rarer, mostly on
stones
Arctic and North British, low water to 45
fathoms.
Northern and British seas, 7 to 25 fathoms,
British seas, in comparatively shallow
water.
Common, all European shores, tides to a
few fathoms.
Arctic and northern seas, 10 to 80 fathoms.
Arctic and northern seas, less common.
Arctic and northern seas, 20 to 80 fathoms.
Norwegian and British, not very common,
10 to 90 fathoms
All climates, common, high water to a few
fathoms.
Northern and British seas, local, 5 to 100
fathoms,
Northern and British seas, common, tides
to 50 fathoms.
Arctic, no longer British.
Arctic and British, common, tides to deep
water.
Northern and N. British, 20 to 40 fathoms.
Common on sea-weeds just beyond low
water.
All sea-shores, abundant, between tide
marks.
Nearer high-water mark, common.
Arctic, rare in British seas, low water to
60 fathoms.
Northern and N. British, low water to 60—
100 fathoms.
Northern and N. British, low water to 60_
100 fathoms.
Northern and N. British, low water to 60-
100 fathoms.
British and Northern, common, near low
water.
Arctic and N. British, local, low water to
40 fathoms.
Arctic and British seas, 5 to 70 fathoms,
Common on stony shores.
Common on stony shores in deeper water.
sent them
e and small were plentiful during the recent
in the Glacial clays of the West of Scotland.
at the time (see Zrans. Edin. Geol. Soc.,
workings;
REPORT— 1893.
506
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507
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAYA, AND OTHER PLACES.
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508
REPORT—1893.
List of Organisms, by Mr. D. Ropertson—(continued).
Species
Main
Section Section
Main
Remarks
Sus-Kinepom : ANNULOIDA.
CLASS: ECHINODERMATA,
Sus-Kinepom: PROTOZOA.
Echinus, sp. ° P °
Two small fragments of
spines.
CLASS: RHIZOPODA ;—FORAMINIFERA,
Astrorhiza crassatina, Brady .
Bulimina margina, D’ Orb. ° .
Cassidulina crassa, D’ Orb. A .
Gypsina globulus, Reuss. .
* Lagena hexagona, Will. . ‘
* Lagena marginata, W.and B. .
Lagena marginata, var., Reuss.
Lagena Orbignyana, Seq. .
tLagena striata, Montg. . .
Lagena Williamsoni, ease ; ;
Miliolina oblonga, Mont. . ‘ .
+Miliolina seminulum, Zinn. ° A
{Miliolina subrotunda, Mont. .
Miliolina venusta, Karrer .
Nodosaria consobrina, D’ Orb.
Nodosaria levigata, D’Orb. -
tNonionina Boueana, D’ Orb.
+Nonionina bulloides, D’Orb. .
+Nonionina depressula, W. and J.
t+Nonionina orbicularis, Brady
tNonionina stelligera, D’Orb.
* Polymorphina acuminata, Will.
+Polymorphina angusta, Zgger . :
* Polymorphina lactea, W. and J. :
+Polymorphina lanceolata, Reuss. :
Polymorphina oblonga, D’ Ord. .
Polymorphina sororia, Reuss.
{Polystomella arctica, P. and J.. “
Polystomella crispa, Zinn.
*+Polystomella striato-punctata, F.and
M.
* Quinqueloculina seminulum, D’ Ord. .
Rotalia Beccarii, Zinn.
Rotalia nitida, Wiil.
Truncatulina ungeriana, D Orb.
Truncatulina variabilis, D’ Ord. .
* Uvigerina angulosa, Will. . .
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*x
*
*
* In Mr. Fraser’s list; tT in Mr. Bennie’s, as before noted.
Rare
Moderately
common
Rare
Rare
Moderately
common
Rare
Rare
Rare
Moderately
common
Rare
Moderately
common
Rare
Rare
Common
Common
Moderately
common
Moderately
common
Moderately
common
Moderately
common
Moderately
rare
Rare
Moderately
common
Rare
Rare
Rare
Moderately
rare,
Moderately
common.
Rare.
Rare.
Moderately
rare.
Rare.
Moderately
common,
Common.
Moderately
common,
Moderately
common.
Moderately
rare.
Moderately
common,
Moderately
rare.
Moderately
rare.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 509
Supplementary Note by Mr. Roserrson on the Different Parcels of Clay and
their Contents.
One thing to be borne in mind in examining several parcels of clay
from the same deposit is that the contents of any two will scarcely ever
be alike.
For example, in my first list (a) there are several species of Mollusca
not in Mr. Fraser’s list, viz.
Astarte sulcata.
Azinus flexuosus.
Lepton nitidum.
Tellina calcarea.
Fusus antiquus.
Trochus helicinus.
» Grenlandicus.
On the other hand, in Mr, Fraser’s list there are eight species not in
my first list, viz.—
Astarte compressa.
Cardium edule.
Leda pernula, var. mucilenta.
Nucula tenuis.
Tellina Balthica.
Buceinum wndatum.
Pleurotoma Trevelyana.
Trophon clathratus.
Some of these, however, are in my second list (b) derived from clay
taken from various parts of the section (see preceding table).
State of Preservation.—Many of the delicate shells are whole; yet
there are fewer perfect shells, or with the valves together, in Clava than
we usually find in the post-Tertiary clays of the Firth of Clyde,
The number of species, also, is notably poorer in the Clava deposit than
in those of the Firth of Clyde. For example, Rissoa striata and its variety,.
i. parva, are abundant all through the Clyde beds; but, so far as I have
seen, they are absent from Clava.
Of course, we have to take into account that the post-Tertiary fauna
of the clays on the east coast differ in several respects from those on the
west coast. This holds good to some extent also with regard to the fauna.
of the present seas.
D. R.
Note to Preceding List of Foraminifera.
Nots.—The Foraminifera as a class are of very wide distribution
both as to latitude and depth, some being found in all seas, and from
brackish pools to the deepest soundings. It is worthy of note,
however, that some of the genera found at Clava, and a few other
Scottish clays, are more restricted in range, being not only ‘ essentially
shallow-water species,’ but (as seems more remarkable) to be found
chiefly in ‘temperate and sub-tropical seas.’ The Rotalia, for example,
‘have not been found within the Arctic or Antarctic circles, but the
510 REPORT— 1893.
genus is represented by one or other of its species in every part of the
tropical and temperate zones.’! Gypsina globulus, again, is chiefly found
“in the coral reefs of warm latitudes,’ though ‘small examples are
occasionally met with on the northern and western shores of the British
Islands.’? The varieties of Truncatulina variabilis also, though ‘ not
entirely confined to shallow water, are commonest at the shallow margins
of sub-tropical and temperate seas.’ ®
These species are comparatively rare in our Scottish clays, and it
seems interesting to note their occurrence at Clava, where the list, as a
whole, is of moderate dimensions.
It may also be pointed out that there are five species of Foraminifera
in the list from section 160 yards S.W. which were not met with in the
main section ; but this is of little consequence, as, if two parcels of clay
be taken from the same bed, only a few feet apart, they will seldom be
found in all their details exactly alike.
D. R.
Additional Reports and Remarks.
A separate examination of the ‘main pit’ was made by Mr.
T, F. Jamieson, LL.D., of Ellon, who has furnished the Chairman with
the following observations as the result of his visit :—
‘The extreme thickness of the dark blue clay is about 16 feet. The
lowest, 4 or 5 feet, is studded with small pebbles, many of which seem
water-worn. The shells are by no means numerous—more scanty than I
expected—and seem to be most frequent perhaps ata depth of about
2 feet from the top. At least the Littorina littorea appeared to be got
oftenest there, and, being a stout shell, it is generally in better preserva-
tion than the others, most of which are very decayed and tender, so that
they will hardly bear touching. The epidermis, however, is quite visible
on most of them, so that there is nothing to countenance the notion that
the shells have been ice-borne to their present location. The uppermost
10 or 12 feet of the blue clay is almost quite free from stones, and isa
pure silty clay or mud such as might be expected to form on the sea-
bottom. It is not at all of the nature of the boulder clay such as we see
in Caithness, and I think the probability is that it has been formed where
it lies. Had it been transported in a mass from some great distance by
the glacier, it would have been more dislocated, and would not occupy
such a regular horizontal position beneath the boulder clay, for it is
traceable along the base of the bank to a distance of 160 yards south-
westwards at about the same level.
‘JT think, however, that the pressure of the deep mass of boulder clay
above, with that of the superincumbent moving glacier, must have
occasioned some change in the texture of the clay by consolidating it,
and probably causing some degree of movement in its mass. This would
account for the crushing of some of the shells and the obliteration of the
lamination of the clay and want of any distinct stratification.
‘My idea is that after the deposition of the blue clay there had been a
subsequent development of land-ice on a great scale.’
Di Bedi
1 H. B. Brady, ‘ Challenger’ Report, vol. ix.
2 Thid. 8 Thid.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 511
A Note has also been received from Mr. P. F. Kendall, who was
unfortunately prevented from visiting the excavation, but who examined
a sample of the shelly clay from the ‘ main pit.’
‘I have examined a portion of the silty clay sent, and so far have
found a large number (relatively) of fry of Nucuwla or Leda, several small
(almost to be called fry) Inttorinas, probably L. littorea, and several
Foraminifera and Ostracoda. The condition of the specimens is perfect,
and, judging from thatalone, I should be disposed to say that the silt is—
though not necessarily a sitw—a portion of a sea-bottom. I do not give
any positive opinion, but that is my impression.’
‘I say not necessarily im situ, and without an opportunity of seeing
the section, I am indisposed to pronounce a more decided opinion.
Apart, however, from the character of the matrix and contents, the
general facts connected with the locality, the uniqueness of the deposit,
and its limited extent are, in my judgment, strongly against the suppo-
sition of its being in place; and masses of sea-bottom, with perfectly
preserved shells and microzoa, are known to have been carried by land-ice
to considerable distances.’
PR:
VII. Summary oF THE Evipence anp GeneraL Concuusions.
1. The highest part of the shelly clay in the ‘ main pit’ is 5034 feet
above sea-level. The deposit is 16 feet thick in that section, and appears
to be continuous for a distance of at least 190 yards in a well-nigh hori-
zontal position.
2. It contains a small proportion of stones, usually well-rounded, and
chiefly near the base, varying considerably in relative proportion from
those in the overlying boulder clay and underlying gravel. Amongst
them is a small block of Jurassic grit; the nearest point where such
rocks occur in situ is about twelve miles due north of Clava, near the
Sutors of Cromarty.
3. The shells are chiefly shallow-water species; some might have
lived at depths varying from 15 to 20 fathoms or in shallower water
nearer the shore, but the majority are littoral forms. Though the fauna
is not intensely Arctic, it implies colder conditions than the present,
there being a considerable number of Arctic species common in the
Glacial beds in the west of Scotland. The variety of shells is limited,
and there is an absence of certain marine organisms, often plentiful in
those beds.
4, The shells on the whole are remarkably well preserved, many
retaining their epidermis. They are neither rubbed nor striated, differing
in this last particular from those found in the shelly boulder clay of
Caithness and Orkney.
5. From the assemblage of organic remains and their mode of occur-
rence, it would appear that the deposit is a true marine silt, or, in other
words, a portion of an ancient sea-bottom. If the deposit is not in situ,
then we can only suppose it must have been transported in mass to its
present position,
6. The direction of the ice-flow in the surrounding district, as proved
by the striz: and transport of boulders, seems to point to the conclusion
that the land-ice which passed over Clava did not previously cross any
512 REPORT—1893.
part of the existing sea-floor. If we suppose that the deposit was trans-
ported from Loch Ness, then, so far as we can see, we should postulate
a limited submergence in Glacial time to permit of the accumulation of
marine beds in that basin.
7. The pressure of the ice that formed the overlying 45 feet of
boulder clay would be sufficient to account for the crushing of certain
shells, the compression of the annelid tubes, and the production of the
system of cracks in the clay referred to in the report.
8. Notwithstanding certain obvious difficulties, the majority of the
Committee are strongly inclined to infer, from the assemblage of organic
remains and their mode of occurrence, the proved extension of the bed
and its apparently undisturbed character, that the shelly clay is i situ,
indicating a submergence of the land to the extent of over 500 feet. A
minority of the Committee, however, do not consider the evidence
sufficient to establish this conclusion, or at all points in harmony with it.
A note embodying their views is appended.
9. The Committee suggest that they should continue their investi-
gations with regard to the shelly clays at Chapelhall, near Airdrie, and
Tangy Glen, near Campbeltown, both occurring underneath boulder clay,
and adduced as evidence of submergence in Glacial time.
For the Committee, Jonn Horne, Chairman.
VIII.—Appenpix.
Note by a Minority of the Committee.
While we have no wish to emphasise any difference of opinion among
the members of Committee, we gladly avail ourselves of the oppor-
tunity of stating our views afforded us by the courtesy of our esteemed
Chairman, whose desire to deal fairly with all sides of the question has
been conspicuous throughout this investigation.
As Mr. Robertson has remarked in his valuable report, this Clava
deposit ‘is in all its aspects a very puzzling one.’ Any theory regarding
its origin or mode of formation seems to be beset with difficulties. On
the one hand, if we conclude that it is really in place as part of an
ancient sea-bottom, and so indicates a submergence of over 500 feet,
then it is hard to account for the absence, not only of shell-beds, but of
all other traces of the sea over the country generally at a similar level,
and at hundreds of intermediate levels down to that of existing tides.
If this be a clear case of a former sea-bed, it seems strange that it should
be the only one known or visible at a similar elevation in Scotland, if
we exclude that at Chapelhall, near Airdrie, which is now generally
believed to be not im situ; while the shelly sands and gravels in the
north-east of Aberdeenshire (at 200 to 350 feet or thereby) are also
admitted to be quite inconclusive as evidences of submergence. The
sea leaves many and various tokens of its presence where it has actually
been. It seems difficult to believe that a ‘second glaciation,’ or any
other assignable cause, could remove all such traces from hundreds of
localities all over the country—from sheltered bays, and glens, and
inland curves of land, which would then be occupied by the sea—and
yet leave those that are found (at Clava and Chapelhall, if these are
true instances) in the very tract, as can be shown, of the most powerful
ice-sheets.
ON THE SHELL-BEARING DEPOSITS AT CLAVA, AND OTHER PLACES. 513
It is difficult also to see how the ‘upper boulder clay,’ said to have
been formed by the ‘second,’ or post-submergence, glaciation could fail
to be thickly charged, in almost every locality, with remains of marine
organisms derived from the miles upon miles of former sea-bed over
which the ice must have passed.
From what we know of the configuration of the district and of its
glaciation we are convinced that, owing to the immense pressure of ice
trom the mountains to the west, and the blocked condition of the Moray
Firth and the North Sea during-the Glacial period, ice on a great scale,
issuing from Loch Ness, was deflected eastwards along the base of the
Monadhliath mountains; that this deflection began at a considerable
distance south of the present mouth of the loch; and that such ice
passed over Clava. This conclusion is supported by the strie and the
distribution of boulders throughout the Nairn valley, and on towards
Forres and Elgin. The strie on some higher parts of the Monadhliath
hills pointing north, north-west, &c., we view as belonging to an earlier
stage of the glaciation, before the congestion in the Moray Firth took
place.' Unless the different stages and changes of direction of the
ice-sheets as they reached their maximum be kept in mind, we submit
that a ‘map of strie’ of almost any district is unintelligible.
The ice-transport theory, therefore (whatever difficulties may attach
to it), has at least this point in its favour, that the deposit is quite in
the track of ice which would almost certainly pass over part of a former
sea-bed in its progress.” It has also this other point, that the shelly
clay consists almost wholly of materials derived from some distance,
differing from those in the immediate neighbourhood, and from the
boulder clay and gravel both above and below it. Further, though the
clay itself suggests deposition in deep and comparatively still water, the
shells and other organisms it coutains are almost entirely of littoral
species ; and though the stones in it are in general rounded and water-
worn, some distinctly striated are associated with them, and all occur
promiscuously imbedded in this fine unstratified clay without, as a rule,
even a streak of accompanying sand or gravel.
Mere ‘submergence’ seems inadequate to account for these facts.
And we venture to say that to assume, first, a submergence of over
500 feet, then a re-elevation to about the old level, with a return of
glacial conditions, much the same as before, is to hang an immense
series of changes upon the (as regards interpretation) more or less
doubtful evidence before us.
Our observations have convinced us, generally, that no such sub-
mergence, nor any at all approaching to it, took place in any part of
the British Isles during the Glacial epoch.
On the other hand, we freely admit that the extent of the shelly clay
in this instance and the perfectness of many of the contained shells do
weigh against the supposition that the deposit, as a whole, owes its
transport, or at least its present form, to land-ice. The objection from
the comparatively perfect condition of the shells is perhaps the most
important. Whether, in view of the known instances in which even
These striz may partly belong also to a later time after the congestion had
given way, but for various reasons we are disposed to assign them mainly to the
earlier stage.
* A submergence of only 60 feet would make Loch Ness an arm of the sea, with
a long, comparatively shallow bay at its seaward end.
1893. LL
514 REPORT—1893.
delicate shells have been transported uninjured by ice, this objection be
insuperable must be left to the judgment of others. Our own feeling is
that if the case depends mainly on this point it is impossible to pronounce
upon it with confidence.
On the whole, our opinion, with all deference, is that we have not yet
reached a solution of the difficulties connected with the Clava deposit.
Di B
Pek,
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland. Twenty-first
Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. E. Hutt,
(Chairman), Prof. J. Prestwich, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Prof.
W. Boyp Dawkins, Prof. T. McK. Huaues, Prof. T, G. Bonney,
Mr. C. E. DE Rance, Mr. P. F. Kenpatu (Secretary), Mr. R. H.
TIDDEMAN, Mr. J. W. WoopaLL, and Prof. L. C. Mratu.—Drawn
wp by Mr. P. F. Kenpau (Secretary).
Tur Committee were appointed, as in former years, for the purpose of re-
cording the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size,
and origin of the erratic blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, report-
ing other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures
for their preservation.
The Committee have again to acknowledge the valuable assistance
rendered by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee and the Glacialists’
Association, as well as by independent observers. The work of organisa-
tion has been prosecuted and several districts are being investigated in a
manner that promises to yield results of the highest value. The Corre-
sponding Societies have been invited to co-operate, and a hope is enter-
tained that information will soon be forthcoming from counties regarding
which no reports have as yet been presented to this committee. The
President of the British Association, Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D.,
F.R.S., has, in his capacity as Director-General of H.M. Geological
Survey, granted permission to the officers of his staff to report to the
Committee erratics observed during the course of their field-work. A
valuable and instructive report by Mr. De Rance is the first product of
this arrangement. The report records every boulder at present visible
within the area selected. Similarly exhaustive reports are those by
Captain Dwerryhouse, upon the shores of the estuary of the Mersey, and
by Miss Shipton and Captain Dwerryhouse, upon the erratics on the
Dee shore near Parkgate ; in the latter case the observers have compiled
an analysis of their list for publication.
The comparison of the lists of Messrs. Dambrill-Davies, Platt, and De
Rance on the one hand with those of Mr. Mawby, Captain Dwerryhouse,
and Miss Shipton on the other brings out very clearly the much greater
relative abundance of Lake District rocks than of those from Scotland,
on the eastern side of the plain of Lancashire and Cheshire as compared
with the western side of that area. In harmony with this result is the
fact that the remarkable list of erratics from the gravels of the Yorkshire
Calder contains not a single Scottish rock.
The Committee regret that they have been obliged to publish merely a
digest of their very voluminous report, but arrangements are in progress
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 515
whereby a type-written copy of the detailed report will be lodged in
public libraries in London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. Meanwhile the
Secretary will be prepared to furnish any information which is desired.
CHESHIRE.
Alderley District.
Reported by Surgeon-Major W. R. Damsrit-Daviss, per Glacialists’
Association.
32 L.D. andesites, 1 Coal-measure sandstone, 1 quartzite (?), 3 Scot-
tish granites, 22 L.D. granites, 2 Buttermere granophyres.
Macclesfield District.
Reported by C. E. Dz Rance, Esq., F.G.8., &c., of H.M. Geol. Survey.
(By permission of the Director-General.)
These 6-in. maps have been marked off into quarters, and each quarter
into an eastern and a western half.
Sueet 37: N.W. (West)—12 Buttermere granophyres, 1 L.D. dole-
rite, 2 L.D. porphyrites, 13 L.D. andesites, 2 Eskdale granites,
3 Scottish granites = 33 boulders in 3 square miles at altitudes
of 600-1,030 feet above O.D.
Sueet 37: N.W. (East)—18 Buttermere granophyres, 13 L.D. an-
desites, 4 Eskdale granites = 35 in 3 square miles at altitudes of
800-1,255 ft.
Seer 37: S.W. (West)—5 Buttermere granophyres, 4 L.D.
andesites, 1 L.D. porphyrite, 4 Eskdale granites = 14 boulders in
3 square miles at altitudes of 700-1,090 ft.
Sueet 37: S.W. (Hast)—39 Buttermere granophyres, 34 L.D.
andesites, 1 L.D. porphyrite, 3 L.D. andesitic agglomerates, 4
Eskdale granites, 8 Scottish granites, 14 granites (? source)
=103 boulders in 3 square miles at altitudes of 760-1,340 ft.
Suzer 37: S.E. (West)—6 L.D. andesites, 3 Scottish granites, 6
grits (probably local) =15 im 3 square miles at altitudes of
1,060-1,260 ft.
Sueer 36: N.W. (West)—1 L.D. andesite, 1 granite, 1 not specified
=3 in 8 square miles at altitudes of 300-350 ft.
Suerr 36: N.W. (Hast)—4 Buttermere granophyres, 8 L.D. an-
desites, 2 granites (P source) = 14 in 3 square miles at altitudes
of 470-580 ft.
Sueer 36: N.E. (West)—3 L.D. andesites = 3 in 3 square miles at
altitudes of 500-556 ft.
Surer 36: N.E. (Hast)—1 L.D. andesite = 1 im 3 square miles at
altitude of 494 ft. above O.D.
Sueer 36: §.W. (West)—5 L.D. andesites, 1 not specified = 6 in
3 square miles at altitudes of 280-320 ft.
Seer 36: 8.W. (Hast)—2 L.D. andesites = 2 in 3 square miles at
an altitude of 430 ft.
Sueer 36: S.E. (West)—1 L.D. andesite, 1 L.D. granite = 2 in
3 square miles at altitudes of 455 and 500 ft.
Sueer 36: §.E. (East)—1 L.D. andesite = 1 im 3 square miles at
an altitude of 600 ft.
Lu2
516 REPORT—1893.
Sueet 44: N.W. (West)—18 Buttermere granophyres, 13 L.D. ande-
sites, 2 Eskdale granites, 1 Scottish granite, 1 granite (? source)
= 35 in3 square miles at altitudes of 925-1,050 ft.
Suzer 43: N.W. (East)—35 Buttermere granophyres, 4 L.D. porphy-
rites, 16 L.D. andesites, 4 Eskdale granites, 1 Scottish granite,
1 granite (? source), 1 white rock (local), 2 grits (local) = 64 in
3 square miles at altitudes of 980-1,280 ft.
Surer 44: S.W. (West)—2 L.D. andesites =2 in 3 square miles at
altitudes of 636 and 1,198 ft.
Sueet 44: S.W. (Hast) — 11L.D. andesite. Altitude 740 ft.
Suent 35: N.W. (West)— 1 L.D. andesite. Altitude 140 ft.
Suezt 35: N.W. (Hast) —1L.D. andesite. Altitude 206 ft.
Suet 35: N.E. (West)— 1 L.D. andesite. Altitude 221 ft.
Sueer 35: N.E. (Hast) — 1 L.D. andesite. Altitude 254 ft.
Sueret 35: S.E. (West)— 11L.D. andesite. Altitude 246 ft.
Sueet 35: S.E. (Hast) —10 L.D. andesites, 1 Scottish granite. Alti-
tudes of 213-260 ft.
Disley.
Reported by Dr. Gorvon, M.D., per Glacialists’ Association.
The Avenue, Lyme Park, 1 granite, 1 L.D. andesite.
Report on the Boulders lying on the East Shore of the Estuary of the River
Dee, between Burton Rocks on the South and West Kirby on the North,
with a comparison with those on the corresponding shore of the Mersey
from Herculaneum Dock, Liverpool, to Mersey View Road, Ditton, near
Widnes. By Miss Lavra J. Surpron and Capt. Artaur R. Dwerry-
HOUSE, of Liverpool (per Glacialists’ Association).
The boulders for the most part le on the beach between high and
low water marks, and are in some cases partially buried in sand and silt.
They have been derived from the washing away of the boulder clay cliffs.
The boulder clay extends under the more recent river deposits, and in
places crops out through these.
Occasionally boulders are found im situ in these outcrops of clay.
Their dimensions in inches and their situation together with the direc-
tion of the axes and strie# are given below :—
(1) Adesite 25 in. x 24 in. x ?; sub-angular ; planed ; striated ; strie N. 10° W.;
near Rifle Targets, Neston Collieries.
(2) Silurian! grit 15 in. x 8 in. x 5 in. (+); sub-angular; planed ; striated ;
strie N. 12° W.; about middle of sea wall, south of Parkgate.
(3) Andesite! 15 in. x 9in. x 6 in. (+); sub-angular ; planed; striated ; striz.
N. 12° W.; near last,
(4) Granite,’ Criffel, 17 in. x 12 in. x 4 in.(+); sub-angular; planed; striated ;.
strie N. 11° W.; near last.
(5) Silurian grit 23 in. x 20 in. x 6 in. (+); sub-angular; planed; striated ;.
strie N. 12° W.; an embayment of sea wall about 40 yds. south of
the promenade, Parkgate.
1 Surrounding Nos, 2, 3, and 4 are a number of small ones, partly embedded in
boulder clay, and evidently in situ, and all having their upper surfaces approxi-
mately in the same horizontal plane. These are all striated in the same direction,
viz., N. 12° W., and constitute a striated pavement similar to those described by the
late Mr. D. Mackintosh (Q.J/.G.S., vol. xxxv. p. 434), and by Mr. J. Lomas, A.R.C.S.,
and one of the present writers (Zrans. Liverpool Geol. Soc., pt. i. vol. vii. 1892-93).
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 517
(6) Andesite 44 in. x 31 in. x 20 in. (+); sub-angular; striated axillary;
strie N. 10° W.; opposite sea wall, south of Gayton Cottage, near
Heswall.
(7) Andesite 40 in. x 19 in. x 12 in. (+); sub-angular; axis N. 5° W.; north
of Gayton Cottage.
(8) Local sandstone 14 in. x 12 in. x ?; sub-angular; axis N. 5° W.; near
last.
(9) Diabase 40 in. x 20 in. x 12 in. (+); angular; axis N. 10° W.; north of
boathouse between Heswall and Thurstaston.
(10) Granite, Criffel, 20 in. x 14 in. x ?; sub-angular ; planed; striated; strize
N. 12° W.; 200 yards south of old stone culvert and roadway between
Thurstaston and Caldy (Dawpool).
The total number of boulders which we have measured and recorded
is 1,176 (the full list being deposited with the Glacialists’ Association
at Stockport), consisting of—
Andesite, Lake District . 4 A . 3177) Total Lake District rocks = 548
Andesitic breccia, &c. . 4 : Sane 96 | (exclusive of Silurian grits, some
Granite, Eskdale : : : : - 110 ( of which may have been derived
Granophyre, Buttermere . . . . 26) from Scotland).
Granite, Criffel . . ‘ : 5 - 102)
Dalbeattie granite 32 | Total Scotch rocks= 134,
Silurian grit. : 4 : : eS
Diorite (origin doubtful) . : ne
Diabase (? Scotch) . : - : . 286
Carboniferous sandstone é 4
Millstone grit 2
Basalt 9
Volcanic ash 2
Quartzite 4 3
Felsite 5 : : 6
Local Triassic sandstone! . 6
Various of doubtful origin, agi
1176
Size of Boulders.
8 ft. and | 4 ft. and | 5 ft. and |
Under | over, but | over, but | over, but
Nature 3 ft. under under under Over6ft.
4 ft. 5 ft. 6 ft.
Andesite . : : ; ; 243 62 9 2 1
Andesitic agglomerate andash . 70 18 "i — =
Granite, Eskdale . é F ; 96 10 3 1 —
Granophyre, Buttermere eke 22 4 — _— =
Silurian grit . : . 2 ‘ 59 14 5 — —
Granite, Criffel . * f é 91 10 1 — =
i Dalbeattie F : i 26 5 —_— — 1
Diorite . A : E : ; 80 10 1 — uf
Diabase . : 2 : S : 251 26 6 3 —
Carboniferous sandstone + —_— — — —
Millstone grit 1 1 — — = |
Basalt 8 1 —_ — —
Volcanic ash . : : ‘ — 2 _— — -—
Quartzite Z . 5 : : 2 — 1 — —
Felsite . - 5 1 — — —
Local sandstone F 6 —_— —_ — —
Various of doubtful origin 5 _— _ _ 1
} There is a very large number of blocks of local sandstone on the shore, but as
many of these have formed part of old sea walls and the like, only those which are
an sttu or show undoubted signs of glaciation have been included in the above list.
518 REPORT— 1893.
Under 3 feet . ‘ 82:4 per cent.
3 feet and over, but under 4 feet . 14:0 x
4 feet and over, but under 5 feet . 2°8
5 feet and over, but under 6 feet . 05 5
Over 6 feet _ 03 53
100-0
Form of Boulders, Stric, Sc.
— Angular seit Rounded || Planed | Striated
p. ¢. p.c. p.¢. p. ¢. p.c.
Andesite 25°2 71:3 3°5 38:1 20°5
Andesitic agglomerate and ash 26°3 68°4 5:3 37-9 21:0
Granite, Eskdale . ‘ 4 . 19-1 17:3 36 44:5 12:7
Granophyre, Buttermere 15°4 76°9 {feel 61:5 23:1
Silurian grit . ; : 48-7 51°33 | ° 0-0 59-0 41:0
Granite, Criffel 19°6 735 69 38:2 18°6
Granite, Dalbeattie 12°5 875 0:0 43°7 0:0
Diorite . : 5 31:5 685 | 0-0 20°6 54
Diabase . . 17°8 79:0 32 15:7 2°8
Carboniferous sandstone 0:0 100:0 0:0 0:0 25°0
Millstone grit 1000 00-0 0:0 0-0 0:0
Basalt . : 5 33°3 66:7 0:0 0:0 0:0
Ash 5 : c 2 0:0 100:0 0-0 50:0 0:0
Quartzite : 33°3 66°7 0-0 33°3 33°3
Felsite 66-7 33°3 0:0 33'3 16:7
Local sandstone 33°3 66°7 0-0 50:0 50:0
Various of doubtful origin 50:0 50:0 0:0 33:3 16:7
Summary.
per cent. per cent.
Angular . 287= 24:4 Planed 394 =33'5
Sub-angular 851= 72°4 Striated 176=15°0
Rounded . 38= 3:2
1176= 100°0 0
Comparison of the Boulders of the Dee with those of the Mersey. .
Andesite 5
Andesitic agglomerate and ash .
Granite, Eskdale
Granophyre, Buttermere
Silurian grit :
Granite, Criffel .
Granite, Dalbeattie
Various Scotch granites
Diorite 5 :
Diabase
Carboniferous sandstone
Millstone grit
Basalt
Voleanic ash
Mersey Dee ;
percent. per cent. .
38°87 26°97
9°30 8:08
6-20 9°35
TOF. 2°21
5:07 6°63
6:48 8:67
11°27 “2°72
9°58 0:00
2:82 7:82
1:13 24°32
0:00 0°34
0:00 0-17
0:28 077
0°84 017
1 The figures for the Mersey boulders have been obtained from the lists published’
in the twentieth report of this committee, and from a list by Capt. A. KR Dwerry--
house in the present report.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 519
Comparison of the Boulders of the Dee with those of the Mersey—continued.
Mersey Dee
per cent. per cent.
Quartzite . ‘ ‘ : : ; . «nee .0:00 0:25
Felsite - : : : : F ; é wee 28 0°51
Limestone . 4 : : 5 . : - . 0°84 0:00
Local sandstone . 3 : : : : : . 0°84 051
Various of doubtful origin . ° 3 5 F . 3:38 051
100-00 100-00
Summary.
Mersey Dee
per cent. per cent
Lake District rocks . ; - : } : . 56°34 46°61
Scotch rocks : 5 : : 5 - : . 27:33 11°39
Diabase_ . 3 : : 7 4 ; : fe LAS 24°32
Silurian grit : ‘ 3 C é : ‘ eo OT 6°63
Alia . ; : ; ; : : ; : . 10°13 11:05
The diabase, which is so plentiful in this district, is very scarce
amongst the Mersey boulders, and, according to Mr. D. Mackintosh, who
speaks of them as Scottish greenstones, they are not common in the neigh-
bourhood of Chester (‘Q. J. G. S.,’ vol. xxxv. 1879, pp. 434-438).
Speaking of Delamere Forest, the same author says: ‘ Scottish green-
stone (with a few exceptions) is absent.’
We have not had an opportunity of comparing the rock with speci-
mens from Scotland, so have not included them amongst the Scotch
rocks in the analysis. Considering them as Scotch, the proportions
would stand as follows: Lake District, 46°61 per cent.; Scotch, 35°71
per cent.; alia, 17°68 per cent.
This would show a considerable excess of Scotch rocks on the Dee
shore as compared with that of the Mersey.
Barnston and Pensby.
Reported by W. Mawsy, Esq., per Glacialists’ Association.
6 L.D. andesites, 1 Yewdale breccia, 1 Silurian grit, 2 diabase, 2
sandstones (local), 1 Scottish granite, 1 Eskdale granite.
DERBYSHIRE.
_ Note on Boulder Clay and other Glacial Deposits between Chapel-en-le-Frith
and Miller’s Dale.
Reported by A. Taytor, per Glacialists’ Association.
In Chapel-en-le-Frith boulders, andesites, granites (and a breccia),
&c., are fairly numerous.
Near the east end of the village a bed of boulder clay containing
granites, &c., and vein quartz pebbles, is being worked for brick-making.
Height about 700 ft.
A boulder with three faces scratched, all from narrow to blunt end,
was found on the tramway.
One of granite, 40 in. x 24 in. x 24 in., was found in the brook at Bar-
moor Clough (800 ft.).
In the face of the cliff overlooking Barmoor Clough, on the right
$20 REPORT— 1893.
hand when looking up the clough, I found zm situ small boulders of
granite and andesite with pebbles of local sandstones, well rounded
900 ft.).
: At ; place about a mile from Doveholes, at a height of about
1,100 ft., I found pebbles of andesite, granite (?), and flints.
From this point to Miller’s Dale I found only one foreign boulder ;
at less than a quarter of a mile from Miller’s Dale station there is an
andesite boulder built into the wall. Height about 700 ft.
FLINTSHIRE.
Vale of Clwyd.
Reported by Messrs. P. F. Kenpatt and J. Lomas, per Glacialists’
Association.
Oraig Fawr, Melideni—6 LL.D. andesites, 1 L.D. ash, 1 porphyrite
(? Cheviots), 1 Scottish granite, 2 Scottish grits, 24 Welsh grits, 1 hard
slate, 1 gannister, 2 Welsh rhyolites, 1 red micaceous sandstone.
In field under ¢ of Siambue (map 79 N.W.).—1 Scottish granite, 1
Eskdale granite.
Pandy.—Gravel pit by terminus of mineral railway ; Scottish granite,
Eskdale granite, Buttermere granophyre, Ailsa Craig eurite; rock very
like the Mynydd Mawr rock with riebeckite, many Carboniferous lime-
stones—one bored by Cliona.
Marion Mills—Many Carboniferous limestone boulders. One in situ
had the long axis 8. 21° W. (true).
Tremeirchion.—In Fynnon Beuno Cave. One hundred boulders taken
at random gave 33 grits, 29 Welsh felsites, 14 Carboniferous limestones,
8 Carboniferous sandstones, 4: slates, 2 gannisters, 1 millstone grit, 1 mica-
ceous sandstone, 1 grey quartzite, 1 Triassic sandstone, 2 doubtful, 1
Scottish granite, 3 L.D. andesites ; 9 were well scratched.
Near Greenbéch.—5 Buttermere granophyres, 1 Scottish granite, and
many Welsh felsites, &c.
Bach-e-graig.—Several Buttermere granophyres, 1 Scottish granite,
and many Welsh rocks.
LANCASHIRE.
Decoy Marsh to Mersey View Road, Ditton.
Reported by Captain A. R. Dwerrynovuss, per Glacialists’ Association.
On the shore, Decoy Marsh to Mersey View Road, Ditton: 8 L.D.
andesites, 3 Scottish granites, 1 felsite, 1 Silurian grit, 1 Eskdale granite,
In Mersey View Road: 3 L.D. andesites.
In new road from Hale Gate Farm to Mersey View Hotel: 10 L.D.
andesites, 2 Eskdale granites, 2 Scottish granites, 1 Buttermere grano-
phyre.
In new road between Hale village and Hale Gate Farm: 1 Scottish
granite, 1 Eskdale granite.
Potter’s Lane, Halebank: 18 L.D. andesites, 1 L.D. andesitic agglo-
merate, 1 Silurian grit, 7 Scottish granites, 1 diabase, 2 Buttermere
granophyres, 1 Carboniferous limestone, 3 Eskdale granites.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 521
Main road, Garston to Hale. In plantation near Mount Pleasant
Farm: 1 L.D. andesite. At entrance to stackyard: 2 L.D. andesites, 1
L.D. andesitic agglomerate, 1 Silurian grit, 1 Scottish granite. At Speke
Hall: about 150 stones exceeding 12 in. in diameter include L.D. ande-
site, Dalbeattie granite, Eskdale granite, Buttermere granophyre, Silurian
grit, and 1 diabase. Near Sutton’s Farm, Hale Heath: 1 Hskdale granite
and 1 L.D. andesite.
Hale Heath, Hale: 8 L.D. andesites, 1 felsite, 3 Silurian grits, 4
Scottish granites, 1 Buttermere granophyre, 1 granite (? source).
Hale village and neighbourhood : 5 LD. andesites, 5 Scottish granites,
1 Eskdale granite, 1 diorite, 1 felsite.
Hale Wood, Tarbock and Halsnead district : 24 L.D. andesites, 3 L.D.
andesitic agglomerates, 1 Coal-measure sandstone, 2 Silurian grits, 8
Scottish granites, 6 Eskdale granites.
Hough Green and neighbourhood: 12 L.D. andesites, 2 L.D. andesitic
agglomerates, 2 felsites, 2 Silurian grits, 1 Carboniferous sandstone, 2
Buttermere granophyres, 4 Scottish granites, 6 Eskdale granites.
Manchester (Renshaw Street).
Reported by B. Hoxson, Esq., M.Sc., F.G.S.
1 granite [a well-marked Galloway type, P. F. K.].
Levenshulme.
Reported by Messrs. Knnpatt and Lomas, per Glacialists’ Association.
1 dolerite or diabase, 1 Scottish granite, 1 Silurian grit, 2 Coal-measure
sandstones containing ferruginous pebbles, 1 unspecified.
The orientation of four was noticed: it ranged from H, 43° S. to E.
24° S. (true).
Rochdale District.
Reported by &. 8. Prarr, Esq., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., per Glacialists’
Association.
2 quartz porphyries, 2 granophyres (locality not specified), 17 L.D.
andesites, 1 quartz pebble, 1 hematite, 5 L.D. rhyolites, 21 Buttermere
granophyres, 8 L.D. porphyrites, 8 Eskdale granites, 1 Scottish (?)
granite, 1 halleflinta, 1 Silurian grit, 3 L.D. andesitic agglomerates, 1
quartzite, 1 Carboniferous limestone, 1 quartzose grit, 1 local sandstone.
Is~teE oF Man.
Kirkbride.
Reported by the Rev. S. N. Harrison, per Glacialists’ Association.
6 quartzes, 25 grits, 1 Queensberry grit, 6 Criffel granites, 2 biotite
granites, 1 syenite, 4 granites (locality not specified), 1 Shap granite,
3 gneisses, 1 pitchstone, 1 red-based porphyry.
On the shore at Shellag and Cranstal are large numbers of erratics.
Out of a group of 100 over 1 ft. 6 in. in diameter more than half were of
Criffel granite. The rest were made up of limestones, grits, sandstones,
Loch Doone granites, and conglomerate.
522 REPORT—-1893.
Douglas Head, in cutting of Electric Railway.
Reported by T, Axon, Esq., per Glacialists’ Association.
1 altered Skiddaw slate. Long axis nearly due N. and S.
This rock is identical in appearance with that of the ‘contact zone’
round the Dhoon granite ——P. F. K.]
STAFFORDSHIRE.
Hanley : Mousecroft Brickworks.
Reported by W. Hampton, Esq., per Glacialists’ Association.
1L.D. andesite. Altitude 450, long axis N.W.-S.E.
Hanley: Between New Park and County Oricket Ground.
Reported by F. Barks, Esq., per Glacialists’ Association.
In an upper bed of boulder clay: 2 Buttermere granophyres, 2 L.D.
andesites, 1 Scottish granite, 1 millstone grit.
Small boulders, chiefly from a lower bed of red boulder clay: 10
Buttermere granophyres, 6 L.D. andesites, 1 L.D. andesitic agglomerate,
4 Eskdale granites, 1 Scottish (P) granite, 8 millstone grits, 1 Bunter
pebble.
YORKSHIRE.
(Communicated by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee.)
Valley of the Calder.
Reported by James Spencer, Esq., Halifax.
Luddenfoot: 2 L.D. volcanics. Sowerby Bridge: 1 L.D. volcanic.
North Dean: 2 L.D. volcanics, 3 Buttermere granophyres, 1 Eskdale
granite. Elland: 4 Hskdale granites, 7 Buttermere granophyres, 1 Esk-
dale eurite, 9 L.D. volcanics, 1 Carboniferous limestone. Mirfield: 1
Buttermere granophyre.
Reported by Joun Burton, Esq., of Horbury.
Horbury: 88 Eskdale granites, 22 Buttermere granophyres, 39 L.D.
volcanic, 1 red quartzite (? Triassic), 4 vein quartzes, 1 black chert. [It
is well to remark here that the rock most commonly found was the
Buttermere granophyre, and not the Eskdale granite, as might be inferred
from the above analysis. |
Reported by CuarLes W. FENNEL, Esq., of Wakefield.
Thornes: 14 Eskdales, 4 Buttermere granophyres, 4 L.D. volcanics,
1 vein quartz. Wakefield: 5 Eskdale granites, 2 L.D. voleanics. Kirk-
thorpe: 3 Eskdale granites, 3 Buttermere granophyres, 1 L.D. volcanic.
ater A 3 Eskdale granites, 3 L.D. volcanics. Smalley Bight: 1 L.D.
voleanic.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 523.
Laithkirk, Middleton-in-Teesdale.
Reported by the Rev. Wu. R. BEL.
11 Shap granites. Mr. Bell remarks that all boulders in his district
occur in the valley of the Lune, and none in the Tees. Supposing the
boulders to have been borne in on ice from Shap Fell, the mountainous
ridge forming the boundary between Yorkshire and Westmorland (Lune
Street), at least 1,532 feet high, would have to be crossed; and, as the
mountain ridge between Lune Valley and Tees Valley in its eastern part
does not rise near so high, it might be supposed that a few boulders.
would find their way here and there into Teesdale.
Tanfield, near Masham.
Reported by W. Greason, Hsy., F.G.S.
1 Shap granite.
Ripon: Lindrick Farm, two nules west of the town.
1 Shap granite.
Topcliffe, near Thirsk.
Reported by T. Carrer MircuHe.t, Hsq., F.S.A.
1 millstone grit.
York.
Reported by J. HE. Cuarx, Esq., B.A., B.Sc.
1 millstone grit.
Skipsea.
Reported by J. W. Sraruer, Esq., F.G.S.
1 dolerite.
Hrrata.
20th Report, 1892 :— _
p. 268, line 30, for ‘ Northam’ read ‘ Mortham.’
p. 269, line 26, for ‘Shap granite’ read ‘ Ennerdale granophyre.’
The Present State of our Knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich
Islands.—Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
A. Newton (Chairman), Dr. W. T. Buanrorp, Dr. S. J. Hickson,
Professor C. V. Riney, Mr. O. Satvin, Dr. P. L. Scuater, Mr.
E. A. SmitH, and Mr. D. Swarr (Secretary).
Tae Committee were appointed to report on the present state of our
_ knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich Islands, and to take steps to.
investigate ascertained deficiencies in the fauna, with power to co-operate:
with the Committee appointed for the purpose by the Royal Society, and
to avail themselves of such assistance as might be offered by the Hawaiian
524 REPORT— 1893.
Government. They have continued to act in concert with the Royal Society
Committee, the two having together maintained Mr. R. C. L. Perkins
in the islands during the whole of the twelve months since the last report.
‘They have now the pleasure of stating that that gentleman has obtained
valuable results in several departments of zoology, and more espe-
cially in entomology. The Committee have received from him several
consignments, being the result of his first year’s work. These are
roughly estimated at nearly 150 bird-skins, 3,000 insects, 1,000 shells,
a collection of spiders in spirit, together with some crustaceans, worms,
-and myriapods. These specimens confirm the importance of the investi-
gation your Committee are carrying on, while the information received
from Mr. Perkins and other quarters strengthens their belief that the
work should be done at once, and that it is not probable that it will be
satisfactorily done except by some such body as your Committee.
The Committee therefore request that they may be reappointed, with
the same powers as before, and that the sum of 2001. be placed at their
-disposal.
A Digest of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at Light-
houses and Light-vessels, a report on the same.—Report of
a Committee, consisting of Professor A. NEwTton (Chairman),
Mr. JoHn CorpEaux (Secretary), Messrs. R. M. BarrinerTon,
J. A. HarviE-Brown, W. EaGLe CLARKE, and the Rev. E. P.
KNUBLEY.
‘THE Committee have to report that steady progress has been made with
the systematic tabulation of the statistics, and a series of schedules
framed for the final report. The nature of the work is such that it
necessitates a great expenditure of time, as each item contained in the
vast mass of schedules accumulated has to be separately dealt with and
entered in the sheets. The Committee trust that the Association will re-
appoint them as before, so that the work, now entrusted to one of their
number—Mr. W. Eagle Clarke—may be duly carried out and brought to
-a, conclusion.
The present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of
the West India Islands, and on taking steps to investigate
ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora.—Siath Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Sctater (Chairman),
Mr. GEORGE Murray (Secretary), Mr. W. Carrutuers, Dr.
A.C. L. G. Gintuer, Dr. D. SHarp, Mr. F. DuCANE GODMAN,
Professor A. Newton, and Dr. D. H. Scorr.
‘Tuis Committee was appointed in 1887, and it has been reappointed each
year until the present time.
During the past year the efforts of the Committee have been directed
mainly to the working out of the great series of specimens secured from
‘the West Indian region by means of its collectors, and the collector em-
ployed by Mr. Godman.
ON THE ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY OF THE WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 523
ZooLoey.
The list of birds collected in Anguilla by Mr. W. R. Elliott has been
published by Dr. Sclater in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society.’
Mr. R. I. Pocock has completed his account of the Myriapods, Scorpions,
Pedipalpi, and Peripatus, and his exhaustive papers on these subjects,
which have been communicated to the Linnean Society, are in course of
publication. Professors Riley, Ashmead, and Howard have finished the
parasitic Hymenoptera of St. Vincent, and their paper, which contains
descriptions of about 300 new species, has also been presented to the
Linnean Society. These authors have been entrusted with the insects
of the same group from Grenada, and a report on them will be duly forth-
coming. In last year’s report the publication was announced of Herr
Hofrath Brunner v. Wattenwyl’s ‘ Orthoptera of St. Vincent.’ His paper
on the Orthoptera of Grenada has now been received, and is being pub-
lished by the Zoological Society. It describes fifty-five species, eight of
which are new, and thirteen were not met with in St. Vincent. The
report on the Hemiptera of St. Vincent, by Dr. Uhler, and a very import-
ant memoir on the Ants, by Professor Forel, have also been received, and
will be published without delay.
The Rev. Mr. Matthews has undertaken to examine and report upon
the Trichopterygidz and Corylophide, and the specimens are now in his
hands.
Botany.
Additional collections of cellular Cryptogams from Dominica, made
last autumn by Mr. W. R. Elliott, have been received and distributed to-
those workers who have undertaken the groups of these plants. In
addition to those mentioned in last year’s report Mr. R. Spruce offered to
work out the Hepaticze of Dominica, and he has completed his examina-
tion. About thirty species are new, but for the rest Mr. Spruce finds
great resemblance with the Hepatic flora of the adjacent French Antilles.
The novelties obtained by Mr. Elliott were mainly from the peaks of the
Diablotin and Les Trois Pitons. Mr. William West, of Bradford, is at
present engaged on an examination of the difficult and obscure forms of
hot-spring Algz from the Souffri¢re of Dominica, and Professor Wainio:
has undertaken the Lichenes. All the groups of cellular Cryptogams
have thus either been completed or are in course of examination.
The Committee regard with satisfaction this rapid working out of
the vast series of specimens obtained by its efforts, and have considered
and approved of a proposal to examine the island of Margarita, the
natural history of which is wholly unexplored.
The Committee recommend their reappointment with the following
members :—Dr. Sclater (Chairman), Mr. George Murray (Secretary),
Mr. Carruthers, Professor Newton, Mr. Godman, Dr. Giinther, and Dr.
Sharp. They also recommend that a grant of 2001. be placed at their
disposal to enable them to continue their work, and to adequately provide
for the exploration of Margarita.
526 REPORT—1893.
The Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. GEORGE Brook, Professor A. C. Happon,
Mr. W. E. Hoye, Mr. I. C. THompson (Secrétary), Mr. A. O.
WALKER, and Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman).
[PLATE IV.]
Circumstances have prevented Mr. Brook,! Professor Haddon, and
Mr. Hoyle from taking much practical part in the work; but the other
three members of the Committee have all been present on nearly all the
expeditions, and they have received much assistance from their colleagues
of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee and from some of the other
naturalists who have been working at the Port Erin Biological Station
during this year. The present report is drawn up by the Chairman,
with contributions from Mr. Thompson and Mr. Walker, and from other
naturalists, in regard to the groups of animals they have severally under-
taken to investigate.
The area which this Committee was appointed to explore is that
region of the Irish Sea which lies around the Isle of Man (see chart,
Plate IV.), and which is classic ground to the marine biologist as being the
scene of the first pioneer work of Professor Edward Forbes more than
sixty yearsago. Some few parts of the area were also investigated more
minutely later on by Forbes in conjunction with Mr. R. McAndrew, a
Liverpool merchant well known in science from the extensive dredging
operations he conducted from his yacht along the north-west coasts of
Europe from the Mediterranean to the north of Norway. The greater
part of our area, however, has never been thoroughly explored, and some
parts are still unknown ground to the naturalist. It is an interesting
region from the considerable diversity of shore, of depth, and of bottom
which it presents, and, as your Committee hope to show, it possesses an
abundant fauna, including a number of rare and novel forms.
A continuation of the deep-water depression runs down from the
Clyde sea area on the western side of the Isle of Man (see chart and
section, Plate IV.), and gives depths of 70 to 80 fathoms within 12
miles of land. The bottom of this depression is occupied by a stiff
blue-grey clay-mud, in which we find the annelids Panthalis Oerstedi
and Lipobranchius Jeffreysii, the crustacean Calocaris Macandree, the
echinoderms Brissopsis lyrifera and Amphiura Chiajvi, the pennatulid
Virgularia mirabilis, and the mollusc Isocardia cor.
In moderate depths on the sides of the depression we come upon
varied bottoms of sand and sandy mud, gravel, dead shells, &., on
which is a rich fauna representing all the usual invertebrate groups. It
is from this region that the greater number of our additions to the
British fauna have come. On April 30, from a depth of 46 fathoms,
we obtained two specimens of Oyclostrema millepwnctatum, Friele, a
species only previously known from a depth of 649 fathoms near the
Lofoten Islands in the north of Norway. From depths of 25 to 30
fathoms, to the west of Port Erin, we have obtained in considerable
quantity the interesting ascidian Forbesella tessellata, which unites, in a
1 The sudden death of our friend and coileague Mr. George Brook has occurred
since this report was drawn up.
~
63rd Report Brit. Assoc. 1893
t(RELAND
mo Tt
S
§
8
&y
(
)
1
i
q in
IRELAND
y
Shottiswoode &C°Lith London
Illustrating the
3rd Report Brit, Asec. 1599. Plate IF
ne i
pian
Section. across the Irish Sec, through Douglas.
Hor Scale 4 = abut 3 miles
— Vere Seale 7 = 10
Illustrating the Report of the Committee on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea.
‘ ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 527
manner which though satisfactory to the evolutionist is aggravating to
the orderly systematist, the characters of the Styeline and of the
Cyuthine.
The Isle of Man is connected with Lancashire by a broad plateau
under 20 fathoms in depth (see chart and section, Plate IV.), to the north
and south of which prolongations of the western deeper water extend
inwards to the east. A considerable portion of our work has been done
in the broad southern extension which lies between Liverpool and the
Calf of Man (fig. 1), and gives depths of from 20 to 40 fathoms.
Fie. 1.—Map of the L. M. B, C. District,!
0G, * 7
C, Calf of Man; D, Douglas; E, Port Erin; H, Hilbre Island;
P, Puffin Island; R, Ramsey.
In the shallower water around the coasts there is, of course, very
great difference in the physical conditions and in the fauna of different
regions ; for example, the sandbanks and flat expanses of mud off the
Lancashire coast are very different in every way from the more varied
ground off the rocky southern shore of the Isle of Man. But even the
seemingly uninteresting sandy wastes of Lancashire present many curious
* facts and problems to the marine biologist. We find that on the estuarine
flats round Hilbre Island, as Lindstrém suspected to be the case on the
coast of Gothland some years ago, the very abundant Hydrobia ulve lays
its eggs upon its neighbours’ shells, probably as being the largest and
most stable objects among the shifting sand-grains around it. And it
may also be remarked that this supposed barren region is of immense
economic importance as a nursery for young food-fishes.
Liverpool was naturally the headquarters of the Committee, but we
took advantage of the presence of the biological station at Port Erin, on
the south-west corner of the Isle of Man, to start our dredging expedi-
1 For the use of the figures illustrating this report we are indebted to the Liver-
pool Marine Biology Committee.
528 REPORT— 1893.
tions from that point, as it is the nearest land to the most interesting
and the least explored ground, and we made use of the laboratory of the
station for the first rough sorting-out of our material. As one active
member of the Committee, Mr. Walker, lives at Colwyn Bay, on the
coast of North Wales, he has been able to supply some information in
regard to that end of the district.
The Committee were appointed on August 10. On account of the
absence of members nothing could be done during the first month; but
they commenced work with a dredging expedition in the hired steam-
trawler ‘ Lady Loch’ on September 24, and other expeditions took place
on the following dates: November 12, January 29, March 11 to 13,
March 29 to April 4, April 28 to May 1, May 19 to 22, and June 17 to 19.
It will be noticed that the Committee have carried on their work at sea
during the winter months as well as in summer; and although the entire
grant of 30/., and a good deal more, has been already spent on these ex-
peditions, they are still continuing the dredgings whenever two or three
of the party can be got together, and they hope to undertake a good deal
of further exploration during August and September. Notwithstanding
the considerable measure of success they have had during the past ten
months, the Committee realise vividly that their work is far from com-
plete, and they feel that they are justified, by the results they have
already obtained and by the fact that a considerable part of the area,
including the deep water lying between the south of the Isle of Man
and the north of Anglesey (see chart, Plate IV.), is still unexplored, in
asking to be reappointed, with a grant sufficient to enable them to carry
on the work for another year.
The following is a short account of the various expeditions :—
I. On September 24 an attempt was made to reach the deep water
lying off Port Erin, but the wind was so strong and the sea so heavy that
it was found impossible to do any work off the southern and western
sides of the island, so the ‘ Lady Loch’ steamed up the east side, and the
rest of the day was spent in dredging in the neighbourhood of Laxey at
the following localities :
1. Off Clay Head, 17 fathoms: Several hauls, varied bottoms.
Amongst the species obtained were—Polymastia robusta, Suberites
domuncula, Amphilectus incrustans, Spongelia fragilis (large specimens),
and a desmacidonid sponge (the Halichondria expansa of Bowerbank),
which is new to the district, and probably belongs to the genus Amphi-
lectus, ten species of hydroids and fourteen species of polyzoa—Ascidia
mentula (containing Pinnotheres veterum), Lima hians, and L. Loscombii,
Psammobia tellinella, Pecten varius, Trochus magus, Modiolaria marmorata,
and M. discors.
2. Off Garwick Bay, 4-12 fathoms: ‘Melobesia’ bottom, several
hauls. Here were obtained Hudendriwm capillare, Aglaophenia plumna,
and seven other species of hydroids, several polyzoa, Hbalia Cranchii,
Hoplonyz similis, Megamphopus cornutus, and Podocerus Herdmani—a new
species of amphipod named by Mr. A. O. Walker, who has given the:
following provisional diagnosis :
‘ Podocerus Herdmant, n. sp.
‘ Allied to P. falcatus and P. minutus, G. O. Sars, but differing in the
“hand” of the second gnathopod of the male, as shown in the annexed
figures (fig. 2, p. 529). .
‘The large tooth which in these species springs from the base of the
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 529
hind margin in this species is much shorter, and rises from nearly the
centre. There is also a prominent tooth near the centre of the hind
margin of the “ finger,” which is very characteristic. The female re-
sembles P. minutus. Length, 3 mm.’
3. Laxey Bay, 8 fathoms, on the ‘ Zostera’ bed: Here were Cam-
panularia angulata, Membranipora spinifera, Cellepora ramulosa, Pedi-
Fie. 2.—Second Gnathopod of Male Amphipods.
Podocerus minutus (after Sars). P. Herdmani, n. sp.
cellina gracilis, and various other hydroids and polyzoa, some compound
ascidians, Cerapus difformis, and a considerable number of very large
living Pectunculus glycimeris.
The ascidians dredged in this expedition yielded a number of parasitic
copepoda, amongst which were Botachus cylindratus, Notopterophorus
papilio, Doropygus pulee and D. poricauda, Notodelphys Allmani, and
Ascidicola rosea.
II. On November 12 the dredging was, on account of the weather,
confined to the immediate neighbourhood of Port Erin. Along with
many common things we found the schizopod Gastrosaccus sanctus, not
previously known nearer our seas than Jersey.
III. On January 29, 1893, the Committee had the use of the Lanca-
shire sea-fisheries steamer ‘ John Fell.’ Several hauls were taken about
7 miles to the west of Fleshwick (Isle of Man), then some further to the
south between Port Erin and the Calf. Amongst other species obtained
were Cliona celata (fine, in various conditions), Sertularia tenella, and a
number of hydroids and polyzoa, Sarcodictyon catenata, Porania
pulvillus and Palmipes membranaceus, Inachus dorsettensis, Ascidia venosa
and A. virginea, Capulus hungaricus, Venus casina, and Pectunculus
glycimeris.
IV. On March 11-13 the work was again done from the steamer
‘John Fell.’ On the 11th the steamer left Douglas to examine the shoal
lying to the north-east and south of the Bahama light (see chart, Plate
.). Here, along with various food-fish and some commoner inverte-
brates, some very large specimens of Tritonia Hombergi were trawled ; also
the ascidians Ascidia virginea, Didemnum gelatinoswm and Polycyclus
Savignyi (very large specimens), Corystes Cassivelaunus, Scaphander
lignarius, Aglaophenia tubulifera, A. myriophyllum, Calycella fastigiata,
and Sertularella Gay, which is a new record to the district ; Hudendrium
rameum, Thuiaria articulata, Gonothyrea gracilis and other zoophytes, and
various common polyzoa (very abundant and luxuriant).
On the 13th, after trying again the same shoal as on the 11th, the
nd went to ‘the top end of the Hole,’ 26 miles east of St. Ann’s
893. MM
530 REPORT—1893.
Head, 30 fathoms. Here there are sand to the north and mud to the
south, and some hauls were taken along the line of junction. Amongst
other things the following nudibranchs were obtained: Tritonia
Hombergi, Dendronotus arborescens (up to 5 inches in length), Holis Drum-
mondi, Holis rufibranchialis, and Holis Farrani; also Virgularia mirabilis
and no less than twenty-five species of hydroid zoophytes and twenty-
three species of polyzoa.
V. From March 29 to April 4 the Committee were working from
Port Erin, and had the s.s. ‘Lady Loch’ hired for two of these days.
One day was spent in dredging on the rocky bottom round the Calf and
near the Chicken lighthouse, and in exploring the caves about Spanish
Head and the Stack Rock. These can only be entered in a boat in calm
weather at low tide. Their sides and roof are so closely covered with
masses of bright red ascidians (Polycarpa glomerata), black and white
sponges (Pachymatisma Johnstoni and Stelletta Collingsi), and tufts of
Tubularia indivisa that scarcely any rock is visible. Amongst the more
noteworthy animals dredged round the Calf and obtained on the neigh-
bouring shores were the rare calcareous sponge Ute glabra, Corynactis
viridis, Hyalinecia sp., Depastrum cyathiforme, Lineus gesserensis, Dinophilus
teniatus (breeding at Haster), fifteen species of hydroids, including
Aglaophenia tubulifera, Halecium tenellum, Lafoea dumosa form robusta, L.
fruticosa, Cuspidella costata and C. humilis; the brachiopod Crania anomala ;
the crustacea Xanthu hydrophilus var. tuberculatus, Ebalia tuberosa and EL.
twmefacta, Galathea dispersa (one with a parasitic Bopyrian), Spirontocaris
spinus (one with a parasitic Bopyrian), Janira maculosa, Triteta gibbosa,
Amphithoe rubricata, Aora gracilis, Conilera cylindracea, Mera Othonis,
Metopa (? n. sp.), and others; the mollusca Spirialis retroversus, Rissoa
cingulus, var. rupestris, Fissurella greca, Emarginula fissura, Chiton levis,
Plewrobranchus plumula, Lima elliptica and L. Loscombit, Astarte sulcata
and A. triangularis, Solecurtus antiquatus, Lyonsia norvegica, Pecten tigrinus
and P. teste, Kellia suborbicularis, Pandora inequivalvis, Lamellaria
perspicua, Circe minima and Thracia distorta, the two last being new
records to the district; the tunicata Molgula citrina, Styela grossularia,
Ascidia venosa, A. virginea, and A. plebeia, Botryllus Schlosseri, B. violaceus,
B. smaragdus, Distomum rubrum, Amaroucium proliferum, <A. argus,
Leptochinum maculatum, and Didemnum gelatinosum, Botrylloides rubrum,
B. Leachii, B. albicans ; and the polyzoa Chorizopora Brogniartii, Oylin-
drecium dilatatum, Smittia trispinosa, Diastopora suborbicularis, Altea
recta, and Alcyonidiwm mamillatum, which is new to the district.
VI. April 28 to May 1. During two of these days the Committee
had the use of the Lancashire sea-fisheries steamer ‘ John Fell.’ On
one day dredging was carried on in shallow water along the shore about
Fleshwick Bay, to the north of Port Erin; while on the other day
advantage was taken of the fine weather to run out to the deep water
halfway to Ireland and work inwards. MHauls were taken at the
following localities :—
1. Fourteen miles north-west of Port Erin, 70 fathoms, mud : Found
Calocaris Macandree, Lipobranchius Jeffreystii, Rissoa abyssicola, Nucula
sulcata, &ce.
2. Ten miles north-west of Port Erin, 50 fathoms, mud: Found Briss-
opsis lyrifera, &c.
3. Nine miles west of Contrary Head, 46 fathoms : Found Cyclostrema
millepunctatum, Rissoa soluta and R. cancellata, Hulima bilineata, &c.
—— ee
=.
i i a
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SBA. 531
- 4. Six miles west of Contrary Head, 37 fathoms; Thyone raphanus,
Oscanius membranaceus, Alcyomdium mamillatum, Cellepora dichotoma, and
Pedicellina gracilis.
5. Four miles west of Dalby, 25 fathoms; bottom dead shells, &c. : Found
Forbesella tessellata, Stichaster roseus, Palmipes membranaceus, Diphasia
pinaster, Hudendrium rameum, Scalpellum vulgare, Pecten maximus and
P. opercularis in great abundance.
Pecten maximus yielded to Mr. Thompson the new copepod Lichomolqus
maximus; while in P. opercularis were found the amphipods Leucothoe
articulosa, Triteta gibbosa, and Podocerus Herdmani.
6. Four miles west of Fleshwick, 20 fathoms: Found Ophiocoma nigra
in enormous profusion and other common species.
7. One mile off Bradda Head, 15 fathoms : Found Amphidotus flavescens,
Ute glabra, Sertularella rugosa, Coppinia arcta.
A good deal of shallow water and shore collecting was also done on
this occasion, and all the compound ascidians noted under V. were got
near Port St. Mary, with the addition of Glossophorum sabulosum and G.
sp. (? n. sp.), both of them new to British seas, the genus only being
known up to now from the French coast. A yellow variety of Giard’s
Astellium spongiforme was also obtained.
VII. May 19-22. On one of these days the Committee again had
the use of the sea-fisheries steamer ‘John Fell.’ The weather was
rough, and it was only possible to work near the coast to the north of
Port Erin, where hauls were taken at the following localities :—
1. South side of Fleshwick Bay, 13 fathoms: Adamsia pailiata and
Eupagurus Prideauxii, Pleurobranchus plumula, Ascidia virginea.
2. Opposite Fleshwick beach, 12 fathoms: Palmipes membranaceus,
Solaster papposus, Aporrhais pes-pelicani (a very large number, all alive),
Lepadogaster bimaculatus.
3. North side of Fleshwick Bay, 15 fathoms: Solaster papposus,
Plumularia pinnata, Eudendrium capillare, Palmicellaria Skenei (new to
_ the district), Scaphander lignarius, Ascidia virginea.
4, Same line, a little further out: Palmipes membranaceus, Aporrhais
pes-pelicani, Hugyra glutinans. .
5. Across mouth of Port Erin Bay, from near Bradda Head to break-
water, hottom gravel and weeds: Adamsia palliata, Eupagurus Prideauzit,
Ophioglypha albida (spawning), Membranipora imbellis, M. Dumerilii,
— Mucronella ventricosa, M. variolosa, Stomatopora granulata, S. major,
Lepralia pertusa, Schizoporella linearis. Three varieties of the last species
were found (1) var. with abortive cells having ovicells, (2) var. with
avicularia on the top of blunt umbones, (3) var. approaching erucifera,
but with a spine on the ovicell.
VIII. June 17-19. The Committee hired the steam trawler ‘ Lady
Loch’ for June 18, and having favourable weather were able to work
out to the depression between the Isle of Man and Ireland (see chart,
Pl. IV., and section), Two or three hauls were taken at each of the
following :—
1. Six miles N.W. of Port Erin, 33 fathoms, sandy mud: Found,
Brissopsis lyrifera, Aleyonidium gelatinosum, Porania pulvillus, Adamsia
palliata, Palmipes membranaceus, Scalpellum vulgare on Antennularia.
2. Hight miles N.W. of Port Erin, 40 fathoms, mud: Found Calocaris
Macandree, Hyalinecia tubicola, &c.
3. Eleven miles N.W. of Port Erin, 50 fathoms, mud: Sagartia
MM 2
532 REPORT—1893.
Herdmani (on Turritella shells), Panthalis Oerstedi, Humenis Jeffreysit,
Bougainvillea muscus.
4. Thirteen miles N.W. of Port Erin, 60 fathoms, mud, bottom tem-
perature 48° F., surface temperature 60° F.: Found Calocaris Mac-
andrec, &c.
5. Five miles off Dalby, 30 fathoms, ‘reamy’ bottom (sand and mud.
mixed): Sole, turbot, and brill all spawning here. Lima Loscombi, Cere-
bratulus (? angulatus), Cheetopterus sp., Thyone fusus and T. raphanus,
Hurynome aspera.
6. Four miles off Fleshwick, 23 fathoms: Pecten opercularis and P.
maximus in quantity; Molgula sp., Corella parallelogramma, Ascidia
plebeia, Ascidiella venosa, Polycarpa comata, Suberites domuncula.
7. Amile and a half off Bradda Head, 12-15 fathoms: Styelopsis
grossularia, Bowerbankia caudata, Hurynome aspera, Terebella nebulosa,
Thyone raphanus.
On all these expeditions, in addition to the animals picked out and
preserved at the time, surface and deeper gatherings with the tow-net
were taken by Mr. I. C. Thompson ; and samples of the bottom and of the
‘dredge débris ’ were kept, and these were afterwards carefully examined
by Mr. I. C. Thompson for copepoda, by Mr. A. O. Walker for amphi-
poda and isopoda, by Mr. A. Leicester for small mollusca, and by Dr.
Chaster for foraminifera. The sponges collected have been identified
by Dr. R. Hanitsch, and several other workers at the Port Erin Bio-
logical Station have assisted the Committee with particular sets of
animals. The additions to our knowledge of the fauna during the year
will now be given, taking the groups in zoological order.
Dr. G. W. Chaster reports that amongst the Foraminirera he has
examined two are new to science, and one is a form which seems to
require a new genus.
Amongst the Sponces examined by Dr. R. Hanitsch the following are
specially worthy of note: Ute glabra, obtained near Port St. Mary (this
is practically new to British seas, as it had- only been found before at
Guernsey) ; Esperiopsis (Desmacidon) fruticosa, dredged off Calf of Man,
40 to 50 fathoms; Halichondria (Amphilectus ?) expansa, off Garwick
Head (previously known from Skye); Suberites sp. (?), some very large
masses, dredged halfway between Isle of Man and Lancashire, 20
fathoms; Raspailia sp. (new to the district), dredged off the Calf, 15
fathoms; Stelletta Oollingsi, from the caves at Spanish Head, Port Erin ;
Reniera rosea, at Fleshwick and Perwick Bay (recorded by Bowerbank ~
from Tenby and Sark only).
We have found in the pools at Port Hrin amongst other Hyproipa
the Lafoea pygmea of Alder, and have been able to prove that it is
really a Calycella; and Sertularella Gayi has been added as a new
record to the district. In all fifty-seven species of zoophytes have been
recorded.
Mr. J. H. Vanstone, curator at the Port Erin Biological Station, has
drawn up the following list of the Nemertipa collected and identified
during the past year, partly by himself and partly by Mr. W. I. Beau-
mont, Emmanuel Pollege, Cambridge, who was working for some time
at the station :—
PROTONEMERTINI: Carinella annulata.
Mesonemertini: Cephalothria bioculata.
METANEMERTINI: Amphiporus lactifloreus, A. pulcher, Tetrastemma dor-
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 533
sale, T. vermiculatum, T. immutabile, T. candidum, T. Robertiane, T.
nigrum, T. melanocephalum, Nemertes Neesii.
HETERONEMERTINI: Lineus longissimus (=L. marinus), L. obscurus
(=L. gesserensis), several varieties ; Oerebratulus (anqulatus 7).
__ Inregard to TurspeLiariA, Mr. F. W. Gamble while working at the
Port Erin Biological Station last summer drew up a list of the species
found in the neighbourhood. This has been published in full in ‘ Trans.
Liverpool Biol. Soc.,’ vol. vii. pp. 148-174. The list contains records of
twenty-eight species, representing twenty-three genera. Of these the
following five species are new to British seas :—Promesostoma ovoidewn,
P, lenticulatum, Byrsophlebs intermedia, Plagiostoma sulphureum, Oligo-
cladus sanguinolentus.
The Potyzoa collected on the various expeditions have been examined
by Miss L. R. Thornely, who reports that amongst the many forms col-
lected, amounting to about eighty-one species, three at least are new
records to the district, viz., Aleyonidium mamillatum, Palmicellaria Skenei,
and Lepralia edax.
The Coprropa obtained both by surface nets and also from the mud
and other material from the dredge have yielded Mr. Thompson in all
136 species, of which eighteen are new records to British seas and eleven
are new to science. These last are:—Ameira attenuata, Cletodes monensis,
Herdmania stylifera, Cyclops marinus, Hersilioides Puffini, Jonesiella
hyene, Laophonte spinosa, Lichomolgus maximus, Monstrilla longicornis,
Stenhelia denticulata and S. hirsuta. These new species are all described
in full, and figured, in Mr. Thompson’s ‘ Revised Report upon
the Copepoda of Liverpool Bay,’ just published (August 1893) in
‘Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc.,’ vol. vii., so it will perhaps be sufficient
for the purposes of this report to state the localities at which the new
species and those new to British seas were obtained, as follows :—
Labidocera acutum, Dana, of Puffin Island, 10 fathoms, dredged.
Hucheta marina, Prest., in ascidian, Garwick Bay.
Herdmania stylifera, I.C.T., 12 miles west of Port Erin, 39 fathoms,
in mud.
Cyclops marinus, 1.C.T., 20 miles off Southport, 20 fathoms, dredged.
Giardella Callianasse, Canu, Liverpool Bay, surface.
Hersilioides Puffini, 1.C.T., off Puffin Island, surface.
Stenhelia denticulata, I.C.T., in Port Erin, 5 fathoms, mud.
Stenhelia hirsuta, 1.C.T., 12 miles west of Port Erin, 39 fathoms, mud.
Ameira attenuata, I.C.T., in Port Erin, 7 fathoms, mud.
Jonesiella hycencee, 1.C.T., in Port Erin, 5 fathoms, mud.
Laophonte spinosa, 1.C.T., in Port Erin, 7 fathoms, mud.
Cletodes monensis, I.C.T., 12 miles west of Port Erin, 39 fathoms,
mud.
Monstrilla Dane, Clap., off Puffin Island and off Port Erin, surface.
Monstrilla longicornis, 1.C.T., off Puffin Island, surface.
Monstrilla rigida, 1.C.T., off Puffin Island, surface.
Tnichomolgus maximus, 1.C.T., in Pecten, off Port Erin, 20 fathoms.
Sabelliphilus Sarsii, Clap., on Sabella, Beaumaris and Puffin Island.
Artotrogus orbicularis, Boeck, Puffin Island, shore...
It will be noticed that one of the above new species has required the
formation of anew genus, which Thompson has named Herdmania.}
1 Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. vii. p. 185.
534 REPORT—1893.
Besides the above new records many rare species of copepoda have
been found, amongst which may be mentioned—
Cyclopicera gracilicauda, Brady, off Puffin Island and off Port Erin.
Bradya typica, Boeck, Port Erin, in mud.
Pseudocalanus armatus, Boeck, Port Hrin.
Paracalanus parvus, Claus, Puffin Island.
Labidocera Wollastoni, Lubb., off Puffin Island and open sea.
Misophria pallida, Boeck, off Puffin Island, 10 fathoms.
Cervinia Bradyi, Norm., off Port Erin, 39 fathoms.
Botachus cylindratus, Thor., males (in ascidians), not previously
known.
Notopterophorus papilio, Hesse, both males and females (in ascidians).
Robertsonia tenuis, B. & R., off Puffin Island, 10 fathoms.
Paramesochra dubia, Scott, Port Erin, 7 fathoms.
Tetragoniceps Bradyi, Scott, Port Erin, 7 fathoms (with males).
Lacphonte horrida, Norm., Port Erin, 4-40 fathoms.
Dactylopus flavus, Clams, off Calf of Man, 20 fathoms.
Lichomolgus agilis, Scott, in cockles.
Oylindropsyllus levis, Brady, Port Eriu, 7 fathoms.
Porcellidium tenwicauda, Claus, off Port Erin, 20 fathoms.
P. viride, Phil., in Port Erin, 4 fathoms.
Thalestris peltata, Boeck, off Little Orme and off Port Erin, 20
fathoms.
The higher crustacea have been examined, and to a large extent col-
lected, by Mr. A. O. Walker, who has supplied the following lists and
notes, which record only the more noteworthy additions to the local
fauna :—
ScHIZOPODA.
Erythrops elegans, G.O.S., 8 miles off Port Hrin, 33 fathoms.
Mysidopsis gibbosa, G.O.S., Port Erin Harbour.
Gastrosaccus sanctus, v. Ben., Port Erin Harbour (the most northerly
record of this species).
Haplostylus Normani, G.O.S., Port Erin Harbour (also a southern,
Mediterranean, form).
CUMACEA.
Diastylis biplicata, G.O.S., 8 miles off Port Erin, 33 fathoms.
Tsopopa.
Leptognathia laticaudata, G.O.S., Port Erin Harbour.
Paratanais Batei, G.O.S , from Pecten mawimus at Port Erin (along
with another unidentified species of Leptognathia).
Astacilla gracilis, Goods., Port Erin and Rhos Bay.
AMPHIPODA.
Hyale Nilssonii, Rath., shore, Port St. Mary, Isle of Man.
Perrierella Audouiniana, Bate, from Pecten maximus, at Port Erin.
Hoplonyx similis, G.O.S., Laxey Bay, Isle of Man.
Harpinia crenulata, Boeck, 8 miles off Port Erin, 39 fathoms.
i es i
ON THE MARINE ZOOLOGY OF THE IRISH SEA. 535
Amphilochus melanops, n. sp., off Little Orme (see below).
Metopa borealis, G.O.S., Colwyn Bay and Menai Strait, 25 fathoms.
Metopa pusilla, G.O.S., Colwyn Bay, 25 fathoms.
Metopa Bruzelii, Goés, off Little Orme, 5-10 fathoms.
Leucothoe spinicarpa, Abild., from Ascidia mentula off Clay Head, and
from Pecten off Port Erin.
Synchelidium breviearpum, Bate, Port Erin Harbour.
Paramphithoe monocuspis, G.O.S., off Puffin Island, &c. (probably im-
mature form of P. bicuspis).
Paramphithoe assimilis, G.O.S., Puffin Island, &e.
Stenopleustes Malmgreni, Boeck, Rhos Bay, 4 fathoms (not previously
known out of Norwegian waters).
Inljeborgia Kinahani, Bate, 3 miles west of Calf, 19 fathoms.
Melphidippa macra, Norm., 8 miles west of Port Hrin, 33 fathoms.
(These show the perfect anteunze which were wanting in Dr. Norman’s
Shetland specimens.!)
Maera longimana, Thomp., 8 miles off Port Erin, 20 fathoms.
Cheirocratus assimilis, Lillj., Port Erin Harbour.
Photis Reinhardi, Kroy., off Little Orme.
Megamphopus cornutus, Norm., 8 miles west of Port Erin, 33 fathoms,
and off Little Orme 5-10 fathoms. A comparison of specimens of this
from Norway, Shetland, Cumbrae, and Isle of Man shows that the horn on
the first epimere diminishes and disappears as the species goes south.
Podocerus Herdmani, nu. sp., off Port Erin, 20-85 fathoms, and
Laxey Bay (for diagnosis and figure see pp. 528 and 529).
Podocerus isopus, A.O.W., Rhos Bay, low water, abundant.
Ericthenius difformis, M. Edw., Laxey Bay, 10 fathoms (colony of
tubes attached to Zostera).
Stphonecetes Colletti, Boeck, Port Erin Harbour, off Garwick Head,
and off Little Orme, 5-10 fathoms. Seven of these Amphipoda, Har-
pinia crenulata, Amphilochus melanops, Metopa Bruzelii, Metopa pusilla,
Paramphithoe monocuspis, Podocerus Herdmami, and Siphonecetes Colletti,
have not been previously recorded in British seas,
In regard to the new species, Amphilochus melanops, Mr. Walker
states :—
‘ This species is interesting from being very closely allied to A. Marionis,
Stebb., from Marion Island, from which it differs chiefly in its larger
eyes, and in having the palm and hind margin of both gnathopods less
convex. From A. oculatus (Hansen), from the west coast of Greenland,
which it resembles in the eye, it differs in having no spiniform process to
the anterior margin of the hand of the second gnathopod; and from
A. tenuimanus (Boeck) it differs in the eye, which is described by Sars as
being small, imperfectly developed, and light red ; in the telson, which is
much shorter, and in the armature of the outer plates of the maxillipedes,
which are terminated by a single spine, exactly as in A. Marionis, instead
of two spines, as drawn by Sars. The mandibles have the molar tubercle
intermediate in character between Amphilochus and Gitanopsis (Sars), to
whose Gitanopsis inermis this species also has a great resemblance, but
differs in the above character and in the length of the telson, which
closely resembles that of A. Marionis. The length of a female with ova
is 2 mm.
‘ The occurrence of species so closely allied as those mentioned above in
1 British Association Report, 1868, p. 280.
536 REPORT—1893.
such widely separated regions as Marion Island in latitude 48° S. and
the west coast of Greenland is very interesting, as also is the presence of
well-developed eyes in A. melanops and A. oculatus, taken in from 5 to
25 fathoms ; while in A. Marionis and A. tenwimanus, taken in 100-200
fathoms, they are imperfect. It is very probable that it was this species
(A. melanops) to which Mr. Stebbing referred! as having been sent to
him by Mr. Robertson from the Clyde.’
In regard to the mollusca a large number of species have been
collected by the Committee ; and Mr. Alfred Leicester, of Liverpool, who
has examined and identified them, has drawn up a list of sixty-one
species which have not before been found off the south coast of the Isle
of Man, while the following twelve—Kellia suborbicularis, Eulima inter-
media, Odostomia Lukisi, O. conoidea, Rissoa abyssicola, R. violacea, Cylichna
umbilicata, Philine scabra, Bulla utriculus, Melampus myosotis, Trochus
helicinus, and Oyclostrema millepunctatum—are new records to the district.
We have also taken the two brachiopods Crania anomala and Tere-
bratula caput-serpentis, and the rare cephalopod Sepiola scandica (new
record), as well as the more common S., atlantica. :
In regard to fishes, although most of the hauls on the expeditions,
having been taken with the naturalists’ dredge, were not suitable for the
capture of fish, still the Committee, chiefly through the exertions of
Mr. P. F. J. Corbin, of the Fisheries Laboratory, University College,
Liverpool, have collected records of 114 species of fish found in the district,
and have added the following species, previously unknown : Solea varie-
gata, Gobius quadrimaculatus, and Argentina sphyrena.
In conclusion it may be stated that the Committee have conducted
eight expeditions between September and June, and have explored a
considerable amount of the Irish Sea around the Isle of Man, and
especially to the sonth and west. They have collected and identified
about a thousand species of marine animals, of which thirty-eight are new
records to the British fauna, 224 are new to the particular district (this
part of the Irish Sea), and seventeen are new to science.
The Committee give with this report a chart (Plate IV.) showing the
area under investigation, with the zones of depths indicated, and a section
from Ireland to Lancashire, through the Isle of Man, showing the marked
difference in depth between the sea to the east and that to the west.
They are also preparing a larger and more detailed chart of the sea to
the west and south of the Isle of Man, where most of their dredging has
been carried on, in which the nature of the bottom and other particulars
will be given; but they wish to make this chart more complete by the
incorporation of further observations before publishing. As the Com-
mittee are now applying to be reappointed, with a further grant to enable
them to carry on the work for at least another year, they hope that the
more detailed chart will appear in illustration of a second report at the
next meeting of the Association.
* « Challenger’ Report on Amphipoda, p. 746.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 537
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. P. L. Scuater, Professor
E. Ray Lanxkester, Professor J. Cossar Ewart, Professor M. Foster,
Mr. A. Srepe@wick, Professor A. M. Marswant, and Mr. Percy
SLaveEN (Secretary).
I. On the Action of Coloured Light on Assimilation. By CEciu C. DUNCAN.
IL. On the Function and Correlation of the Pailial Organs of the Opistho-
branchiata. By JOHN D. F. GILCHRIST.
Tue table at the Naples Zoological Station hired by the British Associa-
tion has been occupied during the past year, under the sanction of your
Committee, by Mr. Cecil C. Duncan and Mr. John D. F. Gilchrist. The
object of Mr. Duncan’s research was to investigate the action of coloured
light on assimilation in marine alge, and that of Mr. Gilchrist’s the
function and correlation of the pallial organs of the Opisthobranchiata.
The reports furnished by both these gentlemen are appended, and give
evidence of much patient work satisfactorily carried out.
The Committee have received two applications for permission to use
the table during the ensuing year. The first is from Mr. E. 8. Moore,
who proposes to investigate the origin of the reproductive elements in
various types of fishes, as well as in other marine organisms; and the
second is from Mr. Edgar J. Allen, who wishes to continue his researches
on the development of the decapod crustacea. Hach of these applica-
tions is for a period of six months, the first to commence at the end of
September and the second in April. The occupation of the table for
the entire year is thus provided for. Both these gentlemen have already
made valuable contributions to our knowledge of the subjects upon which
they are engaged, and important results are likely to be obtained from
the investigations they propose to carry on at Naples.
Your Committee trust that the Association will sanction the payment
of the grant of 100/., as in previous years, for the hire of the table in the
Zoological Station at Naples.
Notwithstanding the number of marine zoological stations which
have sprung into existence in different parts of the world during the past
decade, the Naples Zoological Station steadily continues to extend both
in scope and in popularity, and each year shows an increase in the number
of naturalists who study in its laboratories: 747 workers have occupied
tables from the opening of the Station up to the end of June 1898, 71
names being enumerated on the list for last year.
The Physiological Laboratory, which was built in 1890-91, and forms
a handsome addition to the original building, is now thoroughly equipped,
and is in full working order. A number of important investigations
have been conducted in this department of the Station during the past
year, and doubtless many workers in the wide field of physiology will
now be attracted to Naples to avail themselves of the exceptional facilities
there offered for carrying out such researches.
The Chemical Laboratory is also a distinct and much appreciated gain
to the institution.
The Library, which has always been felt to be an adjunct of incal-
culable importance to the study and convenience of all who have worked
at the Station, is increasing so rapidly that new and more commodious
538 REPORT—1893.
rooms are now being prepared, capable of accommodating double or treble
the present number of books. The Director is unrelenting in his exertions
to make the Library as complete as possible, and it is his aim that it
should one day rank as the most complete Zoological Library in
existence.
The progress of the various publications undertaken by the Station is
summarised as follows :-—
1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel’ the monograph
by Dr. Giesbrecht on ‘ Pelagic Copepoda’ (831 pp., 54 plates) has been
published ; and two other equally large monographs by Professor Della
Valle on ‘Gammarini’ (about 950 pp. and 60 plates) and by Professor
Spengel on ‘ Balanoglossus’ (about 800 pp. and 30 plates) will appear
before the end of the year. Monographs by Dr. W. Miiller on ‘Ostracoda’
and by Dr. Jatta on ‘ Cephalopoda’ are ready, and the printing of the
former has been commenced. Monographs are being prepared by Dr.
Birger on ‘Nemertinea,’ by Professor Apathy on ‘ Hirudinea,’ by Professor
Ludwig on ‘ Echinodermata,’ and by Dr. Scheviakoff on ‘ Foraminifera’ ;
and a botanical monograph by Professor Falkenberg on ‘ Rhodomelez’ is
nearly ready.
2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’
vol. x., parts i. and iv., with 18 plates, have been published; and vol.
xi., parts i. and ii., with 13 plates, are in the press.
3. Of the ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ the whole ‘ Bericht’ for 1892
hus been published.
The details extracted from the general report of the Zoological Station,
which have been courteously furnished by the officers, will be found at
the end of this report. They embrace lists (1) of the naturalists who
have occupied tables since the last report; (2) of the works published
during 1892 by naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station.
A list of the specimens sent out by the Station during the past year has
also been furnished.
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. Cecit C. Dunoay.
The algz to be experimented upon were kept in a large tank, with a
good stream of water running through, until they had the appearance of
being quite healthy. The determination of the composition of the
gas given off from the different coloured alge, when subjected to the
action of different coloured light, was then proceeded with. The coloured
solutions, &c., are as follows :—Diffused daylight ; red glass which passed
only rays from about B of the solar spectrum to midway between C and D;
yellow light from a saturated solution of bichromate of potash which
passed rays from B to about midway between D and E; violet glass
passing all the blue and violet and a little red and yellow light; violet
light from a strong solution of ammonio-cupric sulphate which absorbed
all light up to H, and finally a dilute alcoholic solution of chlorophyll from
grass. The gas analyses were made in the gas-room attached to the
chemical laboratory, according to Bunsen’s method, the CO, being deter-
mined by absorption with NaOH and the O, by explosion with hydrogen.
The N, was determined by difference. The same portion of the plant
was experimented on with the coloured solutions, &c., mentioned above.
Diffused daylight produced the maximum quantity of O., and only in
four out of seventeen cases did coloured light produce more, viz.—
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 539
a | Ammionio-
eee Red Glass. | YellowLight.| — cupric
avi 0; oy, Og % O2 % Sulphate.
es al | Op %
I. Haliseris polypodioides . 48635 | 40°326 47514 50°021
Il. Sebdenia dichotoma . .| 28-070 30°416 20-994 26:211
Ill. Chrysymenia waria : 29°423 | 28°231 29°610 10°468
IV. Peyssonelia squamaria . 35°200 30114 35°720 20111
From thirteen experiments with red and yellow light only two experi-
ments with the red produced more O, than the yellow, viz.—
Red Light. Yellow Light.
rm On % On %
I. Haliseris polypodiowdles . ; 5 50°864 49103
Il. Sebdenia dichotoma . 3 : 30°416 20°994
Diffused light, red and yellow light, all gave larger quantities of O,
than the violet glass. From seven experiments with the ammonio-cupric
sulphate solution Sebdenia was the only one to give a larger quantity of
O, than produced from the action of yellow light.
a | ee | Red. Yellow. | Violet.
os On % Op % On %
S.dichotoma. . . . | 2807 | 30416 | 20-994 | 26211
}
Sebdenia, after being exposed to violet light, lost its original colour,
and turned a pale green. Several alge, after having been exposed to the
violet light, were killed. The other colours did not destroy so rapidly.
From the green light of the chlorophyll solution the quantity.of O,
found was very small; in one case the total quantity of gas given off was
only 0°268 c.c. at 0° C., and 760 mm. mercury.
de Diffused Light. Chlorophyll Solution.
Oz % Og %
Codium tomentosum ‘4 - ; : 58:657 7-210
Plocamium coceineum 32°56 3°098
The next series of experiments were made in order to determine the
exact quantity of O, given off from the same plant under different rays
of light. A small quantity of the dissolved gases was removed from the
sea water by meansofapump. A portion of the plant to be experimented
on was placed in an air-tight flask with some of this water. The O,
was determined before and after the experiment by Winkler’s method,
the difference being the O, given off by the plant under experiment.
The results varied considerably, the principal cause being due, I think, to
the unhealthy state of some of the alge. After some care the results
obtained agreed fairly well with those obtained by the first series of
540 REPORT—1893.
experiments, Sebdenia, Codium, and also Haliseris giving results very
similar to those in the first series of experiments.
On examining the absorption spectrum of the seventeen species of
algee, one is struck by the constant absorption of the extreme red almost
up to B, and the strong absorption between B and C which is so charac-
teristic of green chlorophyll. The rays absorbed between B and C are
stated by several observers to be the rays most necessary for aiding
assimilation. Alcoholic solutions of green and olive alge had a red
fluorescence similar to that exhibited by solutions of green chlorophyll,
and if the spectrum from a small spectroscope is projected on to the
surface of the solutions of the colouring matter of olive or green alge,
the liquid fluoresces of a dark red colour from about B to some distance
in the violet, the red fluorescence being brightest where the greatest
absorption takes place in the original alcoholic solution. No fluorescence
could be detected in the living plant.! A few preliminary experiments
were made in order to determine the quality of the light penetrating into
the sea, but nothing worth mentioning was observed. I hope to continue
these experiments with properly made apparatus.
To the staff of the Station my sincere thanks are due for the great
kindness and assistance I have received at their hands.
II. Report on the Occupation of the Table.
By Mr. Joun D. F. Gitcurist.
I beg to submit a report of the work done during my occupation of
the table of the British Association at the Zoological Station in Naples.
I had for six months been working in the Laboratory of Professor
Arnold Lang, on the subject of the pallial organs of the Opistho-
branchiata. In order to understand the function and correlation of these
different organs, as well as to make use of recent methods of silver and
methylen-blue staining and of dissociation, it was necessary to have the
animals in the living condition. Accordingly I gladly availed myself of
the permission of the British Association to occupy the table at Naples,
where alone I could get the necessary abundance and variety of material
for such a comparative study. I applied for three months, to begin on
April 10; but finding such abundance of material and opportunities for
work, I applied for another month, and this was granted.
With the material procured I am fully satisfied. Not only were such
forms as Aplysia, Bulla, and Plewrobranchea to be had in more than
abundance, but others, such as Notarchus, Aeera, é&c., were plentiful, and
other forms which were not procured during my stay, such as Pleuro-
phyllidea and Lobiger, were kindly given me from the stock of preserved
material. These, along with the many Nudibranchiata which turned up,
put at my disposal abundance of material for a comparative study.
My first endeavour was to thoroughly understand the functional
mechanism of the pallial complex, which presents such a variety of
1 The band present between C and D in an alcoholic solution of chlorophyll was
only to be found in a species of Phyllophora. The very faint band at the junction
of the yellow and green in an alcoholic solution of chlorophyll was found in six out
of seventeen species, viz., Sebdenia, Vidalia, Peyssonelia, Plocamiwm, and Ceramium,
and very dark in Halymenia. A broad dark absorption band is very constant
between 0 and F, and in only seven species could the violet be said to be absorbed
strongly.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 541
interesting modifications in the Opisthobranchiata. This I did by obser-
vations on the living animal. Thus, for iustance, the mantle of Aplysia
was found sometimes to exhibit a motion the effect of which was to keep
the water in circulation round the gills. Again, a remarkable process of
flaccid skin at the front end of the mantle was found to play an important
part in conjugation. I found it also very instructive to ascertain the
strength and direction of the current of water in the pallial cavity and
elsewhere. Thus in Aplysia depilans and A. punctata the current was much
feebler than might have been expected, and in Aplysia limacina it was
even more so, while in other forms there was none at all. These and
similar facts were noted throughout a variety of forms, and enabled me
to deduce some general conclusions—for instance, that the development
of the osphradium is in intimate relation with the presence and strength
of the current of water, e.g., that in Aplysia depilans, where there is a
distinct current, the osphradium is more highly developed than in Aplysia
limacina, where the current is markedly less, and that where, as in
Pleurobranchea or Umbrella, there is no current of water passing over
the gills, but is drawn directly into them, there is no sign of an osphra-
dium. Again, where, as in Plewrobranchus, the current first passes over
the rhinophora, there is no osphradium. This is more markedly the case
in the Nudibranchiata, where the place most exposed to the influence of
water was found to be the rhinophora. By facts of this nature, and also:
by a comparison with the Prosobranchiata, as far as my time would allow,
I was confirmed in my belief that there exists a relation of direct pro-
portion between the current of water and the development of the osphra-
dium, there exists a relation of indirect proportion between Osphradium
and Rhinophora, and that the Osphradium, whose function has hitherto
been regarded as obscure, is to be explained as an ordinary olfactory
organ in the same sense as the rhinophora are olfactory organs. To
further confirm this I made a series of experiments, but although these
seemed to be confirmatory they were not decisive. This difficult
physiological work has still to be much further developed.
By direct observation of the living animal I was able to note the
details of the contraction of the gills by which the blood is propelled ;
also to find some renal openings difficult to discover in preserved material.
I found also in the remarkable gland before the gills in Plewrobranchea
that there existed a current of water passing over the orifice and down
under the gills; also that there was no excretion of mucus on irritation.
I was thereby enabled to draw some conclusions as to its function. I
found these and similar facts as instructive as the anatomical details I
had previously ascertained.
With Golgi’s methods I had no more success than others who have
tried them on the same animals.
With the methylen-blue method of staining living nerve fibres I at
first had also little success, but ultimately succeeded in getting a good
colouring by laying the nervous system bare and leaving it for about
twelve hours in a weak solution (3;'55 per cent.). Among other things I
was enabled by this means to convince myself that no direct connection
by means of nerve fibres exists between osphradium and cerebral ganglia,
as has been found to be the case in lamellibranchs, though sections cut
and coloured in the usual way present an appearance which might be
mistaken for this.
I had considerable trouble in finding a suitable fluid for dissociation,
542 REPORT—1893.
but at last found that picric acid ammoniac controlled by picrocarmine
was very suitable for the tissue. The picrocarmine having a slightly
fixing effect could be used in larger or smaller proportions, according to
the nature of the tissue. It at the same time afforded a good muscular
stain. For cilia I found that a few minutes’ exposure to vapour of osmic
acid before dissociation gave good results. By these means I was able to
isolate cells of neural epithelium gills and glands, &c.
Though some of the results of my work here have been negative rather
than positive I have reason to be satisfied, more especially with the
physiological facts ascertained. The material I have collected will be
used for the working out of further anatomical details, and the whole will
form the subject of a future publication.
Not among the least of the advantages which my stay at the Station
has afforded me was the opportunity of making the personal acquaintance
of other naturalists working in the same territory. I found our inter-
change of ideas and criticism invaluable.
I have to express my gratitude to the British Association for the
opportunity, which I could not otherwise have had, of completing my
work and making it more than a mere coilection of anatomical details.
My thanks are also due to the authorities at the Station for their unex-
ceptionable kindness.
III. A List of Naturalists. who have worked at the Zoological Station from
the end of June 1892 to the end of June 1893.
Num- State or Institution Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of Arrival Departure
678 | Prof. W. Einthoven . | Holland . July 1,1892]| Sept. 7, 1892
679 | Prof. W. F.R. Weldon | Cambridge see Osha jy phe ese
680 | Miss Tebb ; - x Gare lO leas sie Lees
681 | Prof. A. Della Valle. | Italy Sa. ass Oct? baa
682 | Dr. G. Rolando : ip ye Sept:-5)- 5
683 | Dr. F. S. Monticelli . “si Arig TS 53 Oct. 16F- 5:
684 | Dr. G. Mazzarelli ES a. eae —
685 | Dr. G. d’Abbundo 3 sft pears Oct... Se:
686 | Prof. S. Trinchese 7 55. isuiad Bas ==
687 | Stud. V. Diamare Be aa Ose ss —
688 | Prof. Polejaeff . Russia s ; 5. LT”, | Sepinzesme,
689 | Mr. C. Duncan . . | British Association . 5, 2 Oct-30f.;;
690 | Prof. K. von Kosta- | Hesse Sept: ils 55:1 | Sepilaeies
necki
691 | Dr. F. Réhmann Prussia soueta Disa va3 Oct. 105).,;
692 | Dr.C.Crety . Italy 99. OF sgn Nt ANG Waa tee
693 | Prof. H. Virchow Prussia Prada! tt See Octr2i
694 | Dr. D. Popofft Russia se he 35° CARRE
695 | Dr. H. Driesch . Hamburg : sy i 2ONaiS May 2, 1893
696 | Dr. C. Herbst Academy, Berlin res 59 areeiiesy
697 | Prof. J. V. Carus Saxony wees, B Oct. 10, 1892
698 | Dr. C. St. Hilaire Russia. : : aie on NOV.) 6s) 0 as
699 | Dr. G. W. Field Amer. ‘Davis’ Table | Oct. 5, ,, Mar. 29, 1893
700 | Dr. G. W. Miller Prussia SOLS ee meine <7
701 | Dr. P. Hauptfleisch . Sy 55 LDS bass Apr. 14, ,,
702 | Prof. N. Kastschenko | Russia Nov. 8, ,; Mars gua
703 | Prof. N. Wagner 7 é 7 é aa, Ostaian Apr. 22, ,,
704 | Dr. W. Kruse Zoological Station . Bere Ou, te Dec. 9; 1892
705 | Dr. P. Pasquale *p 3 3 SRS 57 Oe
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 543
lil. A List oF NATURALISTS—continued.
Num- State or Institution Duration of Occupancy
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of Arrival Departure
706 | Dr. A. von Bunge’. | Russia ane - | Nov. 15, 1892 | | Apr. 18, 1893
707 | Dr. B. Baculo . . | Italy : “a DEC Osmees a=
708 | Prof. N. Polejaeff .| Russia . ; 2 e yeliaaees =
709 | Prof. F.S Monticelli | Italy A ‘i : ae ate -
mLO | Dr: G.Jatta, j is 5 F siinaan. 1, £393 —
711 | Dr. L. Zoja ; : 4 5 ° 7 iii, . ie Maraiosnss
712 | Dr. E. Veit : ||| Prussia, |. : - eee LGsttss sy, DAs igs
713 | Dr. J. H. Vernhout . | Holland . : A ee lice 4.) some lees
714 | Prof. A. Froriep . | Wiirtemberg . é SO stiess) ADR arias
715 | Dr. F. StuhJmann = . | Hamburg : : a OE a Mar: 9) |.
716 | Dr. R. Burckhardt .| Prussia . : MMBC Draesiest ills 55. tole te
717 | Dr. V. Willem . . | Belgium . a . ei Dvipats ae
718 | Dr. Sanger H . | Bavaria . E F LOS ee EADE:. Ose 55
719 | Sr. B. Canizares . | Spain * p c Oe LGsaeers CAP lst,
720 | Dr. A. Kohler . .| Hesse. : : ae aes. May 29, ,,
721 | Dr. G. Cano ; . | Italy 4 ule Weir ies =
722 | Dr.G. Andersson. | Zoological Station : cae. Gerad Mar..22, ,,
723 | Mr.H. Bury . Cambridge ae) csek el Re DEoOse ies
724 | Dr. R. von Erlanger . Baden sires! jltelenycaGre ne
725 | Dr. J. von Uexkiill . = ist. ain crys age ikea
726 | Dr. C. Kohl } . | Saxony a aati —
727 | Stud. T. List . - | Hesse. Beh a paea eeny als, wee
728 | Dr. O. Lanz ‘ . | Switzerland Fina Ostaesy feel Oa
729 | Dr. T. Beer Se Pe oune aoe os
730 | Prof. Count Solms- Strasburg Py Ee tn WRN obs aI
Laubach
731 | Dr.G.H. Parker . | Amer. ‘Davis’ Table 5 Oe gy eee a
732 | Dr. P. Klemm . . | Saxony . : be LONee) ae Arann as
733 | Dr. R. Hesse. Wiirtemberg $n tose ten a | Mab ye
734 | Miss 8. Perejaslaw- Russia . Sele ate, ==
zewa r
735 | Dr. J. Schaffer . . | Austria . A p A listers ylb@ss eae lta eer
736 | Prof. C. Keller . . | Switzerland . : sere eee td One 2,
737 | Prof. J. Riickert . | Bavaria . 4 \ eu20s a se HAG? has
738 | Prof. K. von Kosta- | Austria . Ri Osetasl wien Vac lay tee
necki
739 | Dr. E. Lindemann . | Prussia . 4 ‘ Ses iesmelpiars 29) 2,
740 | Prof. P. Knoll . . | Austria . i < Me Ag esd ADEs Us.. 55
741 | Mr. R. T.Giinther ./| Oxford . ‘ Apr. 1, -—
742 | Mr. J. D. F. Gilchrist | British Association. Eran liiapves =
743 | Dr. C. Zelinka . . | Austria . 5 : ne LD; aa Marib, 3,
744 | Dr. de Meyere . . | Holland . é aa lpivtay, 14 ey —
745 | Dr. G. John : . | Saxony . 2 5 A ems —
746 | Ten. Juan Bascon . | Spain ; = 2 be tO ahay —
747 +| Prof. F. Legge . . | Italy : . | June 27, ,, =
IV. A List of Papers which have been published in the year 1892 by
the Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zoological Station.
Dr. C. Hartlaub . . Zur Kenntniss der Anthomedusen. ‘ Nachr. K. Ges. Wiss.,’
G6ttingen, 1892.
E. A. Minchin . . Notes on a sieve-like membrane across the oscula of a
species of Leucosvlenia, with some observations on the
histology of the Sponge. ‘ Quart. Journ. Micr. Science,’
vol. 33, 1892.
544
EK. A. Minchin :
Dr. G. Maurea :
Prof. J. Riickert
Dr. E. Ballowitz
Dr. G. Cano . ‘ ;
” . . >
Dr. O. Birger. 4 ;
Prof. A. Kowalewsky
” ”
Dr. A. Russo . 4
” . . .
H. Russel s o
J. bs Platt F .
Dr. O. Maass .
EK. W. MacBride
Prof. G. von Koch .
Dr. F. Raffaele E
Dr. R. von Erlanger 5
” ” =
Prof. M. von Lenhossék .
Dr. J. von Uexkiill
G. Bidder é i 2
A. Willey : 5
REPORT—1893.
Some points in the Histology of Leucosolenia (Ascetta)
clathrus, O.S. ‘Zool. Anzeiger,’ 1892.
The oscula and anatomy of Leucosolenia clathrus, 0.8.
‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Science,’ vol. 33, 1892.
Ueber eine bewegliche Sarcine. ‘Centralbl. f. Bacterio-
logie u. Parasitenkunde,’ Bd. 4, 1892.
Zur Entw.-Geschichte des Ovarialeies bei Selachiern.
‘ Anat. Anz.,’ 1892.
Ueber den feineren Bau der Muskelsubstanzen. 1. Die
Muskelfaser der Cephalopoden. ‘ Arch. f. Mikr. Anat.,’
Bd. 39, 1892.
Sviluppo dei Portunidi. Morfologia dei Portunidi e
Corystoidei. ‘Soc. Ital. delle Scienzi,’ T. 8, 1892.
Sviluppo postembrionale dello Stenopus spinosus. ‘ Boll.
Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ V. 5, 1892.
Zur Systematik der Nemertinenfauna des Golfes von
Neapel, vorlaiufige Mitthlg. ‘Nach. K. Ges. Wiss.,’
Gottingen, 1892.
Hinige Beitriige zur Bildung des Mantels der Ascidien.
‘Mém. Acad. Imp. Sciences,’ St.-Pétersbourg, vol. 38,
1892.
Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Excretionsorgane der
Pantopoden. bid.
Embriologia dell’ Amphiura squamata, Sars., Morfologia
dell’ apparecchio riproduttore. ‘ Atti R. Accad. Sc. Fis.
e Mat.,’ vol. 5, 1892.
Contribuzione all’ Embriologia degli Echinodermi e
sviluppo dell’ Asterias glacialis. ‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Na-
poli,’ vol. 6, 1892.
Della Embriologia e dell’ apparato riproduttore dell’
Amphiura squamata. Jbid., vol. 5.
Impfungsversuche mit Giards pathogenem Leuchtbacillus.
‘Centralbl. f. Bacteriologie u. Parasitenkunde,’ Bd. 11,
1892. :
Fibres connecting the nervous system and chorda in
Amphioxus. ‘ Anat. Anz.,’ 1892.
Ueber Bau u. Entwickelung der Cuninenknospen. ‘Zool.
Jahrbicher,’ Abth. ‘Anatomie u. Ontogenie,’ Bd, 5, 1892.
Die Metamorphose von Esperia Lorenzi O.S., nebst Beo-
bachtungen an anderen Schwammlarven. ‘ Mitth.
Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 10, 1892.
The development of the genital organs, pseudo-heart
(ovoid gland), axial and aboral sinuses in Amphiura
squamata. ‘Zool. Anz.,’ 1892, and ‘Quart. Journ.
Micr. Science,’ vol. 34, 1892.
Kleinere Mittheilungen tiber Anthozoen. 7. Ueber Kolo-
nien von Bebryce mollis Phil., welche Cornulariden
abnlich sind. ‘ Morph. Jahrbuch,’ Bd. 18, 1892.
Ricerche sullo sviluppo del sistema vascolare nei Selacei.
‘Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 10, 1892.
On the paired nephridia of Prosobranchs, the homologies
of the only remaining nephridium of most prosobranchs,
and the relations to the gonad and genital duct.
* Quart. Journ. Micr. Science,’ vol. 33, 1892.
Mittheilungen tiber Bau u. Entwickelung einiger marinen
Prosobranchier. ‘ Zool. Anz.,’ 1892.
Beobachtungen an den Spinalganglien u. dem Riicken-
mark von Pristiurusembryonen. ‘ Anat. Anz.,’ 1892.
Physiologische Untersuchungen an Eledone moschata.
‘ Zeitschr. f. Biologie,’ 1892.
Note on Excretion in Sponges. ‘Proc. Royal Society,’ v.
51, 1892.
Observations on the postembryonic development of
Ciona intestinalis and Clavellina lepadiformis. bid.
Se Te SCC Tr
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT’ NAPLES.
A. Willey 3 4
Dr. H. Driesch
Dr. 8. Kaestner . °
Dr. B. Rawitz. A .
Dr. J. Hjort . . .
Dr. W. Nagel .
” e
Dr. F. Schiitt . . .
Dr. G. Mazzarelli
» :
Th. T. Groom.
Dr. G. Antipa
Prof. E. B. Wilson . :
Dr. B. Lwoff . A
Dr. F. 8. Monticelli
Dr. A. Kriedl . 5 .
Prof. W. Salensky . .
Dr. C. Herbst. °
Dr. M, Cazurro " .
1893.
545
On the development of the hypophysis in the Ascidians.
‘Zool. Anz.,’ 1892.
Entwickelungsmechanismus. ‘ Anat. Anz.,’ 1892.
Entwickelungsmechanische Studien, III.-VI. ‘ Zeitschr.
f. wiss. Zoologie,’ B. 55, 1892.
Ueber die allgemeine Entwickelung der Rumpf- u.
Schwanzmuskulatur bei Wirbelthieren, &c. ‘Arch. f.
Anat. u. Physiol.,’ Anat. Abth., 1892.
Der Mantelrand der Acephalen, 3. Theil. ‘Jen. Zeitschr.
f. Naturw.,’ 1892.
Zum Entwickelungscyclus der zusammengesetzten Asci-
dien. ‘ Zool. Anz.,’ 1892.
Der Geschmackssinn der Actinien. bid.
Fortgesetzte Beobachtungen tiber galvanische Reizung
bei Wasserthieren. ‘ Archiv f. Physiol. Pfliiger,’ 1892.
Bemerkungen tiber auffallend starke Einwirkung gewisser
Substanzen auf die Empfindungsorgane einiger Thiere.
‘ Biol. Centralblatt,’ 1892.
Ueber Organisationsverhiltnisse des Plasmaleibes der
Peridineen. ‘Sitz.-Ber. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.,’ Berlin,
1892.
Intorno al preseso occhio anale delle larve degli Opisto-
branchi. ‘ Rendic. K. Acc. Lincei,’ 1892.
Sullo sviluppo postlarvale della conchiglia dei Tecti-
branchi. ‘Boll. Soc. Nat. Napoli,’ 1892.
Note anatomiche sulle Aplysiide. Ibid.
Ricerche anatomiche sul Lobiger Serradifalii.
On the early development of Cirripedia.
Soc.,’ vol. 52, 1892.
Ueber die Beziehungen der Thymus zu den sog. Kiemen-
spaltenorganen bei Selachiern. ‘ Anat. Anz.,’ 1892.
The Cell Lineage of Nereis, a contribution to the cytogeny
of the Annelid body. ‘ Journ. of Morphol.,’ 1892.
Ueber einige wichtige Puncte in der Entwickelung des
Amphioxus. ‘ Biol. Centralbl.,’ 1892.
Notizia preliminare intorno ad alcuni inquilini degli
Holothurioidea del Golfo di Napoli. ‘Monitore
Zoologico,’ 1892.
Di alcuni organi di tatto nei Tristomidi, &c.
Nat. Napoli,’ 1892.
Della spermatogeneri nei Trematodi. Tbid.
Notizie di alcune specie di Taenia. Jbid.
Sul nucleo vitellino delle uova dei Trematodi. bid.
Studii sui Trematodi endoparassiti. Sul genere Notocotyle.
Ibid.
Weitere Beitrége zur Physiologie des Ohrlabyrinthes,
‘ Sitz.-Ber. K. Akad. Wiss. Wien.,’ M.N.W. Classe, 1892.
Ueber die Thitigkeit der Kalymmocyten (Testazellen).
‘ Festschrift,’ R. Leuckart, Leipzig, 1892.
Experimentelle Untersuchungen iiber den Einfluss der
verinderten chemischen Zusammensetzung des umge-
benden Mediums auf die Entwickelung der Thiere. I.
Theil, Versuche an Seeigeln. ‘ Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie,’
Bd. 55, 1892.
Anemonia sulcata Pennant, Estudio Anatémico-histo-
légico de una Actinia. ‘ Anal. de la Soc. Esp. de Hist.
Nat.,’ T. 21, 1892.
Ibid.
‘Proc. Royal
‘Boll. Soc.
546 REPORT—1893.
Investigations made at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association at Plymouth.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor E. Ray Lanxuster (Chairman), Professor M.
Foster, Professor §. H. Vinus, and Mr. 8. F. Harmer (Secretary).
I. The Turbellaria of Plymouth Sound. By ¥. Ww. GAMBLE, B.Sc.
Il. The Larve of Decapod Crustacea. By EDGAR J. ALLEN, B.Sc.
III. Wotes on How Fish find Food, By GREGG WILSON, W.A., B.Sc.
Tue object specially mentioned by the terms of the grant of 301.
placed at the disposal of the Committee for the present year has been
attained by reappointing Mr. Gamble to the use of a table to enable him
to extend his observations on British Turbellaria. Mr. Allen has been
reappointed to allow him to continue his researches on the development
of Decapod Crustacea ; and Miss F'. Buchanan, whose observations made
in 1891 as the result of a previous appointment by the Committee are re-
corded in the Report for 1892 (p. 356), has been reappointed with the
intention of studying the development of Magelona.
The Committee have thus appointed—
Mr. F. W. Gamble B.Sc., Owens College, Manchester, for one
month, from August 8, 1893.
Mr. Edgar J. Allen, B.Sc., University College, London, for two
months, from June 1, 1893.
Miss F. Buchanan, B.Se., University College, London, for one
month, from September 1, 1893.
The Committee have thus expended 15/. (taking into account the
month which belongs to the Association free of charge), leaving an un-
expended balance of 15/., which they trust will be placed at their disposal
to allow them to carry on their work next year.
They are naturally unable to furnish any account of results arrived at
during the present year, but they are happy to be in a position to pre-
sent the following reports on the work of the preceding year. These
reports, taken in conjunction with the others which have been published
in previous years, will serve to show that important results have been
arrived at with the assistance of the grants made to this Committee.
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table.
The Turbellaria of Plymouth Sound. By Mr. F. W. Gaps, B.Sc.
During August and September of 1892 I occupied the Association’s
table, and was thus enabled to investigate the Turbellaria of Plymouth
Sound and of its neighbourhood. Since, in contrast to the amount of
research devoted to many of the other groups of animals composing our
fauna, little attention has been hitherto bestowed on the Turbellaria, the
results of my work show a marked increase in the number of species of
this group occurring at Plymouth as compared with former records.
More interesting than the numerical increase of the fauna are the re-
lations of these newly-added forms to those inhabiting the Mediterranean
and Adriatic seas on the one hand and the Scandinavian on the other.
‘ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 547
Of the twenty-five species not hitherto found on our coasts, but now
known to live in Plymouth Sound, two—Vorticeros luteum and Cylindro-
stoma merine—were already found by Hallez at Wimereux.
The following eleven were previously known, through the researches
of Oscar Schmidt, Uljanin, and von Graff, to occur in the southern seas
of Europe (Promesostoma ovoideum was, however, already known to range
to Greenland),
Proporus venenosus (O. Sch.).
Monoporus rubropunctatus (O. Sch.).
Promesostoma ovoideum (O. Sch.).
Promesostoma solea (O. Sch.).
Mesostoma neapolitanum (?), v. Graff.!
Hyporhynchus penicillatus (?) (O. Sch.).
Plagiostoma Girardi (O. Sch.).
Plagiostoma sagitta (Ulj.).
Plagiostoma siphonophorum (?) (O. Sch.),
Monoophorum striatum (v. Graff).
Automolos ophiocephalus (O. Sch.).
Eight were previously recorded by Jensen and Levinsen from the
coasts of Norway and Greenland respectively, namely—
Aphanostoma elegans, Jensen.
Promesostoma agile (Lev.).
Byrsophlebs Graffi, Jensen.
Hyporhynchus armatus (Jensen).
Plagiostoma dioicum (Metschnikoff).
Plagiostoma caudatum, Lev.
Cylindrostoma elongatum, Lev.
Monotus albus, Ley.
Four are new, namely—
Provortex rubrobacillus.
Plagiostoma pseudomaculatum,
Plagiostoma elongatum.
Automolos horridus.
The results of my investigations on the Turbellarian fauna of Ply-
‘mouth and its distribution in the Sound have been published in greater
detail in (1) the ‘Journal of the Marine Biological Association’ (N.S.,
vol. iii., No. 1, May, 1893); and (2) the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Micro-
scopical Science,’ No. exxxvi., April, 1893, whereI have given an account
of the British Marine Turbellaria, including descriptions and the synonymy
of all species hitherto known to have occurred on our coasts.
July 2, 1893.
II. Report on the Occupation of the Table. By Mr. Evaar J. Auten, B.Sc.
Commencing work at the Plymouth Laboratory on June 3, 1892,
T occupied the table of the British Association for six weeks, my
stay being prolonged for another month through the kindness of Mr. Robert
Bayly, who furnished me with an additional nomination.
1 The bracketed query indicates that corroboration of the occurrence of these
species is desirable.
NN 2
548 REPORT—1893.
During this period I was engaged on the study of certain points in the
anatomy of larvee of Decapod Crustacea, more especially of Palemonetes
varians. The principal results of the work are published in detail in two
papers, which have appeared during the course of the year :—
(1) Preliminary Account of the Nephridia and Body-cavity of
the Larva of Palcemonetes varians, ‘Proc. Roy. Soe.,’ 1892.
(2) Nephridia and Body-cavity of some Decapod Crustacea,
‘Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,’ xxxiv., 1893.
The following is an outline of the conclusions arrived at. The green
gland commences to develop a lumen about the time of hatching of the
larva. The gland then consists of an end-sac and of a short tube which
opens externally. The distal portion of this tube subsequently enlarges
to form the bladder of the gland, the bladders of the two sides finally
uniting in the middle dorsal line, thereby forming the unpaired nephro-
peritoneal sac.
In late embryos and in young larve a shell-gland is present, consist-
ing of an end-sac and tube, and opening at the base of the second
maxilla.
A dorsal sac, completely enclosed by epithelium, is found in both
larve and adults. This sac, which does not contain blood, lies dorsal
to the nephro-peritoneal sac, and extends backwards over the front end
of the genital glands. The cephalic aorta lies within this sac.
The dorsal sac is formed as a hollowing out in masses of meso-
derm cells, which lie upon either side of the aorta. Two lateral
cavities are thus formed, which increase in size and unite below the
aorta. From this mode of development it appears probable that the
dorsal sac is homologous with the dorsal portions of the mesoblastic
somites of Peripatus, and hence must be regarded as a true colom. The
general body-cavity also seems to be homologous with that of Peripatus,
and to be hemoccelic in nature.
June 13, 1893.
III. Report on the Occupation of the Table.
Notes on How Fish find Food. By Grece Witson, M.A., B.Sc., Edin.
For a month from August 15 of last year I occupied the table at the
Plymouth Marine Station provided for me by the British Association,
and during that time I devoted myself chiefly to the study of the feeding
habits of fish. In connection with some work that I had done earlier in
the year on the Aberdeenshire coast my attention had been called to the
practical importance of Bateson’s distinction between sight-feeders and
smell-feeders,! and I desired to repeat and test his experiments, and, if
possible, extend his results. I find that his main conclusion is a sound
one: there are sight-feeders and there are smell-feeders among the fish ;
but the distinction is not absolute, and my observations do not in all
cases correspond with Bateson’s. In a few notes I will summarise my
conclusions.
I. Sight-feeders.—I found no fish that did not use its smelling powers
more or less in the search for food. Bateson’s instance of the pollack
(Gadus pollachius), that usually hunts and feeds, relying entirely on
1 Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., vol. i. (N.S.), 1889-90, p. 225.
‘ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 549
appearances, but which, when its hunger has heen appeased, noses its food
before eating, is an illustration of, perhaps, the minimum: use of smell
observed by me. Many other habitual sight-feeders make, or can make,
much more extensive use of the nose. The well-known fact that stale
bait appeals to few of our food-fishes points to this, and my experiments
bear it ont.
So far as I could determine, fish that are not very hungry habitually
smell food before taking it. The pollack seems usually to be ready for a
meal, and on almost all occasions when anything eatable is thrown into
the tank in which it is swimming it rushes towards it, and bolts it. It
does not hesitate to take stale food or food that has been steeped in
strong smelling fluids; and time after time I have been amused to see
its too-late repentance after it had swallowed clams that had been
saturated with alcohol, chloroform, turpentine, &c. It is only when it is
satiated with fresh food or disgusted with what is nauseous that it takes
the precaution to smell before eating. On the other hand, various fish
that are equally keen-sighted, and habitually recognise their food by
the use of their eyes, are more prudent. The whiting (Gadus mer-
langus), for instance, appears to pay much more attention to smell, and,
as a rule, turns about and withdraws on approaching within a few inches
of high-smelling objects that the pollack would take without hesitation.
Even whiting, however, cease to be delicate if they are very hungry, and
if other fish are present to compete for the food that is thrown to them.
In such circumstances bait that is very distasteful may be taken by even
the most cautious of sight-feeders; and likewise in such circumstances a
quite smell-less artificial bait may be successfully employed. Where large
shoals of fish are, there are likely to be many that are very hungry, and
the consequent keen competition will lead to hasty feeding by sight alone ;
and hence it is, probably, that lead-baits are successfully employed in cod-
fishing in the Moray Firth and off the Northern Islands, while they are
of no avail among the scanty fish further south.
It may be said that in these cases the fish actually search for their food
by sight alone, and merely test the quality of what they have found by
smelling it; and Bateson quite recognised this. But more is possible:
habitual sight-feeders can be induced to hunt by smell alone. The pollack,
which is such a pronounced sight-feeder that it will take a hook baited
with a white feather or a little bit of flannel and trolled along the sur-
face, is yet able, when biinded, to get its food with great ease. Several
blind specimens in the Plymouth tanks were carefully watched by me;
and I had no difficulty in deciding that it was by smell alone that
they found their food. Their conduct was exactly such as was seen in
the smell-feeders, to which I shall presently refer.
Again, the cod (Gadus morrhua), which Bateson puts among the sight-
feeders, is generally believed—and with good reason, I think—to feed
more by night than by day; which suggests that it, too, not only tests
its food, but actually hunts by smell.
Lastly, in this connection I would state the results of my experiments.
I worked with a number of fish, and always with the same success; but I
shall here only refer to one case—that of the dabs (Plewronectes limanda).
That they were sight-feeders was evidenced by their behaviour when I
lowered a closed tube full of water, and with a worm in the middle of it,
into their tank: time after time they bumped their noses against the
glass at the very spot where the worm was situated. That they could
550 REPORT—1893.
also recognise the smell of food, apart from seeing it, was demonstrated
in various ways. First, if instead of a closed tube, as in the last-men-
tioned experiment, one open at the bottom was used, after a short interval
the nosing at the part where the worm was seen ceased, and the lower
end of the tube, from which, doubtless, worm-juice was diffusing, was.
vigorously nosed. If, again, instead of putting worms into a tube I placed
a number of them in a closed wooden box with minute apertures to let
water pass in and out, there was a similar excitement produced, and the
dabs hunted eagerly in every direction. When water in which many
worms had lain for some time was simply poured into the tank through
a tube that had been in position for several days, and by a person who
was out of sight of the dabs, the results were most marked. Ina few
seconds hunting began, and in their excitement the dabs frequently leapt
out of the water, apparently at air-bubbles, ard on one occasion one
even cleared the side of the tank, which was about two inches above the
water, and fell on to the floor of the aquarium. Yet there was nothing
visible to stimulate this quest.
II. Smell-feeders—In the case of the smell-feeders I was also led to
doubt the exclusive dedication of the one sense to the task of food-
finding. Congers (Conger vulgaris) certainly do all that Bateson’s paper
says of them: they hunt by night; they do not go at once or direct to
food that is near them, but after it has been in their neighbourhood for a
short time grope around for it, till they gradually approach so near that.
they touch it; and then they snap at it greedily. They cannot find food
that has been washed in ordinary salt-water so as to remove the smell ;
they hunt when good-smelling fluids are poured into their tank ; and they
swallow corks or even stones that are suitably flavoured. But I came to
the conclusion that the congers in Plymouth Aquarium—and I have no
reason for supposing them to be different from other congers—were
practically blind. I have seen two when hunting come into direct colli-
sion with such violence as to produce a loud thud; and once I saw one
start back in alarm on coming in contact with a crab that was in its
way. I have seen one lose its prey, and then hunt for it again in the same
indirect way as at first, though it certainly had discovered that the fish
was a thing good to eat. Often, too, a conger when close to its food
makes a snap in the wrong direction: it is when it touches that it snaps
successfully. So the sense of sight cannot be very good! There is,
however, at least a perception of the difference between light and
darkness ; and a conger will retreat from a lighted match even by day,
and at night will seek shelter when a lantern is exposed.
Unfortunately, though there were plenty of congers in the tanks
while I was at Plymouth, other smell-feeders were not well represented.
The rockling and sole, however, were available, and I repeatedly made
experiments with them. The rockling (Motella tricirrata) seems to be a.
true smell-feeder: it ‘hunts’ by night ; it becomes highly excited when
an extract of any of its favourite foods is poured into the water in which
it is. Unlike the conger, however, it sees very well, as Bateson himself
pointed out. And, more than that, it can find its food by sight, though for
some reason—perhaps because of the timidity of the fish—this is difficult
to observe. Several times I saw appearances that almost demonstrated
the fact, and on one occasion the behaviour of a rockling left no room
for further doubt. For ten days it had had almost no food, and when, at
the end of that time, worms were thrown into its tank, it quite plainly
ON THE LABORATORY OF THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION. 551
saw them, and recognised them as food; for it rushed at them and took
them while they were still falling through the water. When a number
of worms were subsequently put in at once, the rockling swam two or
three times rapidly round the tank, taking all that were within reach.
As I wrote in my note-book at the time, this is ‘clear proof of use of
sight.’
As regards soles (Solea vulgaris) I got evidence more easily. They
see well, and will come forward from far back in a tank when a hand-
kerchief is waved before the glass. I have seen them gather at once
from all parts of a large tank to feed on worms that were thrown to
them; I have seen them rise to take worms that were falling through
the water, or to seize without groping or hesitation prawns that were
swimming about the tank. So 1 have no difficulty in deciding that they,
too, use sight as well as smell in seeking their food. I confess I cannot
understand why Bateson’s soles should have failed to find worms that were
suspended a little above the bottom. Perhaps they were more nervous
than those I had to deal with; or mine may have been educated by the
experience of the intervening years !
The Committee desire to conclude their report by expressing the hope
that the Association will place in their hands, for use during the ensuing
year, the unexpended balance of 15/. They believe that competent
workers have been materially assisted by being appointed to the free use
of a table at the Plymouth Laboratory, while they feel that the latter
institution deserves the further support of the British Association.
The Physiological Action of the Inhalation of Oxygen in Asphyxia,
more especially im Coal Mines.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. G. McKennricr, F.R.S. (Chairman),
Dr. J. T. BortroMLey, F.R.S., and Mr. W. Ernest F. THomson,
M.A., M.D. (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Tuis Committee was appointed, at the Meeting in Edinburgh, 1892, of
the British Association, in order to ascertain, primarily, whether oxygen
gas is of any service as a restorative in carbonic-acid poisoning, such as
occurs in the form of choke-damp asphyxia in mines. Secondarily, it
was considered advisable by the Committee to inquire somewhat into the
action of oxygen; first on persons in health, and secondly on those
suffering from disease giving rise to retention of carbonic acid in the
blood. The Committee, however, do not attach very great importance
to their observations of the latter class.
The Committee consisted of Professor McKendrick, Chairman; Dr.
J. T. Bottomley, and Dr. W. Ernest F. Thomson, Secretary, by whom the
work was carried out, and who has prepared the report.
The general conclusions at which the Committee have arrived are
based upon a considerable number of experiments on animals, and some
observations on human beings.
The following are the general conclusions :—
I. In the case of rabbits asphyxiated slowly or rapidly, oxygen is of
552 REPORT—1893.
no greater service than air, whether the recovery be brought about in an
atmosphere contaminated by carbonic acid or completely free of carbonic
acid, and whether artificial respiration be resorted to in addition or not.
II. Pure oxygen, when inhaled by a healthy man for five minutes,
produces no appreciable effect either on the respiratory rate and volume
or on the pulse rate and volume.
III. Oxygen, whether pure or somewhat diluted, produced no effect
on one particular patient, who suffered from cardiac dyspnea of moderately
severe type, in the direction of amelioration of the dyspnoea; and com-
pared with air inhaled under the same conditions produced no appreciable
effect, either on the respiratory rate and volume or on the pulse rate and
volume.
IV. An animal may be placed in a chamber, the general cavity of
which contains about 50 per cent. of carbonic acid, and retained there
for a long time without supervention of muscular collapse, provided a
gentle stream of a respirable gas-air or oxygen indifferently be allowed
to play upon the nostrils and agitate the surrounding atmosphere.
The points which are not proved are—Ilst. Whether oxygen produces
marked effects, toxic or otherwise, when inhaled for a long time; 2nd.
Whether oxygen is of service in cases of cyanosis due to diminished
respiratory surface, e.g.,in pneumonia; 3rd. Whether oxygen is capable
of bringing about the cure of many diseases in which it has received the
credit of being a remedial agent.
Finally, since this investigation was primarily undertaken in the
interests of the mining community, the Committee are strongly inclined to
urge that advantage be taken of the fact, now ascertained, that oxygen is
of no greater service than pure air in cases of asphyxia, and that the
experiment be made of keeping a few cylinders of air, with nose and
mouth pieces, ready for use in those parts of the workings where men
might be most easily imprisoned. The expense of the compressed air
would be much less than that of oxygen, and the effect would be equally
good. It seems quite reasonable to suppose that when a suffocated
person has to be dragged through a long passage, itself more or less
contaminated as regards its atmosphere, the chances of ultimate recovery
will be greater if the effects of this poisonous atmosphere be neutralised
at the commencement and during the progress of the work of rescue
than if no such attempt be made until fresh air be reached in the
ordinary way.
The Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. THomas Henry Tuomas, R&.C.A.
(Chairman), Rev. Canon Tristram, D.D., LL.D., F.RS., Pro-
fessor ALFRED Newton, F'.R.S., Professor ADOLPH LEIPNER, F’.Z.8.,
Professor NEwTon Parker, Ph.D., F.Z.S., and Dr. CHARLES TaNn-
FIELD VACHELL (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Your Committee beg leave to report that early in the present session
‘A Bill to Amend the Wild Birds Protection Act, 1880,’ was brought
into the House of Commons by Sir Henry Maxwell, M.P., and others,
and that on April 13 it was ordered by the House to be printed.
Thereupon your Committee gave this Bill their careful attention, and
ON THE PROTECTION OF WILD BIRDS’ EGGS. 553
found that its main clause contained a provision for the protection of
wild birds’ eggs. In the opinion of your Committee, however, this pro-
vision was framed on a principle that appears to them to be mistaken,
in that it sought to effect the desired object by empowering local autho-
rities to name the species the eggs of which were to be protected, thus
requiring in every case of prosecution proof of identity, which in the
majority of cases would be difficult, if not impossible, to supply. Never-
theless, the bill met with favourable acceptance in the House of Commons,
and with some very trifling alterations only, and without any discussion
of its principle, passed the third reading, and was sent up to the House
of Lords on May 2. In the House of Lords the chief objection to the
Bill, which had already been observed by your Committee, was, among
others, prominently brought forward by several speeches in a debate on
the second reading, June 14, and accordingly a series of amendments
were introduced and carried when the Bill was in committee, on June 16.
In almost every point these amendments, and especially one which pro-
vided that protection should be given to birds which most required it
by empowering local authorities to name areas in which for a given time
the taking of eggs should be wholly prohibited, accorded with the
opinion at which your Committee had previously arrived. Subsequently,
the Bill was further amended by the Standing Committee of the House
of Lords, and, having been read a third time, was sent back to the House
of Commons for its approval of their Lordships’ amendments.
These your Committee, after duly considering them, had hoped
would be at once accepted by the House of Commons; but, on August 21,
on the motion of Sir H. Maxwell, it was moved that consideration of
them should be adjourned for three months, and therefore the fate of the
Bill remains doubtful.
In view of the uncertainty thus existing your Committee would
recommend their reappointment on the same terms as before.
Indexa Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Sir W. H. Fiower, Dr. P. L. Sciater,
Dr. H. WoopwarD, and Mr. G. Brook (Secretary), for super-
vising its compilation by Mr. C. Davies SHERBORN.
Tuts index, commenced in 1890, was continued by the compiler un-
assisted until 1892, when the British Association made a grant of 20/. in
aid of the work. The compilation continues to progress satisfactorily,
about 200 volumes having been searched through, and over 10,000
species having been indexed during the past year. The work is extremely
laborious, chiefly by reason of the difficulty in many cases of determining
the exact date of publication of the book under examination; but the
results of the solution of difficult problems of this kind are invariably
made public so soon as their accuracy has been satisfactorily proved. Of
these results the publication of the dates of Schreber’s ‘ Siugthiere ’ by the
Zoological Society of London in their ‘Proceedings’ for 1891 may be
cited. Of the books examined this year the accurate determination of
the dates of the ‘ Encyclopédie Méthodique’ is, perhaps, the most important
554 REPORT—1893,
result attained. These dates will also be published in the Zoological
Society’s ‘ Proceedings.’
The plan of work adopted by the compiler has been favourably com-
mented upon, among foreign specialists, by Professor J. Victor Carus,
Professor Sven Loven, and Mr. 8. H. Scuddd. The Committee ask for
their reappointment, with a grant of 30/. in aid of the continuance of
this most useful compilation.
Scottish Place-names.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir C. W. Witson, F.R.S. (Chairman), Dr. J. Buraess (Secre-
tary), and Mr. Courts Trorrer. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Tus Committee have to report that at their suggestion a Place-names
Committee of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society was appointed to
consider the orthography of the Place-names on the survey maps of
Scotland, and specially to revise the spellings in the Gaelic-speaking
districts of the country.
This committee, which had power to add to their number, con-
sisted of Professor James Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., Sheriff Aineas Mackay,
LL.D., Professor Julius Eggeling, Ph.D., Mr. A. Silva White, Secretary,
R. Scot. Geog. Soc. ; and James Burgess, LL.D., Chairman. It met on
November 20, 1891, and arranged the forms to be used in collecting
information, agreed to appoint local committees in each parish, and to
make additions to the committee of gentlemen specially qualified to aid
in the work.
After correspondence there were subsequently added to the Committee
the following gentlemen :—Rey. Dr. Masson, M.D., Ex-Sheriff Alex.
Nicolson, LL.D., W. J. N. Liddall, Esq., Advocate, Sheriff D. Mac-
kechnie, Dr. D. Christison, Professor Blackburn, Hew Morrison, Ksq.,
J. M. Rusk, S.S.C., W. C. Smith, Esq., Advocate, Dr. Bannerman.
The Committee were of opinion that, whilst names referred to them
by the Ordnance Survey from Lowland districts might be satisfactorily
dealt with by correspondence, personal knowledge, and references to
records, it would be desirable to proceed otherwise with the great mass
of Gaelic names in Highland districts, and for these it was decided that
it would be necessary to prepare lists of all the names in each parish, and
to submit them, in the first place, to local or parish committees appointed
for the purpose of pointing out and correcting all supposed errors in
spelling. The local arrangement of names in the survey books greatly
facilitated the identification of the spots intended ; and the Chairman was.
empowered to correspond with ministers and local gentlemen to form such
committees. The islands of Islay and Jura were then undertaken, and
the following instructions were issued to the local committees :—
DIRECTIONS.
‘(1) The Place-names to be revised are written out under Column I.
Against those correctly spelt a x should be affixed in Column II. Cor-
respondents will distinguish names of Norse or English origin by adding
the initial letter N or E to the x under Column II.
ON SCOTTISH PLACE-NAMES. 555:
*(2) Those names which are incorrectly spelt should be rewritten,
in a clear legible hand, on the same line under Column III. Such
corrections should be attested by at least three local authorities in
Column IV.
‘(3) In those instances where there are alternative forms of spelling
the same name, the alternative form or forms should be given under
Column III., and attested in the usual way in Column IV.
‘(4) Names of Norwegian origin are prevalent, more especially in.
Arran, Jura, Islay, Morvern, Skye, the Outer Hebrides, &c. The utmost
care should be taken to discriminate all such names, and to give under
Column III. their proper spellings, with or without the Gaelic spellings
that may be in use for the same—to be attested in Column IV. Names
of Norse and English origin have the generic element after the specific, ,
as in Oak-field, Helms-dale, Lidi-strom ; whereas Gaelic names almost
always have the generic jirst, as Auchindarrock, Glen-shee, Inch-keith.
*(5) Special information by correspondents can be communicated
on separate sheets of paper.’
The first lists were for Kilchoman parish, containing about 970 names,
and were undertaken by a local committee, consisting of Rev. J. Barnet,
Mr. Wm. Campbell, Mr. Donald McGilp, Mr. John Campbell, Kev. James
Macmillan, Mr. Neil Orr, Portnahaven; and Mr. John Brown.
These gentlemen did their work with much care and attention, and
returned the revised list by June, 1892. The Committee then held.
frequent meetings in examination of the revised names, and approved of
the great majority of the changes proposed.
Meanwhile, the lists for Killarow and Kilmeny, Kildalton and Oa, and
for Jura, had been issued. The Killarow and Kilmeny list contained
about 940 Place-names, and was undertaken by a local committee,
consisting of Rev. John Mclachlan, Kilmeny; Rev. Peter Stewart,.
Killarow ; Mr. W. McFadyen, Ballygrant; Mr. P. Macintyre; Rev. P.
Mclver, Bowmore ; Mr. Murdoch McTaggart, solicitor ; and Mr. D. Mac-
bean, Public School, Bowmore.
The returns from this parish were discussed by the Committee at
meetings held in November and December, 1892.
The list for Jura has not yet been returned. That for Kildalton and
Oa contained over 1,200 names, and the local committee were Rev. Wm.
Campbell, Mr. Colin Hay, Mr. Lachlan McCuaig, Rev. D. McMaster,.
Mrs. Ramsay, and Mr. Colin Campbell. This list occupied the Com-
mittee at a series of meetings, and was disposed of during the early half
of the present year.
From the officers of the Ordnance Survey were also submitted, from
time to time, for the opinion of the Committee, local Place-names, such
as Auchendinny or Auchindinny; Glencorse or Glencross; Roslin,
Roslyn, or Roslyne; Machars or Machers; Rinns or Rhynns; Garwald
and Bara or Garwald; St. Monance or St. Monans.
In deciding on the spellings of these and such names the Committee
were guided largely (1) by what has been the prevalent spelling in deeds
and records of every kind up till a recent date, when names have fre-
quently been altered in spelling in an unaccountable way, possibly
through the influence of non-residents, railway and post-office officials,
newspaper writers, &c. For postal and other common purposes, it may
be quite sufficient to indicate a parish by the single name of ‘Garwald’ ;.
but the Ordnance map may be regarded and used as legal evidence, and
556 REPORT—1893.
in united parishes the inhabitants of the portions which formerly were
separate parishes may each have burial and other rights of which the
double name—Garwald and Bara—is primd facie evidence, and for this
and for historical reasons the Committee considered that the full name
ought in all such cases to be preserved.
(2) Where more spellings of a name than one have been long preva-
lent, and about equally so, it may be allowed, especially where local
feeling is in favour of it, to adopt that one which is nearer the older or
original form. If the people in Wigtownshire prefer ‘Machars’ to
‘Machers,’ the Committee could only approve of such a spelling.
(38) On the other hand, they could not attempt to enforce in a case
like that of ‘Newbattle’ (which is well known to be a misnomer) a
reversion to a better form unless it were to be acceptable to the
proprietor.
(4) The Committee, however, would strongly object to all new and
fanciful spellings having no authority in the records of the last three
centuries. Some such have crept into our best maps, and have been
copied into popular gazetteers, almanacs, and the like: these have seldom
any authority, and misrepresent the historical Place-names.
In Gaelic names the Committee had to deal with different cireum-
stances. A large class of these had never appeared in any record; they
were so distinctly descriptive of the places that a person understanding
Gaelic could make no mistake about their meaning, and the only question
was the correct writing down of the name. Gaelic spelling, as well as
pronunciation, differs in districts lying apart : the enunciation and spell-
ing of a Ross-shire man will often differ from those of a native of Argyll
or Arran. There are also refinements of spelling that good scholars do
not consider necessary in Place-names. It has, therefore, been the aim of
the Committee not to give prominence to such refinements, but to deal
with the names on broad principles. This course the late Sheriff Nicolson,
who attended the Committee’s meetings very regularly, and with the
weight of his extensive scholarship and local knowledge, was ever ready
to support. His death during the early part of this year has been a
serious loss to the Committee.
In such of the Highland names as occur in valuation rolls and other
records there appear to be fully a larger proportion of variants than in
the same class of names in Lowland districts, and there was consequently
more scope for choice, but also more frequent calls for deliberation and
investigation. This made the work more arduous and troublesome, and
seemed to demand the services of a person qualified to collect the various
forms with the authorities for them to be weighed by the Committee ;
for it is just this class of names that require the most careful con-
sideration.
The result of the examination of over 3,100 names in Islay has been
the revision or correction of about 520, or 16 per cent., of them, varying
from about 11 per cent. in Kiilarow to nearly double that proportion in
Kildalton.
The grant of 107. made in 1892 was too small a sum to enable the
‘Committee to engage any needed help, and was kept for stationery,
postage, necessary printing, and to procure a good Gaelic dictionary.
ON ANCIENT REMAINS IN ABYSSINIA. 557
Exploration of Ancient Remains in Abyssinia.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. J. G. Garson (Chavrman), Mr. J.
THEODORE Bent (Secretary), Mr. F. W. Rupter, Mr. E. W.
Brasrookr, and Mr. G. W. Buoxam. (Drawn up by Mr. BENT.)
AppENnDIx.—On the Morphological Oharacters of the Abyssinians.
By Dr. J. G. Garson.
Tue Committee have received the following report from Mr. Bent :—
The four months which I was able to passin Abyssinia at the beginning
of this year have been very productive in ethnographical research. We
were able to visit the sites of ruins at a spot called Yeha and at Aksum,
the ancient capital of this part of Hthiopia, and when there to take a
large number of photographs and impressions of inscriptions which throw
a flood of light on the origin of the Ethiopian race and language, and leave
no shadow of a doubt that both are derived in the first instance from
an ancient Arabian stock, namely, early Sabeean traders, who built them-
selves fortresses and temples in the Abyssinian mountains, and left there
traces of their writing and their art as far back as the eighth century B.c.
About five hours’ ride from Adoua, in a north-easterly direction, we
visited the village of Yeha, where is a very ancient temple preserved
to us by the fact that it has been a religious centre in Abyssinia, and has
thus been protected from the depredations of marauders. The building
is a very fine specimen of ancient art, built with large ‘drafted’ stones,
and crowning a knoll which commands the surrounding village and plain,
hemmed in on all sides by stupendous mountains. Here, too, we found
nine Himyaritic inscriptions, which Professor D. H. Miiller, of Vienna,
has deciphered, and which date back to the eighth century B.c. One
of these gives the name of the place as Ava, and besides this we have
two references to this place Ava—one given us by Nonnosus, who went as
ambassador from Justinian to the king of Abyssinia in 540 a.p., and
another from the Adulitan inscription, probably about the first century
of ourera. Both these agree in placing this town of Ava on the ancient
trade route between Adulis and Aksum, and consequently there is no
doubt whatsoever that the ruins of Yeha originally formed the town of
Ava, and that it was a Saban colony from Arabia which settled here for
the purposes of trade at a very remote period.
Professor Miller connects this temple of Ava with the worship of Baal
Ava, common at that period in Southern Arabia; and the nature of the
building, the monoliths adjoining it, the altar, and other facts too
numerous here to mention obviously connect this ruin with early Saban
sun-worship; and from its strength, decoration, and position we can clearly
see what a strong foothold the merchants of Arabia had gained in Abyssinia
many centuries before the commencement of our era. The neighbourhood
of Yeha is very fertile, and this fertility was accounted for by the in-
habitants from the fact that in the mountains behind they possess
caves in which they can store their goods out of the way of marauders,
and hence the valley of Yeha is one of the most prosperous and fertile in
Abyssinia. It is a curious fact that Ava was probably the capital of this
district, known to the earliest geographers as Ethiopia Troglodytica, or
that part of Ethiopia where the inhabitants dwelt in caves; it is just
558 REPORT— 1893.
possible that these very caves above Yeha may have been the origin of
the term.
Aksum is about forty miles inland from Yeha, and after the destruction
of Ava was for many centuries the capital of the Aksumite kings, and
‘subsequently of the emperors of Abyssinia. In subsequent years Aksum
was abandoned as the political centre of the country, and gave place to
‘Gondar, and now to Ankoba in Shoa; but it has always remained as the
religious capital of Abyssinia, the sacred city of the Ethiopians. Owing
to the disturbed state of the country we were only able to spend ten days
there, instead of two months, as we had originally intended; but in those
ten days we were able to amass a large quantity of valuable archeological
material; to take squeezes of the various early Ethiopian inscriptions,
some of which had only been indifferently copied before, and others are
new to science; to take photographs of the various ruins still standing ;
and to make a few excursions in the neighbourhood.
I can only give here the actual results of our work, and say what the
objects we found definitely prove: First, the long line of monoliths
form an excessively interesting study in rude stone monuments. We
have at Aksum the monolith in all its several stages of development, from
the rudest unhewn stone stuck in the ground like those at Yeha; then
we have one with notches on it, another divided into storeys with beams
carved thereon ; and finally the highly finished monolith, with an altar at
its base, a door carved above this, and nine storeys represented on the
stone with imitation windows, and divided from one another by beams
which are also cut in the stone: these nine storeys culminate in a repre-
sentation of the heavenly luminary, and point to what the worship was
which originated them, namely, the old Sabean sun-worship ; and these
decorated monoliths represent the Bethel, or house of God, in its most
finished conception. The altars below are of very finished work, and
were made to fit tightly on to the monolith: one is surrounded with a well-
known Himyaritic pattern, and has holes in the centre for the reception
of the blood of the slaughtered victims; another has steps in it and
receptacles for the blood, carved in the representation of Greek vases,
with channels cut for the blood to run down each of the steps on to the
ground. There is no doubt about it that at Aksum existed a form of
Mithraic worship which came from Southern Arabia, and was introduced
by the Himyarite merchants, who traded with the interior for ivory, gold,
and other rare produce valued in the ancient market.
There are about seventy of these monoliths in and around Aksum,
some elaborately worked, others mere unhewn stones. Two of the largest,
decorated like the one above described, with an imitation door and
storeys, are fallen and broken into colossal fragments : they are both con-
siderably larger than the standing one, and must have been very imposing
objects when erect. Another monolith, 27 feet high, and presumably of
later date, shows a curious Greco-Egyptian influence in its decoration :
it had a representation of a Greek tomb or temple in antis at the top,
supported by an Jonic column made in the form of a lotus, with the two
little ivy leaves on either side so characteristic of Greek art in the first
centuries before and after Christ. This Greek influence at Aksum is
especially remarkable, and may be easily accounted for by the Greek
influence and enterprise which were felt in the Red Sea after the conquests
of the Ptolemies and the opening out of commerce. Adulis was the
port of this commerce, and Aksum seems to have been the capital of the
ON ANCIENT REMAINS IN ABYSSINIA. 559
district to which the tribes from the interior brought their commodities.
Greek architecture and art are therefore easily accounted for at Aksum.
It is a thoroughly Greek idea to decorate the unsightly unhewn rude
stone monuments, and, curiously enough, the realistic idea of carving doors,
windows, beams, and storeys is traceable to Greek art in Lycia, Caria,
and the southern provinces of Asia Minor. Then we have the altars with
Greek vases carved thereon; tombs with the dromos and chambers for
sarcophagi constructed of huge stones just like those found in Greece.
Rock-cut steps cover the hills behind Aksum, just as they do in Greek
cities ; rock-cut tombs and fragments of architecture recall at many points
remains in an old Greek site. Early geographers tell us of this influence,
and that the kings of Aksum spoke and studied Greek ; and then finally
we have the bilingual inscription in which King Aizanes of Aksum
records his victories on one side in Greek and on the other in early
Ethiopian in the fourth century of our era. One can thus readily under-
stand how the way was thus opened in Ethiopia for the Christian
missionaries from Alexandria, and that Ethiopia was one of the first
affiliated branches of the early Christian Church.
The inscriptions which we brought from Aksum are of a later date
than those of Yeha, but show at the same time the Himyaritic script
generally developing into early Ethiopian, and form a very valuable
series from this point of view, incontestably proving the origin of Ethi-
opian, and that it is a survival to us of the early form of speech and
writing which was found in the early Sabean and Himyaritic empire in
Southern Arabia.
Professor D. H. Miller has been hard at work for some weeks past
on these inscriptions and has developed much material of value. Two of
the inscriptions are quite new to science, and the others are read cor-
rectly for the first time, having previously been copied by travellers
ignorant of the complicated script; but our impressions have now enabled
Professor Miller to produce a correct rendering of them as they stand.
Some of the principal points of value which have resulted from this
study are, first, definite proof of the origin of the Ethiopian language,
and that it is a development or rather a dialect of Himyaritic. Secondly,
that the Kthiopians were pagans at least down to the fourth century
_ after Christ, worshipping the same gods as the early Arabians, and thus
the Ethiopian legend that they belonged to the Jewish religion from the
time of Menelek, the supposed son of Solomon by the Queen of Sheba,
is absolutely without foundation, and is probably a fantastic story in-
vented by the early Christians of Ethiopia, which, whilst it acknowledges
their Arabian origin, at the same time identifies them with the chosen
people of God. The grounds for this story, which have had weight even
with observers of modern times, are the existence of certain forms and
ceremonies akin to Judaism amongst the Ethiopians, which they owe
doubtless to their common Semitic origin. Another point made clear
by the inscriptions is the origin of certain curious pedestals, which appa-
rently in former years carried metal statues, and of which there are
between twenty and thirty at Aksum. It appears from the inscriptions
that the kings of Aksum after a victory set up a throne in honour of it,
which they placed under the protection of their three gods, Astar, Medr,
and Barrats. Some were decorated with statues, others were plain, and
near them was stuck up the dedicatory stone; and lastly Professor Miller
proves that the Ethiopians called their country Habaset long before the
560 REPORT—1893.
modern Arabians called it Habesh, which was supposed to be given it
owing to the mixture of the race. Hence the derivation of the name
Abyssinia is thus: Sabean name Habaset, Arabian Habesh, which the
Portuguese gave to the world as Abessini when speaking of the in-
habitants, which we finally have made into Abyssinia.
After visiting Aksum we went to the site of another set of ruins on
a lofty isolated plateau, now known by the Italians as the Altapiana
di Kohaito; here we found the remains of a very extensive town with a
curious lake in the centre of it, the waters of which were preserved in
an artificial reservoir by a wall or dam built of huge stones without
cement, and obviously of a very ancient date. This well was 219 feet
across, and the centre part, 99 feet long, was built very strongly with
‘throughs’ and steps to withstand the force of the water. On either
side of this stronger portion of the dam were two sluice gates, 5 feet
wide, and the construction of this wall corresponds in many ways to the
wall or dam at Mareb, the ancient Mariaba, or capital of the Sabean
kingdom in Southern Arabia. This is the chief feature of interest
amongst the ruins. Around the lake are the scattered remains of many
buildings, temples, houses, and so forth; the columns and capitals of the
temples are interesting as connecting the style of architecture exactly
with that in use at Adulis, the port of this part of Ethiopia. The
columns are square with a groove cut at each angle, and the capitals are
also square in three tiers.
This ancient town, long since abandoned, is easily to be identified with
the Koloe of the early geographers ; in fact, the locality as placed by the
Periplus of the Red Sea, namely, three days from Adulis and five from
Aksum, is exactly where it should be, and probably it was a summer
resort of the rich merchants of Adulis: it is situated at an elevation of
7,000 feet above the sea, and enjoys a most salubrious climate. The
plateau is curiously isolated from the surrounding mountains, and the
approaches to it are now exceedingly difficult ; but there are ample traces
of ancient roadways and sustaining walls long ago ruined. Immediately
in the valley below, just on the ancient trade road between Adulis and
Aksum, there are the ruins of another village with a few columns of a
temple still standing of precisely the same form of architecture as that
at Koloe and Adulis, and this village would appear to have been a
halting place for the caravans on their way into the interior at the foot
of the hill on which Koloe was built.
These are amongst the most prominent points of the archeological
discoveries we made in Abyssinia, which I hope shortly to develop at
greater length with the collaboration of Professor D. H. Miiller.
With regard to the anthropology of the Abyssinians of to-day our
results were naturally considerably hampered by not knowing the
language, and having to obtain our information second hand from an
interpreter. However, I think we have been able to arrive at several
points of interest, more especially in connection with the quaint and
interesting form of Christianity which is the national religion of the
country.
In the first place the Christianity of Abyssinia is obviously one
grafted on a form of paganism closely akin to sun-worship. As we find
in Greece innumerable instances of the way the early divines grafted
Christianity on to the existing paganism of Greece and Rome, blending
the saints and customs of Christianity with the gods and rites of the old
ON ANCIENT REMAINS IN ABYSSINIA. 561
pagan religion, so we find in Abyssinia obvious traces of sun-worship
as the pecnliar form of religion which had to give way to Christianity.
In the first place all the churches are round, with four doors oriented
to the four points of the compass. They are all surrounded by an outer
enclosure, which is thickly planted with trees, and corresponds to the
sacred groves so associated in our minds with Baal-worship.
During the Lenten fasts the services are always conducted at night,
and cease immediately at sunrise; the peculiar ritual of dancing without
which no service in Abyssinia is complete—dancing to the tune of
an instrument exactly corresponding to the sistrwm of ancient Egyptian
days—is a trace of the dancing which formed an integral part of Baal-
worship.
The great Abyssinian Church ceremony of Mascal, or the raising of
the Cross, which takes place in September, is accompanied by the lighting
of bonfires at night on all the neighbouring heights and the sacrifice of oxen
and other animals. The second great Church ceremony is the blessing
of the waters at Epiphany and the baptizing of the Cross, thus honouring
water as the next great element after the sun in the process of natural
generation. As a curious side proof of this theory may be mentioned an
illustration given in an Ethiopian catechism as an illustration of the
mystery of the Trinity. ‘The Godhead is like the sun, consisting of
three parts joined in one and indivisible, namely, rotundity, light, and
heat.’
The points in the Abyssinian ritual which have favoured the suppo-
sition that they belonged to Judaism before Christianity was preached
amongst them are these: The construction of their churches with an
outer circle, corresponding to the court of the Gentiles; an inner circle, to
the court of the Levites ; and the Holy of Holies, where the Ark and the
tables of the law are supposed to be kept, with its veil hanging before it.
Secondly, the abstention from eating the same unclean animals which
the Jews abstain from. Thirdly, the practice of circumcision. Fourthly,
their calendars and feasts curiously correspond. I take it that the first
and last are purely accidental, and that the third and fourth are common
to all Semitic races; and certainly the inscriptions from Aksum exclude
all possibility of Judaism having existed in the country as the national
religion prior to Christianity.
Another feature which we noticed particularly with regard to the
Abyssinian Church is its strict adherence to the orthodox or Greek ritual,
and the antagonism which reigns still, and always has reigned, against
the tenets of Rome and Western Christianity. As in Greece, the priest-
hood is divided into monastic priests and working or village priests.
The dignities of the Church are reserved for the former: they never
marry, and live their useless lives on the top of isolated mountains. The
village priest, who performs the services of the Church, may marry before
he is ordained, and not after—just like the Greek priests—and he never
can aspire to any of the more lucrative positions in the Church. The
pictures of the Abyssinian Church are distinctly Byzantine in character,
exceedingly grotesque, but offering points of comparison to the work done
on Mount Athos. Their legends, superstitions, and quaint beliefs all
correspond to those of the Kastern Church; and naturally this is to be
expected, as the Abyssinian Church is an affiliated Church of the Alex-
andrian patriarchate, and is governed by an abouna sent out from the
Coptic Church of Cairo. But it shows in a remarkable manner the
1893. 00
562 REPORT—1893.
tenacity with which the customs and ritual of early Christianity have
been maintained, and the absolute failure of the Portuguese Jesuits to
bring Abyssinia under the dominion of the Pope is aptly parallelled by the
absolute failure of the Roman Catholics to obtain a foothold in Greece,
and bring about a union of the Eastern and Western Churches.
Nearly everything one comes across in Abyssinia has an interesting
pedigree from the old world. The shamma, or cloak, they wear is neither
more nor less than the old Roman toga: it is worn in precisely the ancient
manner, with the right hand buried in the folds and the end thrown
over the shoulder. The musical instruments they play are similar. The
long trumpet played at games and festivals was well known in the ancient
world as the tuba. The sistrum, or rattle, I have already alluded to.
The Abyssinian harp is exactly like its old classical prototype, the lyra.
We still find the rounded sounding-board, made in the form of a tortoise-
shell, the ancient testudo of the lyre: out of this come the two cornua,
and the strings are not touched with the fingers, but with plectra. The
fly-flap used by the priests is exactly like the fly-flaps depicted on the
Egyptian tombs. Children up to the age of puberty wear bulle, just as
Roman children did. Every Abyssinian has his thorn-extractor, made of
pliable metal, like the volselle of Roman times. The popular Abyssinian
game, played on a sort of board with holes, something akin to draughts,
is commonly found wherever Arabian influence has been felt all over the
coast line of the East, in Asia and Africa alike. The umbrella, and the
dignity attached thereto, is distinctly old world. The sacred arcana are
always carried under gorgeously decorated umbrellas; only a prince may
wear a red one, grandees wear white ones, and peasants go to market
with umbrellas made of straw. There is hardly anything in Abyssinia
which is not a well-authenticated relic of a bygone civilisation, as the few
instances which I have given here will show.
We took the measurement of some fifty Abyssinians, according to the
rules and regulations set down by the Anthropological Institute. These
measurements have been placed in the hands of Dr. Garson, who has
undertaken to work them ont.
T hope in the ensuing winter to visit Southern Arabia, with a view
to following up the same line of study, both archeological and anthropo-
logical. I feel confident that if Southern Arabia be submitted to a careful
examination we shall there find traces of an exceedingly primitive civili-
sation; traces of an empire which existed many centuries before our era,
which spread down the east coast of Africa south of the Zambesi, and
constructed the ruined buildings visited by us last year in Mashonaland,
and which, as Professor Miller shows, are built on exactly the same
principle as those of Mareb and Sirwah in Southern Arabia, and were
probably used for the same form of religion.
This year we have found traces of an Arabian occupation of Arabia as
far back as the eighth century before our era in the mountains of
Abyssinia. As discovery follows discovery I am sure we shall be able to
reconstruct the history of a once mighty commercial race, which was
contemporaneous with the best days of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, and
which provided the ancient world with most of its most valued luxuries.
ON ANCIENT REMAINS IN ABYSSINIA. 563
APPENDIX.
On the Morphological Characters of the Abyssinions. By J. G. Garson,
M.D., V.P., Anthrop. Inst., Oorresp. Memb. Anthrop. Soc. Paris and
Berlin.
The data for this paper are a series of observations made by Mr. J.
Theodore Bent during his expedition to Abyssinia on 46 male natives
between the ages of twenty and forty years, 22 of whom belong to the
Tigré tribe, 12 to the Amhara tribe, 4 to the Hamasan tribe, 1 to the
Bogos tribe, 6 to the Galla tribe, and 1 to the Barea tribe. The first
four tribes are members of the Himyaritic group of Semites, the Gallas
are Hamites, and the Barea are one of the unclassified tribes.
The colour of the skin of the Himyaritic tribes is generally a rich
chocolate, but sometimes cases of a dark yellow-brown or dark-olive hue
oceur. The Gallas are generally darker, being usually of a sooty-biack
colour ; the Barea is also sooty-black. The eyes are dark, and a vestige
of a freenum occurs in many cases at the inner angle of the eye. The hair
is black and curly. The profile of the nose is uniformly straight. Pro-
gnathism of the mouth is generally very slight or entirely absent, except
in the Gallas, where it is more marked than in the others. The lips
are of medium thickness, but are somewhat thicker in the Gallas than
in the other tribes. Platyprosopism, or flatness of face, predominates
throughout all the tribes, but is slightly more marked in the Amhara
than in the others.
The cephalic index varies from 64 to 88, but chiefly centres between
76 and 79, the mean index of the series being 78°5, which places them in
the mesaticephalic group. In the Amhara tribe it averages 81:4, in the
Tigré 78:2, in the Gallas 79. The module of the head averages 158, as
obtained from the length, breadth, and height of the calvara added
together, and, after 15 mm. has been added to represent the distance
from the meatus to the basion, divided by 3; from the length and breadth
added together and divided by 2 it is 165. The nasal index averages in
the Tigré 68:1, in the Amhara 74-2, and in the Gallas 76-2. According
to Broca’s divisions of this index in the living, the Tigré are leptorhine
and the others are mesorhine.
The mean stature of the series is 1™693, the shortest being 1™593
and the tallest 1™-870. The Amhara tribe averages about 2 cm. taller
than the Tigré. The trunk, neck, and head are 50°3 per cent. of the
stature, and the lower limbs from the level of the tuberosities of the
ischia downwards are 49:7 per cent. of the stature. The canon of pro-
portion of the various parts of the body to the height are as follows:
Trunk, 32 per cent.; neck, 5:3 per cent. ; head, 13 per cent.; the thigh,
from the level of the tuberosities of the ischia, 23°2 per cent.; the leg
and height of foot, 26:5 per cent.; the length of the foot, 14°5 per cent. ;
the entire upper limb, 44°9 per cent., the upper arm being 17:2 per cent.,
the forearm 16-2 per cent., and the hand 11:2 percent. The length of
the forearm to that of the upper arm gives an index of 96; while the leg
and height of foot together give, with the portion of thigh from the ischial
plane to the knee, an index of 114:3.
Although the tribes examined are all members of the Caucasian
family, the Gallas and the Barea are more negroid in their characters than
the Semitic tribes, probably from longer contact with the negro and
002
564 REPORT—1893.
from the geographical position they occupy in South Abyssinia. Of the
Semites the Amhara are more negroid than the Tigré, while the latter
retain more of the characters probably typical of the inhabitants of South
Arabia, the country which their language indicates as the original home
from which they have migrated.
The Exploration of the Glacial Region of the Karakoram Moun-
tains.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Colonel GoDWwIN-
AUSTEN (Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney (Secretary), and
Colonel H. C. B. Tanner.
Tur Committee were appointed for the purpose of assisting in the
exploration of the Karakoram Mountains, physically, geologically, and
biologically, by Mr. W. M. Conway and companions.
Previous to the expedition of Mr. Conway’s party to the Karakoram
Mountains the whole of the Gilgit territory had been surveyed and
mapped by parties of the Survey of India. Colonel Godwin-Austen,
when making his survey of Baltistan in 1860 or 1861, had surveyed up
to the Gilgit and Hunza-Nagyr frontier, while Captain Brownlow, R.H.,
and other assistants of the Kashmir Survey had roughly sketched from
very distant points the Gilgit valley. Subsequently Colonel Tanner and
two sub-surveyors had made a detailed survey of Gilgit and surrounding
valleys. The latter work was published some twelve years back, on the
scale of 2 miles=1 inch, under the title of ‘New Map of Astor and
Gilgit.’ The Bagrot valley and all the southern waterways from the
Rakapushi chain were entered on this map, and the spurs of Rakapushi,
extending W. and N.W. down to the Gilgit River, were also laid down
with fair accuracy. Mr. Conway’s exploration this side includes country
already well known and surveyed, though his examination of the Bagrot
glacier should be considered new and more detailed work. In the new
map of Astor and Gilgit the glaciers were coloured green by hand, but
not drawn hard with pen and ink on the original map, copied by photo-
graphy and photozincoed.
Colonel Tanner’s work was a continuation to the westward of Colonel
Godwin-Austen’s survey, and was picked up (with a small hiatus) from
that officer’s most northerly and westerly stations of observation. On
the publication those features not laid down from actual and accurate -
survey were entered in dots as a guide to any surveyor who might follow
Colonel Tanner’s party.
The exploring party in the Karakoram Mountains in 1892 consisted
of Mr. W. M. Conway, Lieutenant the Hon. C. G. Bruce, Mr. A. D.
M‘Cormick, Mattias Zurbriggen (an Alpine guide), and four Gurkha
sepoys. For part of the time they were accompanied by Messrs. Roude-
bush and Eckenstein, also by Colonel Lloyd Dicken.
The party reached Gilgit, on a tributary of the Indus, and made
their first exploring expedition up the Bagrot valley, since the highest
ranges were as yet (May) inaccessible owing to the amount of snow still
unmelted. Working on a larger scale, the features of the higher ground,
particularly the glacier, were much improved in detail, and the names of
all the tributary glaciers recorded. An attempt to cross from it into
ON THE GLACIAL REGION OF THE KARAKORAM MOUNTAINS. 565
Nagyr over the main ridge was defeated, so the party returned to Gilgit.
Some interesting observations were made on the mud avalanches in this
region. These are vast masses of mud, thickly mingled with huge
blocks of rock, which are swept down the gorges in the steep mountain
flanks on to the more level parts of the valley, and become important
factors in modifying this part of the earth.
Departing again from Gilgit, the travellers visited the rock-bound
valley of Hunza-Nagyr. The weather was unpropitious, but another
attempt (not completely successful) was made to reach the Bagrot pass
from this northern side, and an expedition was undertaken to the Barpu
glacier. One branch of this was explored and mapped, and a peak
which rises at its head was ascended. The ridge separating this
tributary (Barpu) valley from the main Hispar valley was traversed by
a pass about 16,000 feet above sea-level. From the latter valley the
most important glacier expedition was undertaken, for the Hispar pass
(17,600 feet) was crossed to Askoli, which was reached on July 26,
nearly a fortnight having been spent on or by the side of the two great
glaciers, which stream from the summit (gained on July 18). Their
combined length is about sixty-seven miles, and they both terminate at
some 10,000 feet above the sea-level.
Askoli was left on July 31 for an expedition to the great Baltoro
glacier, and a good view was obtained of K, (or Mount Godwin-Austen)
(28,278 feet), which rises grandly from the upper part of this ice-region.
Pioneer Peak (22,500 feet), a minor summit of the Golden Throne at
the head of the Baltoro glacier, was climbed, as well as a lower (Crystal)
peak.
The party returned to Askoli on September 5, and crossed southwards
from that place by the Skoro pass (about 17,000 feet) to Askoro, in the
Shigar valley, whence they reached Skardo on the Indus. From it they
visited Leh, and regained Abbotabad (whence they had begun their
journey to Gilgit) after an absence of seven months.
Mr. Conway has added some 600 square miles of quite new topo-
graphy east of Hunza-Nagyr and north of the Rakapushi range up to
near the longitude of the Nushik La. Hence his route-map up the
Hispar glacier, down the Biafo, and on again to the Baltoro is based
on and kept in proper position by the topographical work of the Indian
Survey on the 4-miles-to-the-inch scale, executed in 1860-61 (previously
alluded to), very much enlarged, showing consequently a great deal of
close detail either sketched in on the spot or taken from photographs.
The portion near the Hispar pass, never before crossed by any European
travellers, has thus been very accurately laid down. He has also cor-
rected the topography of the tributary glaciers at the head of the Baltoro,
which Lient.-Colonel Godwin-Austen when making his survey of it was
“oH able to plane-table roughly from a distance of fifteen to twenty
Talles.
This detail work of Mr. Conway covers about 1,200 square miles, and
is an instructive piece of Alpine topography, because the scale is large
enough to show the extent and proportions of the ice and snow-covered
surface, and the size and position of the lateral and median moraines, &c.
_ Many photographs were taken, and a number of sketches were painted |
by Mr. M‘Cormick. The following collections were made: (1) A large
number of rock specimens representative of the geology of the districts
_ explored. These are being examined by Professor Bonney, who hopes to
566 REPORT— 1893.
communicate an account of them to the Royal Society next session.
(2) A collection of dried plants (sent to the Kew herbarium), of seeds,
of which forty species are now growing at those gardens, and of some
iris-bulbs. (3) About one hundred specimens of butterflies, sent to the
British Museum (South Kensington). (4) A collection of spiders, beetles,
&c., was also made, but the greater part of this, unfortunately, was stolen
from the baggage on the journey down from the mountains. Some
account of the details of the journey has been given by Mr. Conway to
the Royal Geographical Society, and has appeared in their journal for
November 1892 and for February and July 1893, and a fuller narrative
will be published in a volume in the course of a few months.
The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapstone (Chairman),
Professor H. E. ArmstronG (Secretary), Mr. S. Bournz, Dr.
CrosskEY, Mr. G. Guapstonrk, Mr. J. Hrywoop, Sir Joun
Lussock, Sir Partie Maanus, Professor N. Story MAsKELYNE,
Sir H. E. Roscozr, Sir R. TEMPLE, and Professor 8. P.
THOMPSON.
Your Committee have the satisfaction of reporting this year two important.
circumstances which show the increased value set upon the teaching ot
science in elementary schools. The one has reference to the rapid
advance in the adoption of ‘ Hlementary Science’ as a class subject; the
other is the great provision made for it in the new Code for evening
continuation schools.
The report of last year showed the commencement of the movement
for the substitution of scientific teaching in the place of the so-called
‘English’ as a class subject, a movement which has now become much
more pronounced. It will be seen by the following tables that, while the
teaching of ‘English’ steadily rose with the gradual increase in the
number of schools, that of geography and elementary science slightly
decreased during the years 1882 to 1890; and that when the obligation
to take ‘ English’ had been removed these two scientific subjects took a
start at once, which has been more than maintained in 1891-92,
The number of departments of schools in which these class subjects
have been examined by H.M. Inspector during the eight years 1882 to
1890 has been as follows :—
Class Subjects Departments | 1882-83 | 1883-84 | 1884-85 | 1885-86 1886-87 | 1867-66) 1888-8 1889--90
|
|
|
English . . - “ . | 18,363 | 19,080 19,431 | 19,608 | 19,917 | 20,041 | 20,153 | 20,304
Geography “ 3 _ . | 12,823 | 12,775 12,336 | 12,055 | 12,035 | 12,058 | 12,171 | 12,367
Elementary Science : 48 51 45 43 39 36 36 32
The numbers during the last two years are as follows :—
es rn
hs ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 567
A Class Subjects.—Departments 1890-91 1891-92
re ee BB 19,825 18,175
MumiGeopraphy . . »- . ee ele 12,806 13,485
Elementary Science. A : : : | 173 788
The number of scholars examined in the scientific specific subjects
during the eight years 1882-90 has been as follows :—
|
Specific Subjects.—Children | 1882-83 | 1883-84 1884-85 | 1885-86 | 1886-87 | 1887-88 1888-89 | 1889-90
;
}
Algebra . é A . | 26,547 | 24,787 | 25,347 | 25,393 | 25,103 | 26,448 | 27,465 | 30,035
; Euclid and Mensuration . : 1,942 2,010 1,269 1,247 995 1,006 928 977
Mechanics A . A « 2,042 3,174 3,527 4,844 6,315 6,961 9,524 | 11,453
‘ 125 0% Satis eed Ra = 206 239 128 33 331 127 209
. Animal Physiology. 5 . | 22,759 | 22,857 | 20,869 | 18,523 17,338 | 16,940 | 15,893 | 15,842
Botany . . . . .| 3,280} 2,604/ 2,415] 1,992] 1,589] 1,598] 1,944] 1,830
Principles of Agriculture . 1,357 1,859 1,481 1,351 1,137 1,151 1,199 1,228
Chemistry . . .{ 1,183 | 1,047 | 1,095] 1,158] 1,488] 1,808] 1,531] 2,007
Sound, Light,and Heat. . 630 | 1,253 | 1,231] 1,334] 1,158 978 | 1,076 | 1,183
Magnetism and Electricity .| 3,643 | 3,244 | 2,864] 92,951] 2,250] 1,977] 1,669| 2,293
Domestic Economy. . .| 19,582 21,458 | 19,437 | 19,556 | 20,716 | 20,787 | 22,064 | 23,094
Total . . . «| 82,965] 84,499 | 79,774 | 78,477 | 78,122 | 79,985 | 83,420 | 90,151
|
Number of scholars in Stan- |
dards V., VI, and VII. } 286,355 | 325,205 | 352,860 | 393,289 | 432,097 | 472,770 | 490,590 | 495,164
The numbers during the last two years are :—
Specific Subjects.—Children 1890-91 1891-92
Algebra. ‘ 2 3 é , : ‘i : 31,349 28,542
Euclid . : E é : : 6 : 870 927
Mensuration . 3 : : 5 : é 1,489 2,802
Mechanics . : é : é é : 2 15,559 18,000
Animal Physiology 5 : 5 ; ‘ ; 15,050 13,622
Botany . : J s é - ‘ ji P 2,115 1,845
Principles of Agriculture. ; : - : 1,231 1,085
Chemistry . : 3 : : ; , ; 1,847 1,935
Sound, Light, and Heat p ; ‘ A 4 1,085 1,163
Magnetism and Electricity . : : : : 2,554 2,338
Domestic Economy 7 , ‘ i 3 ; 27,475 26,447
Total 5 A é ; i > 100,624 98,706
It will be noticed that the very rapid increase which took place in
1890-91 has not been quite maintained; the diminution has been princi-
pally in algebra, animal physiology, and domestic economy, while there
has been a great increase in mensuration and mechanics. Estimating the
number of scholars in Standards V., VI., and VII. at 500,000, the per-
centage of the number of passes in these specific subjects as compared
with the number of children qualified to take them is 19°7; but it should
be remembered that many of the children take more than one subject for
examination. The following table gives the percentage for each vear
since 1882 :—
568 REPORT— 1893.
In 1882-83 . A 5 , . 29-0 per cent.
», 1883-84 : : ‘ fi . 26:0 a
», 1884-85 ; ‘ : : «ene Zz
,, 1885-86 7 : 3 : » ne
», 1886-87 : : : ; » let fe
,», 1887-88 : : : ; . pled =
», 1888-89 : 5 ; : ~ 20 -
», 1889-90 : j : ; . 184 :
», 1890-91 ; } : ; 2a »,
», 1891-92 a : d ‘ » LlDs4 ef
The returns of the Education Department given above refer to the
whole of England and Wales, and are for the school-years ending with
August 31. The statistics of the London School Board are brought
up to the year ending with Lady Day, 1893. They show still more
strikingly the advance that has been made in the teaching of elementary
science as a class subject, and they give the number of children as well
as the number of departments.
Years Departments Children
1890-91 11 2,293
1891-92 113 26,674
1892-93 156 40,208
The only alterations in the Code of this year which directly affect the
instruction of the children in elementary schools, and which come within
the scope of this Committee’s inquiries, are the addition of dairy work
and housewifery as recognised subjects of instruction for girls. These
are capable of being so taught as to be scientific in character, the first
named being necessarily experimental, and no grant being receivable
unless special and appropriate provision has been made for its practical
teaching. No grani is given as yet for housewifery. ,
With respect to the Queen’s Scholarship Examination, which is now
the final examination of pupil teachers, it is provided that marks will be
given for a pass in certain specified science subjects at the May examina-
tion of the Science and Art Department, instead of for a first class as
heretofore. Hygiene and physics are added to the list of subjects for
which marks may be given, thus allowing a greater range of choice,
though only one science subject will count for this purpose. There is,
however, a footnote added to the effect that ‘after the present year marks
will not be given at any examination for a pass at. any examination held
more than a year previously.’ Now, as the Science and Art Department’s
Examinations are held in the month of May, and those for the Queen’s
Scholarship at the end of June or beginning of July, it is evident that, in
order to gain the marks offered, the pupil teachers must take the two
examinations in thesame year, and that within two months of each other.
This will be injurious to both, and cause an unnecessary pressure upon
the candidates, who have hitherto been able to take their qualifying
certificates under the Science and Art Department in the earlier years of
their pupil-teachership. Your Committee have pointed out in previous
reports that there is no obligation upon pupil teachers to learn any
science during apprenticeship, although they may actually be required to
teach object-lessons or elementary science in school. These marks are
—— Se
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 569
the only incentive offered by the Government, and the new regulation
will tend to diminish the study of science at all. Your Committee also
lay much stress upon the continuous training of the mind by scientific
study during the whole period of apprenticeship, instead of cramming up
simply for a pass at the close. Marks will also be given now ‘to candi-
dates who shall present University Extension certificates awarded by the
University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, the Victoria Univer-
sity, and the Universities Joint Board of the London Society for the
Extension of University Teaching, provided that the certificates shall have
been awarded (after examination) during the year preceding the Queen’s
Scholarship Examination on a course of study including not less than
twenty-four lectures and classes (of which the candidates must have
attended not less than twenty) in one of the following subjects,’ amongst
which are specified ‘ geology, astronomy, meteorology.’ It appears, how-
ever, to be a hardship that some subjects in which Extension lecture
certificates can be gained should be excluded, e.g., that a pupil teacher
attending lectures and doing practical work in chemistry cannot make
use of the certificate so obtained in passing the Queen’s Scholarship
examination.
In the preceding report of your Committee it was pointed out that
evening schools had made great progress, in consequence of greater
liberty having been given in the choice of subjects—a matter which your
Committee had strongly advocated in former years. This development
has since assumed still larger proportions, as will be seen by the following
table. It should be borne in mind, however, that the Government returns
do not show how many of these passes are made in scientific subjects.
Evening Scholars taking Additional or Special Subjects.
Scholars Examined Passes Made
Years ¥
In One | In Two | In Three |In Four|} In One | In Two |In Three} In Four
Subject | Subjects | Subjects |Subjects || Subject | Subjects |Subjects | Subjects
1889-90 8,973 6,053 — — 7,101 5,454 — _—
. 1890-91 | 13,281 | 12,717 | 1,317 232 12,071 | 11,846 | 1,488 364
1891-92 | 17,357 | 17,675 | 1,413 286 16,469 | 17,392 | 2,127 464
It was pointed out in the last report that the schemes for instruction
in scientific subjects given in the Code for 1892 were unsuitable, as they
were constructed on the assumption that evening scholars would go
through a course extending over seven years. The Code has been
entirely remodelled this year, and from every point of view it presents
great improvements upon all preceding regulations. The new ideas con-
templated by the Committee of Council on Education are indicated in the
change of name to ‘Evening Continuation Schools,’ which are no longer
restricted by any age limit, adults of any age being now recognised as
scholars. Individual examination, which has always been deterrent to
the elder students, is now entirely abolished, and the grants payable by
the Government will be assessed on the result of inspection without
notice, at which observation of the manner in which the lessons are given
will be an important factor in judging the merit of the school. This
alteration will of itself greatly conduce to the more intelligent handling
of the subjects taught, and to the formative character of the work.
570 REPORT—1893.
A choice is given from about forty different subjects of instruction,
some of these being for women only. About one half of these are either
directly or indirectly of a scientific nature, and each scholar may take not
less than two or more than five of these subjects. They include—
(Huclid,
(d) Mathematics ; 3 . , Algebra,
\ Mensuration,
Elementary Physiography,
Elementary Physics and Chemistry,
Science of Common Things,
Chemistry,
Mechanics,
(e) Science subjects, and subjects / Sound, Light, and Heat,
of practical utility Magnetism and Electricity,
Human Physiology,
Botany,
Agriculture,
Horticulture,
Navigation,
together with domestic economy, cookery, laundry work, dairy work,
housewifery, and manual or technical instruction. There is the restric-
tion that no scholar may take more than two of the science subjects for a
grant. This the Committee take to mean the subjects specified in cate-
gory (e), so that two of those might be taken plus the three mathematical
subjects (d) or three of the miscellaneous subjects, domestic economy,
cookery, &c. As most of these latter may, and indeed ought to, be
taught upon scientific principles, the limitation may not in effect be of
any serious consequence ; while the last of all, ‘ Technical Instruction,’
may be made to include the practical application of the several physical
sciences included in category (e).
The various schemes suggested in the Appendix are much too detailed
to admit of being introduced into this report, but it may be mentioned
that while those for most of the subjects of instruction follow pretty
closely on the lines of those in the day schools Code, though not appor-
tioned to particular stages or as work for separate years, there are detailed
schemes given for some of the subjects which are far in advance of any-
thing that has hitherto been supplied by the Education Department. Of
these the courses of instruction prescribed for elementary physiography,
elementary physics and chemistry, agriculture, and domestic economy
are given in great detail. To that for elementary physics and chemistry,
which is described as an elementary course in practical science, a memo-
randum is appended to the following effect :—‘The second title is given
to this scheme to indicate that it is not a mere outline of a set of lectures,
but is rather a systematic course of practical instruction for the scholars
themselves. The complete set of experiments should be carried out by
the class (¢.e., the scholars) as a whole. The whole course may reasonably
extend over two or even three years.’
Your Committee are glad to recognise in this the adoption of the
principles which were laid down in their report read at the Cardiff meet-
ing in 1891, and hope that the improved methods of instruction suggested
in the continuation school Code may be largely adopted in the elementarv
day schools.
ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 571
Reference was made in the report of this Committee in 1891 to the
appointment of additional science demonstrators by the School Board for
London, and to the fact that these demonstrators were endeavouring to
initiate practical work by the scholars in a number of schools under their
charge. Two years’ experience has shown, not only, as was to be expected,
that the children take the greatest interest in such lessons, in which they
are led to gain information through their own observations and experi-
ments, and to draw conclusions therefrom, but that it is possible, even
under the present admittedly unfavourable conditions, to accomplish
much valuable work of this character; and, in fact, the scheme which
has been introduced into the Evening Continuation School Code is largely
based on the experience thus gained in the London School Board.
Moreover, experience has shewn that the ordinary teachers are capable
of carrying such a scheme as that put forward in the Evening Code into
execution, after receiving the necessary special instruction, provided that
they are thoroughly supervised and aided by constant inspection ; and
such a method of instruction and supervision of the teachers has been
recognised in the Code of 1893 (Section I. 5*, p. 2). It is to be hoped
that County Councils may be led to give help in these matters, as their
work would be much forwarded by such instruction in scientific method
being given to those whom subsequently they specially wish to reach.
Finally, your Committee urge that no time should be lost in extending
instruction in measurement, &c., such as is indicated in the Evening Code,
to girls’ schools, as the habits which can be acquired through such in-
struction are precisely those which are of importance in carrying on
household work.
The Methods of Economic Training adopted in this and other
Countries.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
W. CunnincHam (Chairman), Professor E. C. K. GONNER
(Secretary), Professor F. Y. EpGEworTH, Professor H. 8. Fox-
WELL, Dr. J. N. Keynes, and Mr. H. Hiaas.
Your Committee have succeeded in obtaining a quantity of interesting
information from French, German, Italian, Austrian, Spanish, Belgian,
Dutch, Russian, and Scandinavian universities, as well as from the
United States and Canada, but much of it has been so delayed that it has
not been possible to draft a complete report for the present meeting.
While deferring, therefore, the presentation of its detailed report
until next year, your Committee wish to express their conviction of
the unsatisfactory conditions attending economic instruction in this
country.
As compared with the better equipped among the foreign countries
with which comparison would naturally be challenged, the inferior
organisation of teaching in the United Kingdom is very striking. For
this there seem to be two main causes :—
(1) The omission of many teachers to adequately recognise methods
of empirical study.
(2) A very prominent and present cause—the practical exclusion of
Economics from the curricula and examinations preliminary to those
professions in connection with which its study would appear peculiarly
572 REPORT—1893.
suitable. The importance of applied Economics has not been sufficiently
recognised either in university or in Government examinations.
Before presenting a fuller account of the inquiries undertaken on their
behalf, and of the methods whereby in their opinion desirable changes
might be effected, your Committee desire further time for consideration.
For this purpose they ask for reappointment.
The Climatological and Hydrographical Conditions of Tropical
Africa.—Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
E. G. RavENSTEIN (Chairman), Mr. BaLpwin LatHaM, Mr. G. J.
Symons, F.R.S., and Dr. H. R. Mitt (Secretary). (Drawn up
by Mr. E. G. RavENSTEIN.)
THE Committee held five meetings and carried on the double work of
supplying instruments to competent observers, and collecting the records
of meteorological observations already made in tropical Africa.
Sets of instruments have been supplied (1) to Dr. W. H. Murray for
use in Nyasaland (on account of the observer’s health breaking down,
these instruments were left in store at Ke’limani, and transferred to Mr.
J. Buchanan); (2) to Mr. Moir in Nyassaland; (3) to the Rev. Mr.
Glennie at Bolobo, on the Congo; (4) to M. Bonzon, on the Ogowe;
and (5) to Captain Gallwey in Benin. Of these, Mr. Moir’s and Captain
Gallwey’s sets have been erected in their permanent positions, and
Captain Gallwey has commenced to send in regular monthly sheets. A
sixth set of instruments has been acquired for the use of the Rev. Mr.
Morris, of British East Africa.
Records of previous work have been received since last report from
the Rev. Mr. Glennie (at Bolobo, on the Congo) for two years, from Fort
Salisbury, and from eight stations in British East Africa.
Forms for recording meteorological observations and copies of the
‘Hints to Observers ’ drawn up by the Committee have been supplied to
many observers in different parts of Africa.
The Committee’s instructions have been adopted by the Royal
Geographical Society, and incorporated in the new edition of ‘ Hints to
Travellers.’
Your Committee have expended the 50/. granted, and they beg to
propose that they be reappointed, and thaa grant be made of 261.
The Dryness of Steam in Boiler Trials.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir F. BramwELL (Chairman), Professor W. C.
Unwin (Secretary), Professor A. B. W. KENNEDY, Mr. Mair
RumuLey, Mr. JeEREMIAH Heap, and _ Professor OsBoRNE
REYNOLDs.
Owine to various circumstances the Committee are not in a position to
report at this meeting. The subject is one of some importance, and
some new methods of testing the dryness of steam have lately been pro-
posed. The Committee ask, therefore, to be reappointed, with a view
of preparing a report for the next meeting.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 573
The Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science.—
Third Report by Professor H. S. HELE Suaw, M.Jnst.C.L£.
GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS.
Tux first and preliminary report on this subject was presented in 1889.
The second report was presented last year, and was divided into four
parts.
1. General geometrical considerations.
2. The representation of results graphically.
3. Graphical solution of problems.
4, A tabulated list of reference to graphic methods to be found in
the scientific literature of this country.
Only a brief treatment of the third division was possible. This in-
cluded quotations from various authors concerning the development of
the subject and a summary of graphical problems, though a more com-
plete account was given of two of these branches, viz., slide rules and
mechanical integrators.
The present Committee was appointed to prepare a third report on
the subject, dealing as completely as possible with the unfinished portion
of the report, viz., ‘The Solution of Problems.’
The study of the second report, particularly of the classified list of
references, conclusively shows that graphical solutions have in this
country at any rate proceeded almost entirely on two lines.
1, Interpolation of plotted results.
2. Use of reciprocal diagrams in structures.
The former, although arriving at results which would be difficult, if
not impossible, to obtain in any other way, is itself a remarkably simple
operation, the chief part of the work really consisting in the preparation
of the diagrams in which the interpolation is made. This matter was
treated very fully in the second report, both for plotted curves and
instrumental methods for obtaining them.
The latter, viz., use of reciprocal diagrams, is largely employed,
chiefly because of its simplicity. It forms, however, only one branch of
what is now known as ‘ Graphical Statics,’ which in turn only includes
one class, although the most important class of graphical problems.
Moreover, the cases treated by its means are nearly always the simplest,
and do not involve the use of more complete solutions which have been
given by various writers for cases of more difficult problems in struc-
tures. There has been, however, a large amount of research in connection
with the subject, of which little practical use is at present made, and
while, on the one hand, many writers strongly advocate the application
in practice of graphical statics (vide ‘ Quotations,’ pp. 420-426, second
report), on the other hand there is a large amount of scepticism as to
the use which may be derived from the study of the subject.
What is apparently needed is a definite statement of the general
nature of graphical operations followed by a concise account of the
574 REPORT—1 893.
solutions of the various engineering problems at present scattered over
various books and papers in English and foreign literature. This should
convey a clear idea of the problems which can be dealt with, so that
their practical use can be estimated. The bare statement of the problems
would, however, be scarcely sufficient for this purpose, since not only
must the problems be such as are required, but the solution must not be
too difficult, or the ideas too abstruse for practical engineers. Some
application to practical results would, therefore, be advisable, leaving,
however, as a general rule, the proofs and explanation to be derived from
the works which are quoted. This important work cannot be attempted
so as to do justice to it in the present report, which merely gives a
classified outline of the problems.
It is not to be expected that the graphical methods will come into
general use unless special training and education on the subject can be
obtained at technical colleges and schools. As a good deal has been said
and written on this subject (vide second report), this report has been
supplemented with an account of the teaching of graphical methods in
engineering schools at home and abroad as explained on p. 608.
The following is an outline of the scheme of the present report :—
Division I.—Graphical Operations in General.
Division II.—Summary of Problems which have graphical solu-
tions.
Division III.—The Teaching of Graphical Methods.
Drviston I.—GrapHicaL OPERATIONS IN GENERAL.
As already noted, graphical operations are distinguished from mere
geometrical operations by the fact that definite portions of lines repre-
sent quantities, and only such geometrical operations are of interest as
enable definite numerical results to be obtained.
It is true that a very common graphical operation is that of finding
the direction of the line in which the resultant of various given forces act ;
but direction itself, though it may not always be numerically expressed,
is capable of being so expressed if required. Indeed, it is this particular
power of being able to deal directly with the directions in which forces
act, or motion takes place, and with positions in space, instead of first
translating these measurable quantities into mathematical symbols and
calculating the results by means of trigonometry or algebra, and finally
effecting their reconversion into some geometrical mode of representation,
that constitutes the great value of graphical methods. It is this that
has led to the discovery of the solution of such a large number of
engineering problems and its growing popularity amongst scientific men.
We may treat graphically many problems in which direction or
position is not either of them the factors which actually occur, but in
which they simply become a part of the process of performing mathe-
matical operations; thus treatises on graphic statics frequently com-
mence by stating the means by which multiplication, extraction of roots,
solution of equations, &c., may be graphically performed. It is tolerably
clear that the reason why the operation of these numerical calculations by
graphic methods has never been put to any practical use is because such
work is most easily performed arithmetically.
The problems which arise in engineering are, however, to a large
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 575
extent connected with the action of force and the motion of bodies in
space, in which cases direction and position are direct factors in the
problem. In the great majority of cases the action of such forces may be
practically taken as in space of two dimensions, and therefore capable of
direct representation upon a plane surface; but it is satisfactory to know
that the resources of graphic methods are equally capable of dealing with
cases in which three dimensions of space must be considered, and that,
by the aid of descriptive geometry, drawings on a plane surface may be
made to completely represent the conditions of such problems. Indeed,
the fundamental property which underlies the whole of graphical opera-
tions employed for the solution of problems, viz., ‘reciprocity,’ has very
similar interpretation, at any rate in mechanics, both in two dimensions of
space and in three. In any case, however, it is a plane surface which is
operated upon, and the question as to what can be done with a plane
surface as regards quantities represented or dealt with upon it must be
considered.
Upon a plane surface we can represent the position of a point, and,
supposing the point to move, we can further represent its path by a line
or assemblage of points, any given portion of which has a definite
numerical length. In every position that the point takes along the line
it has a definite direction, and the direction of the motion of the point,
or, as it is commonly called, the ‘direction’ of the line, for that position
of the point can also be stated as a definite numerical quantity. These
properties of direction and length, as already noted (vide second report),
are equivalent to a knowledge of the position of points on a surface. It
is these numerical properties which give the means of graphical operation,
because without such properties being introduced the operation would
be purely geometrical. Sometimes we may require as the solution of a
problem only one of these, as, for instance, length, in a mere problem of
graphical calculation. Sometimes another property may be required, e.g.,
direction, as in the case of the line of pressure in an arch, or the slope
at any point of a bent girder; but in all cases we employ two at least of
these properties in the graphical solution of a problem.
It may scarcely be remarked that although we may actually operate
with straight lines we obtain by their intersections assemblages of
points giving curves of various orders, or, what amounts in the limit to
the same thing, envelops, the straight lines being then tangents to the
curve. The distinction between these two ways of regarding curves,
although important in geometry, does not present itself very prominently
in graphical problems.
The direction of a line at any point may be always supposed to be
about some centre, real or imaginary, to which it may be referred, no
matter what curve the line may take. In practice, however, the lines
used for graphical operations are chiefly limited to the case when the
centre is at infinity, that is, to straight lines. The reasons for this are
obvious, for straight lines of limited length or ‘segments’ are readily
measured, and have a constant direction, which is easily expressed. Arcs
of circles in some cases might be employed, for the curvature is constant ;
but no curve offers the same advantages for the general purposes of
graphical manipulation as a straight line. There is another and deeper
reason for the use of straight lines or rows of points, viz., the fact that
forces act, and bodies tend to move in straight lines, and hence the
576 REPORT—1893.
problems in connection with the most important physical phenomena are
necessarily performed by operations with straight lines.
Operations with straight lines or segments have been classified under
heads and collected into books. One of the earliest writers to do this
was Culmann, and the first chapter of his work, ‘ Die graphische Statik,’
published in 1866, has the title, ‘Operations with Lines,’ and contains
the following headings :—
1. Addition and subtraction.
2. Multiplication and division of lines with ratios.
3. Powers and roots.
4. Multiplication of lines with lines.
Other writers! practically adopt the same classification, and it will be
well, in order to save repetition, to take his statements for consideration.
This classification practically divides the subject into—
1. Addition.
2. Multiplication.
Now there exists between these two processes, as set forth by the
writers in question, a radical distinction which does not exist between
the ordinary arithmetical processes under the same names.
To illustrate the latter let the segment A A, (fig. 1) be taken, and
let us add to it any number of segments. This operation is shown in the
figure, the sum or result being A A, A, Az... Aj.
Fig. 1.
A Aj
A, Az
Az As
ne
Speman SxAp ST a As a
If, however, we wish to take any multiple of the segment A A), say
m times, then the product or the result is shown in fig. 2 as the length
of the segment A A, ... A,.
Fig. 2.
A +
‘A,
Aly A <4 As Ay.
=
A
These two operations correspond to the arithmetical ideas of addition
and multiplication. But in arithmetic we have a definite process for the
1 Amongst writers on the subject may be quoted :—Cousinery, Le Calcul par le
Trait, Paris, 1840; Eggers, Grundziige einer graphischen Arithmetik, Schafthausen,
Vienna, 1868-69; Jager, Das graphische Rechnen, Speyer, 1867; Von Ott, Die
Grundziige des graphischen Rechnens, Prague, 1879; Favaro, Sulle prime operazioni
del Calcolo grafico, Venice, 1872; Bellavitis, Considerazioni sulla Matematica pura,
Venice, 1872; Cremona, Hlementi di Calcolo grafico, Turin, 1874.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 577
performing of multiplication, the graphical analogue of which is as
follows:—
At any arbitrary angle to the given segment A A, (fig. 3) set off a
segment, A B,, of unit length and produce it to B,, so that A B,=n
units of length. Join A, B,, and through B, draw B, A, parallel to
A, B,, meeting A A, produced in A,,.
Then
SAS AA p= A AAS. 2d AL:
Fig. 3.
B,
B;
A As
An
This process, it will be noted, necessitates the employment of the two
dimensions of a plane surface, but only gives results involving one dimen-
sion, as the direction is quite an arbitrary matter.
Culmann and other writers, however, do not limit the idea of addition
to parallel segments, but extend it as follows:
Let it be required to add the segments A A,, A, Ag, ... fig. 4,
now no longer parallel. The process of doing this is shown, and A A, is
said to be the graphical sum or result of the operation. This idea is
Fia. 4.
Ae Az
extended to three dimensions of space ; thus Culmann says: ‘ The lines
may have any direction whatever in space, and the figure can then be
looked upon as a projection upon the paper. If such a combination of
1893. PP
578 REPORT—1893.
lines should really be made, two such projections would be necessary to
determine the position and length of the resultant, and the lines would
have to be projected according to the rules of descriptive geometry.’
Now the foregoing operation on a plane surface really involves the
addition of two independent variables, viz., length and direction, being
equivalent to taking the actual position in space of two dimensions of
each successive point, instead of in space of one dimension, as in the first
case. The result, which gives the final position of a point in the plane,
also involves two measurements, which may be expressed as the length of
a segment, and its direction relatively to a line. If three dimensions of
space be used, then the operation involves three independent variables,
and the results may be also expressed as such in terms of either three
distances from three fixed points, or as one distance and two directions
with fixed planes.
We look in vain for any analogous operation given in books under
the heading of graphical multiplication. The above process, although
extended so as to meet the various requirements for which it is employed,
is the only other means of graphical operation. We may, however,
suggest a corresponding process by which a segment A A, having length
and direction may have both these magnitudes multiplied ten times, and
Fig. 5.
0.- =e
yee
As =
Q z
re ok oS a ee » Alo
\ As
Aé
this can be done as shown in fig. 5. Here A A, is the given length, and
OAA, the given angle. The successive segments, A A,, A, Ay, A> Az,
. are set off at the given angle to each other, starting from A A).
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 579
The nature of the operation evidently gives only the total length and total
angle made by the segments. The length and direction of the ‘resultant’
segment, A Ajo, have no meaning.
This case makes it clear that the true sum in the case of addition, and
the product in the case of multiplication, must be taken for length along
or parallel to the line itself, whilst the resultant angle must be con-
sidered to be that turned through by a Jine passing through A, which
occupies positions successively parallel to the various segments. Now,
in the so-called graphical addition we get neither one nor the other of
these quantities, but a certain measure of each. Concerning this Culmann
says: ‘ As resultant or sum of this addition we must naturally consider
the final point of one such line. Hence in the case when all the lines
have the same direction, the distance of the final point will be equal to
the sum or difference of all the lines,’ but the sentence goes on to say :
‘Just as it is impossible to take from the sum of several magnitudes the
value of a separate magnitude, we cannot here obtain from the position
of the final point alone those of the separate segments,’ which looks
strongly as if the writer felt there was some radical difference, which,
however, he does not define. The difference between the two things is,
however, really the key to the whole subject, the process of graphical
addition being really of two separate kinds which are mixed up together,
one involving only one kind of thing, and corresponds to simple arithmetic,
and the other involving the use of two dimensions of space and two kinds
of quantities, and leading to the most important graphical results. It
seems not advisable to consider the latter as a simple matter of graphical
addition. In this report, therefore, the words ‘graphical addition’
will be limited to what appears to be really its legitimate use, and the
expression ‘ graphical combination’ will be employed to express the idea
of combining non-parallel segments, the word ‘sum’ being employed to
signify the result in the former case, and the ‘resultant,’ as usually em-
ployed, retained solely for the latter. In the case of multiplication,
where two dimensions of space are already used to perform the multipli-
cation, only the simple arithmetical idea is involved.
A recognition of this difference leads to a clear view of the actual
nature of problems in which the same figures and construction may be
used to find the magnitude and direction of the resultant segment, and
also at the same time to perform the multiplication of the given segments
by quantities which may depend upon their relative positions. It is
therefore necessary, before proceeding further, to consider the question
of multiplication. In Culmann’s work (second edition), page 7, a state-
ment is made under the heading ‘ Multiplication and Division of Lines
by Ratios.’
‘We distinguish two cases in the multiplication and division.
‘The multiplication or division of lines by ratios. In this case the
degree is not altered, and the result is a line.
‘The multiplication of lines by lines, which gives surfaces, and of
surfaces by lines, which gives volumes, &c., and inversely the division of
volumes by lines, which produces surfaces, and so on. In this case there
is a change in the degree.’
The first of these, viz., the operation of multiplying by a ratio of the
value n, is the same as taking the segment n times in the way already
explained. It is true that Culmann says:—
‘In many cases one considers the case where the ratio is given by a
PP2
580 REPORT— 1 893.
number, and if one gives for a multiplier the length 1, 2, 3,...n,
one carries it 1, 2,3, ... times uponaline. This method, although
very simple, does not entirely harmonise with the methods of graphic
statics. Graphical construction can only give lines and not numbers,
and, more, one can only carry out graphical construction by means of
lines. To carry n times the same length upon a line is equivalent to
translating the given number into a line, exactly as the measuring off
and plotting of the last line correspond to the translating of the closing
line into the result. We will therefore always suppose that the ratio of
the factor is expressed by means of two lines, m and n.’
This really means that, as already seen, the actual method of obtaining
graphically the product of a line must be by means of a graphical operation,
which operation has been shown to be by the use of similar triangles, in
which the multiplier figures as a ratio which from our point of view
is 7:
With regard to the second division this is studied in two separate
chapters under the respective titles of ‘ The Transformation of the Reduc-
tion of Areas’ and ‘The Transformation of Volumes.’ The first edition
of the above work had as a heading of one division, ‘ Multiplication of
Lines by Lines,’ the contents of which practically amounted to the re-
duction of areas to lineal representation, although another chapter relates
to the surfaces and volumes. Now the statement that the multiplication
of lines by lines gives surfaces cannot be admitted without some qualifi-
cation. lt may perhaps be convenient to use such an expression, but
geometrically this is not really true, and may prove very misleading in
graphic statics. From any point of view multiplication simply consists
in a process of addition, and no addition of lines can possibly give an area.
What the idea arises from is of course evident, for an area may be
regarded as the mean length of a figure multiplied by the mean breadth,
simply because unit of area is a surface which may be regarded as of
. unit dimension in each of the above directions, and therefore any other
area contains the number of units of area represented by the product of
mean length and breadth. Lines may represent these two quantities,
and in this sense alone may be regarded as being multiplied together.
Thus an indicator diagram, in which length and breadth respectively
represent volume and pressure, may be said to show the product as
foot-pounds of work, but this is only because a unit of area on the diagram
represents to scale a unit of work, or 1 foot-pound. The total areais given
by the product of the two quantities representing mean pressure and
mean volume.
The foregoing considerations may thus be summed up as indicating
the manner in which the remainder of this section wil! be treated.
(1) Segments are the means by which graphical operations are chiefly
performed, the result being either the final length or direction of a
segment. Therefore quantities must be reduced to segments before they
can be dealt with. Hence area and volume must be represented by
straight lines, and the means of doing this will be considered first.
(2) Addition is confined to segments in one direction, 7.¢., to continuous
straight lines, or parallel segments.
(3) Multiplication is the operation of adding graphically a given
number of equal segments, but requires the use of two dimensions of
space to be practically useful in the solution of problems. Thus multipli-
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 581i
cation is limited to finding length, although it might be applied to
multiplying an angle if practically useful, both operations, however, not
being performed simultaneously.
REPRESENTATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES BY MBaANS oF SEGMENTS.
It may be assumed that any concrete quantity to be dealt with by a
graphic operation is given in terms of a numerical quantity, and may be
at once represented to some scale by a ‘segment,’ ! understanding by this
word, unless qualified (as, for instance, segment of a circle), some definite
distance between two points; that is, the length of a straight line.
A geometrical quantity, however, in the form of a curved line, or of
an area or volume, has frequently to be dealt with, and this must first be
represented by a segment. There are means of calculating such areas or
volumes, and in the second report a section was devoted to the mechanical
means of doing this. It is, however, necessary to have methods of doing
this graphically, and such methods are generally treated, not only in
books on graphic statics, but in treatises on descriptive geometry.
Areas may be divided into polygons and figures bounded by curves.
The former may be always reduced to asingle triangle by the well-known .
method of drawing successive parallels. The area of any triangle may in
its turn be represented by a segment equal to the altitude of another
triangle, of the same area as the former, but with a base equal to twice
the unit of length. The polygon need not, however, be reduced to a
triangle, and there are various methods which avoid doing this, although
the principle of the operation is the same in all cases.
If the boundary be curved the figure can be split into a polygon
bounded by the curved figures, which may be supposed to be segments
of parabolas. Now, the segment of a parabola is 4 the area of a triangle,
upon the same base and of the same altitude, and therefore by making
triangles upon each parabolic sector, having their altitudes respectively $
that of the parabola’s segment, and adding them all to the original
polygon, the operation of reducing the area of the figure becomes merely
that of reducing the new formed polygon.
A special case is that in which the bounding curve is an arc of a
circle, the area of which is occasionally required ; as, for instance, in the
case of an arch, the extrados and intrados of which may have different
centres. In this case the first step involves finding a segment equal in
length to an are, or, as it is called, the ‘rectification’ of the arc, which
is also occasionally required in other graphical problems. Rankine
suggests two methods, in one of which a tangent is drawn at one ex-
tremity to meet a radial line through a point on the arc a quarter of its
length from that extremity. The sum of the distances from the two
extremities to the above point differs from the length of the are by a
distance (r being the radius).
_ (are)? (arc)?
~ 4320r4 * 348464875
This construction requires the centre of curvature of an are.
The other method does not require the centre of the curvature, but
- as
* Some American writers use the term ‘sect,’ and this term, though open to ob-
jection, is perhaps even less so than ‘ segment,’ which has generally been used for a
different kind of geometrical quantity.
582 REPORT—1893. ‘
consists in producing the chord of the are to a point, half its own length
distant, and with this point as centre, and with a radius equal to $ of
the chord, drawing an arc to meet the tangent at that extremity of the arc
which is nearer the centre. The length of the tangent so intercepted
differs from the actual length of the arc by a distance.
5 re)7
qe (arc) (arc)?
108014 * 5443278
Culmann states that ‘the only practical method of setting off an arc
along a tangent is to plot a chord the same number of times both along
the arc and along the tangent, and to add the final remainder’ (this
ape
Fig. 6.
operation being indicated in fig. 6), and remarks that this raises the
question as to how great an arc must be chosen in order that the error
should not be greater than d when an arc @ is measured by the plotting
of the chord / along it. The difference between an arc and its chord is
a? a?
Ax6 746. Ssl0.Ps 1a
= and subtracting from the
arc a (r denoting the radius of the arc). The error d therefore is | times
a
this being obtained by expanding from 2r sin
this difference, since the arc w has been plotted l times along/. We have
a
therefore
1 a a?l
a Bde? 24?”
the arc a being chosen so small that the second member of the difference
may be neglected with regard to the first ; in which case
sor f
z
. ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 583
Hence it follows in practice that ;},th of an inch (say 5}, in.) will be
sufficiently accurate, and if this value be substituted for d we get
a= —'—
ec
where / is in inches; then if the arc to be measured is 4 in. long, a
must be taken qin. ; but if it be 25 in. long, then must
Y fae 3
a= 10.
15
Culmann recommends that a should never be chosen smaller than
is required by these formule ; for by plotting off the chord too many times
the accuracy due to the smaller difference between the arc and chord
is again lost.
He remarks that this method is much more exact than attempting to
divide the arc into a certain number of equal parts. He also mentions
the method published by Herr Hanacek in the ‘ Zeitschrift des Oester-
reichischen Ingenieur und Architecten Vereins,’ 1871, which is really the _
construction of a length from the following formula :—
— Peay ‘is
s=2VP+P+h,
2
when chord of } are = J//? + f?, and 5 is the segment of the base of a
right-angled triangle whose height is f (7.e., the height of the arc), the
other segment being 3/7, where 2/ is the chord of the arc.
Culmann remarks about the method : ‘It is more practical and more
correct to take the length a, by means of which we measure an arc so
small that it should not require any correction, which is better than to
measure half the length of the arc, haviug to correct this measure before-
hand.’ He also shows that the above formula when expanded gives
2 1 1
= aa (ee a ey ed Pe ps
‘ 21 (1+5 att tag! ),
where
pal.
ie
whereas the correct value is really
2, 2 2
= Sa avegs Supple wg eee ley
a (145 15 oes )
and by means of an example proves that for a semicircle the error is
inadmissible.
Cremona, however, remarks about Culmann’s method (‘ Graphical
Calculus,’ English translation, page 114): ‘The method given by Cul-
mann for developing the circular arc A B along the tangent at one of its
points is much too long. The length of the circular arc may be found
graphically in a much simpler fashion by having recourse to auxiliary
curves, which drawn once for all can be employed in every example,’ and
proceeds to give the methods suggested by Professor A. Sayno, of Milan,
584 REPORT—1893.
for two of which the spiral of Archimedes is employed, and in the third
the hyperbolic spiral.
Lastly, there is a method of rectifying the semicircle given b
Kochanski, about 1685 (see Cremona), in which an angle at 30° laid
off at the extremity of a vertical diameter meets the tangent to the latter
from the point of intersection ; along the tangent a distance equal to three
times that of the radius is taken, giving a point whose distance from the
extremity of the vertical diameter is
l=rJ/ 4+ (3 —tan 30°)
=3'14153r.
Using one of the foregoing methods for finding geometrically the length
of an arc, the area of the sector of a circle can now be found by drawing
a tangent to the arc equal to it in length and joining the extremities of
the segment with the centre. The area of the triangle so found is equal
to the area of the sector.
Culmann has compared the difference of area resulting from the as-
sumption of a parabolic arc or of a circular are as the approximate form
of the bounding curve of an area.
Let F, = the area of a circular segment.
ees 5 parabolic 5
1 a 1 dL
By=4Y (5+ Oss pte! - :
=H (5 +r33° 35.7" t72
1
i
and 2 a Jt
(f, 1, and ¢ having the same values as previously),
the difference F,-F, a Ih x : yak
1 »
or <j ?xF.
: 1
Therefore if =
erefore 1 i i0 U
the difference < aa F,.
In the reduction of volumes to segments the same principles and con-
structions are employed as in the reductions of areas.
Thus, if
V=volume=area x /
=Dbhl,
where b, h, and J are respectively the breadth, height, and length,
by taking two of these equal to a certain unit base, then for the third a
value can be obtained in terms of which volume can be measured, and
the volume represented by a segment. Many special problems occur
in connection with canals and earthwork which admit of graphical
solution by means of the foregoing principles.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 585
ADDITION OF SEGMENTS.
Concerning addition of segments, in the sense which it is suggested
that this operation should be regarded, only a few remarks need be made.
The chief points to be observed is that if a movement of a point in one
direction along a straight line is considered positive, movement in the
opposite direction is considered negative. Also, that if A, B, C, D, &c.,
are collinear points, that is, points lying on a straight line, then
mee Or OD es. ws +MN+NA=0;
which is the same as saying
me BG OU poe... as + MN — AN=0.
This rule of signs can be extended to curved lines and surfaces, and
English readers will find the subject treated at length in the first chapter
of Cremona’s ‘ Graphical Calculus.’
CoMBINATION OF SEGMENTS.
In the preceding paragraphs the direction of the segment has not
been taken into account as a measurable quantity, although the properties
of direction form the basis of certain constructions which have been
mentioned. It has been shown that the process of combination by drawing
equipollent (equal and parallel) segments is simple, and it need scarcely
be said that the order in which the segments are taken is a matter of
indifference, the resultant being the same in every case; since no matter
in what order a series of movements are made the final change of position
must be the same, though this is generally stated and proved formally as
a sort of proposition. Cremona further gives and quotes various other
propositions relating to the combination of segments which, though in-
teresting, have little bearing upon the subject matter of the present
report.
One well-known property, however, of general application requires
notice.
Let AB, BC,CD, DE, . . . fig. 7, be segments, the notation denot-
ing the direction in which they are measured. At any point O,; in A B
draw two segments, O,a, Ob, of such length that, in the equipollent
diagram OA'B’, A’B’ becomes the resultant found by combining O,a and
O,b. Proceed in the same way with a point O, in BC, which is found by
producing O,b to meet BC, the triangle O B’C’ being the equipollent
diagram. It is clear that the order of procedure might have been re-
versed, and any point O being first chosen the rays OA’, OB’, . . . might
‘have been drawn, and the polygon 0, 0,0, . . . then found.
These two diagrams have the well-known relation, that for every
point from which lines radiate in one there exists a corresponding closed
figure in the other.
Thus to O, corresponds the triangle O A’ B’
O. s e O B’ C’
If the end lines O,a and O,e be produced to meet at O;, then to O
corresponds the polygon O, O, O; O, O;.
586 REPORT— 1893.
When the correspondence exists in two figures they are said to be
reciprocal to each other, but the case given is only a special one of amore
general theorem, hereafter considered. The diagram marked I. is alluded
HIG: 7.
to as the ‘ first derived diagram,’ and that marked II. as the ‘ second derived
diagram ’"—terms which might with advantage be respectively substituted
for the present ones of ‘ force’ polygon and ‘ cord,’ ‘ rope,’ or ‘ funicular’
polygon, since the figures are themselves perfectly general in their appli-
cations.
Ifthe segments to be combined do not all lie in one plane, the projections
on two planes must he obtained and combined in each, just as for the
case of given segments in a plane; but the points from which the first
lines and the derived polygon are drawn must be the projection of the
same points in space. The two resultants so obtained are the projections
of the true resultant of the given segments.” The method of projection
on planes enables the properties of segments in space to be dealt with
in the same way as with segments in planes. The figures so obtained
are reciprocal, but they are the projection of solid bodies, the bounding
planes of which intersect in the given segments, and the solids themselves
are also said to be reciprocal.
In fig. 7 the point O would be the vertex of a pyramid, but cases in
which there are polyhedra of other forms of every possible kind also fall
under the same laws relating to reciprocal figures.
A large number of theorems have been discovered as a result of
combining segments in this way. Thus, suppose two segments are to be
combined, the magnitudes of which are constant, but which take every
possible direction, the inclination of both making the same angles on
opposite sides of the vertical. The locus of the resultant, having the
fixed point for its centre, is an ellipse, the major and minor axes of
which are respectively a+b, and a—b, a and 6 being the respective
segments. If this theorem is extended to three dimensions of space the
locus of the surface described by the extremity of the resultant is an
ellipsoid. Rankine’s ellipse and ellipsoid of stress, also the ellipse and
ellipsoid of strain, follow from this proposition. Again, if the two seg-
ments are always in the same direction, and, though not constant in
) Professor Ritter, of Zurich, in a conversation with the writer of this report
expressed his approval of the terms above suggested, and stated that they were
already used in a treatise by Herr M. Nehls, Director of Waterworks, Hamburg.’
? It is to be noted that this applies to segments as such.
a
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 587
length, have a constant product, the locus of one extremity of their
resultant (the other extremity being at a fixed point) is an hyperbola.
MULTIPLICATION OF SEGMENTS,
The simple process by which a segment is multiplied any given
number of times has been already alluded to. This is done in many ways
by using the properties of similar triangles.
It is often required to multiply a number of segments by one multi-
plier, in which case the following constructions (in which the multiplier
is taken as K) may be used, all depending upon the property of corre-
spondence in two rows of points.
(1) Take any point O (fig. 8) and set off the segments O A, OB, OC,
,-_- - in one direction ; take any other point P at a distance of unity
from this line or the line produced. Draw from P a perpendicular to the
direction of the line meeting it in a, and take on Paw a distance P a/=K.
Fig. 8.
Draw through a’ a straight line parallel to OD, meeting the pencil ot
rays PO, PA, PB, . . . in the points O’, A’,B’,...
Then
O’A’/=K.0OA
O’B’=K .OB
O’/C’=K .0C
(2) Now suppose the point, instead of being taken at unit distance,
to be infinitely distant, the pencil of rays will be parallel.. Along O D»
Fig. 9.
588 REPORT— 1893.
(fig. 9) take Oa=1, and at any angle take Oa’=K. Joinaa’. Through
ABCD... draw AA’, BB’,CC’,... parallel toaa’. Then
OA’=K .OA
OB’=K .OB
OG’ =K .OC
(3) If the two rows of points intersect in points which do not corre-
spond, the property of the parabola may be employed.
Let O A, OB, OC,. . . (fig. 10) be given segments ; take O a along
the same line equal to unity (or ); at any angle to Oa draw the line
OO’, where O’/a’/=O/O=K (orn K). Draw a parabola having Oa and
0 O’ tangents at a and O’.
Fig. 10.
If AA’, BB’, CC’, . . . are tangents,
O’/A’/=K .OA
OB =K.OB
OC —K.0C
The problem of successively multiplying OA by K,, K,, K;, . . . is
of course practically the same as the foregoing, but may be performed in
four ways, mentioned by Cremona.!
It may be required to multiply a segment by a series of quantities
successively. This may be done by various constructions, of which
Cremona, Favaro, and others give several. The process in all cases
simply consists in a repetition of ordinary multiplication, the construction
being modified for the sake of convenience.
The quantity by which a segment may be required to be multiplied
may be numerically equal to itself, in which case (which is equivalent to
1 P. 49 et seq., English translation.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 589
finding its square) the operation may be repeated any number of times,
and any power of a quantity found. Methods of performing this opera-
tion graphically are given in various books. JReuleaux! gives six
methods. In the first, two lines at any angle are drawn, and from their
point of intersection are taken lengths equal to unity and to a on one,
and equal to a on the other. Joining the extremity of unity on one, and
of @ on the other, and drawing through a on the first a parallel to it
gives a point distant from the intersection equal to a?, and soon. The
second is a similar construction, except that the lines joining the first two:
are drawn perpendicular to each other. The third and fourth are prac-
tically the same. In the fifth a semicircle is drawn with diameter equal
to unity, and a chord is drawn from one extremity of the diameter equal
toa. From the point of intersection with the circle a perpendicular is.
dropped on the diameter, and the segment intercepted between this per-
pendicular and the end of the diameter originally used is equal to a?. By
repeating this process with a” instead of a, a‘ is obtained ; the segment of
the chord cut off by the perpendicular from the chord of length a? is equal
to a. The sixth method consists in drawing two lines at right angles,
setting off on one the value of unity and also of a, and along the other
only the value of a; the extremities of a on one and unity on the other
are then joined, and from the extremity of a on the first a parallel is
drawn intersecting the other line. The vector gives a?. This process,
continued by drawing a succession of perpendiculars, gives the powers
up to any required value. This construction with any initial angle gives.
a spiral, the right angle being a special case, and the general case is
given by Cremona; Jager has pointed out that not only do the vectors
represent a geometrical progression, but also the corresponding sides of
the spiral intercepted by successive vectors.
The various methods of finding roots are much the same as the fore-
going, the equiangular spiral being the most useful curve for this
purpose. Favaro (p. 45) treats at some length the properties of this
spiral, and gives its applications. He also gives the following con-
struction for obtaining the cube root of a segment :—
Take a semicircle upon a segment O A (fig. 11) equal to unity. Set
up a perpendicular AI, and through O draw any straight line, cutting
the semicircle in C and the perpendicular AI in B. With O as centre
Wig. 11.
oO D A £
and OC as radius, draw an are cutting O A in D,, and draw D, D perpen-
dicular to O A, meeting in D the are drawn through B with O as centre,
1 Der Konstructewr, 4th edit., p. 87 et seq.
590 REPORT—1893.
Join OD, and draw a perpendicular to it through D, cutting OA pro-
duced in E.
Then OD=3/0K.
In this way points on a curve can be found. Having obtained the curve,
any cube root (say of /) can be found by setting off a length
OE=1.
Upon O E describe a semicircle intersecting the curve in D.
Then OD=7i.
Culmann treats the subject of roots, and shows how to obtain the
value of aie
w=%/abe,
. 3 .
that is of Z=a/; ute.
a a @
Cremona treats fully the use of the logarithmic curve in the extraction
of roots, and shows how to find by its use
/p,XpoXpyX -. + Py
Probably the most important of all graphical constructions in relation
to mechanical science is that which gives the sum of a series of products.
Suppose the values required to be
(OA JK) OA) ke 4- OAL Ko OA, Shee
Fie. 12.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 591
Take OA,, OA, (fig. 12) along the line O A, and along any other line take
BC=K,
CD=K,
Take any point P at a distance of unity (PH) from BCD taken
parallel to OA, ... andjoin PB, PC,PD,...
Draw parallels to these, as shown in the figure, to meet other parallels
to BCDE... through A, A, A; ... Then the segment cut off by
the first and last ray on the parallel through O gives the sum of the
products.
The reason for this construction is obvious, since it is merely a device
for obtaining the necessary similar triangles required, in such a position
as to enable the products to form one continuous segment. These similar
triangles are shown in dotted lines, and it is obvious that since O’ A,’ L
and P BC are similar triangles -
O’A,’_ OA, Ha O’A,’_OA,
BC PH K, ii
that is
O'A’, OA,
K, ing
or
OA O08). K,
A,'’As’ =OA,. Ky
A,'A,’=OA, . K;
Hence O'A,/=OA.K.
The figure is usually taken, so that OA, A, ... is horizontal, and
BCD ... is vertical, as in this case there are many direct applications ;
the general nature of the proposition in which the lines are taken at any
angle is, however, apparent.
This important construction appears to have been first given by
Culmann. In the first edition of his work it is stated in paragraph 26,
under the title ‘Funicular Polygon or Line of Pressure and Force
Polygon,’ but in the second edition it is placed in the preliminary chapter
entitled ‘Operations upon Lines,’ under the heading (paragraph 4)
‘Summation Polygon, or Funicular Polygon,’ and it forms the basis of
much of graphic statics. It is there given in a very general form, which,
notwithstanding the number of years that have elapsed, has not appeared
in any Wnglish work; and as the style and method of Culmann are, to
say the least, original, the foliowing free translation of that article is
given :—
Summation oR Funicunar Po.nycon.
After stating that in statics we often have to multiply, not only
separate lines, but whole rows of lines by different ratios, and to add up
these ratios as well as the products, it is stated that if we execute the
summation of these products in such a way that the resulting triangles
592 REPORT—1893.
are continually connected to one another, we get the summation polygon,
which, for its statical meaning, may also be called the funicular polygon,
and which forms one of the most important expedients of graphical
statics.
Suppose the products which have to be added together to be of the
form
in which expression the 2; represent abscissee measured from a given
point in a definite direction, AP; separate loads acting vertically down-
wards, and H, any reduction coefficients. At present we must suppose
that the AP as well as the H are given by straight lines. In fig. 13 a we
set off on the vertical direction line of the AP all the forces, having
regard to their signs, and we get on this line P=SAP.
Fig. 13.
On this line, therefore, can also be represented thesum of any number
of successive values, AP. Through the first extremity of AP, we draw
a line with any chosen ratio of the ordinate and abscissa; through
a point of this line whose distance from P measured in the direction of x
is H,, and through the other extremity of AP,, we draw a line to the
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 593
point 2, whose distance from P, also measured in the direction of 2, is
H,. The distance of the extremity of H, from the upper extremity of
AP, equals H,t),; therefore from the lower extremity it equals
H, toy —AP).
But as this equals H,t,, it follows that the ratio of the ordinates and
abscissa in the second case is
Through the lower extremity of AP, draw a third line through the point
2, and produce it to the point 3, whose distance from the line P equals
H,. If we proceed exactly as before we get the ratio of the ordinates in
the third case
Proceeding in this way we get the polygon of the values of ¢, in
which the ratio of the ordinates and abscissa are in any given case
AP.
tin=b-La
,ttl 01 +H
We can easily see from this that f), plays the part of an integration
constant with regard to
AP,
vo;
If through any point O in fig. 13 6 we draw parallels to the side of the
polygon 1, 2,3... of fig. 13 a, then these cut the ratios
AP,
i i,iti tii H;
on the vertical whose distance from the chosen point O equals 1, and
these ratios appear on this vertical, which we now may call the line of f,
added up in the same order in which the AP have been arranged. If we
alter the ratio of the ordinates and abscissa of the first side 01, e.g., we
make it ¢,’ instead of fy; (as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 13 a), then
the whole of the figure changes, but the points on the line P remain
unaltered owing to their construction, and all other points lying
outside P move on vertical lines. Accordingly both figures have the
straight line P and the parallel pencil of the verticals in common. But
it follows from geometry of position, or even indirectly from the con-
struction, that in such systems all corresponding rows of points iying in
the same verticals are congruent; for the rays intersecting each other,
say in 4, cut off on all verticals the same distances of the rays as those
which intersect each other in 4’, because 4 and 4’ are equally distant
from P; and as this is true for any other two rays the above proposition
follows from it. Besides it must be so, for these distances can be expressed
by the ratio = and also by the position of the verticals, both of which
_ are independent of fo,.
All that has been said about fig. 13 a relates also to fig. 13 b, the point
1893. QQ
594 REPORT—1893.
O moving up to O’. The abscissa, which ought to be multiplied by the
new ratio, is drawn from a point 2, (fig. 13c) with regard to its sign
in such a way that they appear as the difference of the abscisse «,—2;;
through all the x; we draw verticals and join constantly those verticals
by parallels to the corresponding ¢ of fig. 13 b. Starting from any point,
say from 0 to 1, draw a parallel to ¢),, from 1 to 2 a parallel to ty»,
and so on; then these prolonged sides of the polygon cut on the vertical
a
x, the required products («,—2;) a Because by the similarity of figures
we have for AP, and 2,
ph sn ely, AEs sige a:
A,
and
1, H,, AP, in fig. 13 a.
Hence
@y—% _ (Gn—2)) AP, —H,
ine Ns :
But as this ratio is also true for any other value of AP,, then the
required products (#,—2;) = are intercepted on the vertical x, at a
distance x, from the fixed point, in the same order in which they were
arranged on the line P in fig. 13a, Hence we may get on this line the
sum of any number of following products :—
i AP,
> (a,—2;) “By, LZ
Let us imagine the 2,, that is, the relative position of the AP, as con-
stant, whilst the wz, as varying, then nothing whatever will change in the
polygon of fig. 13, only the vertical x, will take another position. If
to express this generality we write # instead of w,, we can say that any
two rays of a ray pencil representing the funicular polygon (fig. 13 c) cut
on all verticals at a distance ¢ the sums
AP,
= (e—a;) H,
of the AP; lying between these rays.
In this result nothing is changed when the sides of the polygon in
fig. 13c¢ are drawn parallel to the dotted sides of figs. 13 a, 13, for the
above partial sums are independent of the values of the first ratio. In
general, all that was formerly said about figs. 13a and 13 relate also
to fig. 13 c, all corresponding verticals being congruent. This relation
gives us a means of drawing two polygons through given points. For
instance, let 01, the first side of the polygon, pass through a point «,y,,
and the last 67 through the point z,y,; then we commence by drawing a
parallel line to ¢;, and finish the polygon as above described. If, finally,
the side 67 does not pass through the definite point «,y,, there is nothing
to be done except to shift the row of points obtained in the vertical z, in
such a way that the point next in order to 6 coincides with the given
point z,y,. This has happened on the right side of the vertical w,, and
now the side of the polygon 01 passes through the point #,y,, and the
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 595
point 01 in the vertical x,; the side 12 passes through the intersection
of 01 with x, and the point similarly denoted in 2,, and so on. This
construction can be executed still more easily by means of the first
vertical z,; for this line does not even change its position, and all sides
of the polygon are intersected by it; therefore the last side of the polygon
67 is given by the point z,y,, and by the point 67 in w,, viz., the intersec-
tion of the first polygon with x,; the second is given by the intersection
of this side with the intersection of the corresponding side of the former,
and so on. Owing to the want of space this construction is indi-
cated only from the side 34.
Expressions are next found for the ordinates y;. The differences of
two following coordinates are denoted by Az, ,,,; and Ay, ;,;, and possess
two indices, for it is impossible to denote successive coordinates by
continuous indices. At the same time the difference should be positive
when the ordinate of the second index is the larger one.
We have therefore
AY ini = bi AV itn
and hence
n n a AP.
Yn — Yo + Dhrj nti Aen nti — Yo si aS (to — > ar) AY: i+: 3
7) 0 t
7)
or
n a AP.
Yn=Yo + (&,—%o)toy = At, in Sa
1 1 g
We can get another expression for y, if we take notice that the first
chosen side of the polygon with the ordinate x, equals y,+@pfo,, and that
then the segment intercepted by the sides of the funicular polygon
Hence we have also
n A
Yr=Yo + (a, a Lo) ty lt. Ss (@, i %;) eng
1 7
and therefore
By putting down the second sum of the first expression we can easily
see that the second expression is a partial integral of the first, viz., if we
put the real differences instead of Aw we get
AP.
Ate '=(@.—2,) =
i 1
2, AP ee =)
Az, —— =(%,—2 =
> H, (t3—#a) uo, HH,
3. AP. 5
Aw34 > AF = (04-24) (G++)
1 t
ee Ps
"AP, AP, , AP AP
Aw St _ saez! a 2 C1 ~ = n=l .
eae Sp = mts) (At Deine
aQqa2
596 REPORT—1893.
The addition of these columns gives at once
n i
> 2; ity
1
AP; AP AP
H —2,) H, + (@,—) H, +
= (m2)
The author goes on to remark that it has been often said, and
specially emphasised, that the products ought to be arranged with regard
to their signs, and proceeds to point out how to deal with the construc-
tion for every possible condition of signs, concluding by a remark that,
exactly as fig. 13 c was obtained by means of fig. 13 b, a new polygon can
be constructed from fig. 13 c, giving products of the form
Bn — % Vy %; / Be
> ts 5 AP;;
or even of the form
Un, Bn hy Uy 8;
> a AP,
and so on.
The method of using two diagrams, one of which is derived from the
other, forms the basis of all constructions in connection with problems in
mechanical science.
There are, however, methods in which they are not directly used.
Thus to find the value of the expression of the form of
DS Aw’ HA" + Av + . . . +A,_1¢+A,
the construction given by Lill for the solution of a numerical equation
may be used (Cremona, chap. vi.), or that given by Egger, which is
modified by Culmann, who uses the sine instead of the tangent, and
is as follows. To find the value of
YHAdo . . . a Prtaydg . . . A_yPi yt . «© .« #ayaoPota pi +p
where p,=a given length,
a=a positive ratio “” of two segments m and n.
n
The foregoing equation may be written
= { (cr Pi-1)%-1 +02 )0o+ > Fora +p. )artr Yate.
and the quantities in brackets may be replaced by ¥;_ 174-23
so that
Yi = 4 PitPir
Yx—-1=% Pet Pr-1
Yor:
The problem consists in finding the different values of y.
Take two axes O,, O,, fig. 14, and draw from the original lines at
angles 0;, 0;_,, 9;-2, such that
sin 6,=a,
sin 0.) =a)
7
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 597
Fig. 14.
It is supposed that always a<1, and the different values of p are set
off from O along the axis of , positive below and negative above, and lines
parallel to the axis of z are drawn through their extremities. If p; is
plotted off from the origin along a,, the ordinate of the point thus
obtained will be p,a;, and the vertical distance from the point from the
horizontal through p,_, is.
Yi-1=Piti T Pi-1-
This value of y,_,; is plotted along the ray a;_,, and from point so
obtained the value y;_,; is set off vertically upwards, because a;_,;>1, and
also because p,_» is a negative value, and it is therefore plotted above the
origin. The value p,_5, being already set off from O along Oy, and a
horizontal drawn through its extremity, intersects the vertical line y,_,
produced so as to give
Yi-2=Yi-1%i-1 T+ Pi-2
=(piait+pi-1)ai-1 + Pi-2
Proceeding in this way the required value of y is obtained, which when
all the values of « are the same gives
y=pa'+p ja 31+ 2... +De
By making a an unknown quantity z and taking y=O the equation
O=peaitp ya i+ . 1. . +p
can be solved, this being an equation of the nth degree with one unknown
quantity.
CenTROIDS AND Moments or Inertia (Derived DiAGRams).
The construction for finding continuous products needs further con-
sideration, apart from the applications already mentioned, as it is a
matter of general importance to have a graphical method for obtaining
598 REPORT—1893.
the sum of a series of second products. The figure already used (fig. 12)
may be employed to indicate the process. In this figure the first products
have been obtained, and by taking a new pole P, at a distance of unity,
and drawing the rays as shown, and then drawing the parallels precisely
in the same way as in the first case, a number of values of the form
OA?. K are obtained, each of which is called the ‘moment of inertia’ of the
given segment about that point,' so that the length of O’ A,’ becomes
ZOA? . K=I=Moment of Inertia.
It may be required to obtain a series of the form
Z{(OA.K)O’A’},
where the values of OA and O’A’ both change, in which case a graphical
solution is also readily obtained.
The construction for continuous products enables the mean value to
be found of OA (say OA,), such that
This is done by producing the two extreme lines in the second derived
figure, which were drawn parallel to those of the first figure, until they
intersect, and through the point of intersection drawing a parallel to the
line BC D, and the intersection of the line with the line OA, A,...
giving the required distance. This is shown in fig. 12. Now it does not
matter what distance O is taken along the line A, A, A; . . .; the position
A, relatively to A,, Ay, A3, . . . is always the same.
Now the actual position of the segments in the direction of their own
length has nothing to do with the result, and wherever O is taken, so
long as the perpendicular distance to the segments is unaltered, the
distance O A, of the perpendicular upon the direction of the segments
through O remains the same. Moreover, the sum of the products of the
segments into their distances from A, (having due regard to their sign)
is zero.
Suppose that the number of segments is infinitely great, and that
they are infinitely close together, so that their extreme points form the
locus of the boundary of a plane figure ; then the sum of the products about
any point in the line through A,, (fig. 15), parallel to the direction of the
segments, is zero. Next, suppose the same boundary to be formed by the
extreme points of a similar second series of parallel segments, taken in
some other direction. The same will hold with regard to the line through
some point A,, for the second series, and parallel to them. The inter-
section of these two lines gives a point G about which the sum of the
products of every series of parallel segments whose extreme points lie on
the boundary of the figure is zero. This point is called by Cremona and
others the ‘centroid’ of the area in question, and its determination for
surfaces of various kinds is a matter of great practical importance.
The way in which the matter has been approached, though not perhaps
the simplest from the point of view of application in mechanics, indicates.
at once the graphical method of determining centroids. Thus any plane
1 This term is quite meaningless for the most usual applications in engineering,
and might be replaced by some other, as it presents a difficulty to those who have
not had a mathematical training.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 599
figure may be divided into parallel strips and segments, representing the
areas drawn through the centre of each; the line containing the centroid
is then found. This operation is repeated with parallels in some other
direction, and the intersection of the two lines containing the centroid
gives the point required.
Fiq@. 15.
There are numerous propositions relating to figures of different known
forms given by Culmann and others, such as for the triangle, trapezium,
sector of a circle, segment of a parabola, &c., but the method of derived
figures enables the centroid of any plane area to be obtained.
Segments representing volumes and the centroids of solids can
be found by a similar process, just in the same way as the centroid is
found for a series of segments when the first products are taken.
A point A;, corresponding to the centroid, can be found in the per-
pendicular from any point O when the second products are taken; but it
may be remarked that
(1) The square of the distances being taken, the sum of the products
about the point can never be zero.
(2) The point A; changes for every change in distance of the point O.
The determination of the distance, which is called the radius of
gyration of this point from O, can be graphically obtained, and the
method is explained in Culmann’s work, and by Chalmers and others.
The segments have hitherto been drawn in the plane of the paper, but
there is no necessity to do this; indeed, the cases which occur when
segments are multiplied are usually such that one series of segments is
taken as acting at right angles to the plane of the paper, their magnitude
being represented by an area, so that if an area is divided into a number
of equal parts the segments are equal, and equal in number to the
divisions. If the segment does not act at right angles to the plane, then
the intersection with the plane will give the shortest distance of the
segment from it, and therefore the length of the second segment by which
it is to be multiplied.
600 REPORT—1893.
CENTRAL ELLIpse AND KERN.
Suppose the foregoing operation performed for a certain point O,
assuming that the segments which have their extremities on the boundary
of the area have a certain direction. Suppose, further, the operation
repeated with the segments in various directions and the respective radii
of gyration found. If these be plotted from the point O in the directions
perpendicular to their respective direction, and parallels to the directions
of the segments in the corresponding positions are drawn, these parallels
will be found to envelop an ellipse. This ellipse is known as the ‘ellipse
of inertia,’ and in the case when the point O is the centroid of the figure
under consideration the ellipse is called the ‘ central’ ellipse. The term
‘momental’ ellipse is often used for the ellipse of inertia, the central
ellipse being called the ‘equimomental’ ellipse. The foregoing is stated
as follows by M. Lévy :—‘If upon different lines issuing from any point
whatever, in a plane, we plot their lengths, inversely proportional to the
radius of gyration relatively to these lines, the locus of the extremity of
their lengths forms an ellipse.’ !
The proof of this and other properties of the central ellipse by that
writer are, with slight alterations, given in the following paragraphs,
where by using the idea of segments instead of that of forces the treat-
ment is made perfectly general.
Let Ow and Oy be axes of coordinates. Let any line O uw making any
angle a with the axis of 2 be that about which the moment of inertia
of a segment P whose point of intersection with the plane p is
required.
Then
I,=P (y cos a—z sin a)?,
and the moment of inertia of a number of such segments becomes
SIp==P (y cos a—z sin a)?,
or
P= Py? cos? a+ =P2? sin? a—2=Pzy sin a cos a;
or if
a,23 P= SP2?
b,?2P==ZPy?
e272 P= zPay
(1)
r?=a,? sin? a+b, cos? a—2c,? sin a cos a.
Take upon Ow a length
On=—,
=
where d is some constant.
Then , and y, being the ordinates of M
a2
&) =—-COS a,
Yr
ae ae
Gis o sin a,
1 La Statique graphique, vol. i. p. 400.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SC)ENCE. 601
Inserting these values in Equation I. we get
byw? + a,7y)? — 2¢)?ay, =a",
being an equation of the ellipse, where a, and b, are the radii of gyration
relatively to the axis of x, and y,, and
=P
If two other axes of coordinates be taken, an equation of the form
C)
ba? + a?y? —2c?ay=d'
is obtained, a and b being the radii of gyration relatively to the new axis,
and
So
c SP *
If the axes of 2 and y correspond to the direction of the major and
minor axes of the ellipse, for which case
c=0 or 2Pay=0,
then
b2a? + a?y2—=d! ;
or when
d4=a2b?
a, y?
ae moe
In the foregoing case the moment of inertia has the same sign as the
segment. If all the segments have the same sign (say +) in this case, a?
and 6? being positive, the curve is an ellipse. If, on the contrary, the
segments have not the same sense, the moments of inertia relatively to
the principal axis may be of contrary sign; that is, a? and b? may be re-
placed by —a? and —J?; the curve may then be an hyperbola. The curve
relatively to the point O in a plane is called the curve of inertia relative
to this point, and will be a curve of the second degree, the axis of the
curve being the principal axis of inertia, When the centroids correspond
with the centre of the conic it is called the ‘ central conic,’ and is usually
an ellipse, that is, the central ellipse. Instead of taking the rectangular
axes Ox and Oy, take the new axes Oz, and Oy,, the latter making an
angle 4 with Oz.
Then y=, sin 0
L=2,+y, cos 0.
‘The above equation referred to the new axes is
(aa, + 2a? cos 0B—2c? sin 0) wy, + (a? cos? 6+6? sin? 6—2c* sin 0 cos 0)y,?
—-/j4
Then since y,” is the square of the radius of gyration to the axis O y;,
let 5, be this radius. Then, taking
2 >Payy;
C= =
=P
602 REPORT—1893.
gives
where
_ sy cos 0 »
1 Sin @ sin?”
nd
SP2,y,__ 1 =Pey_cos@ Py?
SPiiisinid So2P «sin? PS
or
a ©? a? cos @
‘sin @ ~~ sin 0’
or
a” cos 6—c? sin 06=—c,? sin? 0.
Hence
a?a,?—2 sin? 6c,? 2,y, +b,2y,?=a’?.
If the axes Ox, and Oy, are two conjugate diameters of the central
conic, the term x,y, disappears in the last equation, that is to say
C) =(l)
Thus the characteristic relation of the conjugate diameters is
=P2,y,=0.
In the case of rectangular axes this relation has been shown to
characterise the principal axes.
It will be noticed that in the foregoing treatment distances are plotted
inversely proportional to the radii of gyration, and along the lines about
which the moments of inertia are taken. M. Lévy gives another method
of treating the conic of inertia, corresponding to that which has been
already mentioned. He does this in the following manner. If to
any line Ov parallels KK’ and K,K,’ be drawn at distances from Ov equal
to the length of the radius of gyration relatively to this straight line, the
conic of inertia may be defined as the envelop of the lines K K’ or K, K,’.
Let Ow be the direction of any conjugate diameter to the line Ov. Let
OA=a!
OB=F
be the lengths of the conjugate semi-diameters, corresponding to the
directions of Ow and Ov, and let
6= / uOv.
In virtue of the definition of the conic, if r is the radius of gyration of the
axis relatively to Ov, then
ad’ _ab
p OPT
a and } being the semi-axes of the conics; but we also have
Y
ab=a'b' sin 6,
whence
avo! sin 6
7 =a’ sin 6,
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 603:
that is to say, the radius of gyration relatively to Ov is the length of the
perpendicular A P dropped on this line from the extremity of its conju-
gate diameter: hence this tangent coincides with K K’.
Just as the property of the ellipse of stress is only a special case
for a plane area of the more general property for solids of the ellipsoid of
stress, so the ellipse of inertia is only the special case for a plane area of
the more general property for solid bodies of the ellipsoid of inertia or
‘momental’ ellipsoid, the ‘central’ or ‘equimomental’ ellipsoid corre-
sponding for a solid body to the central ellipse for a plane area.
If we suppose segments of opposite sign, it is possible to obtain an
hyperboloid of inertia and central hyperboloid; but this, as Routh
remarks,! does not occur in practice, since the moment of inertia is
essentially positive, being by definition the sum of a number of squares,.
and it is clear that every radius vector must be real. Hence the quadric
is always an ellipsoid.
The properties already referred to for the central ellipse have their
counterpart for the central ellipsoid ; thus at any point of a space through
which segments can be drawn there are always three principal axes at
right angles to one another.
The above author goes on to deal with what corresponds to the
products of an infinite number of segments, explaining the method given
by Bresse.?
Let 7 be the abscissa of the centroid of the given section.
Then
nf [deay = | [ytoay.
Consider a cylinder with a base corresponding to the given area and
its generatrices normal to the plane of the area, and having a boundary
plane passing through Oz and inclined at 45° to the given plane. Let
n, be the projection of the centroid of the cylinder on the given plane.
Volume of the elementary cylinder having as base dzdy is
V=ndedy.
The moment about
Oxv=n?dady.
n if [yaa =| [ytaeay.
Multiplying the corresponding sides of the last two equations, and sup-
But
pressing the common factor |odedu, we have
7 if faedy =| [y*dady :
\| ydady
{aed
hence
0), =
?
1 Rigid Dynamics, 3rd edit., p. 16.
- 2 Cours de Résistance de Matériaux professé « V Keole des Ponts ct Chaussées.
604 REPORT—1893.
so that the derived radius of gyration is the geometrical mean of the
distances n and 7.
The geometrical property just given may be at once applied to another
very important purpose, viz., to find the mean distance from a line which,
multiplied by the sum of a series of segments whose magnitude is pro-
portional to their distance from the line *1 ques:‘on, gives a result equal
to the sum of the products of each segment into its distance from the
line. This is really the problem of finding the centre of pressure in a
surface over which the intensity of pressure varies uniformly, or the
centre of resistance of a bent beam, the intensity of stress varying
uniformly at the skin.
Fia@. 16.
Let the area, fig. 16, be that of the surface in question, the distance of
every point of which from the tangent A B being a measure of the seg-
meni, which has to be multiplied into that distance. The sum of the
squares of the distances is the quantity required, and is thus found. Find
the central ellipse of the area, and through the centre O draw the diameter
‘O C conjugate to the diameter parallel to A B, intersecting A B in C and
the ellipse in D. From C draw the tangents CE and CF. Jon EF,
intersecting OC in M. Take ON=OM in CO produced; then N is the
required point. The point in question is the antipole of the line A B
relatively to the central ellipse of the given centre.
If now for every position of the tangent A B round the given area,
antipoles are found, a curve is obtained which is called—in German,
kern; in French, noyaw; and in English kern, kernel, core, and heart.
The first of these seems the best term.
It has already been shown how the sum of a number of products may
be obtained for any conditions of sign, and in certain special cases it is
necessary to have a graphical statement of the result which one series of
the two quantities multiplied together varies between certain limits.
Bending moment diagrams, deflection curves, and moment of inertia
diagrams are examples of such graphical statements.
Tur Sum or THE Propucts oF NON-PARALLEL SEGMENTS.
Hitherto the products of parallel segments have been dealt with, but
it may also be required to find the sum of a series of products in which
the segments representing different magnitudes of the same kind have
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 605-
different directions in a plane, and it may not be desirable to commence
by making the segments parallel. Let AB, BC, CD, ... (fig. 17) be
segments, the sum of the products of which into the perpendicular
distance of their directions from a given point O is required.
Fig. 17.
Draw the equipollent diagram by combining the segments as already
explained. Take any pole P and draw the first derived diagram, and
then the second derived diagram, and through the point O draw a parallei
to the resultant A’O’. Then the part of it M N intersected between the
two extreme lines of the second derived diagram gives the required sum
of the products.
If the point O lies in the resultant which is the line through the point
of the intersection of the two extreme lines parallel to the resultant in the
first derived diagram, the sum of the products is zero.
Much more might be written on such subjects as the Sum of Products
in Space, the Properties of Reciprocity, and the Null or Focal System,
but their treatment would require more space than can be allowed to the
report in the present volume.
Division II.—Summary or PROBLEMS FOR wHICH GRAPHIC
SOLUTIONS HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED.
As already remarked, the limits of the report do not allow a complete
statement of the solution of problems in mechanical science to be given.
The following is a classified outline of the subject :—
1. FORCE IN ITS APPLICATION TO BODIES CONSIDERED AS BEING RIGID.
(1) General Treatment of External and Internal Forces.—Parallel
forces. Centre of gravity of areas and bodies.
Bending moment and shearing force diagrams for various cases of
concentrated, uniform, and travelling loads.
Loci of maximum bending moment of a beam for any given system of
loads.
‘606 REPORT—1893.
Internal forces and stresses in any plane.
Rankine’s ellipse and ellipsoid of stress.
Ritter’s treatment of internal forces and problems of maximum stress.
Pressure of earth.
(2) Framework.—The methods of sections of Rankine, of Culmann,
of Zimmermann, and of Ritter. Examples in framework in which
graphical solutions have been given, including English, French, bow-
string, parabolic, Schwedler, Linville, and other trusses.
Hinged girders. Graphical construction for single and double swing
bridges.
Framework with redundant parts.
Cases of unfavourable loading.
Limit to which a load can be placed on a framework in order to
give maximum stress in a bar.
Method of determining stress in parts of a girder.
Treatment of wind pressure. Effect of temperature.
Treatment of additional forces and secondary strains. Cost of struc-
tures from reciprocal diagrams.
(3) Suspension Bridges.
(4) Arches.—EHlementary treatment of the problem.
Durand-Claye’s method for finding admissible lines of pressure on
the arch.
Heuser’s problem applied to arch work.
Conditions of equilibrium in a pointed arch.
Transformed catenary and two-nosed catenary.
(5) Retaining Walls and Tunnels—Determination of amount and
direction of earth pressure.
Passive earth pressure. Earth pressure on retaining walls,
Action of pressure of earth on retaining walls.
Hyperbola of earth pressure.
Lines of action of resultant pressure on retaining walls.
Parabola of cohesion
Effect of fluid behind retaining walls.
Profile of reservoir wall.
Lines of pressure in a tunnel arch.
Cases of unsymmetrical tunnels in sidelong ground.
Spherical and conical domes of masonry.
(6) Masonry Piers.—General consideration. Piers of great height.
Construction for a tower of masonry and for brickwork chimneys.
2. FORCE IN ITS APPLICATION TO BODIES CONSIDERED AS BEING ELASTIC.
(1) The Simple Beam.—Graphical construction for moment of inertia
and products of inertia.
Central ellipse and ellipse of inertia.
‘Kern’ or ‘ core’ of various sections.
Cases of a beam with oblique forces.
Geometrical construction of Durand-Claye’s hyperbola.
Cases of an unsymmetrical beam.
Planes of greatest and least stress in a beam.
Diagrams of moment of resistance and of shearing resistance in a
beam.
——-
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 607
(2) Elastic Line and Curve of Deflection.—Neutral axis. Construction
of the elastic line.
Cases of a beam resting on two points of support for various forms
of section.
Cases of a beam encastre at one extremity and at two extremities.
(3) Continuous Girders.-—Construction of the elastic line of beam
resting on supports.
Theorem of three moments interpreted graphically.
Unfavourable conditions of loading.
Influence of variable cross-section of frame and trusses.
Curve of maximum bending moment and shearing force in a con-
tinuous girder under concentrated loads.
(4) Elastic Avch.—Reactions on supports and figure of elastic arch,
Elastic arches of parabolic form.
Cases in which the reactions of the supports pass through the fixed
points. Hinged archwork.
Arches encastre at two extremities. Arches encastre at one support
and on rollers at the other.
Professor Eddy’s method of treating the elastic arch.
Arches ribbed with stiffening truss.
Spherical and conical domes in metal.
Construction of central ellipse for the elastic arch with three hinges.
Influence of wind upon the arch.
3. MACHINES.
The graphical treatment of problems for the relative position of dif-
ferent parts of a machine. Zeuner’s diagrams.
Construction for diagrams of effort.
Linear and radial diagrams of velocity.
Use of virtual or instantaneous centre and centrodes, and of axodes.
Relative linear and angular velocities of different links of a machine.
Graphical treatment of the dynamics of machinery.
Graphical constructions for finding the outline of different parts.
Teeth of wheels.
Miscellaneous problems in connection with machines, such as—
Governors.
Flywheels.
Tension in belting.
Pressure transmitted through the spokes of wheels.
Resistance of railway trains.
4, HYDRO-MECHANICS AND NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.
Constructions for the form of jets.
Impact and reaction of the water on vanes of various forms.
Graphical constructions in connection with turbines, water-wheels,
centrifugal pumps.
Metacentre and the centre of gravity of ships.
Stability curves. Graphical construction for the resistance of ships.
608 REPORT—1893.
5. MISCELLANEOUS.
Construction for the curve of steam pressure under various condi-
tions.
Problems in connection with heat and electricity.
Division I1J.—Tue Teracuine or GrapaicaAL Mersops.
The examination into the treatises and systems of dealing with
graphical methods which has been necessary in the preparation of this
report has revealed the great divergence in the nature of the teaching
of graphic methods in engineering colleges and schools throughout the
world. The writer therefore felt that some practical results might ensue
if information was collected from various sources as to the nature of the
teaching in different countries, such as the number of hours devoted to
the subject and the kind of teaching given.
Sir E. Grey, Under-Secretary to the Foreign Office, was good enough to
obtain the prospectuses of the colleges in several countries. Mr. J. Smith,
H.M.’s Consul at Munich, most kindly obtained the programmes of the
German schools. Professor Cremona, of Rome, and Professor Dwels-
hauvers-Dery, of Liege, sent also most valuable information. The pro-
spectuses of all the American technical institutes and colleges were
obtained through the kindness of Professor Ira O. Baker, of Illinois
University.
From the materials so obtained an abstract has been made by the
writer of the details of time-tables and other information regarding
graphic statics and graphical methods in the engineering schools of
Germany, Austria, Italy, Spain, Russia, Belgium, Norway and Sweden,
and Switzerland, and also of most of the American colleges and technical
schools. A translation has also been made of the courses of instruction
in graphic statics at Braunschweig, Hanover, Liege, St. Petersburg,
Milan, Brunn, Madrid, and elsewhere. The printing of all this would
have extended the present report beyond the limit which could be allotted
to it, and the MSS., together with the printed matter above mentioned.
and numerous other documents bearing on the subject, which have been
collected in the course of the preparation of the report, are therefore
deposited in the office of the British Association for reference.
As a discussion of a report is not usual at meetings of the British
Association, the writer, taking advantage of an invitation to read a
paper at the recent International Engineering Congress in connection
with the World’s Fair at Chicago, brought forward the subject on that
occasion. He was fortunate enough to obtain the opinions of some of
the most eminent professors in engineering, including Professor W.
Ritter, of Zurich. A verbatim report of the discussion, in which not
only a large number of professors of engineering but also some well-
kuown engineers took part, is deposited, with the matter already men-
tioned, for reference in the office of the British Association. The following
is an abstract of the paper itself :—
It was shown that graphic methods might be classified in two divi-
sions—(1) the plotting of results, and (2) the solution of problems. The
former of these is rarely considered worthy of any special training, as a
knowledge of it is apparently regarded as capable of being acquired
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 609
without any instruction. The solution of problems, on the other hand, has
of recent years received a great deal of attention, under the title of ‘Graphic
Statics,’ which is the most important, and indeed at present almost the
only, special branch of the application of graphical construction. This
branch is in many engineering schools dignified by a special course of
lectures and classes, with even a special professor for the subject, while
in many other schools the subject is not taught at all; and, again, the
opinions held by practical men, and apparently also by professors in the
engineering science, would seem to differ in a most remarkable manner as
to the value of graphical methods. It is believed that this difference of
opinion is apparent, and not real; and the very fact that so much attention
has been devoted to the subject, in which at present there is no uniformity
in the teaching or general agreement as to methods, amply justified the
treatment of this subject before a congress; and it was with the hope
that some authoritative expression of opinion might be obtained that it
was brought forward.
The two divisions may be dealt with in order, taking first the plotting
of results. This method is now universal, not only in the mechanical
sciences, but in almost any case where statistics of any kind are employed,
as it enables results, which would otherwise be difficult to grasp, to be at
once made clear by a simple inspection. The various methods of plotting
and the various instruments which have come into use for automatically
recording such results were too familiar to need discussion. [A sketch
of that portion of the report presented last year relating to the plotting
of results was then given.] Now it appears to be the common idea that
the interpolation of results, no less than the actual plotting, is a sort of
intuitive process which is readily acquired and requires no sort of train-
ing; but on careful investigation the contrary is found to be the case.
This was illustratedby various examples. The series of diagrams relating
to the action of the crank and connecting-rod of an ordinary engine which
were exhibited, and which were drawn for a meeting of an engineering
society, were noticed to be in some respect novel, giving a satisfactory
arrangement, so as to include four sets of diagrams, each of which in-
cludes a linear, central polar, and circumferential polar diagram of the
same results. To many of those present these diagrams were no doubt
perfectly familiar, but it was found that there were many practical
engineers to whom, not only did the different series of diagrams have no
definite meaning, but the difference between the three diagrams and
the various points which are thereby brought out were obviously not
easily grasped; and, moreover, from year to year, when bringing these
diagrams before students, it has been found that only after considerable
repetition, and after the student has constructed for himself a series of
similar diagrams, is he able to deal with such problems or to grasp their
general meaning.
With regard to the solution of problems the case is entirely different,
for this subject receives a certain amount of attention in every en-
gineering course of instruction. In England such instruction is given,
as a rule, in most colleges incidentally when the subjects of statics,
machines, or hydraulics are being dealt with, although recently in some
cases special training in graphical methods is being introduced as a part
of the course of engineering instruction, in several cases being given as a
branch of descriptive geometry. Thus in the Science and Art Depart-
ment, both under the heads of descriptive geometry and also machine
1893. RR
610 REPORT—1893.
drawing, a knowledge of some of the elements of the subject is expected.
On the continent of Europe, however, for many years, not only have
special courses of lectures been devoted to the teaching of graphic statics
as a separate branch of the subject, but there have been a large number
of schools in which there are special professors of graphical statics. The
reason for this difference is to be found, not altogether, as it is often
supposed, in a want of appreciation on the part of English engineers or
professors of graphical statics—for it was in England that the germ of
such methods was first developed by Rankine, Clerk Maxwell, Fleeming
Jenkin, and others—but because the system of appointing professors in
the special polytechnics devoted to the allied sciences is there in vogue
rather than in England, where one or two chairs of engineering are
added to other chairs of the university or university college.
Now, it is instructive to note the general method of instruction indi-
cated in the syllabuses of engineering schools, and which are even more
clearly shown in the various text-books on the subject. From these it is
clear that the general methods consist of giving certain rules, which may
be called general graphic methods, and which apply to addition, multi-
plication, powers, and extraction of roots, which may be regarded as
forming the introductory portion. This is followed by what may be
regarded as an introduction to statics, in which special stress is laid on
geometrical constructions, and the solution of many problems is given
which would otherwise be worked out by analysis.
We may regard the well-known work of Culmann, ‘ Die graphische
Statik,’ as the first important treatise of the kind, in which work were
collected problems of a general nature, under the title of ‘ Graphical
Calculation,’ which occupied the first three chapters, under the respective
titles of ‘Operations with Lines,’ ‘ Rectification of Areas,’ and the ‘ Recti-
fication of Solid Bodies,’ the whole occupying seventy pages. Inthe second
edition of his work two chapters are introduced on logarithms and calcu-
lating rules, this portion occupying in the second edition 150 pages. In
the second edition the preliminary portion of graphic statics, which
occupied 130 pages in the first, here takes up no less than 350 pages, and
is followed by 120 pages on the theory of the elements of elasticity, the
author unfortunately not living to complete the work on the lines which
he had planned out. One thing is particularly noteworthy, viz., the large
space occupied by constructions and propositions, which may be regarded
more or less of a general nature compared with the space devoted to the
solution of actual examples. The same thing occurs in the lucid and
valuable work of Bauschinger, ‘Hlemente der graphischen Statik,’ in
which there are sixty-two pages devoted to what may be regarded as matter
of a general nature, and only thirty to the applications. In the work of
M. Lévy, which is the standard work of France, although he has very
much reduced in the second edition the portion of purely geometrical
calculation, he occupies the whole of the first volume of between 500 and
600 pages with the ‘ Principles and Applications of Pure Graphic Statics.’
The same general facts are derived from a study of the detailed course
as set forth in the various programmes of technical schools, the general
conclusions being that a great deal of the matter taught under the head
of ‘graphic statics’ contains general principles of graphic methods of
construction which might be taught apart from any applications at all ;
and its being so taught would be capable of its application, not only in
cases of statics, but in dynamics and hydro-mechanics.
ON GRAPHIC METHODS IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 611
Take, as an example of this proposition, the ellipse of inertia and the
central ellipse, which are only applied to force, and which are given as if
they only referred to the problem of the beam. These theorems, how-
ever, have an equally important bearing on hydrostatics and rigid
dynamics, the ellipsoid of inertia having the properties, for instance, of
the momental ellipsoid of Cauchy, the central ellipsoid, and those of the
equimomental ellipsoid of Legendre. Indeed, there is every indication of
a gradual tendency towards the development of the science of graphical
calculation, quite apart from that of graphic statics. Thus we find
graphical constructions originally devised and given by writers (notably
Rankine) as they were needed in works of mechanics. Next we have the
first collection of graphical calculation, already referred to, of which
there are remarkable examples in the little work of Cremona, ‘Il Calcolo
grafico,’ in the preface of the English edition of which he acknowledges
the work of Culmann. Cremona, however, goes considerably beyond that
author, particularly in adding the important chapter on ‘ Centroids,’ in
which the properties of the centre of gravity are treated from a purely
geometrical point of view, without any reference whatever to force. A
still more recent work is that of Favaro, who, in his ‘ Lessons on Graphic
Statics,’ devoted his second volume entirely to the subject of graphical
calculations.
From this it is clear that a course of instruction might be given, under
the head of Graphical Methods, which might be taught in the same way
as descriptive geometry, and which ought, indeed, to be worked in con-
junction with that subject. This subject should deal with the construc-
tions of such geometrical figures as are important for graphical applica-
tion. It should also deal with the plotting of results and the general
properties of plane curves, as far as the student is able to numerically
effect measurements with it, which he can check by calculation. <A
student should be expected to do his work with great accuracy, and to
regard the results he obtains as accurate enough to be useful in practical
work, although such examples need not at the time be applied to any
practical engineering problems. Thus, for instance, the propositions of
projective geometry, so far as the null or focal system is concerned, and
the projective properties of bodies, and of the pole and antipolar, might
be taught; but a systematic treatment of the subject of projective
geometry is not necessary for engineers. With regard to projective
geometry, it may be said that, unless it is desired to study the higher
branches of the subject, there is no necessity whatever of a treatment
such as Culmann has given in his chapters on the ‘ projective relations.
between the polygon of forces and the funicular polygon’ and ‘the rela-
tion of a system of forces with the focal system, and with curves of the
third degree,’ or with the central axis of a system of forces, or colinear
and reciprocal relations of the funicular or force polygon.
There appears to be no reason, therefore, why an elementary course of
a general nature, specially arranged so as to include all that an ordinary
engineering student requires to know of graphical methods, should not
be introduced as a regular subject in engineering schools, and the follow-
ing arguments, may be brought forward in support of this view :—
(1) Althongh the time-tables of an engineering department are
already full, yet it will be found that a course such as that suggested
really includes much of what is tanght at present in a desultory way, and
such a course would obviate some of the teaching given under the heading
RR 2
612 REPORT—1893.
of ‘descriptive geometry,’ so that during one or two terms of a year
it might be taken during the same hours as already devoted to descrip-
tive geometry, with possibly one lecture a week, for one term, in the
place of the actual lectures in the applied engineering, into which at
present graphic methods are often obliged to be introduced for the
want of proper preliminary training in the subject by a student.
Moreover, the time now devoted in the engineering laboratory for
the plotting of curves might be much better occupied in the drawing
hall itself in connection with the practice of the plotting and interpola-
tion of curves as a part of the subject of graphic methods, the data
obtained from the engineering laboratory affording useful information.
(2) The time spent in such graphical work would be an excellent
discipline in accurate drawing for a student, who is often inclined to re-
gard a sketch roughly representing an idea as sufficient for practical
purposes. A student should learn for himself that nothing is so easily
deceived as the eye. It is quite true, as Professor Culmann says in the
preface of his work, that ‘the constructing engineer will give preference
to geometrical solutions wherever an accuracy of results up to three
decimals (one-thousandth), which can be perfectly well obtained, is suf-
ficient, for his drawing instruments are always at hand, and drawing is his
habitual expression of thought.’ But such accuracy in drawing is by no
means naturally or intuitively acquired, and the student requires training
in a course of graphical methods before he would appreciate their value.
Moreover such practice in actually performing the operations, and be-
coming familiar with the solution, is absolutely necessary, if it is to be
expected that a student will really use these problems afterwards in his
practical work, as such modifications become extremely puzzling owing
to the want of a thorough acquaintance with the methods.
(3) It is not only necessary that a student should be familiar with
accurate drawing, but also that he should be familiar with graphical
constructions as a means of solving problems. The plan ordinarily adopted
in the teaching of statics in conjunction with graphical methods them-
selves seems expecting too much for the capacity of an ordinary student,
and the difficulty of getting a class of even intelligent students to correctly
solve problems out of the beaten track may be attributed to the difficulty
involved in combining these two things. In the use of ordinary geometry
or analytical methods there are separate classes for algebra, analytical
geometry, trigonometry, &c., and yet the ideas involved in them are no
more difficult than those included in graphical constructions and methods.
Graphical methods certainly, therefore, have the same claim to be con-
sidered as a separate branch of study.
The following proposition, supported by these arguments, was therefore
brought forward :—‘ That in all engineering schools a separate course
in graphical methods of construction may with advantage be introduced
which shall deal with such problems as have a practical bearing on
mechanical science, and which do not involve applications of any concrete
subjects, such as statics and dynamics, but which may familiarise the
student, by means of examples accurately worked out by himself, with methods
wirich he will be able to afterwards apply.’
The course contemplated would be a very short one, not exceeding
ten classes or lectures of one hour each, in the course of which various
facts not generally taught to students in connection with the plotting of
curves which most frequently arise in engineering practice would be
ON GRAPHIC MLTHOD3S IN MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 613
dealt with, and it may be mentioned that the proposition seemed to meet
with the general approval of the members of the Congress.
With regard to teaching the principles underlying the modes of
solving problems, these appear to fall under two heads: (1) The process
which has been called ‘Combination of Segments’ may be said for
brevity to consist in obtaining from segments a resultant representing two
properties of the same kind as the given segments ; for instance, in the
case of statical problems, the magnitude, and direction of the forces.
(2) The process which corresponds to multiplication, in which two unlike
kinds of quantities are combined so as to form a result differing in kind
from either. These practically include all the processes employed, but
in applying them to different problems special teaching is necessary.
The writer is disposed to think, on subsequent consideration and from
further discussion of the subject, that it may be advantageous to employ
familiar examples in kinematics, statics,and dynamics in the actual working
out of such problems, these being so selected that the students will be able
to understand without difficulty the mechanical principles involved. The
more difficult problems would be reserved until the student is engaged in
studying the higher branches of applied mechanics, when he will by
reason of the above teaching be familiar with the graphical principles
employed. This system of employing familiar examples undoubtedly has
the advantage of interesting students in the subject, and is a point of
great importance in making clear the value of the methods. The pro-
posed course would only slightly modify the details of what is at present
actually taught in many engineering schools. It would, however, bring
clearly before the student the methods themselves as distinguished from
their applications.
He would also remark that some eminent authorities on technical
education have very little belief in the separate study of graphicai
methods apart from geometry and machine drawing. But for those who
are engaged in the actual work of engineering, especially those who have
very little knowledge of mathematics but are to a certain extent ac-
quainted with practical geometry, the writer is convinced, both from
experience in teaching evening classes of artisans and also with day
college students, that a clear treatment of the methods employed in
graphical constructions, as applied to simpie rules of arithmetic, is of the
highest value.
In bringing the report to a close he would further remark that the
teaching in many English schools of engineering seems to introduce as
much of the practical applications of graphical methods as in any other
country, and that much of the apparently different treatment of the subject
in Eaglish as compared with foreign schools is due to a difference of
arrangement of courses and of terminology.
614 REPORT—1893.
On the Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir DoucLas Gatton (Chairman), Dr. F. WARNER
(Secretary), Mr. G. W. Buioxam, Mr. E. W. Brasroox, and
Dr. J. G. Garson. (Drawn up by Dr. FRANCIS WARNER.)
A committee having been appointed by the International Congress of
Hygiene and Demography (1891) to conduct an investigation as to the
physical and mental condition of school children, and having commenced
their work on lines approved by ample experience, your Committee decided
to work with that committee, and the report here given has been pre-
pared, by permission, from the facts accumulated by it. Thirty thousand
children have been seen in forty-one schools, and notes were taken in
5,072 cases. It has not been possible to prepare a complete report, but
an analysis has been made as to 16,094 children seen in eighteen schools.
The method of procedure is as follows: All the children are seen in the
three departments of the school—infants, boys, and girls. The pupils
are observed as they stand in rank, usually a standard or smaller section
at atime. The inspector, standing in front of each child in turn, holds
a shilling for him to look at, so as to fix his eyes, and thus obtains a full
face as well as a profile view of each side, noting the features separately
and the cranium, the expression and muscular action of the parts of the
face, the eye-movements, and other points. The trained observer can
read off the points in the physiognomy of the individual features and their
parts, noting the proportions and form of each.
Having inspected each child in the line as described, the children are
asked to hold out their hands in front of them, and for a moment the
action is done before them. The balance of head, spine, shoulders, as
well as of the arms, hands, and fingers, are noted in each case. Finally the
observer places his hand on the head, noting size, form, bosses, &c., and
the palate is inspected in each case.
At each of these stages in the inquiry children presenting deviations
from the normal in any particular are asked to stand aside. The teachers
are then asked to present any exceptional or dull children not picked out
by the observer.
Each selected child is re-examined individually, and described on a
schedule form in which the defect or abnormal nerve-sign is verbally
described. The teacher’s report of the child’s mental status is added.
The name, age, and standard of each child are written in, and the number
of children seen in each standard is recorded.
As far as possible a description is given of the general social status
of the children, their nationality, and the general character of the neigh-
bourhood.
For the purpose of preparing statistics each case verbally described
in the report on the children is entered in a register, in which headings
indicate the defects, the case being entered under such headings as corre-
spond to its defects. The cases are thus presented in a tabular form,
from which actuarial analysis and groupings can be accurately prepared.
As regards the standard of defect in observation of points of physio-
gnomy or deviations from the normal, the observer should be well accus-
“ay
>
PHYSICAL DEVIATIONS AMONG CHILDREN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 615
tomed to note size, texture of tissue, and in particular the parts of the
features, and describe as abnormal absence or ill-proportioning of parts.
Thus the cranium was not noted as small unless the circumference be less
than 19 in. at eight years old, or 194 in. among older children, while the
general volume is estimated by the open hand placed upon it: the fore-
head, its width and height ; presence of a median ridge or lateral bosses ;
in the ear the presence of helix, antihelix, pinna, lobe, and the general
convexity and character of the cutaneous covering, &c.
The most frequent deviations from the normal cranium are in size,
small head being most common among girls, while over-large heads were
frequently associated with bosses, and were most common among boys.
Other types of heads were asymmetrical, and a few cases of hydrocephalus
were found in schools.
Defects in palate may usually be described as narrow, arched or
yaulted, or V-shaped, the straight alveolar processes meeting at an acute
angle anteriorly.
The bony bridge of the nose is often ill-developed, flat, and wide. The
mouth and palpebral fissures may be small.
The epicanthis, at the inner angle of the eye-opening, is often marked.
Other defects in development are less frequently met with, including
supernumerary ears, defect or absence of limbs, cleft palate, &c.
The deviations from normal development here recorded are those well
known in criminal anthropology, and as common among imbeciles ; but
the degree of ill-proportioning in the bodily condition of school children
is usually much less than in idiots.
Defects of bodily development are frequently found to be coincident
with defects of brain, iowering mental status, but not necessarily so. The
connecting link between defects of body and defective mental action is
the coincident defect of brain, which may be known by observation of
“abnormal nerve-signs.’! It is the coincident observation of conditions
of development and ‘nerve-signs,’ indicating brain action, that forms a
special feature of the present investigation, and distinguishes the methods
used from older physiognomical research.
Another fact co-related with defect in development is the tendency of
such children—especially girls—to become thin, pale, and delicate. It is
in the co-relation of abnormalities in the proportioning of parts of the body
with abnormal nerve-signs, low nutrition, and mental dulness that we
find a criterion of the really defective status connected with the abnor-
mality. We describe, not only defective children, but every child pre-
senting a visible defect.
As the ‘ nerve-signs ’ may be new to many readers a brief description
of some may be given.
The face is conveniently divided into three zones, the frontal, the
middle down to the lower level of the orbits, and the lower containing the
nostrils and the mouth. Deviations from the normal muscular action
and balance are termed ‘abnormal nerve-signs’: their value depends on
pe significance as indices of action in the nerve-centres which produce
them.
Frontal Muscles overacting.—Horizontal creases on the forehead are
thus produced in varying degree: the creases may be fine, producing a
’ To this view of the question, as demonstrated by the original researches of
Dr. Warner, the Committees attach great weight.
616 REPORT— 1893.
dull forehead ; or coarse, producing a frown. This siga varies in degree,
being least when the child is attentive and mentally engaged.
Corrugation.—Knitting of the eyebrows, drawing the eyebrows
together, with vertical creases on the forehead.
Orbicularis Oculi relawed.—There is a thin circular muscle encircling
the eyelids. Its tone gives sharpness of outline to the lower lid, so that
its convexity is marked. Its action is increased in laughter. When this
muscle is relaxed there is falness or bagginess under the eyes.
Eye-movements defective-—There may be wandering movements of
the eyes without fixation; the child may not follow a slowly moving
object with the eyes, but turn the head without any movement of the
eyes.
Head-balance weak.—In the normal the head is held erect; it may
fall forward or be inclined to one shoulder.
The normal posture of the hand when held out to the word of com-
mand is straight, all parts and the fingers being in the same plane, and
the hand on a level with the shoulder, the arms being parallel.
Hand-balance nervous.—The wrist drooping, the palm slightly con-
tracted laterally, the thumb and fingers extended backwards at their
junction with the palm of the hand.
Hand-balance weak.—In this type of balance the wrist is slightly
drooped, the palm contracted laterally, and the digits are slightly bent
or flexed. This posture is seen in sleep when the forearm is passively
held out.
Finger-twitches—These may be seen when the hand is held out and
the fingers are spread. The twitching movements may be lateral or in
flexion and extension.
Lordosis—When the hands are held out an altered balance of the
spine may be seen in a weak child with arching forward in the lumbar
region, while the upper part of the trunk is thrown back.
Other Nerve-signs——This group includes the signs less frequently
seen, such as the following :—Slowness of response in movement, defects
of speech, over-smiling or grinning, drooped jaw with open mouth,
nystagmus, paralysis, &.
Analysis of Dr. Francis Warner’s observations of 50,000 children seen
1890-92 has afforded much new information as to conditions bearing on
the mental status and well-being of school children.
It has been shown that more boys than girls are ill-developed; but
of such cases the girls tend more to delicacy and mental dulness, suggest-
ing that, while the average girls may work hard with advantage, there
are a certain number who need special care.
The group of children who appeared to require special training in-
cluded the epileptic, imbeciles, those ‘feebly gifted mentally,’ and the
paralysed: they amounted to 16 per 1,000. It is satisfactory to know
that the School Boards of London, Birmingham, and Leicester have
made special arrangements for the care of such cases. The same scientific
principles as enabled their numbers to be ascertained may be used to
indicate their special requirements in training.
Tracing the group of children with defects in development through
certain schools, it ig evident that they are more numerous in Poor-law
schools and in certified industrial schools than in day schools, and that
though they kecome fatter in resident institutions they there present
more nerve disorder and more mental dulness.
PHYSICAL DEVIATIONS AMONG CHILDREN IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 617
Children with a defect in development form the largest class of cases.
noted in every group of schools, and such form of defectiveness is largely
associated with nerve disorder and mental dulness. It is, however,
noteworthy that a considerable proportion escape the two later evils.
Of the development cases : - . 52 per cent. present nerve-signs.
39 # were reported as dull.
” ” ” ¢ 7 =
» With nerve-signs 43 5 i ” ”
” ”
Under conditions of less favourable training the proportion of de-
velopment cases with nerve-signs and the proportion who are dull rises.
It seems, then, that efficient training and education do much good in
preventing evils from arising in such cases.
Comparing 10,000 children in elementary day schools of upper or
middle social class with 26,000 in poorer day schools, we have found in
the latter a smaller proportion with defect in development, nerve disorder,
low nutrition, or mental dulness.
The thin, pale, delicate children—4 per cent. of the children seen—
were almost entirely confined to the class ‘development cases.’ Could
we remove these defects we should probably have a smaller proportion
of children thin and delicate as well as fewer with nerve disorder and
mental dulness.
Among children with defect of the body those with ‘small heads’
form an important group of 2 per cent. of the children seen ; the condi-
tion falls mostly upon girls, and was found unequally distributed, rising
for girls in Strand to 7 per cent., in City 6 per cent., falling in Ber-
mondsey to 3 per cent., and in certified industrial schools for girls rising
to 6 per cent. Such cases were more common among the English than
the Irish or Jew children.
Cases presenting some defect were least frequent among the children
in the Jew free schools of Whitechapel, and most frequent among the
Trish schools, as seen.
Eye cases were very frequent in all schools: many needed spectacles
who did not use them, and ophthalmia and its results were prevalent in
many instances.
The children reported by the teachers as dull in school were 7 per
cent. of those seen, and 40 per cent. of the children presenting some
defect that was described in the schedules. The greater the number of
defects seen in the groups of children, the higher rises the percentage of
mental dulness.
After inspecting a school and tabulating the results of observation it
is easy to prepare a report comparing the child-material seen with the
average, showing the effects of training the brain and the mental powers
of the pupils.
The evidence accumulated tends to show that, while general educa-
tion has effected excellent results, much remains to be improved concern-
ing the care of the mental and physical conditions of children, especially
as to conditions of unevolved brain power, which are remediable by better
classification and training in certain cases.
This inquiry is directed to obtaining a definite statement of existing
physical and mental conditions by observation of 100,000 children, and
the causation of such weakness and defects as are more common among
them, and the means of removing such defects which lead to ill-health
and mental dulness. A methodical arrangement of investigation and
618 REPORT—1893.
tabulation of observations is in use, and has been amply approved by ex-
perience; the elaboration of results will be submitted to professional
actuarial investigation. Such a statement of facts based upon a wide
range of observation will show the groups of children that need special
care, and suggest the directions in which care is needed for improving
the condition of the child-population. The full report which the Com-
mittee hope to publish will present a census of the physical and mental
conditions of children which has not previously been obtained, and which
was not possible till the modern advancements of cerebral physiology
indicated the means to be employed.
The Committee desire reappointment, and suggest that the title
should be altered to the following: ‘To co-operate with the Committee
appointed by the International Congress of Hygiene and Demography i in
the Investigation of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Children.’
A brief statistical report is given below (Table I.) of 16,094 children
seen in eighteen schools, showing numbers of children presenting each
defect and numbers in certain groups as indicated :—
Taste I—Statistical Summary of 16,094 Children seen, showing Numbers
presenting each Defect and Numbers in certain Groups.
Defect or Group of Children Boys Girls
Cranial abnormality . : : : : ; : : ; 254 230
External ears . 2 : i 3 : ‘ = ; ; 108 36
Epicanthis . 5 ; ; 4 . : ‘ A : : 97 66
Palate ; : ; : , F : ? ‘ ; 127 83
Nasal bones z : : : 39 48
‘Other defects in development,’ includin gos below. . : : 70 67
As ABNORMAL NERVE-SIGNS:
General balance ; 3 ‘ ; , : : : ‘ 25 47
Expression . * - - : : : ; 50 68
Frontals ov eracting. : ; : : 4 4 : » 207 39
Corrugation . : : : : ; : : 8 3
Orbicularis oculi rel: axed . : F ; A : ; ‘ 2 101
Eye-movements : ‘ 5 ‘ j : 4 : = 119 83
Head-balance . ; : ‘ m 2 . : r 28 85
Hand-balance weak . ; é ‘ ; 2 ‘ 3 ‘ 261 167
Hand-balance nervous . : : ; : : : : 72 112
Finger-twitches : : : ; ‘ : c : : 32 41
Lordosis . : : : : i ‘ F : ; F 14 35
‘ Other nerve-signs’. 2 ; : : : ; : : 142 96
GROUPS OF CASES:
Eye cases c : ‘ : : ’ 212 191
Nutrition low, pale, thin, delic ate . ; : ; ; 5 184 220
Mentally dull in school . : : ‘ : é 646 521
‘ Exceptional pupils,’ including as below . : z F 4 63 57
Children maimed or paralysed ; ; : : 36 35
Children with history of ‘fits ’ nESPOr school life . : < 16 18
Imbeciles and idiots . ° : : val 3 2
Children mentally exceptional 3 é : 5 : : 1 3
o
Children ‘feebly gifted mental!y’ ; : : : 5 33 3
619
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ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 621
Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.—First Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis GaLTon (Chairman),
Dr. J. G. Garson, Professor A. C. Happon, Dr. Jos—EPH ANDERSON,
Mr. E. W. Brasroox (Secretary), Mr. J. Rommtty ALLEN, Pro-
fessor D. J. CUNNINGHAM, Professor Boyp Dawkins, Professor
R. MeLpoua, General Pitt-Rivers, and Mr. E. G. RAvENSTEIN.
(Drawn wp by the Secretary. )
Tue Committee have requested the following gentlemen (not members
of the Association) to join them :—
Dr. C. R. Browne (representing, with Professor Cunningham and
Professor Haddon, the Royal Irish Academy, and forming a sub-com-
mittee for Ireland).
Mr. Edward Clodd, Mr. G. L. Gomme (President of the Folklore
Society), and Mr. Joseph Jacobs (representing the Folklore Society).
' Mr. E. Sidney Hartland, Mr. Edward Laws, the Ven. Archdeacon
Thomas, and Mr. 8S. W. Williams (representing, with Professor Boyd
Dawkins and Mr. Romilly Allen, the Cambrian Archeological Association),
and Professor John Rhys (forming a sub-committee for Wales).
Mr. C. M. Kennedy, C.B. (representing, with Mr. Ravenstein, the
Royal Statistical Society).
Mr. H. 8. Milman and Mr. George Payne (representing, with General
_ Pitt-Rivers, the Society of Antiquaries), and a representative of the
Dialect Society.
The Chairman and Secretary of the Committee, with Dr. Garson,
represent the Anthropological Institute. The Committee as thus formed
will consist of delegates of various learned bodies specially interested in
the work, with the addition of the Chairman of the Corresponding
Societies Committee.
The Committee propose to record for certain typical villages, parishes,
or places, and their vicinity—
(1) Physical types of the inhabitants ;
(2) Current traditions and beliefs ;
(3) Peculiarities of dialect ;
(4) Mcnuments and other remains of ancient culture ; and
(5) Historical evidence as to continuity of race.
As a first step the Committee desire to form a list of such places in
the United Kingdom as appear especially to deserve ethnographic study,
out of which a selection may afterwards be made for the survey. The
places which appear to them most suitable for entry on the list are such
as contain not less than 100 adults, the large majority of whose forefathers
have lived there so far back as can be traced, and of whom the desired
physical measurements, with photographs, might be obtained.
The Committee addressed to persons whom they believed to be
eminently capable of affording help in this preliminary search a request
that they would do so by furnishing the names of such places, with a
brief account of their several characteristics, mentioning at the same time
the addresses of such of their residents as would be likely to support the
Committee in pursuing the inquiry.
The editors of the ‘Times,’ ‘Nature,’ the ‘Academy,’ the ‘Atheneum,’
622 REPORT—1893.
and the ‘ Daily Graphic ’ were so good as to make an appeal to their readers
to assist the Committee in the same way.
The Committee have to thank a great number of distinguished
persons for their kindness in complying with this request.
The following tables show the villages and places thus far suggested
in each county, the counties being arranged from North to South, with
the comments made thereon by the correspondents of the Committee :—
ENGLAND,
NORTHUMBERLAND.
No villages have been suggested in this county.
CUMBERLAND.
Places By whom suggested
Keswick . ‘ : A : : . Mr. Richard 8. Ferguson, F.S.A.
Penrith . : ; - : ; . My. William Wilson.
Cockermouth . ; . 2 , 3 Li 4
Hesket New Market ; 2 . : 4 =
Ambleside ‘ : ; ‘ 3 ; < a
Hawkshead - F 2 é * ‘
Aspatria . : ; ; : : . Mr. Ferguson.
Dalston . < 3 H > ; MS
Orton 5 ; : : ; fs 5 5
Alston : 5 , : ( : t y
Allonby . : : 3 7 ; 3 5
Bromfield . : : ¢ 3 ; 3 »
Wastdale . - - * : - ; +
Gosforth . : : : : : : y
Eskdale . : F . é 5 : as
Brampton . : : § : e oF
Lanercost . - : : = : “ i
Maughanby. . : : : P . Myr. Jared Turnbull,
Ivegill . - : : - . . Dr. Barnes.
Caldbeck . ° 2 = 5 5 By
Mr. Ferguson states that Keswick itself swarms with lodging-house
keepers, foreign to the district, but the valleys radiating therefrom are
aboriginal, except for an interesting German strain from German miners
imported tempore Eliz. to work gold mines. Mr. J. Fisher Crosthwaite,
F.S.A., has written upon the German strain, which is a most interesting
one ; the inheritors of the German blood being men of intellectual power.
Mr. Wilson, of the Keswick Hotel, suggests that the native population
of the dales in lake districts might be met with at such gatherings as the
hiring fairs, market days, and horse fairs in the towns. Many of the
inhabitants are undoubtedly descendants of the Northmen, who formerly
colonised the district, though the population, here as elsewhere, is
thoroughly blended. The lake country is poor in traditions, but there
are a few, such as the defeat of King Dunmail by Malcolm, King of
Scotland, at Dunmail Raise, where the former was slain, and a pile of
stones placed over his body. The dialect of Cumberland is best illustrated
by its songs and ballads, which are numerous. The vernacular on the
Cumberland side of Dunmail Raise varies considerably from that made
use of on the other side in Westmorland. The Saxons are said to
have colonised Westmorland, but did not settle in large numbers in
Cumberland, which was mostly occupied by Danes. There are numbers
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 623
of prehistoric remains, such as a stone circle, several ancient forts, and a
British village ; also some Roman remains. The history of the family of
Holmes of Mardale has been traced to the year 1060, when their ancestor,
John Holme, came from Norway and settled there.
Aspatria, with a coal-mining and agricultural population, is a large
parish in central Cumberland, and the outlying hamlets are aboriginal.
Dalston is a large agricultural and manufacturing village, with similar
hamlets.
Orton, an agricultural village near Carlisle, is a very primitive place,
surrounded by a hedge as a protection against moss troopers, and having
the fields all laid out on a plan which is the survival of an early village
community.
Alston is a very secluded district of lead miners, tall in limb, very fair,
due, it is said, to a German strain of miners in the fourteenth century.
Mr. Ferguson remarks that the west of Cumberland is permeated
with Irish miners, at the hematite mines, but Allonby remains a most
primitive community, largely Quaker. Bromfield is agricultural, with
some mining. Wastdale and Eskdale furnish fine specimens of un-
adulterated Norsemen. Brampton is agricultural and mining; Laner-
cost agricultural.
The parish of Addingham, in which Mr. Turnbull lives, consists of
four townships, Gamblesby, Glassonby, Hunsonby, and Little Salkeld.
In the three last named the old type of resident yeomen is fast dying out.
Gamblesby is situated at the base of Fiend’s Fall: the population is a
little under 300, and the people are, for the most part, living on their own
estates.
WESTMORLAND.
Places By whom suggested
Appleby . ; : : - : - My. Ferguson.
Ravenstonedale : 5 : , . Canon Mathews,
Ashby 5 : 5 : , , < 5; *
Orton 3 ‘ i : : : jf x9
Swaledale. : : ; , : . The Rey. J. Wharton.
Troutbeck. ; - - : : . Mr. Ferguson.
Kentmere. : = 5 : + ; a ‘
Lakeland generally . - . 5 ‘. 5 *
Appleby and the neighbouring villages are described as aboriginal
and sleepy hollows. In the villages named by Canon Mathews the in-
habitants have been notoriously adscripti glebe. At Ravenstonedale are
some of the most extensive remains of great works in the remote past,
and the population and dialect are exceptional. The whole parish of
Orton is a complete treasury of ancient civilisations and early wars. At
Swaledale the dialect and mode of enumeration are peculiar, and have been
hitherto classed vaguely as ancient British. A glossary of Swaledale words
was published by the English Dialect Society in 1873. The superstitions
of the county point to fire worship and an oriental origin (in Mr. Wharton’s
Opinion) quite as much as to a Scandinavian source. He thinks the
original race must have been orientals, dark-complexioned, and diminutive
(as suggested by Professor Boyd Dawkins), and that they fled to the
mountains before the advance of a stronger people, these latter even
belonging to a prehistoric period. While in counties of more level
physical character, richer soil, larger population, and greater agricultural
624 REPORT—1893.
and commercial activity traces of the past are rapidly obliterated, in the
lonely valleys, on the wide moors, and among the mountains of Westmor-
land and Cumberland primeval traditions, dialectic data (as, for example,
the use of the digamma, a sounded but unwritten power), ancient monu-
ments and vestiges of a long-forgotten civilisation are unmistakable tokens
of the former prevalence of almost vanished races.
Troutbeck is a primitive Westmorland village. George Browne,
Hsq., the fifth squire of the name in direct succession, is the representative
of an ancient ‘statesman’ family, and possesses a large collection of MSS.
relating to the county and valley which have been reported on by the
Historical MSS. Commission.
YORKSMIRE.
Places By whom suggested
Middleton-in-Teesdale . : 4 . Dr. Beddoe.
Ingleton . : é : : ‘ ! a4
Clapham-in-Craven . ; : - 5
Howarth . j : : ; ; : a
Flamborough . : 4 J ; : be
New Forest, Richmondshire . : . Mrs. Gutch.
Hallgate . : . : - ; é
Askingarthdale. : 3 ‘ ; ~
Lastingham (Pickering) . . ‘ p ~
Staithes-in-Cleveland : : ; . Dr. Beddoe.
Ugthorpe . : : ; : 5 . Mrs. Gutch.
Hetton-le-Hole . : 3 . : . Canon Isaac Taylor.
Havenby . : 4 : S ; . 4. e
Newton-upon-Rawcliffe . : : . Mr. Mark Hill.
Wetwang . : : ; : : . Mrs. Gutch.
Newton-on-Ouse 5 - F p a
Malton . : : : 4 . Mr. Matthew B. Slater.
Idle . ‘ : : ‘ : ; . Dr. J. Wright.
Mrs. Gutch remarks that in the district of New Forest there must be
hamlets as unsophisticated as any that Yorkshire can show. Her father’s
family were established there for centuries, and she visited it in her
childhood ; but her people are scattered, and she has not had more than
a glimpse of it for well nigh forty years. It seemed at the ‘back o’
beyont,’ and she should think change itself would find some difficulty in
getting there.
At Lastingham, Dr. Sydney Ringer says, are two Roman camps and
some tumuli. Not far is an old Saxon sun-dial of the time of Edward the
Confessor. The inhabitants are Yorkshire dalesmen, with many of their
old customs remaining.
Staithes is a fishing village, where the folk are notorious for inter-
marriages and for their conservation of old customs. Much in the same
case were the people of Robin Hood’s Bay, near Whitby, when White
‘walked’ there in 1858. A writer to the ‘Times’ in 1885 said that there
was a village not more than a mile or two from Staithes ‘whose in-
habitants are nearly all Romanists.’ This is probably Ugthorpe, one of
the most secluded places in the neighbourhood, so ‘ far from the madding
crowd’ that the Reformation seems never to have touched it. The like
might be asserted, says Mrs. Gutch, of more than one obscure place in
Yorkshire. It used to be true of Ovington, twelve miles from Darling-
ton, on the southern banks of the Tees.
Canon Atkinson, Vicar of Danby, suggests that by villages should be
.
ON THE ETMNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 625
understood parochial districts, such as his own parish, where there is no
village in the ordinary sense that is a century old. Probably about the
fifteenth century the inhabitants began to migrate from the centres in
which they had been grouped, and to scatter themselves in comparatively
isolated dwellings ; but still they were the same folk, and their descendants
continued to dwell in the land, and were conservative to a degree until
not very long ago.
Mr. Mark Hill states that the people of Newton-upon-Rawcliffe,
Pickering, with whose customs and dialect that gentleman has a familiar,
extensive, and varied acquaintance, are extremely illiterate, untravelled,
and behind times.
Canon Isaac Taylor remarks on the general question that the whole
population was cleared off in the devastation of the north by William L.,
after which a mixed population slowly filtered back. Hven later there
have been great shiftings. In Settrington (of which parish Canon
Taylor is rector) there is a nominal list of the inhabitants in 1598. All
the families but two have shifted. In the West Riding there is a
fourteenth-century poll-book, which would make it easy to trace con-
tinuous residence ; but no earlier ethnological results would be possible,
as William cleared off every soul in Wensleydale. This poll-book affords
abundant evidence of large recent fourteenth-century migrations,
LANCASHIRE.
Places By whom suggested
Torver . ‘ 5 : : : . Myr. H. Swainson Cowper.
Hamlets, near Rochdale . ; ; . Mr. J. Reginald Ashworth.
Chipping . : : : é . Mr. H. T. Crofton.
Leck . . . . . . ” ”
Blackley . ; ’ ‘ ; : . Mr. James D. Wilde.
Ribblesdale_. ‘ : : : . My. Eli Sowerbutts.
Other villages in South Lancashire . . Mr. E, W. Cox.
Torver is a village at the foot of the fells, west of Coniston lake,
having a rural population similar to the Westmorland villages, but
lying in more open country, and with good approach from the sea at the
mouth of the Duddon.
In the district of Rochdale there are a number of small hamlets
which cling to old habits, and are to a considerable extent untouched by
modern influences. A Flemish colony there is said to have introduced
among other things the Lancashire ‘ clog.’
Mr. Sowerbutts remarks that almost every old village in Lancashire
has a separate dialect. In South Lancashire the types of the country
people will have to be found in towns. In his own district of Ribblesdale
he can find a dozen people of the same type distinguished by a peculiar
inflexion of the voice; but there are not many of the families left about
Balderstone, such as Fenton, Ellams (or Helm), Harrison, and Coupe.
He meets them daily in Manchester. His own family lived in Balder-
stone from time immemorial (Sowing in Butts is the derivation of the
_ name); and wherever the name is (Lancashire, Yorkshire, Hampshire,
Bremen, Mexico, the United States of America) they all come from the
Ribble valley. But all are cleared out now to the towns, except a game-
keeper or two. When a lad ten or twelve years old he could go from
farmhouse to farmhouse for nearly twenty miles. All are gone now.
_* Eli o’ Tammas o’ Ruchat o’ Willym o’ Tummas o’ Willym o’ Shandy-
1893. $s
626 Rororr—1893.
forth’ is the method he had to use to tell who he was. That would go
back about 150 years.
Blackley is a large parish, which has recently been absorbed in
Manchester, and is consequently rapidly losing its individuality. About
half of the parish has belonged geographically to Manchester for several
years, but the rest has been cut off by a valley called Boggart Hole
Clough, to which several traditions are attached, recorded in Roby’s
‘ Traditions of Lancashire’ and Bamford’s ‘ Walk.’ This portion has been
until very recently a remarkably isolated and self-contained place,
although within hearing of the Manchester town-hall clock. Many of
the inhabitants have lived for generations in the place. One family
traces its pedigree to John of Gaunt, and claims kindred with Hugh
Oldham, Bishop of Exeter in 1515, The dialect of Blackley is akin to
that of Middleton and Rhodes, approaching that of Rochdale, but differ-
ing from Oldham. ‘There are no monuments or other remains of ancient
culture.
LINCOLNSHIRE.
Places By whom suggested
Isle of Axholme . . . . . Dr. Beddoe.
In north-east Lincolnshire there is a Danish element.
In the village of Denton there is a curious sort of tribe-family of the
Scoffields, the result, it is supposed, of a long sequence of marrying
among themselves. When Lady Welby came to live there there were
sixteen families of the name, now reduced to twelve.
DERBY.
Places By whom suggested
Edale ; ; r 3 ‘ . . Mr. H. T. Crofton.
Castleton . ; 4 ‘ 5 : of 3
Lullington é : : : . Rev. R. H. Clutterbuck, F.S.A.
In Lullington, near Burton-on-Trent, Mr. Clutterbuck was formerly
curate, and was struck by the association of a few families; there were
but about three or four family names (Coates, Welton, and Arsbrook)
that really belonged to the place.
CHESHIRE.
Places By whom suggested
Bebington 3 - - 5 : . Mr. E. W. Cox.
Flash ; , : : : . Dr. Beddoe.
Flash is a village at the junction of Cheshire, Derbyshire, and
Staffordshire, formerly the haunt of thieves and gipsies. ‘Flash’ lan-
guage is said to have been coined there.
STAFFORDSHIRE.
Places By whom suggested
Biddulph Moor 4 ‘ a Z - Dr. J. T. Arlidge.
Goldsitch . : = ° c - c v4
”
Dr. Arlidge, of Stoke-upon-Trent, remarks that the lapse of the last
twenty or thirty years has obliterated almost all ethnological and ethno-
graphical features in that part of Staffordshire by the vastly increased
facilities for removal from native soil, by the extension of education,
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 627
destruction of dialects and of local superstitions, beliefs, and practices,
and by the introduction of immigrants, especially attracted by the
mining and manufacturing operations there pursued. Hence it is that
the population is greatly mixed with Irish and Welsh; still, peculiarities
of dialect prevail, resembling generally those of Yorkshire and Lan-
eashire. North Staffordshire is by no means rich in monuments and
remains of ancient culture. Until the present century it was little
known. The higher regions were moorland or forest, and very thinly
inhabited. A few so-called Druidical monuments remain, but tumuli are
very scarce. Of Roman remains he knows none, except some roads of
cross-country character. Biddulph Moor has a peculiar race of inhabit-
ants, rapidly dying out, popularly attributed to the introduction of some
individual from the East by one of the lords of Biddulph. They are
peculiar in physiognomy and in language. There was also a peculiar
race, well-nigh extinct, in the moorland near Leek, off the road to
Buxton, in a locality known as the Goldsitch mines. There are several
fine encampments of British and Saxon times.
SHROPSHIRE.
Place By whom suggested
Clun. 4 r - : : : . Mr. Geo. Luff.
This village, in the south-west corner of the county, ten miles from
the Craven Arms junction of the Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway, and
about eight miles from Broome, on the Central Wales line, the nearest
railway station, lies sleepily in its own little hollow, encircled by hills
1,000 to 1,400 feet high, and out of the beaten track from anywhere.
The result of Mr. Luff’s nine years’ diligent researches is to show a
strong and important neolithic settlement, with its centre upon Rock
Hill, communicating by a long mountain ridge with central Wales, and
protected on the English side every way by a network of formidable hill
fortresses. This position was continuously occupied by neolithic men,
overlapping the bronze period probably down to historical times. ‘he
fusion of race with the Celts may have taken place before the final defeat
of Caractacus (which Mr. Luff holds to have taken place at Shrewsbury),
but then occurred a great dispersion. The large Roman camp near
Craven Arms probably marks the centre of attack by Ostorius, but after-
wards one small garrison planted behind Clun seems to have been snf-
ficient to keep the remaining hill populations in order. Mr. Luff found
no bronze, though outside the ring of earthworks bronze relics are
common. The collection of flint and stone implements made by him is
declared by Professor Boyd Dawkins to be all neolithic.
Norro.k.
Places By whom suggested
Fishing villages along the coast. . Right Hon. 'T. 4. Huxley.
Ormesby . Z ‘ ‘ ‘ , . Dr. Beddoe.
Brandon . P ‘ F : ; . ‘3
The Fen District . : : : . Rev. Augustus Jessopp, D.D.
The Wiggenhall ‘ ; : : ; 3
Dunwich . P ; i :. ; : a s
Sheringham. ‘ ‘ ; ; . Mr. Coutts Trotter.
Mr. Huxley states that a careful ethnographical survey of the fishing
villages along the east coast of Great Britain from Pegwell Bay to Wick
would be likely to yield interesting results. Many years ago, when he
ss 2
628 REPORT—1893.
was a Sea Fishery Commissioner, and later as Salmon Fishery Inspector,
he was very much struck with the uniformity of type in the inhabitants
of some of these villages. The fishing population often keeps itself very
much to itself; and, indeed, he found on the Norfolk coast adjacent
villages of fishermen distinctly hostile to one another, each being careful
to accuse the others of all breaches of the fishery laws which take place.
In north-east Scotland the same type is of course very strong, the names
of some of the villages being pure Norse.
Brandon is the site of the flint industry.
Of the country round Ormesby Broad, north of Yarmouth, Mr. T. V.
Holmes, F.G.S., remarks that, although a railway now runs through it, it
must still retain much that is primitive. The Danes appear to have
settled there at an early period, as the place-names Ormesby, Filby,
Rollesby, &c., attest. Like Thanet, this Ormesby district was an island
1,000 years ago, although now connected with the rest of Norfolk by
marshes, as Thanet is with Kent. There are probably as many place-
names ending in -by in the Ormesby district as in all the rest of Norfolk.
It would be interesting to compare this district with those of Mersea and
Canvey in Hssex.
Dr. Jessopp, who is rector of Scarning, East Dereham, observes that
all the Norfolk peasantry are perpetually on the move, and it is now
extremely hard to find a dozen men in any parish whose great grand-
fathers or even grandfathers were living there a century ago. Most
permanence of settlement will be found in the fens, including marshland,
and the coast.
At Sheringham the inhabitants are noted for their small feet, and were,
till recently, almost entirely endogamous,
NoRTHAMPTON.
Places By whom suggested
Thorney . ‘ ‘ » : 5 . Dr. Beddoe.
Croyland . é ‘ : 5 - ° >
WARWICK.
Henley-in-Arden : : ‘ . . Dr. Beddoe.
SUFFOLK.
Stowmarket. : ‘ ; ‘ . Miss Layard.
Bilderton . : 5 3 : 4 , a
Branford . ; f é ; f ‘ is
W ORCESTER.
Teme Valley . z 5 F : . Mr. J. W. Willis Bund, F.S.A.
Martley . F ‘ " ‘ . J a 55
Clifton-on-Teme : ; : ; : an
Bellhoughton . : F 3 : 5 a “5
Cloudesley Corbett . t s ; : Fo us
Lenche . j F A = ; : oe 3
Inthlavan . : ; : ¢ F : 55 as
Eldersfield é ; ‘ ; ; : ey e
Mr. Bund remarks that this county has always seemed to him to be
the meeting place of two lines of people, the Welsh up to the Severn, and
a mixed race beyond to the east.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 629
HEREFORD,
Places By whom suggested
Dorstone . ; “ - < - . The Rev, J. O. Bevan.
Madley . : ; ; : : ; a 3
Hereford City . . : 4 : ; Pr <
Eardisland : F d F ; : 5 :
Kington . : P B 5 F ; is us
Leominster , : : . : , * ie
Bromyard . : : : 2 5
Bosbury . ; ; : : : . Dr. Beddoe.
The Golden Valley . é : : . Professor Rhys.
Longtown. : P - : : . Mr. J. E. Southall.
Woolthorpe ; . ‘ : . . Mr, W. C. Lucy.
Dorstone is a parish near the Welsh border, where the people are said
to possess blended characteristics of both races. On the peculiarities of
Herefordshire dialects the late Dr. Havergal and the late Mr. Flavell
Edmunds have published works.
Bosbury is a little Welsh border town, probably not much disturbed.
Professor Rhys remarks that in the Golden Valley the folklore includes a
story of a vision, years ago, at one of the churches, of a ghostly congrega-
tion, to whom it was being announced who should die during the coming
year. The time was Halloween, about midnight. This makes the
beginning of the year among the Celts, or the calends of winter, as it is
called in Welsh.
In Longtown, which is separated from Llanthony by a high mountain,
Mr. Southall has seen what he considered good specimens of Silurians.
MoNMOUTHSHIRE.
Places By whom suggested
Llandogo . : ; ; ‘: A . Mr. J. E. Southall.
Llanfaches or Goldclift . ‘: ; . 4 ;
Llanover or Gostoe 3 : : 5 » o?
The Black Mountains : A ns , is 5
Llanthony : ; : : A ; 3 5
Cwmysy . : 4 5 ; : - 5 _
Cusop : ¢ : P ; ; : oh 3
Mr. Southall does not consider that Monmouthshire presents a good field
for branches one and two of the inquiry. There are some common physical
types representative of the district, but the field for the examination of
villages is much narrowed by the very considerable migration of popula-
tion that has taken place during this century. The agricultural popula-
tion have to some extent gone to the works, and their places have been
filled by English people. In Llanthony and Cwmysy the population got
mixed after the establishment of the abbey in the twelfth century. The
population of Cusop, near Hay, is, or was not long ago, a representative
one.
GLOUCESTER.
Places By whom suggested
Mitcheldean . : ; : ; . Dr Beddoe.
Stow-on-the-Wold . : ‘ ‘i ; a
Moreton-in-Marsh . : A : : ‘:
Sheepscombe . , : : : . Mr. W. C. Lucy.
Avening . 3 : ; : - "
630 REPORT— 1893.
In Moreton, which has nothing to do with marshland, but is Moreton
on the boundary of three counties, the Anthropometric Committee
obtained some excellent typical photographs, by the kindness of Miss
Whitmore-Jones, of Chastleton. These will be available for the use of
this committee. Avening is in a retired valley, through which a road
was, for the first time, made about forty years ago. Until then, so closely
did the inhabitants keep themselves that they allowed no one to marry
out of the village; they hated strangers, and had a reputation for wild-
ness and everything that was bad. They are more civilised now, but still
very conservative.
Essex,
Places By whom suggested
Mersea Island . : ‘ . ‘ . Mr. Holmes.
Canvey Island .
Villages on the Roding
Castle Hedingham
39
”
”
Mr. W. Cole, Hon. Secretary of the Essex Field Club, states that
East Mersea is extremely interesting from the survival there of primitive
ways and modes of thought. Being away from the railways and tourist
routes, and its people having little intercourse with the outside world, it
is a good spot for the study of local folklore. In spots like Mersea and
Canvey Islands (as in Sheppey and Thanet, south of the Thames), the
Danes were wont to form more or less permanent stations, and Mersea is
mentioned as a Danish station in the ‘Saxon Chronicle,’ a.p. 895. The
villages on the upper part of the Roding probably furnish the most un-
mixed examples of the free Danish population, but on the other hand
Mersea and Canvey are free from the later Huguenot element, so strong
in Colchester, Bramtree, and other inland districts of the county.
WILTs.
Places By whom suggested
Malmesbury . : ‘ : : . Dr. Beddoe.
Clyffe Pypard . F : ear . Mr. Lewis.
Avebury : : ; : 5 : a
Aldbourne
”
Between Abury and Swindon there are still some poor remains of
megaiithic structures.
SomEnser.
Places By whom suggested
Cannington . , : ; A . Mr. F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.S.
Stowey : , ; ; ;
Combwich
Stogursey .
Charlwich .
Cheddar .
Banwell
Winscombe 3 : : : : +
Eaton : s : ; : ‘ . Mr. Elworthy.
Winsford . : K f ; : Fe
Kingsbromptcu
Hawkridge :
South Cadbury . ‘ : ; 4 3
Barton St. David's . : 5 3 . Rev. C. W. Bennett.
oF)
0
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 631
The inhabitants of some of the villages named by Mr. Hembry have
been of the same families for very many years, perhaps centuries. They
are all agricultural villages and (except Cheddar and Winscombe) far
removed from any railway.
In those named by Mr. Elworthy the people have lived for the most
part, for many generations, little mixed. On the other hand, Mr. Bennett
states that at Sparkford, thirty-tive miles from Bath, the village of which
he is rector, nearly every inhabitant has been changed within his own
memory, and the dialect is rapidly disappearing.
DEVON.
Places By whom suggested
Appledore ; ; a : . . Mr. T. Morris Jones, F.G.S.
Northam . . 5 : ; : 3 i
Dartmoor . é : : , ; . Mr. A. L. Lewis.
East Budleigh . : : 2 : . Mr. Elworthy.
Hemyock . ; Pe
Dunkerswell
Luppit
Meshaw
Twitching é .
East and West Anstey
West Down : :
Widecombe-in-the-Moor .
Buckfastleigh . : F : : ¥.
Beer . 5 : - : : : . Dr. Beddoe.
Lydford . a : : - ci
”
tT)
Mr. Jones remarks that, forty years ago, the people of the towns
named by him retained many customs or the memory of many customs
lost in larger towns. As to each of them the great majority were related,
and the family feeling was remarkably strong: they sympathised in each
other’s joys and sorrows, and reciprocally borrowed and lent to a strange
extent. Vessels from Appledore were manned by relatives almost entirely,
so far as the coasting trade went, and the large brigs and barques that
were in the timber trade between Bristol and Canada, or which carried
emigrants, were largely commanded by Appledore captains and manned
by Appledore crews, the men often objecting to the admission of a
‘stranger.’ These men are largely descendants of those who vexed the
Spaniards and manned the Bideford whaling fleet in or about the time
of Queen Elizabeth, which fleet was the next to that of Hull in import-
ance. While Kilkhampton (in North Cornwall) was noted for its Puritan
spirit, Appledore was looked upon forty years ago by the people of that
neighbourhood as being a place in which no one who feared the Lord
would live. There were many alive at that time who recollected the fact
of being taught to pray that God would send a ship ashore before morn-
ing. The Appledore men were, however, more noted than the North
Cornishmen for first saving life. Seventy to fifty years ago the men of
Appledore used to fearlessly venture ‘over the bar’ in the worst weather
in order to rescue crews. They had no lifeboats, but rowed out in long
eight- to twelve-oared galleys. The Appledore people spoke a well-marked
variety of the Devonshire dialect. Schools have now almost destroyed it,
the result being a mongrel speech with a much more decided nasal twang
than forty years ago.
“ Beer is a fishing and lace-making village on the borders of Dorset and
evon.
632 REPORT—1893.
CornNWALL.
Places By whom suggested
Kilkhampton . : j ‘ : . Mr. T. Morris Jones.
Stratton! . : ; : A . Mr. G.-H Fox
Camelford ! : A : A ; : 7
St. Columb! . 4 : ; : ; ss
Bodmin! . 3 , ; : ‘ : .
Liskeard ! j é ‘ , ; ; +
Grampound! . é : : - - 33
Gwennap ? : ; : : ; i
St. Day? . : ‘ ; , ‘ : a
Camborne? : : - . : ‘ Ee
St. Just? . ; ; ; ; : ; ~
Polperran * : : ; : : ; -
Portloe? . 3 : 5 A , F oF
Portscatha? . ; . ; ; ‘ _
Cadgwith * : a 4 : 4 5 An
Porthleven*® . ; ; - : ‘ +
Mousehole * . : < 5 5 - “s
Porthgwara® . x . ‘i P ; f
Lenren?® ‘ : A : : : #
Wendron # ; : ; 3 ; . Mr. BR. J. Connock and
tev. Alex. R. Hagar, D.D.
Sithney‘* . : 3 - ‘ F F e 4
Breage’ . : - : - : : re *
Germoe’ . p : : d : - “4
The Meneage
St.Mawgan . - - : : = ”
St. Martin 5 : > - 3 5 ” ”
Manaccan ; ; , . : 4 ”
St. Keverne ; ‘ ; 4 4 a 2
St. Anthony. wie ; i . >
st. Grade . : t 4 : : 3 Fr)
Ruan Major. : ; : "
Ruan Minor ¢ : - , : ” ”
Landewednack .
Mullion . :
Cury . 5
Gunuwalloe.
Mr. Fox remarks that there is little doubt that in some Cornish vil-
lages, especially in fishing villages, the race has continued for generations
without any influx of new blood. In the mining districts the men move
about as mines close or open up in different places, and some go abroad
to mines and return.
Mr. Connock states that previous to about the year 1840 few changes
took place among the inhabitants of the whole area of which the town of
Helston is the centre. The families comprising the population had
been nearly all stationary for generations, and it was not difficult to meet
with persons of advanced age who had never travelled beyond the nearest
market town. Naturally this condition of things begot a strong love of
home, and it is probable that no people, as a whole, possessed a stronger
attachment to their native country than Cornishmen, who now seem
called upon to be the pioneers of civilisation; and, more than the people
of any other province, are scattered over the whole earth. The opening
* Agricultural villages. ? Mining villages. 3 Fishing villages.
4 Mining villages in the north and west of Helston.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 633
up of new mining fields has, of course, had most to do with bringing
about these new conditions. The ground in Cornwall had been mined
for thousands of years, and the extraction of ores from deep mines had
become expensive, and made it difficult to compete with new countries,
where operations were carried on scarcely beyond the light of day. At
first, a few tore themselves from home and gradually, as its necessity be-
came apparent, the spirit for emigration has become almost universal, so
that it is rare to meet with a young man who does not look forward to the
time when he shall have to seek a wider field in which to push his for-
tunes than is to be found at home. The spirit of enterprise that began
in the mining districts quickly extended all through, and the popula-
tion within the last fifty years has in many of the parishes diminished
considerably more than one-half.
In the Breage mining districts it used to be a subject of remark that
‘the men were like trees,’ tall and finely developed; among them the
families of Gundry, Treglohans, Magors, Penhales, and others were well
known, and for many years supplied the men that made the Western
wrestlers the acknowledged champions of the sport. As in other places,
where a number of persons having similar names existed, nicknames or
cognomens were common: one of these, ‘ Bendigo,’ from Breage, was that
of the discoverer of the famous goldfields in Australia, which promptly
took and retained the appellation.
Under the ancient system of mining (Mr. Connock further observes),
before the introduction of the steam engine made deep mining prac-
ticable, the business of farming was generally combined with it, the late
summer and autumn, when the springs became low and the work in the
fields for the year nearly completed, being devoted to the mining. It is
possible, he thinks, that the more recent practice of continuous employ-
ment in deep mines may have had in some cases a deteriorating effect
upon the race. The small area of the enclosures in West Cornwall indi-
cates the way in which the fields were gradually reclaimed from the waste
by hand labour.
There are faint traditions of the former existence of a race of large
men once living in the locality. During some repairs to the chancel of
the church at Wendron about 1860 two stone coffins were discovered
containing human remains of unusual size.
At Breage and Germoe were the homes of the Godolphins, the revivers
of mining industry in Cornwall at the close of the fifteenth century; of
William Lemon, the great miner and merchant of the early part of the
eighteenth century ; and of Edward Pellew, afterwards Viscount Exmouth.
In these parishes the steam engine was first applied to mining on a large
scale, and afterwards the labours of Arthur Woolf and Thomas Richards
largely helped to bring ii to its present perfection. The use of combined
cylinders, which has recently effected great economy in marine naviga-
tion, was originated and put in practice in the Breage mines by them.
The Cornish miners are able mechanics, wonderfully apt at expedients to
meet exigencies.
The fishing village of Porthleven contains a large and increasing
number of families drawing a maintenance from fisheries. They are
almost wholly descended from those who have been long resident in the
locality, though fishing, as a steady and continuous industry, is a calling
of very recent growth. The seine fishery for capturing the shoals of
pilchards periodically visiting the coast was formerly one of the great
634 REPORT—1893.
industries of the county, but this only required the attention of those
engaged during a short time of each year. This form of fishing has now
almost entirely disappeared.
South of a line drawn across from the town of Helston to the mouth
of Helford River, the population of the Lizard peninsula is almost
entirely agricultural, and for many centuries has probably had little ad-
mixture from any outside source. The prevalence of certain names near
the Lizard point has suggested a strain of Spanish extraction. As in the
mining districts, emigration has of late years become general, and most of
the rising youth look forward to seeking wider fields in foreign lands.
During the last half-century each successive census shows a large dimi-
nution in the population. The inhabitants are generally robust and, if
they escape pulmonary disease, long-lived. The proportion of tall, big
men is said to be large, and it is reported that the Meneage Rifle Corps,
when standing shoulder to shoulder, occupies more space than an equal
number of men of any other corps in the kingdom.
About the coast, fishing is carried on to a considerable extent, but
most of those engaged follow other pursuits at times when the weather
or season is not suitable for that industry. Formerly, when opportunity
offered, few of the people objected to a little contraband trading; and
during the war it is said that this was winked at by the Government of
that day, as the pursuit was thought to be a good training for seamen for
the navy, to which, as well as to the army, the whole district furnished a
large contingent in proportion to the population.
The extension of railways, yearly bringing an increasing number of
visitors into the district, cannot fail materially to modify the character of
the people. Generally they are intelligent and industrious, and have,
probably, throughout the prolonged agricultural depression, maintained
their ground as well as any agriculturists in the kingdom. The preva-
lence of Methodism has greatly modified their characteristics, a love of
reading and desire for information being encouraged and looked for, in
the young people especially, as they become identified with the society.
Mr. Connock mentions a representative instance of this in the case of the
late Mr. Samuel James, of St. Keverne.
Of original traditions and beliefs there are but the barest traces re-
maining, and these are vanishing. Among a few of the most ignorant a
sort of covert faith in charms and witchcraft lingers, which even they are
ashamed to acknowledge. Some years since a white witch and wizard
contrived to exact contributions from some dupes scattered about.
Near Germoe ‘Lane End’ (that is, the road leading from the main
road between Helston and Penzance to the church town of Germoe) once
lay beside the turnpike road three boulders or stones of about 1 ewt. each.
The place is locally called ‘Tre-men-Keverne.’ ‘Tradition says that
St. Just once paid a visit to his brother saint at St. Keverne, and was
well received and entertained by him. St. Keverne, after the departure
of his visitor, discovered that his silver spoons and plate were missing.
Very angry at such ingratitude he started off in pursuit, picking up on
his way across Crowta Downs the three stones, which he placed in his
pocket to be ready for emergencies. The culprit being overtaken and the
booty recovered, the stones were dropped, but the principals parted in
anger. St. Just told St. Keverne that, although the people of his parish
should find mineral, there should never be a regular lode within the sound
of his church bells. ‘As for you,’ retorted St. Keverne, ‘although the
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 625
people of your parish shall have plenty of fish, they shall never have a
harbour to bring them into,’ Both these curses are still in operation.
The Tolvan, or holed stone, near Gweek, on the borders of Wendron
parish, was formerly in repute as a means of curing weak or rickety
infants, who were brought, often from a distance, to be passed through
the hole. The stone itself is a large granite slab, formerly lying in an
inclined position in the corner of a croft. A cottage having been built
on the site, a slice broken off from the stone is now made to do duty as
part of the garden wall, the opening in the stone being stuffed with straw
or thorns.
The Dowsing Rod still finds some who have faith in it. Of this Mr.
Connoch has furnished some curious instances. Stories of its success are
current, even among the most intelligent.
The vicar of Manaccan, Dr. Eagar, states that, while the majority of
the inhabitants of the two villages in his parish, Manaccan church town
and Helford, are strangers to the village by birth, they are all natives of
the Meneage or south country. This district is in many ways so peculiar
that an ethnographic survey of the kingdom should certainly contain
some account of it. The ‘Meneage’ (i.e, probably ‘stony’ district)
consists of twelve parishes lying south of Helford River and a line
passing from Gweek at the head of that river through Helston. It is
thus the peninsula whose southern point is the Lizard. Dr. Eagar has
noticed the existence of a very strongly marked melanochroic type
among the inhabitants, and, on inquiry, has found that the persons who
represent that type are of families that have belonged to the district as
far back as they can trace, though not necessarily to any specified
neighbourhood within the district. He has noticed the same type in
county Kerry, Ireland. As seen in Cornwall, it is a very handsome
type. The number of handsome men in his parish is very remarkable,
and, for some curious reason, physical beauty seems commoner there
among men than among women. ‘The women of this type are often very
handsome too—gipsy-looking, with sallow complexions and very bright
eyes. Some of the men of this type look almost like Spaniards. The
suggestion that this is due to an intermixture of Spanish blood from the
Armada seems to Dr. Eagar to be improbable, and he thinks it due to
the greater presence of a non-Aryan element in the population. The
physique of the people is good. The men are well built, and many of the
women have beautiful figures as well as faces. Phthisis is almost un-
known, and death before old age is very rare. Three years ago 10 per
cent. of the population of Manaccan (357 in 1881, 379 in 1891) were
upwards of seventy, and not one of them was bedridden; one woman,
aged eighty-eight, is so now. The dialect still exists among the old
people. Plurals in -en are common: a boarded floor, for instance, is
‘the planchen.’ This occurs all over Cornwall. Thus, near Falmouth,
the blackthorn blossoms are ‘sloen-blowth.’ . The final verbal -e obtains
largely, and has even a living force. ‘All the people do clarké there,’
said a parish clerk of a church where the whole congregation said the
responses. So, too, they say ‘to milké’ and ‘to clunké’—.e., to swallow.
In the district round Manaccan the bluetit is called ‘ patenapali’; a
pallet is a ‘mabyle.’ Among Christian names are many ‘ Hannibals’ ;
in the oldest register ‘ Gwalter ’ and ‘ Gwilliam’ often occur; ‘ Loveday’
is not uncommon among girls. Surnames are either place-names,
mostly in ‘ Tre-,’ or patronymics, as in Wales, such as Williams, Richards,
636 REPORT—1893.
Thomas, Giles, Roberts, James, Rogers (the same family for at least two
hundred years). The people are very warm and kindly, quick-witted,
and keen. Their faults are characteristically Celtic: they are not very
‘straight,’ and are exceedingly suspicious; they fall out easily among
themselves, but do not make up again easily; feuds go on from year to
year, and last out lifetimes. They have a very curious habit of giving,
by preference, any reason for their action except the one that has really
determined it, and one of their own proverbs credits them with ‘ wearing
their corns outside their boots.’ The fishing villages are said to contain
a distinct race, and their inhabitants differ in character from the inland
folk, The non-fisherman Cornishman, even when he lives on the sea-
shore, is afraid of the sea, and credits it with containing, just below low-
water mark, ‘ villos’ and sand-cliffs and other dangers. Dr. Hagar con-
siders that the results of close intermarriage in the fishing villages are
lamentable. Newlyn, near Penzance, contains two villages—Street-
Nowyn (i.e., ‘newyn’ or new) and Newlyn Town. If a Street-Nowyn
woman marries a Newlyn Town man her own relatives will not visit
her, and a man from one village passing through the other gets hooted
in the street. The Cornish Celt is prolific and exceedingly prone to
sexual irregularity.
Dorset.
Places By whom suggested
Litton Cheney . : : : . . Mr. Elworthy.
Abbotsbury j : : : 3 ; *
Askerswell : 3 5 : : *
Puncknoll. 2 5 ; - ; . Lieut. G .M. Mansel, R.N.
Swyre : : , : : 4 . Mr. Elworthy.
The Rev. Dr. Colby states that there are numerous prehistoric
remains in the valley, which extends from Little Brady to the sea at
Burton Bradstock. Till recently it was very much cut off from the rest
of the world. The people have intermarried to a great extent, and many
of the same names can be traced back a long way.
Mr. Mansel states that in 1891 Puncknoll had a population of 428,
decreasing, as it was over 480 in 1881. The inhabitants are partly
agricultural and partly fishing (seine for mackerel, herring, and sprats).
The village is essentially old-fashioned, having been ‘left’ by the rail-
ways; and for nearly a century—viz., from 1752 to 1844—the living was
held by the lords of the manor, three successive rectors, named George
Frome. Old customs have been preserved, and there are many small
freeholds in the parish. Physically the inhabitants are an exceptionally
fine race, and very musical.
HAMPSHIRE.
Places By whom suggested
Meon Valley . - ; - . Very Rey. G. W. Kitchin, F.8.4., Dean of
Winchester.
New Forest 5 ; 3 ; x 3
Test Valley . ; A 5 : . Rev. R. H. Clutterbuck, F.S.A.
Ringwood - : 9 4 - . Dr. Beddoe.
Fordingbridge . : 3 :
”
Dean Kitchin states that the whole Meon valley, the home of the
Jutes (the Meonwara), is very secluded and primitive. People there say
that they can distinguish the Jutish population from all others. The
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 637
valley runs from (say) Botley to Bishop’s Waltham through Meonstoke,
Carhampton (in the church of which parish there is an unspoilt bit of
Anglo-Saxon work), Droxford, West Meon, and East Meon. The chief
part of the valley is seven or eight miles from any railway. The New
Forest also contains some very primitive places. The Rev. G. N. God-
win, of Hast Boldre, a parish seven miles from the nearest station,
believes that his village, which has a distinctly Celtic name, is in the
main a Celtic community almost untouched by the outside world. There
are numerous barrows all around, and he believes them to be literally
the graves of the leaders among his parishioners’ ancestors. In no other
way can many traits of character which prevail among them be under-
stood. One of the tumuli is known as ‘ Colt Pixey’s cave.’
Mr. Clutterbuck, who is rector of Penton Mewsey, states that the
Test valley parishes, including the ‘ Anne’ lot round Andover, have #
character of their own. The valley is very clearly marked out by the
high ground enclosing it; a tribal boundary runs on one side, on the
opposite Wiltshire joins it; and the valley is the limit of the manor and
hundred (with foreign hundred) of Andover. Of this manor the rolls
exist back to an early date, and the tythingmen’s returns are in many
cases preserved, so that by them, as far back as the sixteenth century,
and by the rolls of the gild merchant to a much earlier date, the names
of pretty well all the inhabitants are known. The migration from
village to village probably greatly exceeded the emigration from the
valley and manor itself. The existence of the same name through a long
period is very striking in the corporation records. The dialect is marked
more by grammatical structure than by difference of verbal forms.
There are some barrows (two in Penton Mewsey), a dyke, some camps,
and two intersecting Roman ways. There is a very interesting chain of
evidence of the growth of local government. Not only does historical
evidence point to the commencement of the port of Andover, but the
configuration of the ground upon which the town is built and that of the
town itself show how the port was fenced in. The parish of Penton
Mewsey, which was a separate manor, unlike the rest in the valley, has
274 inhabitants.
Sussex.
Place By whom suggested
Rye . ‘ ° : . : : . Dr. Beddoe.
Dr. Beddoe also suggests some village near the centre of the Weald.
SOUTH WALES.
Rapnor.
Places By whom suggested
Knighton . F P : ; , . Dr. Beddoe.
Presteign . ; ; 3 ; ‘ ’ =
Lianigon . : ; : 2 : . Mr. E. Sidney Hartland, F.S.A.
St. Harmon 3 : ; ‘ : . Mr. Stephen W. Williams, F.S.A.
-New Radnor . ss : ‘ : 7 FF i
Llanbadarn Fynnydd : : ‘ 5 cS 9
Glasewin . % 4 3 5 ‘ : re 55
Llansaintfiraid Cwmdanddwr . : i 9
Llananno . : : Archdeacon Thomas.
The two small border towns named by Dr. Beddoe are probably little
disturbed. lLlanigon is a mountain parish. The villages named by
638 REPoRT—1893.
Mr. Williams are all more or less remote from main lines of communi-
cation, and many families must have lived in them respectively for
generations,
CaRDIGAN.
Places By whom suggested
Taliesin . ‘ 3 . F 4 . Mr. J. W. Willis-Bund, F.S.A.
Tregaron . : 3 : ‘ : é ¥ -
Llanddewibrefi é . é ; i 5 Pe
Llangranog : ; : 5 : é a m
Llechryd . : : a , ; ‘ a 55
Strata Florida . : , ; f . Mr. 8. W. Williams.
The villages named by Mr. Bund are selected with the view of
exemplifying different types of Welshmen. In some there are persons of
ninety years and upwards.
PEMBROKE.
Places By whom suggested
Freystrop . . : c : : - Dr. Beddoe.
Haroldston 5 ‘ ; : ; ; f
Herbrandstown : . : ; . ~
Langum . : : : ; 4 , ,
Castlemartin . : : ; : . Rev. Iorwerth Gray Llcyd, F.S.A.
Roose i : : 5 : : ‘ i
Mr. Lloyd, who is vicar of Bosherston, states that Langum is in-
habited by fisher folk, who for ages have kept themselves apart from their
neighbours as a separate community. The people in the hundreds of
Castlemartin and Roose are a mongrel race.
The northern part of Pembrokeshire is particularly rich in prehistoric
remains that have never been properly explored. The valleys and slopes
of the Preceli mountains are extremely remote from the world. The cliff
carters and other earthworks are very numerous 1n Pembrokeshire, also
Ogam inscribed stones and other relics of early Welsh Christianity.
Mr. Lloyd furnishes a word just heard by him, in addition to the
recorded dialect-vocabulary of South Pembrokeshire, viz., ‘ vorrier’
= headland, signifying the strip by one of the hedges in a ploughed field
which is often left uncultivated (see Law’s ‘Little England beyond
Wales’; Fenton’s ‘ Pembrokeshire’; and Owen's ‘ Pembrokeshire ’).
CARMARTHEN.
Place By whom suggested
Cynfil Caio . ; c : : . Dr. Beddoe.
BREcon.
Ystradgynlais . - : ; : . Mr. Hartland.
GLAMORGAN.
Gower. : ; : : 2 . Mr. Hartland
Ystradfellte . 5 : : : . Mr. Arthur J. Williams, M.P.
Llangynwyd . : 5 5 : : _ te
Llanport Major : : ; 5 ; is Ps
Cowbridge : : : ; ; we “4
Margam . : : : : . . Mr. T. C. Evans.
Glyncorrwg . 5 : ‘ : : a
Upon the general question as regards the conditions of life in the
:
J
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF TUE UNITED KINGDOM. 639
pastoral and agricultural districts of Wales Mr. Hartland states that the
Welsh do not gather much in villages. The peasants live chiefly in home-
steads, scattered over a larger or smaller area, The population of Gower
is divided by a sharply defined line between the English and Welsh.
This line corresponds roughly with the line dividing the coal measures
from the limestone. On the latter, the southern side, are descendants
of immigrant settlers from the opposite coast, or, as is sometimes
thought, from Flanders, who appear to have driven out the Welsh.
They speak English exclusively; they have well-recognisable charac-
teristics; and their families have lived on the same spot, or at least in the
same neighbourhood, for many generations. On the northern side, the
less fertile, and formerly in every way the less desirable, the Welsh-
speaking inhabitants remain, having distinct characteristics. Of late
years there has been an influx of foreign population around the mines
and works, but it is possible there are still spots where the old inhabit-
ants remain almost unadulterated. Ystradfellte, a small village at the
top of the valley through which the Mellte, a tributary of the Neath
River, runs, is the centre of a very secluded wild and rugged district. The
people are Welsh mountaineers, engaged in pastoral and agricultural
work. A number of interesting traditions were collected not very far
away by a lady and sent to Croker, and they appear in the third volume
of his ‘ Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland.’ Mr.
Hartland thinks it likely, from his own experience, that many still
survive.
Mr. Williams says that, though the extraordinary growth of the
_ county during the last twenty years has transformed the villages of the
mining districts into towns, there are still some left in the hilly parts,
and there are very old and curious villages in the Vale of Glamorgan
which remain very much what they were many generations back.
For all Welsh antiquities‘ Archzeologia Cambrensis’ should be consulted.
NORTH WALES.
CARNARVON.
Places By whom suggested
Llanfihangel-y-Pennant . A 0 . Archdeacon Thomas.
Llanengon A
Pwllheli
DENBIGH.
Liansannan. . ' i ; . Archdeacon Thomas.
Gwytherin : F
Cerrig-y-Druidion
Yspytty
Lilangwm .
Llangernyw
MERIONETH.
Llanuwehllyn . : : ; : . Rev. Professor Ellis Edwards.
Brithdir : é ;
Llanarmon Dyfiryn Ceiriog : : = y
Llanymowddwy j F : ; . Archdeacon Thomas.
” ”
Furr.
Rhosermor A , 7 fe ‘ . Professor Edwards.
640 REPORT—1893.
At this village, and for some miles round it, a very marked peculiarity
of intonation, believed to be unique in North Wales, is to be observed.
MontTGoMERY.
Places By whom suggested
Garthbeibio . : = p 5 . Archdeacon Thomas.
Llanbrynmair . p 4 s : F 45 fs
Llangynog ; 5 5 é ; ‘ a $5
Pennant . 3 J : ; : 3 35 As
A list of twenty-six Montgomeryshire villages has also been furnished
by Mr. R. Williams, of Newtown.
ISLE OF MAN.
Places By whom suggested
Michael . . . ‘ . ‘ . Mr. A. W. Moore.
Ballaugh . 3 ‘ : : é : 53 bs
Maughold . 2 : 5 F 5 ‘ zs
Cregneith . ; : ; : ; : 3
Viewing the fact that since the beginning of the century the popula-
tion has shifted a good deal, a small area like the Isle of Man would have
to be taken as a whole. Hxcept some very slight differences of pro-
nunciation in Manx, and a slightly larger preponderance of the Scandi-
navian in the northern part, Mr. Moore is unable to trace any difference
between the north and south of the isle, and the difference between the
smaller districts is imperceptible. Miss Crellin remarks that the natives
in many parts of the island are quite capable of cramming, and do cram,
the English man of science.
SCOTLAND.
THe HEsRIDES.
Place By whom suggested
Ness, Butt of Lewis. ‘ : ‘ . Dr. Beddoe.
This is very Scandinavian.
Tue HIGHLANDS.
Places By whom suggested
Moran. ; : ; ‘ ‘ . Dr. Beddoe.
Arisaig . 3 : : : : : a
Durness, including Melness_. ; . Rey. James Macdonald.
Assynt . ? : ; ‘ : : L RS
Durinish . : ; é ; ‘ a Pa
Kilmuir . . : ‘ : : + a
Knoidart . ; ‘ : , ; i ¥ Pr
Brae Lochaber. : 5 F . ; , -
Freswick . E é ; ; ; ; a es
Dunnet . : ‘ 5 : ; ‘ 3 6
Camsbay . : : : : : : ‘3 i.
Dunleath . ‘ 5 : : F : _ e
Wick ‘ : 5 : : 3 4 i
As regards the Celtic area, there are no old villages of any size.
Highlanders never lived in villages, but there are many traditions still
floating among people who live in scattered hamlets. In each of the
districts named by Mr. Macdonald the people have lived undisturbed for
hundreds of years, and each is characteristic of certain phases of Celtic
thought. Winter is the time to visit these districts, as it is simply
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 641
impossible to induce a Highlander to talk of his ghosts and fairies in
broad daylight, and the visitor (who must of course talk Gaelic) would
have to incur, besides his hotel bills, some small outlay on whisky to
induce men to talk freely and throw off the ordinary restraint Highlanders
have in the presence of strangers. There are colonies of gipsies near
Wick who have lived in caves from time immemorial.
See also the remarks of Mr. Huxley ante ‘ Norfolk.’
Fire.
Places By whom suggested
Buckhaven! . 5 : 5 : . Dr. Beddoe.
St. Monance! . F : ; : 2 “
THE LOWLANDS.
Lesmahagow . - " ; ; . Dr. Beddoe.
Leadhills . : A : - : - 3
Wenlockhead . A 4 5 : ? .
Lauder 3 J , f : ; a
Hightae . : : : : : . Lieut.-Colonel Frederick Bailey.
Ferryden . F 5 4 . : ; 3 ny
Yetholm . ; : A A 33 A
At Hightae (Dumfriesshire) the people have been settled for upwards
of 500 years. Ferryden is inhabited by people of Norse origin, and
Yetholm by a gipsy race.
Mr. D. Christison remarks that in most parts of the Scottish lowlands,
since the introduction of railways, there has been a great shifting of the
population and an inroad of Irish, which, with the almost complete
Anglicising of the upper classes in the country districts, is rapidly extin-
guishing the Scottish character of Scotland ; but there are plenty of quiet,
retired villages which still retain something of their primitive population.
At Dundee intermarriage between the Irish and Scots, which at first was
unusual, has now become quite common.
IRELAND.
This part of the United Kingdom will be investigated by the Sub-
Committee for Ireland under the auspices of the Royal Irish Academy.
Communications for the Sub-Committee should be addressed to Professor
Haddon, as secretary, at the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
The preceding tables show that in the islands of Great Britain
there are more than 250 places which, in the opinion of competent
authorities, would be suitable for ethnographic survey. The opinions of
the eminent persons who have favoured the Committee with this advice
show that, notwithstanding the rapid changes which have taken place
during the last fifty years in all parts of the country, much valuable
material remains for the Committee to work upon. They confirm the
considerations which were urged upon the Association when the appoint-
ment of this committee was asked for as to the necessity of proceeding
with the work without delay if it is to be carried into effect at all.
The Committee have therefore prepared, for the use of those who
have expressed their readiness to help in this matter, the following circular
letter and forms of schedule:—
1 Fishers’ villages.
1893, va
642 REPORT—1893.
“Dear Sir,—Referring to our previous circular letter, and to your
obliging offer of assistance in answer to it, we have now the pleasure to
enclose Forms of Schedule, which will, we trust, enable you to furnish
the desired information with respect to the district mentioned by your-
self.
‘You will observe that a separate page or pages of foolscap has been
prepared for each head of the inquiries, on which are questions and hints
prepared by a member of the Committee, who has undertaken to digest
the answers in respect of his particular branch, the lower portion of
each page, to which should be added as many separate sheets of foolscap
as may be required, being left for your answers. And that, with regard
to the physical observations, a single page of foolscap has been set aside
for the measurements of each individual to be observed. We shall be
obliged by a note from you, stating how many individuals you think you
will have the opportunity of photographing and measuring, in order that
we may supply you with the requisite number of copies of the form.
‘We are sure you will excuse our urging what may at first sight appear
to be trivial details, but which are in reality of great practical importance
to those who have to arrange and consult a large collection of commu-
nications from different persons. These are that the communications
should all be written on foolscap paper, and that the writing should be
on one side only of the page, and should never run so near the margin
as to be an obstacle to future binding.
‘The Committee are satisfied that the value of the returns will be
much reduced if they do not give information under all the several heads.
If it should happen, therefore, that your own pursuits or means of infor-
mation do not enable you to fill up the whole of the forms desired, they
would take it as a particular favour if you could induce friends to supply
the missing details, and thus to render the information complete.
‘The Committee, in addressing you individually, wish to disclaim any
idea of interfering with the action of local Societies, from many of which,
on the contrary, they have reason to expect very valuable assistance. If
it should suit your convenience to present to your local Society an even
fuller account of your observations than may be necessary to comply
with the requirements of this Committee, such a course would be highly
desirable, and it is hoped that the local Societies will, on the other hand,
give to the observers in their several districts all the encouragement and
moral assistance that may be found practicable.— We are, dc.’
1. Physical Types of the Inhabitants.
PHorocraPHic Portraits.
Facial characteristics are conveniently recorded by means of photo-
graphs, taken in the three ways explained below. Amateurs in photo-
graphy are now so numerous that it is hoped the desired materials may
be abundantly supplied. At least twelve more or less beardless male
adults and twelve female adults should be photographed. It will add
much to the value of the portrait if these same persons have also been mea-
sured. The photographs should be mounted on cards, each card bearing
the name of the district, and a letter or number to distinguish the indi-
vidual portraits ; the cards to be secured together by a thread passing
a
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 643
loosely through a hole in each of their upper left-hand corners. Three
sorts of portrait are wanted, as follows:—
(a) A few portraits of such persons as may, in the opinion of the
person who sends them, best convey the peculiar characteristics of the
race. These may be taken in whatever aspect shall best display those
characteristics, and should be accompanied by a note directing attention
to them.
(b) At least twelve portraits of the left side of the face of as many
different adults of the same sex. These must show in each case the
ewact profile, and the hair should be so arranged as fully to show the ear.
All the persons should occupy in turn the same chair (with movable
blocks on the seat, to raise the sitters’ heads to a uniform height), the
camera being fixed throughout in the same place. The portraits to be on
such a scale that the distance between the top of the head and the bottom
of the chin shall in no case be less than 14 inch. Smaller portraits can
hardly be utilised in any way. If the incidence of the light be not the
same in all cases, they cannot be used to make composite portraits, By
attending to the following hints the successive sitters may be made to
occupy so nearly the same position that the camera need hardly be re-
focussed. In regulating the height of the head-it is tedious and clumsy
to arrange the proper blocks on the seat by trial. The simpler plan is
to make the sitter first take his place on a separate seat with its back to
the wall, having previously marked on the wall, at heights corresponding
to those of the various heights of head, the numbers of the blocks that
should be used in each case. The appropriate number for the sitter is
noted, and the proper blocks are placed on the chair, with the assurance
that what was wanted has been correctly done. The distance of the sitter
from the camera can be adjusted with much precision by fixing a looking-
glass in the wall (say five feet from his chair), so that he can see the
reflection of his face in it. The backward or forward position of the
sitter is easily controlled by the operator, if he looks at the sitter’s head,
over the middle of the camera, against a mark on the wall beyond. It
would be a considerable aid in making measurements of the features of
the portrait, and preventing the possibility of mistaking the district of
which the sitter is a representative, if a board be fixed above his head in
the plane of his profile, on which a scale of inches is very legibly marked,
and the name of the district written. This board should be so placed as
just to fall within the photographic plate. The background should be of
a medium tint (say a sheet of light brown paper pinned against the wall
beyond), very dark and very light tints being both unsuitable for com-
posite photography.
(c) The same persons who were taken in side face should be subse-
quently photographed in strictly full face. They should occupy a different
chair, the place of camera being changed in accordance. Time will be
greatly saved if all the side faces are taken first, and then all the full
faces; unless, indeed, there happen to be two operators, each with his
own camera, ready to take the same persons in turn. The remarks just
made in respect to b are, in principle, more or less applicable to the
present case; but the previous method of insuring a uniform distance
between the sitter and the camera ceases to be appropriate.
It is proposed that composites of some of these groups shall be taken
by Mr. Gaitor, so far as his time allows.
mimes
644 REPORT—1893.
Physical. Observations on Individuals. :
SS
Date of Christian Town or
Number | yeasurement | Suzmame Nanie pee Sex Village County
ae
Surname of your | SuRNAME of your | What district do
=
Father if different Mother before your Father’s oe 2-
from your own she was married | people come from ?
SURNAMES,
Occupation
of the country for long: if not, state what
Have your Father’s people occupied that part
you know of their original locality.
GENERAL CONDITION: (1) stout; (2) medium; (3) thin. | Photographed (?).
SkIN: (1) pale; (2) ruddy ; (3) sallow. | Freckled (1).
HAtrR: (R) red; (F) fair; (B) brown; (D) dark; (N) black.
(1) straight ; (2) wavy; (3) curly.
AMOUNT OF HAIR ON FACE: (0) absent; (1) scanty ; (2) medium ; (3) abundant.
Eyes: (1) blue; (2) grey, light or dark ; (3) green; (4) hazel, light or dark.
SHAPE OF FACE: (1) long and narrow; (2) medium; (8) short and broad.
(1.) Pyramidal, i.e., narrowing upwards; (IJ.) wedge-shaped,
i.e., narrowing downwards; (III.) square; (IV.) round ;
(A) flat; (B) prominent; (a) cheek-bones incon-
spicuous ; (b) cheek-bones prominent.
PROFILE OF Nose: Compare with outline figures on back, and give the num-
ber with which the nose under examination most
closely corresponds.
Lips: (1) thin; (2) medium; (3) thick.
EARS: max. length; (A) flat; (B) outstanding; (a) coarse; (0d) finely-moulded.
LOBES OF EARS: (1) absent; (2) present; (a) attached; (b) detached.
HEIGHT CRANIUM FAcE
Standing Sitting||Length| Breadth |Height|| Length
Upper Face Bigonial
Length Breadth | Breadth
Nose AURICULAR RADII
Se a piiternal
| Bi-ocular Cainial ]
Length| Breadth fpaxeade Height Nasal | Alveolar eae
eS ee
REMARKS.
Observer's Signature
| ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 645
;
:
:
:
Directions for Measurement.
The instruments required for these measurements are—Garson’s ‘Traveller’s
anthropometer, manufactured by Aston and Mander, 25 Old Compton Street,
London, price 3/. 3s. complete; without box footpiece 27. 10s.; astandard for measuring
height, or a tape-measure fastened vertically on a wall, with the zero just level with
the floor; a pair of Broca’s callipers; and a Dublin boxwood craniometer for the
head measurements, manufactured by Robinson and Sons, Grafton Street, Dublin,
price 17. 10s.
Height standing.—The subject should stand perfectly upright, with his back to
the standard or fixed tape, and his eyes directed horizontally forwards. Care should
be taken that the standard or support for the tape is vertical. The height is measured
by placing a carpenter’s square or a large set-square against the support in such a
manner that the lower edge is at right angles to the scale; the square should be
placed well above the head, and then brought down till its lower edge feels the
resistance of the top of the head. The observer should be careful that the height
should be taken in the middle line of the head. If the subject should object to take
off his boots, measure the thickness of the boct-heel and deduct from stature indi-
cated in boots.
Height sitting—For this the subject should be seated on a stool or low bench,
having behind it a graduated rod or tape withits zero level with the seat ; he should
sit perfectly erect, with his back well in against the scale. Then proceed as in
measuring the height standing. The square should be employed here also if the tape
against a wall is used.
Length of head.—Measured from the projection between the eye-brows (glabella)
to the most distant point at the back of the head in the middle line. For this
measurement the callipers are used, and care should be taken to keep the end on the
glabella steady by holding it there with the fingers while the other extremity is
searching for the maximum projection of the head behind.
Breadth of head.—The maximum breadth of head is measured at right angles to
the length. Care must be taken to hold the instrument so that both its points are
exactly on the same horizontal level.
Height of head—The head should be so held that the eyes look straight forwards.
The callipers of Garson’s anthropometer should be held vertically in front of the face
of the subject, and the upper straight arm should be extended as far as possible,
and placed along the middle line of the head; the shorter lower arm should be
pushed up to the lower surface of the chin.
Face length.—This is measured from the slight furrow which marks the root of
the nose to the under part of the chin. Should there be two furrows, as is often the
case, measure from the upper one.
Upper face length.—From root of nose to the separation between the two central
front teeth at their roots.
Face breadth.—Maximum breadth of face between the bony projections in front
ef the ears.
Bigonial breadth.—Breadth of face at the angles of the lower jaw below the ears.
Nose length.—F rom the furrow at root of nose to the angle between the nose and
the upper lip in the middle line.
Breadth of nose.—Measured horizontally across the nostrils at the widest part,
but without compressing the nostrils.
Internal bi-ocular breadth.—Width between the internal angles of the eyes. While
this is being measured the subject should shut his eyes.
Head height—This is taken with the Dublin craniometer, the plugs of which
should be well inserted into the ear-holes, so as to press against the bony wall, and
the sliding indicator brought down on the top of the head, at a point vertical to the
ear-hole, the head being so held that the eyes are directed to a point at the same
level as themselves, #.¢., the plane of vision should be exactly horizontal.
Auriculo-nasal radius.—From centre of ear-hole to root of nose.
Auriculo-alveolar radius —From centre of ear-hole to gum at root of front teeth
of the upper jaw.
646 REPORT—1893.
Auriculo-mental radius.—From centre of ear-hole to point of chin.
For these three measurements the Dublin craniometer should be used.
Cephalic index = head breadth 2 100
head length
a AE _ head height x 100
Height index = one eee .
face breadth x 100
face length
nose breadth x 100.
nose length
auriculo-alveolar 7 x 100
auriculo-nasal 7
Face index =
Nasal index =
Alveolar index =
Nove.—It is essential that these rules should be strictly followed in order to
secure accuracy. If possible, the subject’s weight should be obtained, and recorded
in the place set apart for remarks. The observer is recommended to procure ‘ Notes
and Queries on Anthropology,’ the Anthropological Institute, 3 Hanover Square,
London ; net price, 3s. 6d.
The detailed measurements, for which a special schedule is provided
for each person measured, form the most important part of our anthropo-
metric investigations. In addition to this, however, we would impress
upon observers the necessity for far more numerous observations than can
be collected by the former method. If these are made in any part of the
country whenever opportunity presents itself, we shall not only have a
mass of valuable material, but we shall have suggestions as to where it
might be profitable to prosecute more detailed investigation.
We would recommend observers to attend village fairs and festivals,
and to provide themselves with a sufficient number of marking cards. It
would be advisable for two or more observers to work independently on
the same occasion ; the average results of two or more observers would
be of more value than the report of a single observer.
On the back of each card should be written the general impression,
not only of the hair and eye colour, but also of other characteristics and
peculiarities ; this should be recorded immediately after the observation
has been made, and not from memory after an interval.
It must be distinctly understood that this is to be regarded as sup-
plemental to the more detailed measurements, and that the latter should
receive most attention.
The anthropological data most readily obtainable are the colour of the
hair and eyes. The marking cards introduced by Dr. Beddoe are in every
way admirably adapted for field work, since they are small enough to fit
in a waistcoat pocket. As the noting of an individual can be made by a
single pencil mark, they admit of rapid and accurate use in situations
where writing would be difficult. The cards are marked as in the
diagram on page 647, which, also, will be found to be a convenient
size.
Each card is divided vertically into three main divisions for eye colour:
light, medium, and dark respectively. The three spaces thus formed are
further subdivided vertically into five columns for the five hair colours :
red, fair, brown, dark, and black. These are indicated by the letters R,
F, B, D, and N at the heads of the columns. The card is subdivided by
a horizontal line into two equal parts—the upper for males, the lower for
females. It is convenient to leave a space at the end of the card for the
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 647
name of the locality and the date. The back of the card can be utilised
for further particulars. The initialling of the card by the observer
indicates that the record is completed for that card.
Light eyes Medium eyes Dark eyes
R|F;|B/D/|N F/B;D/N|R|F/|B|D/N
i]
|
Care should be taken to note only such cases as can be seen clearly at
close quarters, and in a good light—a precaution very necessary for the
estimation of doubtful tints, especially of the eyes. Cases in which the
hair has begun to turn grey should be excluded.
Adolescents who appear to be under eighteen years of age should be
noted on special cards.
The eyes are classed as follows :—
Tight.—All blue, bluish grey, and light grey eyes.
Medium.—Dark grey, brownish grey, very light hazel or yellow, hazel
grey (formed by streaks of orange radiating into a bluish grey field), and
most shades of green.
Dark.—The so-called black eyes, and those usually called brown and
dark hazel.
The following are the hair colours :—
Red.—All shades which approach more nearly to red than to brown,
yellow, or flaxen.
Fair.—Flaxen, yellow, golden, some of the lightest shades of brown,
and some pale auburns in which the red hue is not very conspicucus.
Brown.—The lighter shades of brown.
Dark.—The darker shades of brown.
Black (Niger)—Which includes not only the jet black which has
retained the same colour from childhood, and is generally very coarse and
hard, but also that very intense brown which occurs in people who in
childhood have had dark brown (or in some cases deep red) hair, but
which in the adult cannot be distinguished from coal-black except in a
very good light.
The foregoing scheme is taken from Dr. Beddoe’s ‘The Races of
Britain ; a Contribution to the Anthropology of Western Europe’ (1885).
It might be advisable to discriminate in some way (say by making a
different mark in the N column) between jet black and black brown.
The collections under this head will be digested by Dr. Garson and
Professor Haddon.
648 REPORT— 1893.
2. Current Traditions and Beliefs.
FOLKLORE.
Every item of folklore should be collected, consisting of customs,
traditions, superstitions, sayings of the people, games, and any supersti-
tions connected with special days, marriages, births, deaths, cultivation of
the land, election of local officers, or other events. Each item should
be written legibly on a separate piece of paper, and the name, occupa-
tion, and age of the person from whom the information is obtained
should in all cases be carefully recorded. Ifa custom or tradition relates
to a particular place or object, especially if it relates to a curious natural
feature of the district, or to an ancient monument or camp, some infor-
mation should be given about such place or monument. Sometimes a
custom, tradition, or superstition may relate to a particular family or
group of persons, and not generally to the whole population; and in
this case care should be exercised in giving necessary particulars. Any
objects which are used for local ceremonies, such as masks, ribbons,
coloured dresses, &c., should be described accurately, and, if possible,
photographed ; or might be forwarded to London, either for permanent
location, or to be drawn or photographed. Any superstitions that are
believed at one place and professedly disbelieved at another, or the exact
opposite believed, should be most carefully noted.
The following questions are examples of the kind and direction of the
inquiries to be made, and are not intended to confine the inquirer to the
special subjects referred to in them, nor to limit the replies to categorical
answers. The numbers within brackets refer to the corresponding articles
in the ‘Handbook of Folklore’ (published by Nutt, 270 Strand, London).
(4) Relate any tradition as to the origin of mountains or as to
giants being entombed therein.
Are there any traditions about giants or dwarfs in the district ?
Relate them.
Is there a story about a Blinded Giant like that of Polyphemus ?
(18) Describe any ceremonies performed at certain times in connec-
tion with mountains.
(16) Relate any traditions or beliefs about caves.
(19) Are any customs performed on islands not usually inhabited ?
Are they used as burial places P
(25) Describe any practices of leaving small objects, articles of dress,
&e., at wells.
(29) Are there spirits of rivers or streams? Give their names.
(82) Describe any practices of casting small objects, articles of dress,
&c., in the rivers.
(33) Are running waters supposed not to allow criminals or evil
spirits to cross them ?
(39) Describe any customs at the choosing of a site for building,
and relate any traditions as to the site or erection of any
building.
(42) Is there a practice of sprinkling foundations with the blood of
animals, a bull, or a cock P
(43) Does the building of a house cause the death of the builder ?
(48, 49, 50) Relate any traditions of the sun, moon, stars.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 649
(62) Describe the customs of fishermen at launching their boats.
(63) Give any omens believed in by fishermen.
(66) Is it unlucky to assist a drowning person ?
84.) What ceremonies are performed when trees are felled ?
(85) Describe any custom of placing rags and other small objects
upon bushes or trees.
(86) Describe any maypole customs and dances.
(87) Describe any customs of wassailing of fruit trees.
(90) Are split trees used in divination or for the cure of disease ?
(98) Describe any ceremonies used for love divination with plants or
trees.
(105) Describe the garlands made and used at ceremonies.
(110) What animals are considered lucky and what unlucky to meet,
come in contact with, or kill ?
(132) Describe any customs in which animals are sacrificed, or driven
away from house or village.
(133) Describe customs in which men dress up as animals.
(137) Give the names of the local demons, fairies, pixies, ghosts, &c.
Have any of them personal proper names ?
(139) Their habits, whether gregarious or solitary. Do they use
special implements ?
(140) Form and appearance, if beautiful or hideous, small in stature,
different at different times.
(144) Character, if merry, mischievous, sulky, spiteful, industrious,
stupid, easily outwitted.
(145) Occupations, music, dancing, helping mankind, carrying on
mining, agricultural work.
(146) Haunts or habitations, if human dwellings, mounds, barrows,
mines, forests, boggy moorlands, waters, the underworld,
dolmans, stone circles.
(190) Give the details of any practices connected with the worship of
the local saint.
(191) Are sacrifices or offerings made to the local saint, on what days,
and when ?
(192) What is the shrine of the local saint ?
(210) Witchcraft. Describe minutely the ceremonies performed by
the witch. What preliminary ceremony took place to pro-
tect the witch ?
(294) Are charms used to find evil spirits and prevent their moving
away ?
(295) Are amulets, talismans, written bits of paper, gestures, &e.,
used to avert evil or to ensure good? If so, how, when,
where ?
(297) Are skulls of animals, or horses, or other objects hung up in
trees to avert the evil eye and other malign influences ?
(298) What methods are employed for divining future events ? What
omens are believed in P
(353) What superstitions are attached to women’s work as such ?
(356) Are women ever excluded from any occupation, ceremonies, or
laces ?
(358) ee eer evee are attached to the status of widow-
ood !
(366) Are particular parts of any town or village, or particular
650 REPORT—1893.
sections of any community entirely occupied in one trade or
occupation P
(368) Have they customs and superstitions peculiar to their occupa-
tion ?
(869) Do they intermarry among themselves and keep aloof from
other people ?
(3873) Have they any processions or festivals ?
(422) What parts of the body are superstitiously regarded ?
(432) Are bones, nails, hair, the subject of particular customs or
superstitions ; and is anything done with bones when acci-
dentally discovered ?
(436) Is dressing ever considered as a special ceremonial; are omens
drawn from accidents in dressing P
(452) Are any parts of the house considered sacred ?
(453) Is the threshold the object of any ceremony ; is it adorned with
garlands ; is it guarded by a horseshoe or other object ?
(454) Are any ceremonies performed at the hearth; are the ashes
used for divination ; is the fire ever kept burning for any
continuous period ?
(456) Is it unlucky to give fire from the hearth to strangers always,
or when ?
(467) Is there any ceremony on leaving a house, or on first occupying
a house P
(509) What are the chief festivals, and what the lesser festivals
observed P
(515) Explain the popular belief in the object of each festival.
(516) Describe the customs and observances appertaining to each
festival.
(540) When does the new year popularly begin ?
State the superstitions or legends known to attach to—
(a) Halloween (both old and new styles).
(b) May Eve.
(c) Midsummer day, and St. John’s Eve.
(d) Lammas, or August 1.
(e) New Year’s Day.
(f) Christmas.
Is there any superstition as to the first person who enters a house in
the New Year? Is stress laid upon the colour of complexion and hair ?
(567) What are the customs observed at the birth of children ?
(588) Describe the ceremonies practised at courtship and marriage.
(623) Describe the ceremonies at death and burial.
(669) Describe any games of ball or any games with string, or other
ames.
(674) Describe all nursery games of children.
(686) Is there any special rule of succession to property ?
(703) Is any stone or group of stones, or any ancient monument or
ancient tree connected with local customs ?
(706) Are any special parts of the village or town the subject of
particular rights, privileges, or disabilities ; do these parts
bear any particular names ?
(711) Describe special local modes of punishment or of lynch law.
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 651
(719) Describe special customs observed at plonghing, harrowing,
sowing, manuring, haymaking, apple gathering, corn harvest,
hemp harvest, flax harvest, potato gathering, threshing,
flax picking, and hemp picking.
The collections under this head will be digested by Professor Rhys
and the representatives of the Folklore Society.
3. Peculiarities of Dialect.
Directions To CoLmuLectors OF DiaLect Tests.
1. Do not, if it can be helped, let your informant know the nature of
your observations. The true dialect speaker will not speak his dialect
freely or truly unless he is unaware that his utterance is watched. In
some cases persons of the middle class can afford correct information,
and there is less risk in allowing them to know your purpose.
2. Observe the use of consonants. Note, for example, if » and z are
used where the standard pronunciation has f ands. ‘This is common in
the south.
3. Observe very carefully the nature of the vowels. This requires
practice in uttering and appreciating vowel sounds, some knowledge of
phonetics, and a good ear.
4. Record all observations in the same standard phonetic alphabet, viz.,
that given in Sweet’s ‘Primer of Phonetics.’ A few modifications in this
may be made, viz., ng for Sweet’s symbol for the sound of ng in thing; sh
for his symbol for the sh in she ; ch for his symbol for the ch in choose; th
for the th in thin; dh for the th in then. If these modifications are used
say so. But the symbol j must only be used for the y in you, viz., as in
German. If the sound of 7 in just is meant Sweet’s symbol should be
used. On the whole it is far better to use no modifications at all.
Sweet’s symbols are no more difficult to use than any others after a very
brief practice, such as every observer of phonetics must necessarily go
through.
5. If you find that you are unable to record sounds according to the
above scheme it is better to make no return at all. Incorrect returns are
misleading in the highest degree, most of all such as are recorded in the
ordinary spelling of literary English.
6. The chief vowel-sounds to be tested are those which occur in the
following words of English origin, viz., man, hard, name, help, meat
(spelt with ea), green (spelt with ee), hill, wine, fire, soft, hole, oak (spelt
with oa), cool, sun, house, day, law, or words involving similar sounds.
Also words of French origin, such as just, master (a before s), grant,
(a before n), try, value, measure, bacon, pay, chair, journey, pity, beef, clear,
profit, boil, roast, pork, false, butcher, fruit, blue, pure, poor, or words in-
volving similar sounds.
The best account of these sounds, as tested for a Yorkshire dialect, is
to be found in Wright’s ‘ Dialect of Windhill’ (English Dialect Society,
1892), published by Kegan Paul at 12s. 6d. Sweet’s symbols are here
employed throughout.
, pres ‘Primer of Phonetics’ is published by the Oxford Press at
8. 6d.
A list of text-words (of English origin) is given at p. 42 of Skeat’s
‘Primer of English Etymology,’ published by the Oxford Press at 1s. 6d.
652 REPORT—1893.
7. The task of collecting words which seem to be peculiarly dialectal
(a to form or meaning, or both) has been performed so thoroughly that
it is useless to record what has been often already recorded. See, for
example, Halliwell’s (or Wright’s) ‘ Provincial Glossary’ and the publi-
cations of the English Dialect Society. In many cases, however, the
pronunciation of such words has not been noted, and may be carefully set
down with great advantage.
The Rev. Professor Skeat has been kind enough to draw up the fore-
going directions, and the collections under this head will be submitted
to him.
4, Monwments and other Remains of Ancient Culture.
Plot on a map, describe, furnish photographs on sketches, and state
the measurements and names (if any) of these, according to the following
classification :—
Drift implements. Caves and their contents.
Stone circles. Monoliths. Lake dwellings.
Camps. Enclosures. Collections of hut circles.
Cromlechs. Cairns. Sepulchral chambers.
Barrows, describing the form, and distinguishing those which have
not been opened.
Inscribed stones.
Figured stones. Stone crosses.
Castra (walled). Harthen camps.
Foundations of Roman buildings.
Cemeteries (what modes of sepulture).
Burials, inhumation or cremation.
Detailed contents of graves,
Types of fibulee and other ornaments.
Coins. Implements and weapons, stone, bronze, or iron.
Other antiquities.
A list of place-names within the area. No modern names required.
Special note should be made of British, Roman, and Saxon interments
occurring in the same field, and other signs of successive occupation.
Reference should be made to the article ‘ Archeology ’ in ‘ Notes and
Queries on Anthropology,’ p. 176.
These relate to England only. The sub-committees for other parts of
the United Kingdom will prepare modified lists.
The collections under this head will be digested by Mr. Milman and
Mr. Payne. .
5. Historical Evidence as to Continuity of Race.
Mention any historical events connected with the place, especially
such as relate to early settlements in it or more recent incursions of alien
immigrants.
State the nature of the pursuits and occupations of the inhabitants.
State if any precautions have been taken by the people to keep them-
selves to themselves; if the old village tenures of land have been pre-
served.
Has any particular form of religious belief been maintained ?
ON THE ETHNOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 653
Are the people constitutionally averse to change ?
What are the dates of the churches and monastic or other ancient
buildings or existing remains of former buildings ?
_Do existing buildings stand on the sites of older ones ?
How far back can particular families or family names be traced ?
Can any evidence of this be obtained from the manor rolls; from
the parish registers; from the tythingmen’s returns; from guild or
corporation records ?
Are particular family names common ?
In what county or local history is the best description of the place to
be found ?
Evidences of historical continuity of customs, dress, dwellings, im-
plements, &c., should be noted.
The collections under this head will be digested by Mr. Brabrook.
The Committee recommend that they be reappointed, and that a
grant be made to defray the expenses already incurred and to carry on
their work.
The North-Western Tribes of Canada.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. E. B. TyLor (Chairman), Mr. G. W. Buoxam
(Secretary), Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. R. G. Hauipurton, and
Mr. H. Hate, appointed to investigate the physical characters,
languages, and industrial and social condition of the North-
Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
Since the death of Sir Daniel Wilson the work of the Committee in
America has been directed by Mr. Horatio Hale and Dr. G. M. Dawson;
during the past year, however, the state of Mr. Hale’s health has rendered
it imperative for him to give up the active part which he has heretofore
taken in the work of the Committee, and for which they feel that they
are deeply indebted to him.
The absence of Dr. Dawson from America on business connected with
the Behring Sea Arbitration and the fact that the whole of Dr. Boas’s
time has been occupied at the World’s Columbian Exhibition at Chicago
have rendered it impossible for the Committee to carry out their original
intention of terminating their work with this year’s report.
A considerable amount of material has already been collected by
Dr. Boas and Dr. Chamberlain on behalf of the Committee, and this they
hope to be able to publish next year.
The Committee ask for reappointment, and, in order that they may
be enabled to draw up a final report and bring their work to a close in a
satisfactory manner, they ask that they may be permitted to retain and
utilise any portion of last year’s grant that may remain in their hands
after the payment of expenses for which they have already made them-
selves liable.
654 REPORT—1893.
Anthropometric Laboratory.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir W. H. Flower (Chairman), Dr. J. G. Garson (Secretary),
Mr. G. W. Bioxam, Professor A. C. Happon, and Dr. WILBER-
FORCE SMITH. (Drawn up by Dr. J. G. Garson, Secretary.)
Tur Committee have to report that at the Edinburgh meeting of the
Association last year excellent accommodation was provided for the
Anthropometric Laboratory near to the meeting-room of the Anthropo-
logical Section. The services of a clerk were, as usual, placed at the
disposal of the Committee, and by the kind permission of Mr. Francis
Galton those of the official measurer at his laboratory in South Kensing-
ton Museum were again available for measuring the members of the
Association who visited the laboratory.
The schedule of observations and measurements made on each person
examined was the same as has been used for several years past by the
Committee, and includes the sex, age, birthplace, colour of eyes and
hair, profile of nose, height when standing, sitting, and kneeling, vertical
projection from the vertex of the head to the tragus, mouth, and chin,
length and breadth of the head, length and breadth of nose, length of
cubit and hand, span of arms, weight in ordinary clothing, strength of
pull with each hand, vital capacity of lungs, strength of vision, sense of
colour, and in males the circumference of the chest during forced inspi-
ration and expiration respectively.
Since the close of the meeting the observations recorded during it
have been carefully worked up, under tke direction of the Secretary, after
the plan which has been adopted in previous years.
The Committee ask to be reappointed and to have a sum of 5/. again
placed at their disposal.
The following are the results of the observations made on the 55 males
and 49 females who presented themselves for measurement at the Labora-
tory during the course of the meeting.
Age.—The males varied in age from 17 to 72 years. Of these 4 were
under 20 years, 19 were 20 and under 30 years, 16 were 30 and under
40 years, 4 were 40 and under 50 years, 6 were 50 and under 60 years,
4 were 60 and under 70, and 2 were 70 and 72 years.
The ages of the females varied from 16 to 59 years. Four were
under 20 years, 16 were 20 and under 30 years, 15 were 30 and under
40 years, 7 were 40 and under 50 years, and 7 were 50 and under
60 years.
pet oe the ages of 24 and 56 there were 38 males and 40 females.
Ten of the males and 8 of the females were below 24 years of age, and 7
of the males and one female were over 56 years of age; 70 per cent. of
the males and 82 per cent. of the females were fully developed and in
the prime of life.
Birthplace and Residence.—Thirty-eight per cent. of the males were
Scotch by birth, and44 were English. The remainder were Irish and persons
born in British dependencies, or foreigners from various parts of Europe.
Of the females 27 per cent. were Scotch by birth, 56 per cent.
English, 8 per cent. Irish, principally from Belfast, and therefore
ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 655
probably of the same racial stock as the Scotch ; 8 were born in British
dependencies.
The majority of both sexes measured were town dwellers, 69 per cent.
of the males and 77 per cent. of the females being townspeople ; while 31
per cent. of the former and 27 per cent. of the latter had lived their lives
in the country.
It may be stated that residents of smaller towns were classed as
country dwellers; only those who had lived the greater part of their lives
in Jarge towns or cities were included as town dwellers.
Occupation.—The larger proportion of the males were engaged in
professional pursuits.
Colour of Hyes——The colour of the iris has been classified under the
three categories, light, medium, dark.
In the males 58 per cent. had light eyes, 16 per cent. medium, and
26 per cent. dark.
In the females 57 per cent. had light eyes, 27 per cent. medium, and
16 per cent. dark.
Oolour of Hair.—Dividing the colour of the hair into the divisions
light, medium, and dark—including red in the light group, dark brown
and black in the dark group, and omitting all cases of grey hair due to
senile or other changes—31 per cent. of the males had light hair, 47 per
cent. medium, and 22 per cent. dark ; while in the females the percentages
were 22 light, 37 medium, and 41 dark.
ati Light | Medium | Dark
Tyt| oat. 7) (pas |ictdheditelld Digicotes Hi ae alpine
Males. . .| 14 | 15 3 1 7 1 2 4 8
Females. : 11 10 7 0 6 7 0 2 6
The above table gives the various combinations of colour of eyes and
hair met with. The top headings (light, medium, and dark) refer to the
colour of the eyes, while the letter headings (L., M., D.) refer to the
colour of the hair. The numbers in the table show the frequency in
which the several combinations occurred.
Profile Curve of Nose.—The outline of the nose as seen in profile
was straight in 76 per cent. of the males and in 73 per cent. of the
females ; it was of the concave variety in 5 per cent. of the males and in
10 per cent. of the females; in 18 per cent. of the males and in 16 per
cent. of the females one or other of the three forms of convex variety
occurred. Of these the sinuous form occurred in 11 per cent. of the
males and in 8 per cent. of the females, the aquiline in 3°6 per cent. of
the males and in 2 per cent. of the females, and the high-bridged in 3°6
per cent. of the males and in 6:1 per cent. of the females. Illustrations
of these varieties of form of the nasal profile are to be found in ‘ Notes
and Queries on Anthropology,’ Plate IV. (2nd edition), which was used
in recording the observations.
MEASUREMENTS.
1. Height when Standing.—F¥or the sake of convenience persons were
measured with their boots or shoes on their feet, but to ascertain their
actual height the thickness of the heel was also measured and deducted
656 REPORT—1893.
from the total indicated height. ‘The stature thus obtained, as has been
proved from many observations, does not err in being more than it really
is, but, if anything, rather less, because usually the place where the heel
of the foot rests is more or less hollowed out in the boot below the
external heel level.
The stature of the males and females at the 25th, 50th, and 75th
grades, according to Mr. Francis Galton’s method of working out these
statistics, also the probable deviation (indicated by the letter Q) which
when added to the figures of the 25th grade gives the corrected mean,
are as follows :—
a 26th Grade | 50thGrade | 7éthGrade | Q | Conected Mid-
Males . . | 1,692 mm. 1,738 mm. 1,773 mm. 41 1,733 mm.
Renin tee | \ed.602-;; | 163848 eeu Be ALGO lle oie
2. Height when Sitting—This gives the length of the trunk of the
body, neck, and head, which is as follows :—
— 25th Grade 50th Grade | 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
RES dda at a 888 914 939 25 913
Wemales. 4) .s. 838 857 | 879 20 858
3. Height when Kneeling—This measurement is of itself unimportant,
but in relation to the previous measurements is very important, as it
enables us to calculate the length of each of the two segments included
in the length of the lower extremities, namely, the thigh and leg with
the foot. It is as follows :—
= 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q | Corrected Mean
Males 2 : 1,272 1,300 1,331 29
Females . é 1,189 1,215 1,242 26
4, Length of Lower Limbs.—If the height when sitting be subtracted
from the height when standing, the difference between these measurements
will indicate the amount contributed to the stature by the lower limbs.
It is as follows :—
— 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Males i : 804 824 834 15 819
Females . ‘ 727 745 759 16 743
5. Length of Leg and Height of Foot.—This has been obtained by
subtracting the height when kneeling from the height when standing.
It is as follows :—
_ 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Males é . 420 438 442 11 431
Females . x 376 387 396 10 386
———
ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 657
6. Length of the Thigh Portion of the Lower Limb.—This measurement
has been obtained by subtracting the length of the leg and foot portion
from the total length of the lower limbs, and is as follows :— :
_ 25th Grade | 450th Grade
75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Males ‘ ; 384 388
Females . ‘ 351 358
392 4 " 388
363 6 357
The proportions contributed by the different parts which go to make
up the corrected mean stature of the males from the previous figures are
as follows: head, neck, and trunk, 52°7 per cent. ; the lower limbs from
the level of the tuber ischia downwards, 47°3 per cent. Of the latter the
thigh portion contributes 22'4 per cent. of the stature, and the leg and
height of the foot 24°9 per cent.
In the females the head, neck, and trunk contribute 53°6 per cent.,
and the lower limbs 46'4 per cent. Of the latter the thigh portion
forms 22°83 per cent., and the leg and height of the foot 24-1 per cent. of
the stature.
7. Vertical Projection of Head.—This is the vertical length of the
head from its vertex to the under-surface of the chin, and is as follows :—
= 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75th Grade | Q” | Comered Mean
Males . .| 2080 219° 2298 | 109 218-9
Females . : 206°4 214-0 223°4 8-5 214°9
The small difference between the vertical length of the head in the
males and females is doubtless due to the fashion in which the latter
dress the hair, elevating it on the top of the head, which renders it diffi-
cult to obtain this measurement with accuracy. This remark is applicable
also to all measurements made from the vertex. In such measurements
as the stature, where the figures are much greater than those of the head,
the error is proportionately less, and consequently less observable.
8. Vertical Length from Vertex to Mouth.—This is measured ‘to the line
‘of junction of the upper and lower lips in the mesial line of the head.
ss 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75thGrade | Q | Competed Mean
Males . .| 1647 1747 1853 | 108 175-2
Females . . 165°9 1763 184:3 9-2 175-1
Tn this measurement the remarks regarding the error in measurements
from the vertex of the head in the females is still more obvious.
9. Vertical Length from Vertex to Tragus.—The lower point of measure-
ment is at the pit at the upper edge of the root of the zygomatic arch,
and corresponds to the middle of the tragus; it is strictly analogous to
the upper edge or border of the meatus auditorius, and represents the
height of the cranium from this point.
— 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q | Corrected Mean
Males : A 129°8 132:7 140°6 5:4 135°2
Females . . 125-1 13071 133°4 4°2 129°3
1893. UU
658 REPORT—1893.
10. Maximum Antero-posterior Length of Cranium.
ae 25th Grade | 50th Grade | 75thGrade | Q | Cormected Mean
ength
Males ° ’ 1942 198°2 202°8 4:3 198°5
Females . - 182°7 186°6 190 43 187
11. Maximum Transverse Breadth of Cranium.
Corrected Mean
— 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Breadth
Males a ; 151 154-4 1583 3°6 1546 |
Females . |, 1438 148°3 150°7 34 147'2
12. Proportions of the Head.—(a) The Cephalic Index, calculated from
the length and breadth of each head measured, varies from 71°6 to 83 in
the males, and from 74°9 to 88°6 in the females.
rie 25thGrade | 50thGrade | 75thGrade | Q | Corrected Mean
Males = c 761 TALS 79:2 15 176
Females . 16-5 716 80-2 18 78:3
According to the International Divisions of the Cephalic Index, the
classification is as follows :—
Dolichocephaiic Mesaticephalic Brachycephalic
ra (70-749) (75-79°9) (80-84:9)
Males . ; : 5 40 10
Females. ° . 1 31 \ 17
Or in percentages
Males .- , . 91 G27. 18:2
Females. > ‘ 2 63°3 347
j
(b) The Module of the Cranium, which is obtained by adding its length,
breadth, and height together, adding to the product 15 mm. to represent
the projection from the auditory meatus to the bases in the case of males
and 13 mm. for females, and dividing the total suth thus obtained by 3,
It is as follows :— i
= 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean |
Males - pe 163°2 167 172°2 45 167°7
Females , - 156°7 159°3 163 31 159°8
(c) The Total Head Breadth-length Index, or the relation which the
maximum breadth of the cranium bears to the vertical length of the head
(vertex to chin), the latter being taken as 100, is 70°6 in the males and
68°5 in the females, estimated from the corrected mean lengths of the
respective measurements.
(d) The Maximum Granial Length to total vertical head-length (=100)
ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY. 659
is 90°7 in the males and 87 in the females. If the index is reversed—
that is to say, the maximum length of the cranium is taken as 100—it
is 110°3 in the males and 101-4 in the females.
(e) The Canon of Proportion of the vertical length of head (vertex to)
chin) to the stature (=100) is in the males 12-63 per cent., and in the
females 13-42 per cent. .
13. Nasal Indew.—The variations of this index are very similar in
both sexes, ranging from 45°6 to 75 in the males, and from 47:1 to 76°7
in the females.
—_ 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Males : 3 51:3 57:3 62°1 5:4 56°7
Females . > 49°6 54'8 62:3 63 559
14, Face Index.—The index of the face which the Committee have for
some years past adopted is obtained from the length of the face, measured
directly with callipers from the root of the nose to the under-surface of
the chin (=100), and the maximum bizygomatic breadth of the face. This
index in the living may be made to correspond with that of Kollmann on
the skull by taking the zygomatic breadth as 100,
= 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Males - ‘ 1059 1104 115 4°5 110-4
Females. - 107-4 1132 119°6 61 113°5
15. Length of Cubit.
— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
466°5 479°3 13°9 4654
417:2 431 12°8 419°5
Males
Females
The corrected mean length of cubit in the males and females is 268
and 26:2 per cent. of their respective corrected mean stature.
16. Length of Hand.
25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
eal,
1938 200°5 57 194-8
173°8 181°7 75 175-1
Males :
Females . . | 167°6
The canon of proportion of the length of the hand to the stature is
in the males 11:24 per cent., and in the females 10-94 per cent.
By subtracting the corrected mean length of hand from the corrected
mean length of the cubit, the mean length of the forearm is obtained. In
the males it is 270°6 mm., and in the females 244'4 mm. ; the length of
the hand to the forearm in the former is 72, and in the latter 71:2. The
canon of proportion of the forearm to the stature is 15°6 per cent. in the
males, and in the females 15:3 per cent.
uu2
660 REPORT—1893.
17. Span of Arms.
— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade | Q Corrected Mean
i Males. ‘ » | 1,721 mm. 1,765 mm 1,817 mm 48 1,769 mm.
Females . Shilton ae 1,538 ,, L658 vss 52 1,587. »,
As compared with the corrected mean height when standing, the
corrected mean length of span is 36 millimetres greater than that of
the stature in the males, while in the females the span is shorter than
the mean stature by 14 millimetres. Taking the stature as 100, the pro-
portion which the span of arms bears to it in the males is 100°2, and in
the females 99. In 9 males the span of arms was shorter than the stature,
but in all the others it was greater. In the females, on the other hand,
in 27 cases the span of arms was less than the stature, in 18 it was
greater, and in one case the two measurements were equal.
18. Weight—Owing to the weighing machine and weights having
to be got on the spot English pounds and ounces had to be used. The
figures of weight below are consequently pounds and decimals of pounds.
_ 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Males. F : 137-7 | 150°4 161-9 1371 149:
121°
4
Females . ; '110°7 121°5 1310 108 2
19. Pull.— When the strength of pull of one arm and hand differs
from that of the other, a mean of the two arms has been taken as the
strength of pull of the person.
The dynamometer being graduated to English weight the following
figures represent pounds and decimals of pounds.
— 25th Grade 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Malogii--. ¢ 515 60°6 711 93.| . 608
1 Females . . 27-5 318 373 49 32-4
In the males the right arm is the stronger in 28 out of 55 cases, or in
50°9 per cent. ; the two arms are equal in 16:4 per cent. (9 cases), and the
left arm is the stronger in 32°7 per cent. (18 cases). In the females the
right arm is the stronger in 23 cases out of 49 cases, or in 46°9 per cent. ;
both arms are equal in 28°6 per cent. (14 cases), and in 24°5 per cent.
‘the left arm is the stronger (12 cases).
: 20. Vital Capacity of the Lungs.—This was ascertained by means of
Stanley’s spirometer, graduated in cubic inches, so that the following
figures represent cubic inches and decimals of cubic inches.
— 25th Grade | 50th Grade 75th Grade Q Corrected Mean
Males. . ‘ 188°5 222 249°3 30°4 218:9 |
Females. i 121°2 1335 1479 133 134°5 |
21. Circumference of the Chest—This measurement was only ascer-
tained on males. During forced inspiration the circumference of the
chest was as follows :—
ON THE WORK OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC LABORATORY.
661
25th Grade 50th Grade
75th Grade
930 mm. 967 mm.
1,008 mm,
Q
39
Corrected Mean
| 969 mm,
During forced inspiration the circumference of the chest measured the
following number of millimetres less than during forced expiration :—
25th Grade 50th Grade
75th Grade
37 57
64
Q
13
Corrected Mean
50
If half the difference between forced inspiration and forced expiration
be subtracted from the circumference of the chest during forced inspira-
Table of Measurements of Males.
Height when Standing . :
Height when Sitting
Length of Thigh ,
Length of Leg .
Vertical Length of Head "(ver-
tex to chin)
Antero-posterior length of Head
Breadth (maximum) of Head
Height of Cranium (vertex to
tragus)
Cephalic Index . - . :
Module of Head .
Nasal Index .
Face Index . :
Length of Cubit .
Length of Hand ,
SpanofArms , :
Weight in lbs. . .
Pull in Zbs.
Vital Capacity of Lungs in cubic
inches
Maximum Circumference of Chest
ee
1892.
Edinburgh.
Number, 55
1,733 mm.
913 ,,
388 ,,
431 .,,
218-9,
198°5,,
1546 ,,
135°2.,,
77°6
167°7,,
567
110°4
465°4,,
194°8 ”
Paeoes
149:8
60°8
218-9
969 ,,
1891. 1890.
Cardiff. Leeds.
Number, 73 Number, 95
1,731 mm. 1,720 mm.
S10 3 STs
384 ,, Beeb 35
436 ,, 75 {1 ae
214 4, eae.
IIB) as LOSS,
TSG: "5; L5bi;,
128 ,, —
7S'3 IS
L6G 55 160 ,,
60°6 65
112 112 4,
465 ,, 464 ,,
LOSea —
ISTAAS) EE GO) iss
156 1555
67°8 65
221 217
976 4, —_
Canon of Proportion of the Body in Males (Height =100).
Head, Neck, and Trunk to level of
Tuber ischia
Lower Limbs from level of Tuber
aschia
Head F 5 J
Rest of Trunk . :
Thigh
Leg rata Height of Foot :
Cubit . . 7 = -
Forearm . q ‘ .
Hand
52-7
473
12:6
40-1
22-4
24:9
268
15°6
11:2
52°6
AT4
Dpwere
oD Sty
bo bo bo He
mee bo
Ke ot
Row
53
AT
662 REPORT—1893.
tion, the mean circumference of the chest will be obtained, which at the
corrected mid-grade would be 944 millimetres.
Vision.—The power of vision was tested with Snellen’s test-types
placed at a distance of 6 metres from the eye. Hach eye was tested
separately ; while one eye was being tested the other was kept open, and
a black card was held over it to prevent the type being seen by it.
The number of males who could read No. 6 type with both eyes at
6 metres, and whose sight was therefore normal, was 27 out of 55, or
49°] per cent. Of these 17, or 30°9 per cent., were able to read No. 5
type at 6 metres.
The females who were able to read No. 6 type with both eyes at
6 metres numbered 22 out of 49, or 44°9 per cent., and of these 13, or
26°5 per cent., were able to read No. 5 type at 6 metres.
In a large number of cases in both sexes the vision in the two eyes
differed, that of one eye being more defective than that of the other.
The time which could be devoted to each candidate was too short to
permit of any investigation as to the cause of the deficiencies in vision
being undertaken.
Colour Sense.—The test-colours recommended in the Report of the
Committee of the Royal Society on Colour Blindness have been adopted in
testing the appreciation of colour. For this purpose a number of skeins
of coloured wools were added to wools of the colour given in the plate of
the just mentioned report, so as to increase. the number of confusion
colours. Hach candidate was given the three standard skeins and told
to pick out from the heap of coloured wools those that were like them in
colour. No case of colour blindness was found amongst either the males
or females.
The table will give some idea of the variations of the different mea-
surements which have been obtained during the last three meetings of
the Association, and of the canon of proportion of the several parts
of the body.
It will also enable anyone who has been measured in the laboratory
to find “what his place is with respect to the corrected mean of each
measurement. If he is above or below the mean-in any measurement,
by referring to that measurement in the report he will be able to ascer-
tain further particulars with respect to his position. The 25th, 50th,
and 75th grades are the positions which would be held by the 25th, 50th,
and 75th man if a hundred men were marshalled in a row, beginning
from the smallest up to the greatest, with respect to the particular
measurement.
Uniformity in the Spelling of Barbaric and Savage Languages
and Race Names.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. Francis Gatton (Chairman), Dr. E..B. TyLor, Professor
A. C. Happon, Mr. G. W. BLoxam, Mr. Linc Roru, and Mr. C.
E. PEEK (Secretary).
_ Tur. Committee recommend that the system of orthography already
adopted by the Royal Geographical Society, the Admiralty, the Foreign
Office, the Colonial Office, the War Office, and the Government of the
ON BARBARIC AND SAVAGE LANGUAGES AND RACE NAMES. 663
United States of America be adopted by the British Association in the
titles of the papers submitted to Sections EK and H.
As regards barbaric languages, the Committee are not prepared to
offer other suggestions than that—
1. The above-named system should be adopted so far as it is
applicable.
2. That in selecting symbols to express additional sounds endeavour
should be made to conform to the usage of previous authors.
3. That explanatory examples of the signification of those symbols be
given by the writer.
4, That the Secretary of the British Association shall direct the
attention of those travellers who may hereafter receive money grants
from the Association to the above resolutions.
The system of orthography referred to above is subjoined.
The Committee request to be reappointed.
SYSTEM OF ORTHOGRAPHY FOR NATIVE NAMES OF
PLACES.
Taking into consideration the present want of a system of geographical
orthography, and the consequent confusion and variety that exist in the
mode of spelling in English maps, the Council of the Royal Geographical
Society have adopted the following rules for such geographical names as
are not, in the countries to which they belong, written in the Roman
character. These rules are identical with those adopted for the Admiralty
charts, and will henceforth be used in all publications of the Society.!
1. No change will be made in the orthography of foreign names in
countries which use Roman letters: thus Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch,
&c., names will be spelt as by the respective nations.
2. Neither will any change be made in the spelling of such names in
languages which are not written in Roman character as have become by
long usage familiar to English readers; thus Calcutta, Cutch, Celebes,
Mecca, &c., will be retained in their present form.
3. The true sound of the word as locally pronounced will be taken as
the basis of the spelling.
4, An approximation, however, to the sound is alone aimed at. A
system which would attempt to represent the more delicate inflections of
sound and accent would be so complicated as only to defeat itself. Those
who desire a more accurate pronunciation of the written name must learn
it on the spot by a study of local accent and peculiarities.
5. The broad features of the system are that vowels are pronounced
as in Italian and consonants as in English.
6. One accent only is used—the acute—to denote the syllable on which
stress is laid. This is very important, as the sounds of many names are
entirely altered by the misplacement of this ‘stress.’
7. Every letter is pronounced. When two vowels come together each
' Since this was published in the Proceedings the system has been adopted by
the Intelligence Division, War, Office, on all précis and maps, by, the Foreign and
Colonial Offices, in all reports, and in the Queen’s Regulations and Orders for the
Army. [January 1889.]
664
REPORT—18938.
one is sounded, though the result, when spoken quickly, is sometimes
scarcely to be distinguished from a ‘single sound, as in at, au, et.
8. Indian names are accepted as spelt in Hunter’s ‘ Gazetteer.’
The amplification of the rules is given below :—
Examples
Letters Pronunciation and Remarks
a ah, aas in father . F 5 F “
e eh, e as in benefit
i
al
au
ao
ei
oo
Haddctunr Od
English ¢; 4 as in ravine; the sound of ee
in beet : ; Thus, not ac but
oasin mote .
long w as in flute; “the sound of 0 in boot.
Thus, not Zooloo, but
All vowels are shortened in sound by doubling
the following consonant.
Doubling of a vowel is only necessary where
there is a distinct repetition of the single
sound.
English ¢ as in ice . : : 5 . .
ow as in how - Thus, not Foochow, but
is slightly different from above
is the sound of the two Italian vowels, but is
frequently slurred over, when it is scarcely
to be distinguished from ey in the English
they . > A “ - . 7
English 3.
is always soft, but is so nearly the sound of s
that it should be seldom used.
If Celebes were not already recognised it
would be written Selebes.
is always soft as in chureh . A =
English d.
English f. ph should not be used for the
sound of /. Thus, not Haiphong, but
is always hard. (Soft g is given by) .
is always pronounced when inserted.
| English j. Dj should never be put for this
sound,
English %. It should always be put for the
hard c Thus, not Corea, but
The Oriental cuttural 2
is another euttural, as in the Turkish 3
As in English.
has two separate sounds, the one hard as in
the English word finger, the other as in
singer. As these two sounds are rarely
employed in the same locality, no attempt
is made to distinguish between them.
As in English.
should never be employed ; gu is given as kw.
As in English.
Java, Bandna, Somali, Bari.
Tel-el-Kebir, Oléleh, Yezo,
Medina, Levika, Peru.
Fiji, Hindi.
Tokio.
Zulu, Sumatra.
Yarra, Tanna, Mecca, Jidda,
Bonny.
Nuultia, Oosima.
Shanghai.
Fuchau.
Macao.
Beirit, Beilil.
Celebes.
Chingchin,
Haifong, Nafa.
Galapagos.
Japan, Jinchuen.
Korea,
Khan.
Dagh, Ghazi,
Kwangtung.
SawAkin.
:
|
|
~
ON BARBARIC AND SAVAGE LANGUAGES AND RACE NAMES. 665
Letters 5 Pronunciation and Remarks Examples
y is always a consonant, as in yard, and there- | Kiktyu.
fore should never be used as a terminal, 7
or e being substituted.
Thus, not Mikinddény, but | Mikindani.
not Awaly, but | Kwale.
Zz English z 2 k , ; ‘ : . | Zulu.
Accents should not generally be used, but | Tongatdébu, Galapagos,
where there is a very decided emphatic Paliwan, Sarawak,
syllable or stress, which affects the sound
of the word, it should be marked by an
acute accent.
The Automatic Balance of Reciprocating Mechanism.
By W. Worsy Beaumont, M.Jnst.C.l.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewtenso among the Reports. ]
Vreration is often an annoying mechanical by-product representing more
or less waste. In connection with some questions of vibrations of build-
ings and structures resulting from the working of machinery, the author
was led to consider the possibility of the utilisation of the disturbing force
productive of the harmful vibration, and thereby to prevent the vibration,
It is generally known that to mechanical engineers the complete balance
of rotary and reciprocating parts of machine, more especially those of the
latter kind, offer very great difficulties, and that where these are not
overcome vibration of the structures or framing carrying these parts is
set up, and is of a more or less destructive character. The balance of
rotating mechanism is usually only a question of care and cost, but the
balance of reciprocating or combined reciprocating mechanism is not so
easy. In steam engines, for instance, a good deal is done in the endeavour
to balance reciprocating parts by rotating balancing weight. This, how-
ever, usually only reduces but does not remove vibration, for if a balance
is effected in the direction of reciprocation some disturbance is set up in
a direction generally normal thereto. Mr. Yarrow has, however, suc-
ceeded in reducing to a minimum the vibration due to the working of
marine engines by opposing the motion that would otherwise occur by
the inertia of bob weights. The force which would be used in vibrating
the steamship is thus dissipated in a vertical direction, but vibratory
effort in a horizontal direction is still experienced. Generally, objection-
able vibrations in buildings, due to the working of machinery, is overcome
by opposing the movement which the disturbing force tends to set up by the
inertia of very heavy foundations. This method is often the only one that
can be adopted ; but there is the objection that the wear of the bearings
of the machinery is greater in this case than it would be if it were possible
to obtain perfect balance of the moving parts. In some cases the absence
of this balance may be rendered harmless by the permission of controlled
‘motion through small range of that, whatever it may be, to which such
machinery is attached.
By way of illustration the simpler cases of vibration in the framing of
666 REPORT—1893.
machinery having reciprocating parts may be referred to; such, for
instance, as some classes of mining machinery, sorting and grading machi-
nery as used in flour mills, some textile machinery, paper-making machi-
nery, coal screens, and the like. In all the machines of this class the
push and pull of the reciprocated part is attended by a corresponding
pull and push against that part of the machine framing to which the
bearings of the crank or other reciprocating medium are fixed. As far as
possible, this is compensated by the use of balance weights on the crank
shaft, but in many cases the motion which would otherwise be set up has
to be opposed by the costly method of constructing very strong framing, or
the often inconvenient one of employing guy ropes or stays; a method which
often givesrise to vibrationin the building to which these stays are attached.
After attempting to prevent vibrations thus set up and to conquer this
béte noire of mechanical engineering, the author has found that the best
way to conquer it is to make use of it—to convert this mechanical by-
product into a mechanical servant. This can be done in a large number
of cases. Where, for instance, a part of a machine is reciprocated by
means of a crank and connecting rod, the weight of which is balanced by
rotating weights on the crank shaft, the whole of the vibration in the
framing of the machine may be avoided by dispensing entirely with the
crank and connecting rod, and using only the rotating balance weights
on a shaft running in bearings which are attached, not to the framing, but
to the thing which has to be reciprocated or gyrated. The crank and
connecting rod being absent, the balance weights are now unbalanced
except dynamically, and the want of balance is kinetically equivalent to
the required motion in the thing to be gyrated. This was shown by
the models placed upon the table, and by reference to a simple case as
shown by the diagram exhibited.
The relation between the range of reciprocation or gyration of the part
to be operated and of the rotating unbalanced weight, as well as of their
respective weights, may be represented by the following expressions :—
If R=radius of gyration of part moved,
r=radius of unbalanced rotating weight,
W=weight of part to be moved,
w=weight of rotating part (W in the figures),
then
r W W
= —— =—R ——e
i ead t a w?
Roni Ie
(=)
w
and
r W
W=, xv 5 pris
R
In the diagram is shown a suspended screen operated in the manner
described by a perfectly free rotating weight. Fig. 1 isa plan of such a
sereen; fig. 2, an elevation of the same with the frame partly in sec-
tion; fig. 3, an end elevation of the same; fig. 4, an elevation to a larger
scale of the bearing carrying the rotating weight; and fig. 5, the short
spindle bracket and pulley by means of which, through the medium of a
ON THE AUTOMATIC BALANCE OF RECIPROCATING MECHANISM. 667
flexible or articulated connection or hooked rod, motion is communicated
to the rotating weight. In figs. 2 and 3 a simple mode of connection is
Fi¢. 1.
shown. When the pulley in the bracket, A, is driven from some source
of power, rotation at the same speed is given to the weight, W. Being
Fig. 2.
an unbalanced weight it sets up vibration in the thing to which it is
‘attached, namely, in this case the screen, and the whole of the work done
is absorbed in vibrating or gyrating the screen through a range which is
proportional to the relations as to dimensions and weights already
referred to. In fig. 6 is shown in plan an alternative method on the same
principle, by means of which a rotating eccentric weight, W, running
in bearings in a bracket, B, and driven by a flexible connection, C,
imparts to the screen a reciprocating motion. In this case the range
of reciprocation is limited by the mode of suspension of the screen
weight, of the screen and its load when it is undesirable that the
screen should be lifted by the inertia of motion of the weight, W, in the
downward part of its rotating path. The movements described with
reference to these diagrams are illustrated by three of the models
- exhibited.
668 REPORT—1893.
Another model is exhibited with a view to illustration of the usual
method of imparting reciprocating movement by means of a crank
Fie. 3. Fig. 4,
and connecting rod, and of the attainment of similar and greater
movements by the simple rotating weight. This model is also illustrative
Fig. 5. Fig. 6,
of several interesting questions bearing upon vibration due to rotating
weights in machinery as set up in frames, floors, and buildings, and
upon elastic vibration.
The equations on page 666 give the range of gyration when the
rotating weight is in the centre of the sieve. When at the end of the
screen, as shown, the gyratory path at that end is elliptical, with the
major axis transverse to the sieve. At the other end the movement is of
less range, the major axis of the ellipse being longitudinal.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,
oe Bnorroae THT 10 27 fot Oba
% ’
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—R. T. GrazeBRook, M.A., F.RS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The PRESIDENT delivered the following address :—
Brrore dealing with the subject which I hope to bring to your notice this
morning, I wish to express my deep regret for the circumstances which have
prevented Professor Clifton, who had accepted the nomination of the Council, from
being your President this year.
It was specially fitting that he who has done so much for this college, and
particularly for this laboratory in which we meet, should take the chair at
Nottingham. The occasions on which we see him are all too seldom; and we who
come frequently to these meetings were looking forward to help and encouragement
in our work, derived from his wide experience. You would desire, I feel sure, that
T should convey to him the expressions of your sympathy. For myself I must ask
that you will pass a lenient judgment on my efforts to fill his place.
Let me commence, then, with a brief retrospect of the past year and the events
which concern our Section.
From the days of Galileo the four satellites of Jupiter have been objects of
interest to the astronomer. Their existence was one of the earliest of the dis-
coveries of the telescope ; they proved conclusively that all the bodies of the solar
system did not move round the earth. The year which has passed since our last
meeting is memorable for the discovery of a fifth satellite. It is a year to-day
(Sept. 13-14, 1892) since Professor Barnard convinced himself that he had seen with
the great telescope of the Lick Observatory this new member of our system as a
star of the thirteenth magnitude, revolving round the planet in 11 hours 57 minutes
23 seconds.?
The conference on electrical standards held at our meeting last year has had
important results. The resolutions adopted at Edinburgh were communicated to
the Standards Committee of the Board of Trade. A supplementary report
accepting these resolutions was agreed to by that Committee (Nov. 29, 1892), and
presented to the President of the Board of Trade. The definitions contained in
this report will be made the basis of legislation throughout the world. They
have been accepted by France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. The congress at
Ohicago which has just been held has ratified them, and thus we may claim that
} «Tn general,’ he says, ‘the satellite has been faint. . . . On the 13th, however,
when the air was very clear, it was quite easy. — ature, Oct. 20, 1892.
672 REPORT—1893.
your Committee, co-operating with the leaders of physical science in other lands,
have secured international agreement on these fundamental points.
Among the physical papers of the year I would mention a few as specially call-
ing for notice. Mr. E. H. Griffiths’s re-determination of the value of the mechanical
equivalent of heat has just been published,’ and is a monumental work. With untiring
energy and great ability he struggled for five years against the difficulties of his
task, and has produced results which, with the exception of one group of experi-
ments, do not differ by more than 1 part in 10,000; while the results of that one
excepted group differ from the mean only by 1 part in 4,000.
The number of ergs of work required to raise 1 gramme of water 1° C. at
15° C. is 4198x107, Expressed in foot-pounds and Fahrenheit degrees, the
value of J is 779'77. The value obtained by Joule from his experiments on the
friction of water, when corrected in 1880 by Rowland so as to reduce his readings
to the air thermometer, is 778:5 at 12°7 C. The result at this temperature of
Rowland’s own valuable research is 780'1. Another satisfactory outcome of Mr.
Griffiths’s work is the very exact accordance between the scale of temperature as
determined by the comparison of his platinum thermometer with the air thermometer,
which was made by Callendar and himself in 1890, and that of the nitrogen
thermometer of the Bureau International at Sévres.
Another great work now happily complete is Rowland’s ‘Table of Standard
Wave-lengths.’* Nearly a thousand lines have been measured with the skill and
accuracy for which Rowland has made himself famous; and in this table we see
the results achieved by the genius which designed the concave grating and the
mechanical ingenuity which contrived the almost perfect screw.
Those of us who have seen Mr. Higgs’s wonderful photographs of the solar
spectrum taken with a Rowland grating will rejoice to know that his map also is
now finished.
Lord Rayleigh’s paper on ‘The Intensity of Light reflected from Water and
Mercury at nearly perpendicular incidence,’ * combined with the experiments on re-
flexion from liquid surfaces in the neighbourhood of the polarising angle,* establishes
results of the utmost importance to optical theory. ‘There is thus, Lord Rayleigh
concludes, ‘no experimental evidence against the rigorous application of Fresnel’s
formule ’—for the reflexion of polarised light—‘to the ideal case of an abrupt
transition between two uniform transparent media.’
Professor Dewar has, during the year, continued his experiments on the lique-
faction of oxygen and nitrogen on a large scale. To a physicist perhaps the most
important results of the research are the discovery of the magnetic properties of
liquid oxygen, and the proof of the fact that the resistance of certain pure
métals vanishes at absolute zero. The last discovery is borne out by Griffiths
and Callendar’s experiments with their platinum thermometers.®
Mr. Williams’s article on ‘The Relation of the Dimensions of Physical Quanti-
ties to Directions in Space’” has led to an interesting discussion. Some of his
deductions will be noticed later.
The title-page of the first edition of Maxwell’s ‘Electricity and Magnetism’ bears
the date 1878. This year, 1893, we welcome a third edition, edited by Maxwell’s
distinguished successor, and enriched by a supplementary volume, in which
Professor J. J. Thomson describes some of the advances made by electrical science
in the last twenty years. The subject matter of this volume might well serve as
a text for a Presidential Address.
The choice of a subject on which to speak to-day has been no easy task. The
field of physics and mathematics is a wide one. There is one matter, however, to
which for a few minutes I should like to call your attention, inadequately though
it be. Optical theories have, since the year 1876, when I first read Sir George
Stokes’s ‘ Report on Double Refraction,’® had a special interest for me, and I think
\ Phil. Trans., vol. c)xxxiv. 5 Phil. Mag., October 1892.
2 Phil. Magq., July 1893. § TIbid., December 1892.
3 Thid., Ostober 1892. 7 Thid., September 1892.
4
Ibid., January 1892. 8 British Association Report, 1862.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 673
the time has come when we may with advantage review our position with regard
to them, and sum up our knowledge.!
That light is propagated by an undulatory motion through a medium which
we call the ether 1s now an established fact, although we know but little of the
nature or constitution of the ether. The history of this undulatory theory is full
of interest, and has, it appears to me, in its earlier stages been not quite clearly
apprehended. Two theories have been proposed to account for optical phenomena.
Descartes was the author of the one, the emission theory. Hooke, though his
work was very incomplete, was the founder of the undulatory theory. In his
‘Micrographia, 1664, page 56, he asserts that light is a quick and short vibratory
motion, ‘ propagated every way through an homogeneous medium by direct or
straight lines extended every way like rays from the centre of a sphere. . . . Every
pulse or vibration of the luminous body will generate a sphere which will continu-
ally increase and grow bigger, just after the same manner, though indefinitely
swifter, as the waves or rings on the surface do swell into bigger and bigger
circles about a point on it ;’ and he gives on this hypothesis an account of reflexion,
refraction, dispersion, and the colours of thin plates. In the same work, page 58,
he describes an experiment practically identical with Newton’s famous prism experi-
ment, published in 1672. Hooke used for a prism a glass vessel about two feet
long, filled with water, and inclined so that the sun’s rays might enter obliquely
at the upper surface and traverse the water. ‘The top surface is covered by an
opacous body, all but a hole through which the sun’s beams are suffered to pase
into the water, and are thereby refracted’ to the bottom of the glass, ‘against which
part if a paper be expanded on the outside there will appear all the colours of the
rainbow—that is, there will be generated the two principal colours, scarlet and
blue, with all the intermediate ones which arise from the composition and
diluting of these two.’ But Hooke could make no use of his own observation;
he attempted to substantiate from it his own theory of colours, and wrote pure
nonsense in the attempt; and though his writings contain the germ of the theory,
and in the light of our present knowledge it seems possible that he understood it
more thoroughly than his contemporaries believed, yet his reasoning is so utterly
vague and unsatisfactory that there is little ground for surprise that he convinced
but few of its truth.
And then came Newton. It is claimed for him, and that with justice, that he
was the true founder of the emission theory. In Descartes’ hands it was a vague
hypothesis, Newton deduced from it by rigid reasoning the laws of reflexion and
refraction ; he applied it with wondrous ingenuity to explain the colours of thin
and of thick plates and the phenomena of diffraction, though in doing this he had
to suppose a mechanism which he must have felt to be almost impossible; a
mechanism which in time, as it was applied to explain other and more complex
phenomena, became so elaborate that, in the words of Verdet, referring to a period
one hundred years later, ‘all that is necessary to overturn this laborious scaffold-
ing is to look at it and try to understand it.’
But though Newton may with justice be called the founder of the emission
theory, it is unjust to his memory to state that he accepted it as giving a full and
satisfactory account of optics as they were known to him. When he first began
his optical work he realised that facts and measurements were needed, and his
object was to furnish the facts. He may have known of Hooke’s theories, The
copy of the ‘Micrographia’ now at Trinity College was in the Library while
Newton was working with his prism in rooms in college, and may have been con-
sulted by him. An early note-book of his contains quotations from it. Still
there was nothing in the theories but hypotheses unsupported by facts, and these
would have no charm for Newton. The hypotheses in the main are right. Light
is due to wave motion in an all-pervading ether; the principle of interference,
vaguely foreshadowed by Hooke (‘Micrographia,’ p. 66), was one which a
* This address was in the printer’s hands when I saw Sir G. Stokes’s paper on
‘The Luminiferous Ether,’ Nature, July 27: Had I known that so great a master of
my subject had dealt with it so lately, my choice might have been different ; under
the circumstances it was too late to change. - °
1893. XxX
674 REPORT—1893.
century later was to remove the one difficulty which Newton felt. For there was
one fact which Hooke’s theory could not then explain, and till that explanation
was given the theory must be rejected; the test was crucial, the answer was
decisive.
Newton tells us repeatedly what the difficulty was. In reply to a criticism of
Hooke’s in 1672 he writes :—‘ For to me the fundamental supposition itself seems
impossible, namely, that the waves or vibrations of any fluid can, like the rays of
light, be propagated in straight lines without continual and very extravagant
spreading and bending into the quiescent medium where they are terminated by it.
I mistake if there be not both experiment and demonstration to the contrary... .
For it seems impossible that any of those motions or pressions can be propagated
in straight lines without the like spreading every way into the shadowed medium.’
Nor was there anything in the controversy with Hooke, which took place
about 1675, to shake this belief. Hooke had read his paper describing his dis-
covery of diffraction. He had announced it two years earlier, and there is no doubt
in my mind that this was an original discovery, and not, as Newton seemed to
imply soon after, taken from Grimaldi; but his paper does not remove the diffi-
culty. Accordingly we find in the ‘ Principia’ Newton’s attempted proof (lib. ii.
prop. 42) that ‘motus omnis per fluidum propagatus divergit a recto tramite in
spatia immota’—a demonstration which has convinced but few and leaves the
question unsolved as before.
Again, in 1690 Huygens published his great ‘Traité de la Lumiére,’ written in
1678. Huygens had clearer views than Hooke on all be wrote; many of his
demonstrations may be given now as completely satisfactory, but on the one
crucial matter he was fatally weak. He, rather than Hooke, is the true founder
of the undulatory theory, for he showed what it would do if it could but explain
the rectilinear propagation. The reasoning of the latter part of Huygens’ first
chapter becomes forcible enough when viewed in the light of the principle of
interference enunciated by Young, November 12, 1801, and developed, independ-
ently of Young, by Fresnel in his great memoir on ‘ Diffraction’ in 1815; but with-
out this aid it was not possible for Huygens’s arguments to convince Newton, and
hence in the ‘ Opticks’ (2nd edit., 1717) he wrote the celebrated Query 28 :—‘ Are
not all hypotheses erroneous in which light is supposed to consist in pressure or
motion propagated through a fluid medium? If it consisted in motion propagated
either in an instant or in time it would bend into the shadow. For pressure or
motion cannot be propagated in a fluid in right lines beyond an obstacle which
stops part of the motion, but will bend and spread every way into the quiescent
medium which lies outside the shadow.’ These were his last words on the subject.
They prove that he could not accept the undulatory theory; they do not prove
that he believed the emission theory to give the true explanation. Yet, in spite
of this, I think that Newton had a clearer view of the undulatory theory than his
contemporaries, and saw more fully than they did what that theory could achieve
if but the one difficulty were removed.
This was Young’s belief, who writes:’—‘A more extensive examination of
Newton’s various writings has shown me that he was in reality the first who sug-
gested such a theory as I shall endeavour to maintain ; that his own opinions
varied less from this theory than is now almost universally believed; and that a
variety of arguments have been advanced as if to meet him which may be found
in a nearly similar form in his own works.’ I wish to call attention to this state-
ment, and to bring into more prominent view the grounds on which it rests, to
place Newton in his true position as one of the founders of the undulatory theory.
The emission theory in Newton’s hands was a dynamical theory; he traced
the motion of material particles under certain forces, and found their path to
coincide with that of a ray of light; and in the ‘ Principia,’ prop. $6, Scholium,
he calls attention to the similarity between these particles and light. The particles
obey the laws of reflexion and refraction ; but to explain why some of the incident
light was reflected and some refracted Newton had to invent his hypothesis of fits
1 Phil, Trans, November 12, 1801.
7
7
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 675
of easy reflexion and transmission, These are explained in the ‘Opticks,’ book iii.,
props. 11, 12, and 13 (1704), thus :—
‘ Light is propagated from luminous bodies in time, and spends about seven or
eight minutes of an hour in passing from the sun to the earth.
‘Every ray of light in its passage through any refracting surface is put into a
certain transient constitution or state, which in the progress of the ray returns at
equal intervals, and disposes the ray at each return to be easily transmitted
through the next refracting surface, and between the returns to be easily reflected
by it.
at Definition.—The return of the disposition of any ray to be reflected I will call
its fit of easy reflexion, and those of the disposition to be transmitted its fits of
easy transmission, and the space it passes between every return and the next return
the interval of its fits.
‘The reason why the surfaces of all thick transparent bodies reflect part of the
light incident on them and refract the rest is that some rays at their incidence are
in their fits of easy reflexion, some in their fits of easy transmission.’
Such was Newton’s theory. It accounts for some or all of the observed facts;
but what causes the fits? Newton, in the ‘ Opticks,’ states that he does not inquire;
he suggests, for those who wish to deal in hypotheses, that the rays of light
striking the bodies set up waves in the reflecting or refracting substance which
move faster than the rays and overtake them. When a ray is in that part of a
vibration which conspires with its motion it easily breaks through the refracting
surface—it is in a fit of easy transmission; and, conversely, when the motion of
the ray and the wave are opposed, it is in a fit of easy reflexion.
But he was not always so cautious. At an earlier date (1675) he sent to
Oldenburg, for*the Royal Society, an ‘ Hypothesis explaining the Properties of
Light’; and we find from the journal book that ‘ these observations so well pleased
the society that they ordered Mr. Oldenburg to desire Mr, Newton to permit them
to be published.’ Newton agreed, but asked that publication should be deferred
till he had completed the account of some other experiments which ought to precede
those he had described. This he never did, and the hypothesis was first printed in
Birch’s ‘ History of the Royal Society,’ vol. iii., pp. 247, 262, 272, &c.; it is also
given in Brewster's ‘ Life of Newton,’ vol. i. App. II., and in the ‘Phil. Mag.,’
September 1846, pp. 187-213.
‘ Were I,’ he writes in this paper, ‘to assume an hypothesis, it should be this,
if propounded more generally, so as not to assume what light is further than that
it is something or other capable of exciting vibrations of the ether. First, it is to
be assumed that there is an ethereal medium, much of the same constitution with
air, but far rarer, subtiller, and more strongly elastic. ... In the second place, it is to
be supposed that the ether is a vibrating medium, like air, only the vibrations far
more swift and minute; those of air made by a man’s ordinary voice succeeding
at more than half a foot or a foot distance, but those of ether at a less distance
than the hundred-thousandth part of an inch. And as in air the vibrations are
some larger than others but yet all equally swift, . . . so I suppose the ethereal
vibrations differ in bigness but not in swiftness. . . . In the fourth place, therefore,
I suppose that light is neither ether nor its vibrating motion, but something of a
different kind propagated from lucid bodies. They that will may suppose it an
ageregate of various peripatetic qualities. Others may suppose it multitudes of
unimaginable small and swift corpuscles of various sizes springing from shining
bodies at great distances one after the other, but yet without any sensible interval
oftime. . . . To avoid dispute and make this hypothesis general, let every man here
take his fancy ; only, whatever light be, I would suppose it consists of successive rays
differing from one another in contingent circumstances, as bigness, force, or vigour,
like as the sands on the shore; . . . and, further, I would suppose it diverse from
the vibrations of the ether... . Fifthly, it is to be supposed that lizht and ether
mutually act upon one another.’ It is from this action that reflexion and refrac-
tion come about; ‘ethereal vibrations are therefore,’ he continues, ‘the best
means by which such a subtile agent as light can shake the gross particles of solid
bodies to heat them. And so, supposing that light impinging on a refracting or
xx2
676 REPORT—1893.
reflecting ethereal superficies puts it into a vibrating motion, that physical super
ficies being by the perpetual appulse of rays always kept in a vibrating motion,
and the ether therein continually expanded and compressed by turns, if a ray of
light impinge on it when it is much compressed, I suppose it is then too dense and
stiff to let the ray through, and so reflects it; but the rays that impinge on it at
other times, when it is either expanded by the interval between two vibrations or
not too much compressed and condensed, go through and are refracted... . And
now to explain colours. I suppose that as bodies excite sounds of various tones,
and consequently vibrations in the air of various bignesses, so when the rays of
light by impinging on the stiff refracting superficies excite vibrations in the ether,
these rays excite vibrations of various bignesses; ... therefore, the ends of the
capillamenta of the optic nerve which front or face the retina being such refract-
ing superficies, when the rays impinge on them they must there excite these vibra-
tions, which vibrations (like those of sound in a trumpet) will run along the
aqueous pores or crystalline pith of the capillamenta through the optic nerves
into the sensorium (which light itself cannot do), and there, I suppose, affect the
sense with various colours, according to their bigness and mixture—the biggest
with the strongest colours, reds and yellows; the least with the weakest, blues
and violets; the middle with green; and a confusion of all with white.’
The last idea, the relation of colour to the bigness of wave-length, is put even
more plainly in the ‘ Opticks,’ Query 13 (ed. 1704) :—‘ Do not several sorts of rays
make vibrations of various bignesses, which according to their bignesses excite
sensations of various colours; . .. and, particularly, do not the most refrangible
rays excite the shortest vibrations for making a sensation of deep violet; the least
refrangible the largest for making a sensation of deep red ?’
The whole is but a development of a reply, written in 1672, to a criticism of
Hooke’s on his first optical paper, in which Newton says: ‘It is true that from my
theory I argue the corporeity of light, but I do it without any absolute positiveness,
as the word perhaps intimates, and make it at most a very plausible consequence
of the doctrine and not a fundamental supposition.’ ‘Certainly,’ he continues,
‘my hypothesis has a much greater affinity with his own [Hooke’s] than he seems
to be aware of, the vibrations of the ether being as useful and necessary in this as
in his.’
Thus Newton, while in the ‘ Opticks’ he avoided declaring himself as to the
mechanism by which the fits of easy reflexion and transmission were produced, has
in his earlier writings developed a theory practically identical in many respects with
modern views, though without saying that he accepted it. It was an hypothesis ;
one difficulty remained, it would not account for the rectilinear propagation, and it
must be rejected till it did.
Light is neither ether nor its vibrating motion; it is energy which, emitted from
luminous bodies, is carried by wave motion in rays, and falling on a reflecting
surface sets up fresh waves by which it is in part transmitted and in part reflected.
Light is not material, but Newton nowhere definitely asserts that it is. He
‘argues the corporeity of light, but without any absolute positiveness,’ In the
‘Principia,’ writing of his particles, his words are: ‘Harum attractionum haud
multum dissimiles sunt Lucis reflexiones et refractiones;’ and the Scholium con-
cludes with: ‘Igitur ob analogiam que est inter propagationem radiorum lucis et
progressum corporum, visum est propositiones sequentes in usus opticos subjungere ;
interea de natura radiorum (utrum sint corpora necne) nihil omnino disputans,
sed trajectorias corporum trajectoriis radiorum persimiles solummodo determi-
nans.’!
No doubt Newton’s immediate successors interpreted his words as meaning that
he believed in the corpuscular theory, conceived, as Herschel says, by Newton, and
1 The reflexions and refractions of light are not very unlike these attractions.
Therefore, because of the analogy which exists between the propagation of rays of
light and the motion of bodies, it seemed right to add the following propositions for
optical purposes, not at all with any view of discussing the nature of rays (whether
they are corporeal or not), but only to determine paths of particles which closely
resemble the paths of rays.—Principia, lib. i., sect. xiv., prop. 96, Scholium,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 677
¢alled by his illustrious name. Men learnt from the ‘ Principia’ how to deal with
the motion of small particles under definite forces, The laws of wave motion were
obscure, and till the days of Young and Fresnel there was no second Newton to
explain them. There is truth in Whewell’s words (‘ Inductive Sciences,’ ii., chap. x.):
‘That propositions existed in the “ Principia” which proceeded on this hypothesis
was with many ground enough for adopting the doctrine.’ Young’s view, already
quoted, appears to me more just; and I see in Newton’s hypothesis the first clear
indication of the undulatory theory of light, the first statement of its fundamental
laws.
Three years later (1678) Huygens wrote his ‘ Traité de la Lumiére,’ published
in 1690. He failed to meet the main difficulty of the theory, but in other respects
he developed its consequences to a most remarkable degree. For more than a cen-
tury after this there was no progress, until in 1801 the principle of interference
‘was discovered by Young, and again independently a few years later by Fresnel,
whose genius triumphed over the difficulties to which his predecessors had succumbed,
and, by combining the principles of interference and transverse vibrations, established
an undulatory theory as a fact, thus making Newton’s theory a vera causa.
There is, however, a great distinction between the emission theory as Newton
eft it and Fresnel’s undulatory theory. The former was dynamical, though it could
explain but little: the particles of light obeyed the laws of motion, like particles of
matter. The undulatory theory of Huygens and Fresnel was geometrical or kine-
matical: the structure of the ether was and is unknown; all that was needed was
‘that light should be due to the rapid periodic changes of some vector property of a
medium capable of transmitting transverse waves. Fresnel, it is true, attempted to
give a dynamical account of double refraction, and of the reflexion and refraction
of polarised light, but the attempt was a failure ; and not the least interesting part
‘of Mr. L. Fletcher's recent book on double refraction (‘The Optical Indicatrix’) is
‘that in which he shows that Fresnel himself in the first instance arrived at his
theory by purely geometrical reasoning, and only attempted at a later date to give
it its dynamical form. ‘If we reflect,’ says Stokes,! ‘on the state of the subject as
Fresnel found it and as he left it, the wonder is, not that he failed to give a rigo-
rous dynamical theory, but that a single mind was capable of effecting so much.’
Every student of optics should read Fresnel’s great memoirs.
But the time was coming when the attempt to construct a dynamical theory of
tight could be made. Navier, in 1821, gave the first mathematical theory of elas-
ticity. He limited himself to isotropic bodies, and worked on Boscovitch’s hypo-
thesis as to the constitution of matter. Poisson followed on the same lines, and
‘the next year (1822) Cauchy wrote his first memoir on elasticity. The phenomena
of light afforded a means of testing this theory of elasticity, and accordingly the
first mechanical conception of the ether was that of Cauchy and Neumann, who
conceived it to consist of distinct hard particles acting upon one another with forces
in the line joining them, which vary as some function of the distances between the
‘particles. It was now possible to work out a mechanical theory of light which
‘should be a necessary consequence of these hypotheses. Cauchy’s and the earlier
theories do not represent the facts either in an elastic solid or in the ether. At
present we are not concerned with the cause of this; we must recognise them as the
first attempts to explain on a mechanical basis the phenomena observed. According
to this theory in its final form, there are, in an isotropic medium, two waves which
travel with velocities 4/A/p and 4/Bjp, A and B being constants and p the density.
eee Cauchy’s molecular hypothesis, there must be a definite relation between
and B.
A truer view of the theory of elasticity is given by Green in his paper read
before the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1837. This theory involves the two
constants, but they are independent, and to account for certain optical effects A must
either vanish or be infinite. The first supposition was, until a few years since,
thought to be inconsistent with stability; the second leads to consequences which in
part agree with the results of optical experiment, but which differ fatally from those
1 «Report on Double Refraction,’ Brit. Assoc. Report, 1862, p. 254.
678 REPORT— 1893.
results on other points. And so the first attempt to construct a mechanical theory
of light failed. We have learnt much from it. At the death of Green the sub-
ject had advanced far beyond the point at which Fresnel left it. The causes of the
failure are known, and the directions in which to look for modifications have been
ointed out.
Now I believe that the effort to throw any theory into mechanical form, to
conceive a model which is a concrete representation of the truth, to arrive at that
which underlies our mathematical equations wherever possible, is of immense
value to every student. Such a course, I am well aware, has its dangers. It may
be thought that we ascribe to the reality all the properties of the model, that, in
the case of the ether, we look upon it as a collection of gyrostatic molecules and
springs, or of pulleys and indiarubber bands, instead of viewing it from the standpoint
of Maxwell, who hoped, writing of his own model, ‘that by such mechanical
fictions, anyone who understands the provisional and temporary character of his
hypothesis will find himself helped rather than hindered in his search after the true
interpretation of the phenomena.’ Professor Boltzmann, in his most interesting
paper on ‘The Methods of Theoretical Physics,’ has quoted these words, and has
expressed far more ably than I can hope to do the idea I wish to convey.
The elastic solid theory, then, has failed; but are we therefore without any
mechanical theory of light? Are we again reduced to merely writing down our
equations, and calling some quantity which appears in them the amplitude of the
light vibration, and the square of that quantity the intensity of the light? Or can
we take a further step? Let us inquire what the properties of the ether must be
which will lead us by strict reasoning to those equations which we know represent
the laws of the propagation of light.
These equations resemble in many respects those of an elastic solid; let us,
then, for a moment identify the displacement in a light-wave with an actual dis-
placement of a molecule of some medium having properties resembling that of a
solid, Then this medium must have rigidity or quasi-rigidity in order that it may
transmit transverse wayes ; at the same time it must be incapable of transmitting
normal waves, and this involves the supposition that the quantity A which appears
in Green’s equations must vanish or be infinite. To suppose it infinite is to recur to
the incompressible solid theory ; we will assume, therefore, that it is zero. Re-
flexion and refraction show us that the ether in a transparent medium such as
glass differs in properties from that in air. It may differ either (1) in density or
effective density,” or (2) in rigidity or effective rigidity. The laws of double re-
fraction and the phenomena of the scattering of light by small particles show us that
the difference is, in the main, in density or effective density ; the rigidity of the
ether does not greatly vary in different media. Dispersion, absorption, and ano-
malous dispersion all tell us that in some cases energy is absorbed from the light-
vibrations by the matter through which they pass, or, to be more general, by some-
thing very intimately connected with the matter.
We do not know sufficient to say what that action must be; we can, however,
try the consequences of various hypotheses, Guided by the analogy of the motion
of a solid in a fluid, iet us assume that the action is proportional to the acceleration
of the ether particles relative to the matter, and, further, that under certain cireum-
stances some of the energy of the ether particles is transferred to the matter, thus
setting them in vibration. If such action be assumed, the actual density of the ether
may be the same in all media, the mathematical expression for the forces will lead
to the same equations as those we obtain by supposing that there is a variation of
density, and since it is clearly reasonable to suppose that this action between
1 Phil. Mag., July 1893.
2? The equations of motion for a medium such as is supposed above can be
written—
p x acceleration of ether + p’ x acceleration of matter == B x function of ether
displacements, and their differential coefficients with respect to the coordinates
+ =B’ x similar function for matter displacements.
The quantity p may be spoken of as the effective ether density, the quantities B
as the effective elasticity or rigidity.
em ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 679
matter and ether is, in a crystal, a function of the direction of vibration, the appa-
rent or effective density of the ether in such a body will depend on the direction of
displacement.
Now these hypotheses will conduct us by strict mathematical reasoning to laws
for the propagation, reflexion and refraction, double refraction and polarisation,
dispersion, absorption, and anomalous dispersion and aberration of light which are
in complete accordance with the most accurate experiments.
The rotatory polarisation of quartz, sugar, and other substances points toa more
complicated action between the ether and matter than is contemplated above ; and,
accordingly, other terms have to be introduced into the equations to account for
these effects. It will be noted as a defect, and perhaps a fatal one, that the
connection between electricity and light is not hinted at, but I hope to return to
that point shortly.
Such a medium as I have described is afforded us by the labile ether of Lord
Kelvin. It isanelastic solid or quasi-solid incapable of transmitting normal waves.
The quantity A is zero, but Lord Kelvin has shown that the medium would
still be stable provided its boundaries are fixed, or, which comes to the same thing,
provided it extends to infinity. Such a medium would collapse if it were not
held fixed at its boundaries; but if it be held fixed, and if then all points on any
closed spherical surface in the medium receive a small normal displacement, so that
the matter within the surface is compressed into a smaller volume, there will he
no tendency either to aid or to prevent this compression, the medium in its new
state will still be in equilibrium, the stresses in any portion of it which remains
unaltered in shape are independent of its volume, and are functions only of the
“ened and, implicitly, of the forces which hold the boundary of the whole medium
xed.
A soap film affords in two dimensions an illustration of such a medium; the
tension at any point of the film does not depend on the dimensions; we may
suppose the film altered in area in any way we please—so long as it remains
continuous—without changing the tension. Waves of displacement parallel to the
surface of the film would not be transmitted. But such a film in consequence of
its tension has an apparent rigidity for displacements normal to its surface: it can
transmit transverse waves with a velocity which depends on the tension. Now
the labile ether is a medium which has, in three dimensions, characteristics re-
sembling those of the two-dimensional film. Its fundamental property is that
the potential energy per unit volume, in an isotropic body, so far as it arises from
a given strain, is proportional to the square of the resultant twist. In an incom-
pressible elastic ether this potential energy depends upon the shearing strain.
Given such a medium—and there is nothing impossible in its conception—the main
phenomena of light follow as a necessary consequence. We have a mechanical
theory by the aid of which we can explain the phenomena; we can go a few steps
behind the symbols we use in our mathematical processes. Lord Kelvin, again,
has shown us how such a medium might be made up of molecules having rotation
in such a way that it could not be distinguished from an ordinary fluid in respect
to any irrotational motion ; it would, however, resist rotational movements with a
force proportional to the twist, just the force required; the medium has no real
rigidity, but only a quasi-rigidity conferred on it by its rotational motion. The
actual periodic displacements of such a medium may constitute light. We may
claim, then, with some confidence to have a mechanical theory of light.
But nowadays the ether has other functions to perform, and there is another
theory to consider, which at present holds the field. Maxwell’s equations of the
electromagnetic field are practically identical with those of the quasi-labile ether.
The symbols which occur can have an electromagnetic meaning; we speak of
permeability and inductive capacity instead of rigidity and density, and take as
our variables the electric or magnetic displacements instead of the actual displace-
ment or the rotation.
Still such a theory is not mechanical. Electric force acts on matter charged
with electricity, and the ratio of the force to the charge can be measured in mecha-
nical units. A fundamental conception in Maxwell’s theory is electric displacement,
680 REPORT—1893.
and this is proportional to the electric force. Moreover, its convergence measures
the quantity of electricity present per unit volume; but we have no certain
mechanical conception of electric displacement or quantity of electricity, we
have no satisfactory mechanical theory of the electromagnetic field. The first
edition of the ‘ Electricity and Magnetism’ appeared twenty years ago. In it
Maxwell says: ‘It must be carefully borne in mind that we have made only one
step in the theory of the action of the medium. We have supposed it to be in a
state of stress, but we have not in any way accounted for this stress or explained
how it is maintained, This step, however, appears to me to be an important one,
as it explains by the action of consecutive parts of the medium phenomena which
were formerly supposed to be explicable only by direct action at a distance. I
have not been able to make the next step, namely, to account by mechanical con-
siderations for these stresses in the dielectric.’ And these words are true still.
But, for all this, I think it may be useful to press the theory of the quasi-labile
ether as far as it will go, and endeavour to see what the consequences must be.
The analogy between the equations of the electromagnetic field and those of
an elastic solid has been discussed by many writers. In a most interesting paper
on the theory of dimensions, read recently before the Physical Society, Mr. Williams
has called attention to the fact that two only of these analogies have throughout a
simple mechanical interpretation. These two have been developed at some length
by Mr, Heaviside in his paper in the ‘ Electrician’ for January 23, 1891. ‘To one
of them Lord Kelvin had previously called attention (‘Collected Papers,’ vol. iii.
. 450.
; — with a quasi-labile ether, then, we may suppose that p, the magnetic
permeability of the medium, is 47p,' where p is the density, and that K, the in-
ductive capacity, is 1/4rB, B being the rigidity, or the quasi-rigidity conferred by
the rotation. é ; :
The kinetic energy of such a medium is } p (£°+7?+ @), where é, 7, ¢ are the
components of the displacement. Let us identify this with the electromagnetic
energy (a* + 8° + *)87, a, 8, y being components of the magnetic force, so that
a=&, B=7,y=¢. Then the components of the electric displacement, assuming
them to be zero initially, are given by
poh EB
that is, the electric displacement multiplied by 4m is equal to the rotation in
the medium. Denote this by ©.
The potential energy due to the strain is
i Bo?, or $16n°BD?,
and on substituting for B this becomes
1 43
2K
which is Maxwell’s expression for the electrostatic energy of the field.
Thus so far, but no farther, the analogy is complete ; the kinetic energy of the
medium measures the magnetic energy, the potential energy measures the electro-
static energy. The stresses in the ether, however, are not those given by Max-
well’s theory.
In the other form of the analogy we are to take the inductive capacity as
4p and the magnetic permeability as 1/47B. The velocity measures the electric
force, and the rotation the magnetic force, so that electrostatic energy is kinetic,
and magnetic energy potential. Such an arrangement is not so easy to grasp as
the other. Optical experiments, however, show us that in all probability it is p,
and not B, which varies, while from our electrical measurements we know that K is
variable and constant ; hence this is a reason for adopting the second form.
cope
1 If we adopted Mr. Heaviside’s rational system of units the 4m would disappear.
ee eee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 681
In either case we look upon the field as the seat of energy distributed per unit
of volume according to Maxwell’s law. The total energy is obtained by integration
throughout the field.
Now we can transform this integral by Green’s theorem to a surface
integral over the boundary, together with a volume integral through the space ;
and the form of these integrals shows us that we may look upon the effects, dealing
for the present with electrostatics only, as due to the attractions and repulsions of
a certain imaginary matter distributed according to a definite law over the
boundary and throughout the space. To this imaginary matter, then, in the ordi-
nary theory we give the name of Electricity.
An electrified conducting sphere, according to these analogies, is not a body
charged with a quantity of something called electricity, but a surface at which
there is a discontinuity in the rotation impressed upon the medium, or in the flow
across the surface; for in the conductor a viscous resistance to the motion takes
the place of rigidity. No permanent strain can be set up.
From this standpoint we consider electrical force as one of the manifestations of
some action between ether and matter. There are certain means by which we can
strain the ether: the friction of two dissimilar materials, the chemical action in a
cell are two ; and when, adopting the first analogy, this straining is of such a nature
as to produce a rotational twist in the ether, the bodies round are said to be electri-
fied; the energy of the system is that which would arise from the presence over
their surfaces of attracting and repelling matter, attracting or repelling according
to the inverse square law. We falsely assign this energy to such attractions
instead of to the strains and stresses in the ether.
Such a theory has many difficulties. It is far from being proved; perhaps I
have erred in trespassing on your time with it in this crude form. The words of
the French savant, quoted by Poincaré, will apply to it: ‘I can understand all
Maxwell except what he means by a charged body.’ It is not, of course, the only
hypothesis which might be formed to explain the facts, perhaps not even the most
probable. For many points the vortex sponge theory is its superior. Still I feel
confident that in time we shall come to see that the phenomena of the electro-
magnetic field may be represented by some such mechanism as has been outlined,
and that confidence must be my excuse for having ventured to call your attention
to the subject.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Interim Report of the Committee on a National Physical Laboratory.
See Reports, p. 120.
2. Interim Report of the Committee on Electro-optics.
See Reports, p. 121.
3. Report of the Committee on Solar Radiation.—See Reports, p. 144.
4. Report of the Committee for Comparing and Reducing Magnetic
Observations.—See Reports, p. 120.
5. Report of the Committee in connection with the Magnetic Work of the
Falmouth Observatory.—See Reports, p. 121.
682 REPORT—1893.
6. On the Period of Vibration of Electrical Disturbances upon the Earth.
By Professor G, F. FirzGerarp, Sc.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.T.0.D.
Professor J. J. Thomson and Mr. O, Heaviside have calculated the period of
vibration on a sphere alone in space and found it about ‘059 second. ‘The fact
that the upper regions of the atmosphere conduct makes it possible that there is a
period of vibration due to the vibrations similar to those on a sphere surrounded
by a concentric spherical shell. In calculating this case it is not necessary to con-
sider propagation in time for an approximate result, and it was pointed out that a
roughly approximate result could be obtained by equating the electric force at the
centre of the earth to a simply harmonic distribution of electricity on its sur-
face and on that of a concentric shell, to the electric force due to the rate of varia-
tion of the Vector potential of the electric currents calculated on the assumption of
a simply periodic variation of the electric distribution. It appears that the dis-
placement currents between the outer and inner shells are the only contributors to
the Vector potential. The value of the time of vibration obtained by this very
simple approximation is
2Kya*b*loga/b
a fare
Applying this to the case of the earth with a conducting layer at a height of 100
kilometres (much higher than is probable) it appears that a period of vibration of
about one second would be possible. A variation in the height of the conducting
layer produces only a small effect upon this if the height be small compared with
the diameter of the earth. In the case of the sun the period of vibration would
be about a hundred times as great. An approximate estimate was made as to the
electric density at the pole required to produce a horizontal force at the equator
equal to about the hundredth part of the earth’s horizontal force, and it was found
to be eight electrostatic units per square centimetre. Anything very much greater
than this should produce a measurable reduction of barometric pressure. Atten-
tion was called to the desirability of having a sufficient number of magnetic
stations in a ring round the magnetic pole to be able to determine whether there
were simultaneous, easterly or westerly, waves of disturbance of horizontal force.
Such a simultaneous disturbance, of which there was some evidence from the pre-
sent sparsely distributed observatories, would mean that there was an earth current
which was running through the earth in such a way that it must be continued by
auroral discharges in the upper regions of the air.
7. The Moon’s Atmosphere and the Kinetic Theory of Gases.
By G. H. Bryan, M.A.
[The possibility of applying the kinetic theory of gases to explain the absence
of any perceptible atmosphere round the Moon seems to have been contemplated
ever since the earliest days of the kinetic theory itself. Mr. S. Tolver Preston
claims to have been the first to suggest this explanation (‘ Nature,’ Nov. 7, 1878) ;
but the idea was thought of long before then, for Waterston, in his now well-
known paper on ‘The Physics of Media’ (‘ Phil, Trans. R.S.,’ 1892 [.A]), specially
considers the problem of the Moon’s atmosphere. His investigation would, how-
ever, require all the molecules of a gas to have the same velocity, which we now
know to be incorrect, and it leads to the conclusion that the existence of a lunar
atmosphere would be possible at ordinary temperatures. |
Now, according to the well-known ‘error’ law of distribution of velocity
among the molecules of a gas, there must always be some molecules moving with
sufficiently great speeds to overcome the attraction of any body, however powerful,
and some whose speed is too small to enable them to escape from the attraction of
any body, however feeble. On this assumption no planet would theoretically
have an absolutely permanent atmosphere. If, however, the proportion of mole-
cules which escape is relatively exceedingly small, the atmosphere of the planet
may be regarded as practically permanent. In order, therefore, to test the relative
= =
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 683
degree of permanence of the atmospheres of different celestial bodies, the author has
calculated what proportion of the molecules of oxygen and hydrogen at different
temperatures have a sufficiently great speed to fly off from the surfaces of, and
never return to, the Moon, Mars, and the Earth. The corresponding results for the
Sun are also given, not, however, at its surface, but at the Earth’s distance from
the Sun’s centre, where the critical speed is, of course, ,/2 x the speed of the
Earth’s orbital motion,
The numbers, which are given in Table I., p. 684, represent, in each case, the
average number of molecules, among which there is ove molecule whose speed
exceeds the critical amount. Thus, for oxygen at temperature 0° C, rather over
one molecule in every three billion is moving fast enough to fly off permanently
from the Moon, and only one in every 23 x 10°*° is moving fast enough to escape
from the Earth’s atmosphere, while the Sun’s attraction, evenat the distance of
the Earth, prevents more than one in every 2 x 10***° from escaping.
Now it is generally stated that at the Harth’s surface there are somewhere
about 18 x 10'® molecules in a cubic centimetre of air. If we suppose the Moon’s
surface were invested with an atmosphere, say of oxygen, of this density, every
cubic centimetre would contain, roughly, about six million molecules moving with
sufficient speed to carry them away from the Moon. But the velocity requisite to
overcome the EKarth’s attraction would only be attained by one molecule in a
volume of 1°3 x 10°!° cubic centimetres, that is, in a globe of radius about 2 x 10°°
kilometres. In our Earth’s atmosphere the acquisition of the requisite speed by
a single molecule would only occur once at rare intervals, and would probably be
far too rare to affect the permanency of the EHarth’s atmosphere, even during the
long periods of time through which we are wont to trace the history of the solar
system.
3 In the case of Mars the corresponding figure shows that an atmosphere con-
taining oxygen is practically permanent at all ordinary temperatures, but that
such an atmosphere could not remain on the planet if its temperature were as high
as 819° C.
If the Earth possessed an atmosphere of hydrogen at temperature 0° C., con-
taining 10'* molecules per cubic centimetre, there would be one molecule in every
60 cubic centimetres whose velocity would be sufficient to carry it away perma-
nently. Remembering that the Earth at one time was much hotter than at
present, we see that the absence of hydrogen from the Harth’s atmosphere (except
in the form of water) is easily accounted for. In the case of the Sun, a hydrogen
atmosphere would be permanent at 0° C., even as far off as the Harth, as is shown
by the number 2°7 x 10°°7, At one-tenth of the Earth’s distance from the Sun we
should obtain the same number with an absolute temperature ten times as high,
2.€., 2730° absolute, or 2457° C., and so on. A considerably higher temperature
would, however, be consistent with permanency. Thus the kinetic theory quite
explains the existence of hydrogen in the Sun’s atmosphere at high temperatures.
The present theory seems to preclude the possibility of the Moon ever having
had an atmosphere, If the Moon were formerly much hotter than at present the
proportion of gaseous molecules tending to fly off would be greater, and such a
loss would be exactly the reverse of the process which the nebular hypothesis
assumes to be taking place in the solar system.
But it would seem probable that this flying off of gaseous molecules is not an
essential condition in explaining the Moon’s absence of atmosphere by means of the
kinetic theory. It is only necessary to assume the existence of a distribution of
matter of excessive tenuity pervading interplanetary space in order to account for
a gradual increase taking place in the atmospheres of all the planets, and such an
assumption, taken in conjunction with the kinetic theory, is gute compatible with
the absence of any perceptible atmosphere surrounding the Moon, and of any per-
ceptible resistance to the motions of the Moon and planets.
The kinetic theory enables us to compare the densities at different points of a
mass of gas in equilibrium under such fixed central forces as the attractions of
the celestial bodies. If we apply the theory to the system consisting of the Snn,
Moon, and Earth, we shall find the relative densities given in Table IL., the density
684
REPORT—1893.
Taste I.—Average Number of Molecules of Gas to every one whose Speed
is sufficiently great to overcome the Attraction of the Corresponding Body.
Position relative to
attracting body
Moon’s surface ‘ *
Surface of Mars " 4
Earth’s surface . :
Earth’s atmosphere at a
height of eighty miles
Sun at distance of Earth .
Se Si) SS
senee.
Sage | Sef2 | Sa08
SEAS Naas N so 4
agse | 5k | ieee
» a »
de ol Re noni
gekes | &28S | Sh S8
Cie. ar 21 Ki
Bee | BMOD [tere
a tH
3°6 610-0 27 x 10
3920-0 50x10 | 10x 10%
60x10 | 33x10" | 23x 10%
2°3 x 10'9 76x 10% Divex 132
27x10 | 66x 10% | 20x 10%
at —269° C.
lute)
gen
41° absolute)
at —205° C.
68° abso
(=
(=
Hydro
Oxygen
6:9 x 10%
1:8 x 10%
4-5 x 101922
1-5 x 1012
17 x 1019767
Taste II.—Relative Densities of Oxygen and Hydrogen in a Permanent
Distribution, taking their Densities at the Earth’s Surface as Unity.
Position relative to
attracting body
Earth’s surface 3 ;
Earth’s atmosphere at a
height of eighty miles
Moon’s surface s 4
At Moon's distance from
Earth
At Earth’s distance from
Sun
Interstellar space .
gen at 0° C.
273° absolute)
at 4095° C.
lute)
(
Oxygen
(=4368° abso
Hydro
1:0
0°3859
3-1 x 10-%
4-6 x 10-2
Bilis elOGe
27 x 1058
Ds jy Di saslt Sg
or Lees
BSc | SB02 | 8222
ABaa Aso s ASBSs
[se & isos isis
2 B23 223 2a Ss
aga® sac% Sats
Eo Sm so SS fO.43
mes HS for Sets at 2S
Suiaar fuk ou 2 i
BM Il gls I BU RS
O~ SS aay = &
q x 20)
1:0 1:0 1:0
0:02268 2°414 x 10-7| 3:4 x 10-77
9°4%10-™ | (7-7 x 1059137) 355 x 107128
4-6 x 10-82 | 4-5 x 10-326) 4:0 x 10-1
1:9 x 10-8 |, 1-4 x 10-83! | 3:6 x 10-184
49 x 10-3818} 5-6 x 10-5724 9:9 x 10—71694
TasLe II].—Relative Densities in a Permanent Distribution, taking the
Average Densities of Distribution in Interstellar Space as Unity.
Position relative to
attracting body
At infinity ‘i MS -
At Earth’s distance from
Sun
At Moon’s distance from
Earth
Moon’s surface . 3
Earth's surface :
22 |S | & 8
ease | ¢g52g | #223
e222 a595 aAses
oo*S 25 1S CS NS
wean Wana weo8
2333 2333 ea ba
52 wes 53 we ess!
- > my
ro) m6 mo
1:0 1:0 1:0
79 x 10%8 3'°9 x 101285 2°4 x 109%
1:7 x 1059 9°4 x 101256 8:0 x 101947
1:2 x 103!° 1:9 x 10246 1:4 x 1045
3:7 x 10° 2:0 x 10'8!7 1:8 x 105278
drogen at 44°
absolute
Oxygen at 68°
absolute
Hy
1:0
3-6 x 1019789
40 x 1019791
42 x 1019844
10 x 1071098
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 685
of the corresponding gas in the atmosphere at the Earth’s surface being taken as
unity. If we take the density at an infinite distance from the Sun to be unity, the
corresponding results will be given by Table III.
The assumption on which these results are calculated may be called an ‘ equi-
librium theory,’ since it takes no account of the motions of the bodies in question,
and it assumes a permanent distribution to have been attained, so that the whole
of the gas is at a uniform temperature. :
When every allowance is made for the artificial character of the assumptions it
is still highly unreasonable to suppose that the Moon could have an atmosphere so
far in excess of that required by the equilibrium theory that its presence could be
detected even by the most careful observations; and a very few molecules of
oxygen and nitrogen flying about in interstellar or interplanetary space would
represent a number far in excess of that required by the equilibrium theory, and
would therefore tend to augment the total mass of the Earth’s atmosphere.
If we try to compare the atmospheres of different planets, such as the Earth
and Mars, the ‘equilibrium theory’ breaks down completely, as is only natural
when we remember how rarely a single molecule leaves the atmosphere of either
lanet. — -
‘ It is different in the case of two bodies so near each other as the Earth and
Moon. Among the molecules of gas which at any time might find themselves in
the neighbourhood of the Moon and Earth the greater number would be drawn in
by the more attractive body, and the Moon would not, therefore, be likely to
obtain an atmosphere like that surrounding the Earth.
At no period has it possessed an atmosphere of oxygen and nitrogen com-
parable in density with that of the Earth. A decrease of density in a planet’s
atmosphere could only take place by the condensation in liquid form of vapours
present in it, not by matter leaving the planet.
Thus the kinetic theory of gases is capable of accounting for absence of air
from the Moon without making any assumptions contradictory to the nebular
hypothesis.
8, On Grinding and Polishing. By Lord Rayueicu, Sec.R.S8.
9. Simple Apparatus for Observing and Photographing Interference
and Diffraction Phenomena. By W. B. Crorr, M.A.
A wooden screen 16 inches high and 9 inches broad has an opening at a height
of 10 inches which will take a spectroscope slit or a thin metal plate with a pin-
hole: a convex lens focusses sunlight or limelight on the small aperture; a lamp,
however, gives sufticient light for the main effects without the finer detail. At
about 2 feet distance an a or B Huygens’ microscope eyepiece is adjusted so that
its field is evenly covered with the light; about 6 inches in front ‘of this is the
holder for the diffraction-objects—a stiff-jointed arm about 3 inches long is a
convenient adjustment for height. Various things are fixed on 8-inch squares of
wood which have a central hole 3 inch square; a slot in the middle of one side of
the wood goes over a screw at the end of the jointed arm; a nut clamps it, but
allows movement in a vertical plane. The chief simple objects are: Single edge,
square corner, double edge, bi-prism, inclined mirrors, needle-eyes, needle-points,
needles of various thicknesses, needle with opaque slip on one side, needle with mica
slip on one side, perforated zinc, wire gauze, shot cemented on glass for Arago’s
bright spot at the centre of the shadow of a circular screen, holes of graduated sizes
in a metal plate.
If the eyepiece is passed through a collar which will fix on the front ofa
camera in the place of the ordinary lens, an image is made on the ground glass
which can be photographed. The rays emerge parallel and the image varies in
size, but remains in focus for all positions of the eyepiece and ground glass.
In illustration of the two modes of observing these phenomena the author drew
attention to an old set of diffraction objects, consisting of fifty-nine small geo-
686 REPORT—1893.
metrical figures on glass. They were intended to be placed in front of a telescope
focussed to a distant point of light, according to the plan of Fraunhofer and
Schwerd. The result is a system of radiating lines, which consist of spectral
images of the point of light; but if the same are viewed as above with the eye-
piece alone, the extending spectra mostly disappear, and more elaborate and finely
defined central figures are formed.
10. On Wilson’s Theory respecting the asserted foreshortening of the inner
side of the Penumbree of the Solar Spots when near the Sun’s Limb, and
of the probable thickness of the Photospheric and the Penumbral Strata
of the Solur Envelopes. By Rev. Freperick Howserr.
For a considerable portion of the period of upwards of thirty years, during
which the author of this paper has maintained a more or less continuous record of
the solar spots—during, be it noted, three full successive periods of the maximum,
minimum, and intermediate conditions of solar-spot activity, and including some
thousands of careful and roughly micrometric observations—one point has not a
little excited his surprise, viz., to have scarcely in any one undoubted instance been
able to verify the observation first made by Dr. Wilson, Professor of Practical
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow, as long ago as the months of November
and December 1769, as well as on, he affirms, many subsequent occasions.
The phenomena in question which Wilson claims to have frequently seen is, in
brief, this, that if a spot, when well on the disk, has its penumbra equally dis-
tributed on all sides of the umbra, the effects of foreshortening on the sphere, in
consequence of the funnel-shaped nature of a spot, will be that whenever a spot is
near the limb the side of the penumbra nearest to the sun’s centre will be extremely
foreshortened, and that when very near the limb, not only the whole of the inner
side of the penumbra, but the whole of the umbra itself, will become invisible, the
outermost side of the penumbra alone remaining in sight.
Wilson tells us (as recorded in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1774) that
he effected his observations by direct vision, using a small, and he says an excellent,
Gregorian reflecting telescope of 26 inches focal length, with a magnifying power of
112 linear.
The author’s observations were made by projecting the sun’s image on a large
screen nearly 5 feet by 4 feet, using a small but excellent refractor by the elder
Dollond of 3 inches aperture with 46 inches focal length, with magnifying powers
of from 80 to 200 times linear.
When using power 80, with the screen placed 4 feet 3 inches from the eyepiece,
the projected image of the sun has a diameter of 32 inches, so that, consequently,
each inch of the image is equivalent to just about 60” of celestial arc, and which
is the scale on which the author's drawings are usually made. A sort of micro-
meter, moreover, consisting of asmall disk of glass ruled off into the two-hundredths
of an inch, is placed in the focus of the eyepiece, so that the divisions on the glass
disk are distinctly seen projected also on the screen, each exactly half an inch
apart.
; When a power of 200 linear is used the sun’s image is seen 6 feet 4 inches in
diameter on the screen when placed at the same distance from the eyepiece as before
mentioned, and when each minute of arc thereon measures 23 inches, so that, in
fact, in such enlarged images seconds of arc can be readily measured by a pair of
common dividers.
Now as regards Wilson’s observations—with which the author professes him-
self to be most strongly at issue, especially when spots of any considerable magni-
tude are concerned—nothing could be stated in a more exact, cautious, and circum-
stantial manner. And it is, in all probability, in consequence of this that the
phenomena Wilson claims to have seen have been handed down as facts (without
their having been adequately verified or disproved) in almost all works on physical
astronomy to the present day.
The author, however, had the honour of calling the special attention of astro-
T—_—
an A bak oi
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 687
nomers to the point in question in a paper read before the Royal Astronomical
Society in June, 1886, soon after which Mr. Cowper Ranyard, the late Mr. Whipple
of the Kew Observatory, and the late Father Perry of Stonyhurst, expressed them-
selves in close agreement on the whole with the author, the two former emphati-
cally so; as also, quite lately, has Father Sidgreaves, Director of the last-mentioned
observatory.
Professor Sporer, also, of Munich, in a copious résumé of his labours in con-
nection with the solar spots (read at Geneva in August, 1885) denies that the spots
possess the character of funnels (tonnozrs) so commonly attributed to them.
Not, however, that the statements of Wilson at the time when they were brought
forward remained unchallenged. For not only did the Rey. Francis Wollaston
(father of the great chemist) demur to them, but the great mathematician and
observer De la Lande (as recorded in the French Academy ‘Memoirs’ for 1776)
admitted that whilst some spots behayed as Wilson states, yet that the rule by no
means always held good. Wilson’s spot, moreover, of November, 1769, had so large
a size as a length and breadth of one minute of arc, and he states that the effects
of foreshortening even in a spot of such extensive dimensions was to cause the
central umbra to completely disappear when about 24” from the limb, whilst the
side of the penumbra nearest the limb still continued to be eminently conspicuous,
which would necessitate, of course, a very large amount of depth and of shelving
indeed! The author of this paper, however, can only say that in repeated
observations he has never found any of this asserted foreshortening, nor con-
sequent apparent relative displacement of the umbra, when spots of the above-
mentioned size have been no more than 20”, 15”, or even 5” from the limb. The
author does not wish to affirm that no measure whatever of the foreshortening
ever occurs, but he emphatically affirms that where it does it is only in the very
slightest degree, though it necessarily is somewhat more apparent in very small
ots. :
All these appearances can be readily exhibited on a globe of a foot or so in
diameter, in which depressions have been worked of various sizes and various
depths; and from which it will at once be seen how very shallow must be the
spots which admit of the umbra remaining apparently central in the midst of the
penumbra, when so near the limb as has just been mentioned,
Such, then, is the experience of the author of this paper, who also would wish
to state that in the present year he requested leave (and was most courteously
permitted) to compare his hand-drawings of the sun for the last ten years—em-
bracing two maximum and one minimum period of solar spot activity—with the
photographic record at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich ; and when, as far
as could be perceived by means of a magnifying lens, his contention was found to
hold good in every instance in which the concurrent dates of observation admitted
of such a comparison, as was allowed by both Mr. Hollist and another junior mem-
ber of the assistants, who aided in the investigation.
The appearance of a spot may, occasionally, seem to militate against the author’s
views, and strongly to favour Wilson’s, but, as Mr. Turner, chief assistant at
Greenwich, wrote him lately, ‘ the Aistory of a spot needs studying.’ And this is
very essential, because, on various occasions, a spot which when nea the limb
seemed to favour Wilson was found not to do so when further from the limb, when
it was plainly evident that the umbra was not central.
The results, finally, of the author's protracted observations and measurements
lead him to the conclusion that both the photospheric and also penumbral envelopes
of the sun are comparatively extremely shallow, and that the photosphere consists
of one layer only of the so-called ‘rice-grain’ entities, lying in close contiguity to
the subjacent penumbra, and at most not more than the z#zth part of the sun’s
radius, or, say, about one thousand miles in thickness, and that the penumbral
stratum is but little, if any, thicker ; otherwise the umbra could not remain plainly
central within the penumbra (as it almost always does) when the latter is no more
than ten, or even five, seconds from the sun’s limb.
688 REPORT—1893.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER lo.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Electrolysis and Electro-
chemistry. By W. N. Suaw, F.R.S., and the Rev. T. C. Firz-
PATRICK.—See Reports, p. 146.
2. On the Connection between Hther and Matter.
By Dr. Outver J. Lopes, F.B.S.
The author reported progress in his experiments to examine into the connection
between ether and matter, and concludes that at least unless matter is electrified
there is no stress-connection between these two bodies of a kind to interfere with
their relative motion.
From this he draws several conclusions, one of which is that radiation is due to
the motion of electrified parts of molecules—not to the molecule as a whole.
8. On a Mechanical Analogue of Anomalous Dispersion.
By R. T. Grazesroox, M.A., F.B.S.
In the figure A, B, C represent a series of particles, each of mass m, connected
together by strings of length a, The particles can vibrate on the plane of the
paper, and a wave of simple harmonic vibration will travel along them with
definite velocity. The tension in the string is F. Each particle is connected as
B
UG, tte
QQ
QZ
shown by two springs to two masses A,, A,; B,, B,, &c., respectively, the masses
of these particles being M. This second series of particles is connected by springs
to the sides of the frame. The period of vibration of one of the particles, such
as A, when the string joining it to the particles on either side is cut and the
masses A,, A, are held fixed, is ¢,; the period of vibration of a particle such as
A, under the action of the spring joining it to the frame alone is T,. The string
joining the particles A, B, C is continued, and carries a series of particles each of
mass m, unconnected to any springs. Suppose a wave of period T to be travelling
with velocity V, along this string; on reaching the particle A the velocity
becomes Y, and it can be shown that
V,?7_m jae a (Oe oie as
etme ee Mw Ee Tas oe
Suppose now that ¢, is large, and let T be less than ¢, but greater than T, ;
suppose also that m is greater than m,. Then p* is greater than unity; a wave
travels along A, B, C, but with less velocity than along the external row of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 689
particles. As T decreases to T,, »” increases—z.c., the velocity decreases—until
when T=T,, »” is infinite and V zero. There is an absorption of energy, and below
this absorption band the velocity is very small and the refraction is abnormally
large. When T is slightly less than T,, 1” is negative, the medium has the proper-
ties of a metal; but as T decreases further ,* becomes positive, though less than
unity. The velocity in the medium is greater than that outside.
Thus the system has all the properties of a medium showing anomalous dis-
persion.
iy a simple transformation the equation for »” can be put into the form
2 2 4 2 2
aon 4m psa ve 1--” 7, Hips Ue coed We eee Di,
——— A\T es TA a) a + ia. NO 9 oi q 9
er Mm Meine oM tee MATH TS Mee
where A, A, are the wave-lengths in air of waves of periods T and T,; this
equation has been verified for light by 8. P. Langley over a long range of
period. Fora transparent medium ¢, and T, lie outside the limits of the visible
spectrum.
4. Note on Professor Ebert’s Estimate of the Radiating Power of an Atom,
with Remarks on Vibrating Systems giving Special Series of Overtones
like those Given Out by some Molecules. By Professor G. F. Firz-
Grratp, V.A., F.R.S.
Attention was drawn to Professor Ebert’s paper in ‘ Wiedemann’s Annalen’
for 1893, in which he estimated that the energy radiated by a sodium atom as deter-
mined by Professor E. Wiedemann was approximately the same as that calculated
from Hertz’s equation for the radiation from one of his oscillators, if the oscillator
ce supposed of the diameter of the atom and electrical charge be the ionic charge
and the time of vibration the period of the sodium line.
It was pointed out that the period of vibration of asimple oscillator of the size
of an atom would be very many times more frequent than that of the sodium line,
and that as the energy radiation increases inversely as the cube of the wave-length
it follows that the radiation of a simple Hertzian oscillator of the size of an atom
might be many thousands of times as great as what Wiedemann has found to be the
radiating power of a sodium atom. It follows that sodium atoms must be complex
Hertzian oscillators if they are Hertzian oscillators at all, and if they be complex
ones their radiating power might be either greater or less than that of a Hertzian;
eo that Professor Ebert’s calculation only shows that 7f an atom be a Hertzian
oscillator its radiating power is approximately what he has calculated. It was ex-
plained that the fact that the vibration-frequencies of molecules were within the
range of frequencies that might be expected if the molecules are systems of the size
they are known to be, and of a rigidity about that of ordinary rigid bodies, made
it appear that the rigidity of hard bodies may be principally the rigidity of the
molecules, of which they are composed. The fact that crystalline structure is gene-
rally attributed to a peculiarity in the shapes of the molecules, and that deforma-
tion confers a crystalline structure on solids, tends to the conclusion that the
molecules are deformed by strain. It is otherwise not easy to see why the light-
frequencies are so nearly those that might be expected from rigid bodies of the size
of the molecules.
In connection with the question of the vibrations of molecules, it is to be
observed that vibrating systems in which the motion can be very simply specified
may produce extremely complex systems of lines, as is evident to anybody who has
tried to express an algebraic function in a Fourier series. A finite series of
discrete lines may be produced by supposing a finite vibrator to divide itself into
loops and nodes. If the vibrator be of such a structure that, as in an air column,
the velocity of propagation of a wave is independent of the wave-length, then the
system of overtones will be a system of harmonics. But if the velocity of propa-
gation be any other function of the wave-length, say VY =/(A), then it is easy to see
1893. YY
690 REPORT—1893.
that the frequency of vibration (N) corresponding to m nodes in the length L
will be
n L
Near (3):
For instance, in a trough of deep water, when V oc WX
N cc fn.
An example of a system with a remarkable relation between the velocity of pro-
pagation and the wave-length is the case of a system of magnets with their poles
close to one another when disturbed to an amount small compared with the
distance apart of the poles. In this case the force of restitution is proportional to
the sum of the angular displacements of contiguous magnets, and it appears that
the velocity of propagation of a disturbance is given by
V =2N,A cos =
when A is the wave-length of the disturbance. This case is interesting in connec-
tiou with Professor Ewing’s theory of the nature of magnets, and it follows that
the rate of progression that might be expected of this kind of disturbance in
a real magnet would be extremely slow unless the period of vibration approxi-
mated to 10° per second. The rate of propagation of energy into the system is,
however, vey much more rapid, and might be about 200 to 300 centimetres per
second. Ina finite system of such magnets the system of overtones is given by
N=2N, cos LD
which is evidently represented by a series of lines coming up to an edge which is
so characteristic of many spectra.
Vibrating linear systems having any desired relation out of a very great
number of different relations connecting the velocity of propagation of a wave and
the wave-length may be constructed by connecting a system of equidistant wheels
by means of indiarubber bands or elastic friction wheels, the latter case being some-
what similar to the case of the magnets already considered. By connecting the
wheels each with its next neighbour we get the simplest system. If to this be
superposed a system of connection of each with its next neighbour but one, and
then each with its next neighbour but two, and so on, complex systems with very
various relations between wave-length and velocity can be constructed depending
on the relative strengths of the bands employed. These systems would be some-
what analogous to systems of particles connected by laws of force varying in a
complex way with the distance apart of the particles. In the case of the bands,
&c., the general form of the relation between the velocity and wave-length is
V?=h, sin? + sin? =! +7 sin? 27! 4 oe te ew te
which can be varied in a very great number of ways by a proper choice of k,, k,, &e.
It was pointed out how a model such as that described by Mr. Glazebrook for
illustrating anomalous dispersion could be modified so as to produce almost any
desired system of overtones.
5. On the Reflection of Sound or Light from a Corrugated Surface.
By Lord Rayizicu.
The angle of incidence is supposed to be zero, and the amplitude of the inci-
dent wave to be unity. If then
C= 6 COS P2ucm ow)» elie eels
Sel
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 691
be the equation of the surface, the problem of reflection is readily solved so
long as p in (1) is small relatively to & or 2m/\; that is, so long as the wave-
length of the corrugation is large in comparison with that of the vibrations. The
solution assumes a specially simple form when the second medium is impenetrable,
so that the whole energy is thrown back either in the perpendicularly reflected
wave or in the lateral spectra. Of this two cases are notable: (a2) when—in the
application to sound—the second medium is gaseous and devoid of inertia, as in
the theory of the ‘open ends’ of organ-pipes. The amplitude A, of the perpen-
dicularly reflected wave, so far as the fourth power of p/k inclusive, is then
given by
Beas 25 (ake) +2 Ye J, (Qhe) + — { Lhe J, (2ke) —}he°I,(2ke) 1 . 2)
in which there is no limitation upon the value of ke, so that the corrugation
may be as deep as we please in relation tod. If p be very small, the result—
viz., —J, (2kc)—is the same as would be obtained by the methods usual in
Optics ; and it appears that these methods cease to be available when p cannot be
neglected.
The second case (8) arises when sound is reflected from a rigid and fixed wall.
We find, as far as p?/k?,
Ay=Jp (2ke) - Parke. J, (218) a6 whitest B0 ele Was(B)
If p, instead of being relatively small, exceeds & in magnitude, there are no
lateral spectra in the reflected vibrations; and if the second medium is impene-
trable, the regular reflection is necessarily total. It thus appears that an
extremely rough wall reflects sounds of medium pitch as well as if it were mathe-
matically smooth.
The question arises whether, when the second medium is not impenetrable, the
regular reflection from a rough wall (p>k) is the same as if c=0. Reasons are
given for concluding that the answer should be in the negative.
6. On the Piezo-electric Property of Quartz. By Lord Kztvin, Pres.R.S.!
7. On a Piezo-electric Pile. By Lord Ketvin, Pres.R.S.
The application of pressure to a voltaic pile, dry or wet, has been suggested as
an illustration of the piezo-electric properties of erystals, but no very satisfactory
results have hitherto been obtained, whether by experiment or by theoretical con-
siderations, so faras I know. Whatever effects of pressure have been observed
have depended upon complex actions on the moist, or semi-moist, substances be-
tween the metals and electrolytic or semi-electrolytic and semi-metallic conduct-
ances of the substances. Clearing away everything but air from between the
opposed metallic surfaces of different quality, I have made the piezo-electric pile
which accompanies this communication. It consists of twenty-four double plates,
each 8 centimetres square, of zinc and copper soldered together, zinc on one side
and copper on theother. Half a square centimetre is cut from each corner of each
zinc plate, so that the copper square is left uncovered by the zinc at each of its
four corners. Thus each plate presents on one side an uninterrupted copper sur-
face, and on the other side a zine surface, except the four uncovered half square
centimetres of copper. A pile of these plates is made, resting one over the other
on four small pieces of indiarubber at the four copper corners. The air-space
between the opposed zinc and copper surfaces may be of any thickness from half a
millimetre to 3 or 4 millimetres. Care must be taken that there are no minute
shreds of fibre or dust bridging the air-space. In this respect so small an air-space
as half a millimetre gives trouble, but with 8 or 4 millimetres no trouble is found.
? Published in the Philosophical Magazine, October 1893, pp. 351-342,
Dn OP
692 REPORT—1893.
The lowest and uppermost plates are connected by fine wires to the two pairs of
quadrants of my quadrant electrometer, and it is generally convenient to allow the
lowest to lie uninsulated on an ordinary table and to connect it metallically with
the outer case of the electrometer.
To make an experiment, (1) connect the two fine wires metallically, and let
the electrometer needle settle to its metallic zero.
(2) Break the connection between the two fine wires, and let a weight of a
few decigrammes or kilogrammes fall from a height of a few millimetres above the
upper plate and rest on this plate. A startlingly great deflection of the electrometer
needle is produced. The insulation of the indiarubber supports and of the quad-
rants in the electrometer ought to be so good as to allow the needle to come to
rest, and the steady deflection to be observed, before there is any considerable loss.
{f, for example, the plates are placed with their zinc faces up, the application of
the weight causes positive electricity to come from the lower face of the upper-
most plate, and to deposit itself over the upper surface of plate and weight, and on
the electrode and pair of quadrants connected with it.
8. Electrical Interference Phenomena somewhat Analogous to Newton’s Rings,
but exhibited by Waves in Wires. By Epwin H. Barton, B.Sc,
Herr von Geitler,! while experimenting in 1892 with electrical waves passing
along a pair of long parallel wires, noticed the following phenomena :—
Tf the wires at any part of their length were either
(1) replaced by others thicker or thinner than the normal wires, as shown
at A, fig. 1, or
(2) arranged nearer together or farther apart than their normal distance, as
shown at B and C, fig. 1, then, in any of these cases, a partial
reflection of the electrical waves occurred at such place of change in
the wires.
Fig. 1.—Arrangements which produce partial reflection.
Fe ee gO
A 8 c ry)
Se OO oe rn
Von Geitler then made further observations of what occurred when a con-
denser was attached at a single point of each wire, as at D, fig. 1, but did not guant-
tatively examine the reflections of the waves produced by the changes first named.
This I commenced to do, as it seemed interesting to ascertain if theory and experi-
ment agreed quantitatively. Now it is easy to see that with a finite length of the
altered or abnormal part of the wires we should have not a single reflection merely,
but two places at which reflections would occur, namely, the beginning and the end
of this abnormal part, I thus anticipated that interference phenomena would
occur, and that if the length of the abnormal part were gradually increased, the
intensity of the transmitted waves would periodically increase and decrease.
The best arrangement which I have obtained for observing these interference
effects is that diagramatically shown in fig, 2.
Explanation of Fig. 2.
I. Induction coil worked by two secondary cells.
G. Spark gap.
PGP’. Primary oscillator which emits waves 9 m. long.
GP=GP’=1 m. long.
PP’. Discs of zine plates 40 cm. diameter.
* Wied. Ann., vol. 49, 1893, pp. 184-195 ; Ueber Reflexion elektrischer Drahtivellen,
von J. Ritter von Geitler.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 693
SS’. Similar discs 30 cm. distant from the former.
SADS’A’D’. The wires along which the electrical waves are propagated.
BCB’C’. The abnormal part of the wires.
M. Middle point of same.
SAM=101 m.
MD =63 m.
EE’, Electrometer, situated a quarter-wave length from—
DD’, the bridge forming the end of the wires.
AA’=EE’=DD/=8 cm.
Fie. 2.—Diagram of apparatus.
The needle of the electrometer is uncharged, and therefore turns in the same
direction whether E or E’ is positive, and is thus able to give a deflection undis-
turbed by the high frequency used, viz., about 33 million per second.
Although the interference phenomena under consideration are essentially
analogous to those of light in thin plates, yet the mathematical theory of the
latter will not suffice for our case. Because in the optical phenomena the ampli-
tude of the incident light may be assumed constant, whereas in the electrical
analogue the primary oscillator emits waves each of which is feebler than its
predecessor. It thus induces in the long wires a continually diminishing series of
waves which advance along the wires in the form of a damped train with its large
end leading.
I have already published an elementary mathematical theory! dealing with
the interference phenomena of such a wave train. The results of this theory when
Fic. 3.—Enlarged view of the ‘abnormal part’ of the wires.
graphically exhibited, the lengths of the abnormal part being abscisse, and the
intensities of the transmitted waves being ordinates, yield a damped wavy curve.
For the constants involved in the experiment hereafter described this theory gives
1 Proc, Roy. Soc., vol. 54, 1893, p. 96.
694 REPORT—1893.
the curve shown by T, fig. 4. It is thus seen that the lengths of the abnormal
parts which give maxima and minima are the same as in the corresponding optical
phenomena, but that the values of these maxima and minima, instead of being
respectively equal, as in optics, form a damped series fading away to a common
steady value.
These interference phenomena may, of course, be experimentally obtained by
any of the changes in the wires which produce reflection. But the most striking
method which I have found is that of hanging sheets of tin foil upon the con-
ducting wires so as to form the abnormal part, as shown in fig. 3. The sheets of
tin foil were 32 cm. deep, the cross-pieces used for separating the wires and sheets
were of wood,
The beginning of the abnormal part thus formed reflected a wave whose ampli-
tude is of the order 0°8 of that incident upon it. With this arrangement upwards
of 200 electrometer readings were taken, the final result of which is shown by the
upper curve marked E in fig. 4, the lengths of the abnormal parts being abscissze
and the intensities of the transmitted waves ordinates. It is noticeable that in
fig. 4 the theoretical curve lies wholly below the experimental one. The dis-
Fic. 4.—Energy of transmitted waves.
Ratio of El-ctrometer throws
oO fm 2 3 # 5 6 7 3 9 70m.
Lengths of Abnormal part (B.C. Fig 7/
crepancy, however, is no greater than can be accounted for by a known disturbance
which I have already measured, but have not yet succeeded in eliminating. The ex-
planation of this, together with an account of other experiments, I hope to give in
a future paper.
The above work was carried out in the University of Bonn under the direction
of Prof. Hertz, whose invaluable advice I wish most heartily to acknowledge.
9. On Interference Phenomena exhibited by the Passage of Electric Waves
through Layers of Electrolyte! By G. Upny Yuun.
This research was begun by the author with a view to try and definitely
answer the question whether electrolytes possess for rapid electric oscillations the
same resistance as tor steady currents. Some attempts were first made to directly
improve the procedure used in 1889 by Prof. J. J. Thomson,” but the results were
unsatisfactory, and the following method, by which it was hoped absolute measure-
ments might be obtained, was finally adopted :—
The electric waves (wave-length 9 metres) were propagated between a pair
1 Published in Pxil. Mag., xxxvi. (1893), pp. 531-545.
* Proc. Roy. Soc., xlv. 1889, p. 269.
~~
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 095
of long copper wires spanned 6 centimetres apart. A short length of these wires
was then immersed in an electrolyte, and the intensities of the transmitted wave
trains for several different thicknesses of the electrolyte layer compared by an
electrometer. If the altered intensity of the wave train were due solely to absorp-
tion in the conducting layer, it would be easy from such data to calculate the
conductivity of the solution.
The matter proved, however, to be not so simple. The transmitted intensity
did not regularly decrease, but varied periodically. The effect was obviously
analogous to, or rather identical with, the interference phenomena of thin plates.
The transmitted ray is a minimum for a plate a quarter wave-length thick, a
maximum for a plate a half wave-length thick, &c.
' Owing to this, and a further experimental complication arising from the
multiple reflection of waves between every pair of reflecting points on the circuit,
the method became too complex to permit of calculating the conductivity of the
solution, but the phenomenon retained sufficient intrinsic interest to warrant more
complete investigation. Curves showing the transmitted intensity as the thickness
of the layer was increased were determined for water, dilute solutions of zinc
sulphate, 95 per cent. alcohol, and a mixture of alcohol and water. In all cases
the first maximum is very well marked. As this first maximum gives us the half
wave-length in the liquid, the method can be used for determining dielectric
constants. The following table gives those thus determined for the liquids men-
tioned above :—
Distilled water . ° . - 69°5 | 95 per cent. alcohol r . « 267
(1) ZnSO, solution : . . 72:0 | 3 volumes 95 per cent. alcohol 34-1
Mt)! | 55 cb e < ‘ OL) 1 volume water .
The figures for water and alcohol, though rather low, agree approximately
with those found by previous investigators ; and the experiments with zinc sulphate
solutions confirm Cohn’s result,’ that an addition of salt which largely affects the
conductivity of a solution only slightly increases its dielectric constant.
An attempt was finally made to determine the constants of common salt and
of soda crystals, but owing to the disturbance of the multiple reflections noted
above scarcely any interference effects were noticeable. This shows, however, that
the constants for these materials approximate more to normal values than the very
high figures found for water and alcohol.
10. On a Familiar Type of Caustic Curves. By J. Larmor, F.R.S.
The illustration of the formation of caustics by the reflection of the light of the
sun or other point-source from a band of polished metal is in everyday use. But
it seems worth while to call attention to the fact that obliquity of the incidence on
a cylindrical reflector does not vitiate the experiment as an exact representation of
the geometrical caustic. The bright caustic surface formed by reflection from a
cylinder is, in fact, always itself cylindrical ; and the caustic curve depicted on any
screen placed across it is merely the section of this cylinder formed by the screen.
Although, once this proposition is propounded, its reason is plain, yet it does not
seem to have occurred to any of the writers on optics.
It may be shown, also, that when the reflector is a piece of a conical surface
the caustic surface is always a conical surface with the same vertex—thus suggest-
ing an extension of the theory of actual caustics into spherical geometry, or rather
realising in actuality the analogous theory in spherical geometry. More generally,
when the reflector is such as may be bent flat without stretching, ¢.e., when it is a
piece of a developable surface, the caustic surface is one of the same kind, and a
geometrical correlation may be established between them.
} Wied. Ann., xlv. 1892, p. 370.
.
696 REPORT—1893.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables—See Reports, p. 227.
2. Report of the Committee on the Pellian EquationSee Reports, p. 73.
3. On a Spherical Vortex. By M. J. M. Hutt, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of
Mathematics at University College, London.
In a paper by the author published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society’ in 1884, on the Motion of Fluid, part of which is moving
rotationally and part irrotationally, a certain case of motion symmetrical with
regard to an axis was noticed.
Taking the axis of symmetry as the axis of z, and the distance of any point
from it as 7, it was shown that the surfaces
ar? (2 —Z)* +b (2? —4c*)? = const.,
where a, 6, -c are fixed constants, Z any arbitrary function of the time, contain
always the same particles of fluid in a possible case of motion.
If the constant be less than 3c‘ these surfaces’are rings.”
The author has not succeeded in determining an irrotational motion on one
side of any of these surfaces continuous with the rotational motion on the other side,
except in the particular case in which 6=a, and the constant on the right-hand
side = dc".
The object of this paper is to discuss this case.
In it the surface containing the same particles of fluid breaks up into the
eyanescent cylinder
7 =0,
and the sphere
4 (2-Z)=c?.
The molecular rotation is given by 20=10ar, so that the molecular rotation
along the axis vanishes, and therefore the vortex sphere still possesses the character
of a vortex ring.
The irrotational motion outside a sphere moving in a straight line is known,
and it is shown in this paper that it will be continuous with the rotational motion
inside the sphere provided a certain relation be satisfied.
This relation may be expressed thus :—
The cyclic constant of the spherical vortex is five times the product of the radius
of the sphere and the uniform velocity with which the vortex sphere moves along its
axis.
The analytic expression of the same relation is
4ac? = 82.
This makes :
2@ = 15Z7/(2c*).
All the particulars of the motion are placed together in the following table.
The notation employed is as follows :—
If the velocity parallel to the axis of r ber, and the velocity parallel to the
axis of z be w, then the molecular rotation is given by
dr dw
oye We:
‘5 dz dr
Also p is the pressure, p the density, and V the potential of the impressed forces.
697
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.
(843) /(Z—2) 209 — 2 : : :
queysuoo=(Z)(s9—eZ |
(813) /atZe9 — 3 4 . :
ale
t 1p) << (rho. soo g+ |
{(3)-()r-2}
(3 )/ {ea -—2(Z—2)¢} 769 (oxm1s $-1)Z
(a)/(Z—2)“Z098 | 9 800 9 UIS Zé
eraydg episjno uoNoy, [euor}BzoI17
eraydg 043
JO OOBJANG 04} +V
. . . . . . . . 7G
: - : 3 5 : 2 (29) /“Zg1
: ¥ * — queyst00 = (,95)/ {,0 —tt}./Ze
TS 8 oS Gop) ob emteng
(os)l[ otek ~(Z—2)} -(§ = -*) | 2Z6
"8 G98)/{9 -2(Z—2)E—-299}7
FF s+ Goeyig—2)age
axoqdg oprsut uo sy [vu017B40x7
"7, figoojan wsofiun yzun
2 fo sp 0y3 03 yanyn.nd pungf fo ssn opus wo ut 9=,(7—%) +24 wop1o4 qoouaydg oy7 fo uoyow oy,
z X0}IOA JO Juvysuog oof
: 3 * MOljeOY TelNoIjOTT
: ‘ * peryuojod A4100]9 4
moTour 914
qnoysnoiq} ping jo seprsed
eules Vy} SuTure}u0D saovjing
‘ * * -goryouNg guermn9
* 4% Jo stxe 09 jarpered A£4100]9,4
* JO SIxe 03 Jorpered £,10079 A
—————————— ee — —— ——————_Oysysososwoyoyoyoeoeoeo—
698 REPORT—1893.
The minimum value of 2 + V is ae where ! must be determined from the initial
p p p
conditions,
Further R, 6 are such that
r=R sin 6,
s—Z=Kcoos 6.
The whole motion depends on the following constants :—
(1) The radius of the sphere c.
(2) The uniform velocity Z.
(3) The minimum value of ” + V, viz., aa
p p
A, On the Magnetic Shielding of Two Concentric Spherical Shells.
By A. W. Ricker, F.B.S.
The formule were found which express the shielding of two concentric perme-
able spherical shells, and several special cases were discussed. The result was
reached that if the smallest and largest radii and the volume of the permeable
matter are given, the shielding is a maximum for a given portion of the empty
shell. Ifthe magnetic field is produced by a small magnet placed at the common
centre of the shells, if the empty space is small and the matter highly permeable,
the best position is that in which the volume enclosed by the ‘crack’ is the
harmonic mean of the volumes included by the outermost and innermost surface.
5. On the Equations for Calculating the Shielding of a Long Iron Tube
on an Internal Magnetic Pole. By Professor G. F. FirzGuraxp, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Attention was called to the desirability of having the integrals of the form
| cos u du
n/ pe + u*
this and other cases to which Bessel’s functions were applicable but were com-
plicated in application.
plotted or tabulated, as it would very much facilitate the calculation of
6. On the Equations for Calculating the Effect of a Hertzian Oscillator
on Points in its Neighbourhood. By Professor G. F. FirzGeratp,
M.A., F.R.S.
Attention was recalled to the error made by Maxwell when he assumes that for
variable electrification it is legitimate to assume that A*y=0 at points of space
where there was no electrification. The true expression is A3y=Kyu.y. The
, : cos u du : Res
evaluation of the integrals |———__ was also advocated in order to facilitate
Fr
the calculation of the effects of a linear Hertzian vibrator on points in its neigh-
bourhood, The elliptic motion of the electric force in the neighbourhood of such
an oscillator follows at once from the fact that the vector potential is parallel to
the oscillator, and may be taken as A=7F, From this we get that the magnetic
force is H = VAA, and thence the electric force 5 = VAH.
If the vibration on the oscillator be simply periodic it is easy to see that the
form of E is
E=E, cos ane var sin 278,
T KF
where E, and E, are two vectors, so that E is the vector of an ellipse.
In determining the period of vibration of an oscillator the difficulty arises that
‘the energy is being dissipated by radiation, and that some impressed forces must
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 699
be exerted on the oscillator to keep the vibration simply periodic, and if the im-
pressed force be of a proper period any period of vibration is possible. To solve
the problem a system of equal incoming waves is superposed on the outgoing ones,
and then the simply periodic vibration is possible without any impressed force, and
this condition then gives the free period of vibration.
7. Magnetic Action on Light. By J. Larmor, F.R.S.
This Paper was ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.
See Reports, p. 335.
8. On a Special Olass of Generating Functions in the Theory of Numbers.
By Major P. A. MacManon, £.A., F.B.S.
9. On Agreeable Numbers.
By Lieut.-Col. Antaw Cunnineuan, R.L., Fellow of King’s College, London.
A number, N, of which the m digits on the right hand are the same as the m
digits on the right hand of its nth power (N*), when both are expressed in the
scale whose radix is 7, is styled an AGREEABLE NUMBER of the mth order and nth
degree in the r-ary scale. When the agreement of N, a number of m digits, with
its nth power, extends throughout its m digits, the number N is styled a Complete
Agreeable Number. The analytical condition is
N*—N must be divisible by r™.
The properties of these numbers are investigated in a quite general manner
applicable to any scale of radix7; and szmple rules for their computation given.
hese rules are completely reduced for the denary scale to their simplest form,
and the auxiliary quantities are tabulated. Computations of complete agreeable
numbers are given in detail for the denary scale. Tables are given of all agreeable
numbers to the fifth order, and in some cases to the tenth order.
Example.—The numbers, N, of ten digits (shown in table below), and also
the numbers of fewer digits obtainable therefrom by erasing one or more of the
extreme left-hand digits of N, are complete agreeables in all the degrees n stated
in column ; and are, moreover, the only complete agreeables (of ten digits, or less,
ending in 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8) in all those degrees, except when z has the critical forms
named in column n’, in which case there are a number of complete agreeables
(increasing rapidly with the value of n’ and with the number of digits of N).
N n n! —
0,000,000,001 Any even number 5241 Notation
8,212,890,625 Any number a N=an odd
1,787,109,376 Any number 51I+1 integer.
8,212,890,624 Any odd number 1094+1
9,879,186,432 Any odd number 200+1 I=any integer.
0,120,813,568 of form (4v+1) Jf =
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Earth Tremors.—See Reports, p. 287.
700 REPORT—1893.
2. Report of the Committee on the Volcanic and Seismological Phenomena
of Japan.—See Reports, p. 214.
A discussion on the Teaching of Elementary Physics was introduced by the
three following Papers :—
3. Apparatus for Class-work in Blementary Practical Physics.
By Professor G. Carry Foster, F.R.S.
The author described and exhibited samples of simple apparatus which he had
devised for the purpose of practical instruction in physics. The object aimed at
was to devise arrangements by which the chief quantitative laws of physics could
be verified with fair accuracy, and which should at the same time be so inexpensive
that they could be multiplied at a small cost, so that all the members of a class
could make the same experiments at one time. In addition to the mere saving of
expense, it was maintained that the simplification of apparatus, so long as it was
efficient for its purpose, had the positive advantage of bringing students into more
direct contact with the phenomena to be studied than was the case with more
elaborate and complicated appliances.
4. On Physics Teaching in Schools! By W.B.Crort, M.A.
It must be remembered that there are several classes of students: —
1. Those who aim at scientific or technical careers, but are compelled to make
their education as brief as possible.
2, Those to whom science is the best education.
3. Those who may aspire to be mathematical physicists, and can afford to enjoy
the benefit of wide and varied education,
4, The great majority receiving at our schools the usual general training in
preparation for various professions. None of these should be without the benefits
of science.
Of the first two classes I have not the experience to speak. The latter two
appear to me to be well provided for under one scheme. Soon after the Duke of
Devonshire’s commission twenty years ago action was taken by the new governing
bodies of public schoo's to make effective the recommendations of the British
Association in 1867, At Winchester teachers and suitable apparatus were pro-
vided for the following scheme :—
If a boy were to pass up the school between the ages of twelve and nineteen, he
would learn—
First year : Geometrical drawing, botany, physical geography.
Second year : Simple mechanics and graphics, hydrostatics, heat.
Third year : Chemistry.
Fourth year : Chemistry.
Fifth year : Geology.
Sixth year: Electricity.
Seventh year : Acoustics, geometrical and physical optics.
Two hours per week, with one or two hours out of school work.
Biology purposely has no place. It is better to be able to engage the interests
of boys in it without reference to their age or position in the school. This is
excellently done by a Natural History Society.
The general nature of teaching in the sixth and seventh years consists of
experimental demonstrations of phenomena over as wide a range as possible. Boys
who survive in a school to this stage are usually capable of appreciating scientific
ideas through lectures, but in a public school they are seldom able to give time for
practical work done by themselves. Those who may afterwards be thorough
physicists had better be much occupied at this age with mathematics. So far as
? The full paper is published in the Educational Times.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 701
possible they should avail themselves of the opportunities which most schools give
for learning drawing, carpentering, and photography.
There is a significance in the order of subjects as arranged above. Experience
shows that the subjects are suited to the various ages.
5. Notes on Science Teaching in Public Schools. By A. EB. Hawstns, B.Sc.
The following ‘items’ represent convictions formed after twenty-two years’
experience, the greater part of which (fifteen years) have been spent in the Bedford
Modern School of about 600 boys.
I. The subject must be taught experimentally. The author has knownsplendid
examinational results obtained without a single experiment having been performed
by either teacher or taught.
In the hands of an experienced and vivacious teacher it is astonishing what
mere drawings on the blackboard can accomplish for examinational purposes,
disastrous, however, to real science.
Experiments involve the expenditure of much time; very frequently one is
enough for a lesson—e.g., determination of a specific heat or the resistance of a
wire. If it is asked how an examination can be passed when time is so short, the
answer is ‘ Teach, and let the examination take care of itself? Where real teach-
ing exists a pupil, worthy of the name, will soon find ways and means of getting
up collateral matter.
But an experiment is not everything. It must be led up to. It must be
preceded by discussion, and questions and answers should follow.
The conversational method is very difficult, especially with classes of thirty or
more. Only one or two points can be made in a three-quarters of an hour lesson,
and the matter must be clearly summed up at the end. The other quarter of an
hour should be spent in writing an answer to a good comprehensive question. The
answers should be marked and returned at the beginning of the next lesson.
I. But this is only half the work; experiments must now be done by the boys
themselves. But practical work means plenty of apparatus, which in the majority
of cases is not expensive. For a class of thirty boys ten sets at least will be re-
quired, which will allow three boys to work together. It is, however, much better
if they can be arranged in pairs.
The boys, having done their experiments, should take their rough results home,
and bring to the next lesson a clean copy and a detailed account of the method,
with a drawing where desirable.
II. The work required of a pupil must frequently be, as far as he is concerned,
original. A class, long accustomed to mere reproduction of the teacher’s words and
_ ideas, will feel unwonted life and delight if requested to devise some improvement
upon a method just used, or to say what they would expect to happen if some
modification were made, This is one of the surest ways of engendering an
intelligent interest in the subject taught.
IV. What science should be taught? Heat and magnetism are the two best
where expense is a primary consideration, and it is desired to get to work at once.
Electricity should come afterwards, as so much of the subject, even in the simplest
experiments, requires explanations which must be based on theory.
V. The teacher must have time allowed him to prepare the apparatus. Like
other masters he has to prepare his lectures and also to correct exercises, but
besides the preparation he has frequently to manufacture apparatus. This requires
an expenditure of time which is, unfortunately, sometimes unrecognised,
6. Report of the Committee on the Application of Photography to Meteoro-
logical Phenomena.—See Reports, p. 140.
7. Report of the Ben Nevis Committee.—See Reports, p. 214.
702 REPORT-—1893.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Electrical Standards Committee—See Reports, p. 127.
2. On Standards of Low Electrical Resistance.
By Professor J. Viriamu JONES.
[This paper forms Appendix III. of the Report of the Electrical Standards
Committee.—See Reports, p. 137.]
3. An Apparatus for Comparing nearly Equal Resistances.
By F. H. Nauper.
The instrument shown fulfils the purpose of commutating the resistances to be
compared with respect to the ratio resistance coils and a series of bridge wires, to
be used according to the value of the coils under comparison. It consists of
copper bars mounted on an ebonite base, and furnished with mercury cups for
making the necessary contacts.
At A A, and BB, are the cups for the ratio coils, which are wound upon one
bobbin and usually of the value of 1%, 10”, 100”, and 1,000” on each side. At
II, and J J, are placed the resistances whose difference is to be measured, and at
G is the slide wire mounted on a detachable frame, with the key M, which runs on
the divided rod L for making contact.
CD EF show the commutator connections in the first position, and after com-
mutation in the position O,D,E,F, as indicated by the dotted lines.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 703
In order to commutate the coils R and X, the ebonite plate upon which the
connections C D KE F are mounted is drawn up against the spring which presses the
contacts into their respective cups, until the guide pin is lifted out of its recess. The
late can then be turned through 180° till the contacts are in the position shown
= the dotted lines marked C,D,E,F, ; the galvanometer is then brought to zero
by moving the contact key M into another position on its wire.
The battery connections are shown at K K, and those of the galyanometer
at MO.
Tn order to obtain a wide range of measurement, instead of using a long wire a
number of short bridge wires are provided, usually about ten, though if necessary
this number need not be considered the limit.
The plate upon which each wire is mounted is detachable, as already stated, and
in addition to the milled head N two steady pins are fixed in the base of the com-
mutator so that it or any of the series can always be replaced accurately in posi-
tion with respect to the scale and key.
A considerable variation of resistance of the short bridge wires shown will not
vitiate the accuracy of the measurement.
This apparatus has been in use for the last five years substantially as now
shown.
4. Note on a Galvanometer suited to Physiological Use.
By Dr. Oxtver Lopes, F.R.S., and F. H. Naver.
Physiologists require galvanometers for exhibiting very small transient currents,
but they seem often to use highly damped galvanometers for the purpose.
The first-named author, after some experiences with Professor Gotch, concluded
that a more suitable galvanometer could be designed, and accordingly sent a sketch
to Messrs. Nalder Brothers, who have carried it out.
The main points are :—
1, Extreme lightness and small moment of inertia of needle,
2. Great intensity of magnetisation.
3. Wire brought very close to the needle, so as to give a strong field without
excessive resistance, and to have many small coils in preference to few big ones.
4, To avoid damping and to secure a long period by delicate suspension film
rather than by heavy needle.
5. To use either a bee sting or some other sharp point in field of microscope for
reading, wherever a spot of light is inconvenient,
The last condition has not been attended to yet, and perhaps biologists would
not care for it. The second-named author finds the sensitiveness of a galvano-
meter as above designed with 8 coils two or three times as sensitive as usual.
5. On a Simple Interference Arrangement.
By Lord Rayuzicx, Sec.R.8.
If a point, or line, of light be regarded through a telescope, the aperture of
which is limited to two narrow parallel slits, interference bands are seen, of which
the theory is given in treatises on Optics. The width of the bands is inversely
proportional to the distance between the centres of the slits, and the width of the
field, upon which the bands are seen, is inversely proportional to the width of the
individual slits. If the latter element be given, it will usually be advantageous
to approximate the slits until only a small number of bands are included. In this
_ Way not only are the bands rendered larger, but illumination may be gained by the
_ then admissible widening of the original source.
Supposing, then, the proportions of the double slit to be given, we may inquire
as to the effect of an alteration in scale. A diminution in ratio m will have the
effect of magnifying m times the field and the bands (fixed in number) visible
upon it. Since the total aperture is diminished m times, it might appear that the
illumination would be diminished m?* times, but the admissible widening of the
704 REPORT—1893.
original source m times reduces the loss, so that it stands at m times, instead of m?
times.
It remains, and this is more particularly the object of the present note, to point
out the effect of the telescope upon the angular magnitude and illumination of the
bands. If the magnifying power of the telescope exceed the ratio of aperture of
object glass and pupil, its introduction is prejudicial. And even if the above limit
be not exceeded, the use of the telescope is without advantage, The relation
between the greatest brightness and the apparent magnitude of the bands is the
same whether a telescope be used or not, the loss by reflections and absorptions
being neglected. The function of the telescope is merely to magnify the linear
dimensions of the slit system.
This magnification is sometimes important, especially when it is desirable to
operate separately upon the interfering pencils. But when the object is merely to
see the bands, the telescope may be abolished without loss. The only difficulty is
to construct the very diminutive slit system then required. In the arrangement
now exhibited, the slits are very fine lines formed by ruling with a knife upon a
silver film supported upon glass. This double slit is mounted at one end of a
tube, and at the other is placed a parallel slit. It then suffices to look through
the tube at a candle or gas flame in order to see interference bands in a high
degree of perfection.
It is suggested that this simple apparatus could be turned out very cheaply,
and that its introduction into the market would tend to popularise acquaintance
with interference phenomena.
6. On the Construction of Specula for Reflecting Telescopes upon
New Principles! By Dr. A. SHararix.
7. Supplementary Note on the Ether. By Dr. Oxtver Lopez, F.R.S.
After my paper on Friday asserting no mechanical stress connection between
ether and matter, Mr. Cowper Ranyard asked me, ‘ How, then, does dust polarise
light ?’ Or more generally the question might be asked, ‘ How can ordinary matter
affect light in any way ?’
The note is suggested by that question, and the point of it is that since the dust
is not electrified it cannot (ex hypothest ) be acted on by oscillating ether, but only
by electric oscillations. (The action of dust on the electromagnetic theory has been
explained by Lord Rayleigh.) Hence all elastic-solid, or mechanical theories of
light appear to the author provisionally disproved.
8. On the Publication of Scientific Papers.
By A. B. Basset, M.A., B.S.
Two suggestions have been made with regard to the publication of scientific
papers—first, that all papers of importance should be published in a central
organ; secondly, that a digest containing an abstract of such papers should from
time to time be published.
I do not think the first scheme could be carried out so as to serve any useful
purpose; for, although it might suit the requirements of a few juvenile societies,
it is unlikely that societies of position and standing, which have ample funds at
their command for the publication of their proceedings and transactions, would
consent to sink their individuality by giving up the publication of papers com-
municated to them. Moreover, as many societies derive a considerable portion of
their income from the sale of their proceedings, it would be impossible for them to
allow the concurrent publication of papers in the central organ, as this might
seriously diminish their revenue.
1 Published in full in Industries, 1892.
iA
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 705
The importance of distributing copies of papers in quarters where they are
likely to be read has been alluded to in ‘ Nature’ by more than one correspondent.
In order to do this effectively it is necessary that the author should receive a
certain number of gratuitous copies. These are supplied by most scientific
societies, and also by many of the American and foreign scientific journals. On
the other hand, the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ refuses to present authors with any
yratuitous copies, but makes them pay for any that they require. The question,
therefore, arises as to whether the proposed ‘central organ’ is going to conduct
its business on the principle embodied in the Latin maxim, Do ut des, do ut facias,
facio ut des, facio ut facias, or whether it intends to follow the example of the
‘Philosophical Magazine,’ and try to get all it can without giving anything in
return.
It appears to me most improbable that important and prosperous societies like
the Cambridge Philosophical and the London Mathematical (to say nothing of the
Royal) would lend a hand in promoting the scheme of a central organ; and in
that event the scheme could not possibly be successful unless it were able to offer
far greater advantages and attractions to authors than the societies do.
The only feasible scheme seems to be the publication of a digest of papers by
the co-operation of the various scientific societies ; and, if thought desirable, papers
published in foreign countries might also be included. In order to prepare the
way for such a digest, I should strongly recommend that in future all societies
should follow the example of the Incorporated Society for Law Reporting, and
require authors to append a headnote to their papers briefly setting forth the
object of the investigation. Every three or four years the titles and headnotes
of all papers relating to each separate branch of science should be copied out and
arranged in proper order, and a series of digests of each separate branch of science
should be published. Mathematicians would thus be enabled to purchase the
mathematical digests, and chemists the chemical one. They would thereby be in
a position to find out at a glance what papers have been published on their own
special subjects during that period. These digests would do for science what the
digests of law cases have done for the legal profession. Thirty years’ experience
has shown that this scheme would work well in practice; and as many country
solicitors take in the ‘ Law Reports,’ any member of the British Association who
desires further information can easily obtain it by applying to one of the leading
firms in Nottingham.
To develop an existing periodical which is a well-known and paying concern is
often more successful than to start an entirely new one; and as many authors who
contribute papers to societies send abstracts of them to ‘ Nature,’ it might be worth
while considering whether an arrangement could not be made with the pyro-
prietors of ‘ Nature’ by which a supplemental number could be issued (say, once a
quarter) containing a digest of the most important papers published in the United
Kingdom during that period. The abstracts (with possibly a little pruning), and
also the type used in setting them up, would be available, and the cost of compiling
the supplemental number would have to be met by a small extra charge for it.
A committee of members of the British Association might be formed with
advantage for discussing this matter, and drawing up a report embodying the
recommendations at which they arrive. A copy of the report should then be sent
as soon as practicable (without waiting for the meeting next year) to the presidents
of the principal scientific societies, in order that it may be laid before their respec-
tive governing bodies. Each of the societies which are concerned with pure and
applied mathematics and approve of united action could then appoint a delegate
to discuss further proceedings with regard to their own particular subjects, and
the same could be done by societies connected with other branches of science.
9. On a New Form of Air-pump. By Professor J. J. THomson, F.R.S.
10. A Peculiar Motion asswmed by Oil Bubbles in Ascending Tubes
containing Caustic Solutions. By F. T. 'Trovton,
1893. ZZ
706 REPORT—1893.
11. On Electro-magnetic Trails of Images in Plane, Spherical, and
Cylindrical Current Sheets. By G. H. Bryan, M.A.
The problem of electro-magnetic induction in spherical and ellipsoidal current
sheets has been dealt with by Professor Niven, Dr. Larmor, Professor Horace Lamb,
and other writers, but, so far as the author is aware, no attempt has been made to
apply the method of images to current sheets except in the well-known case of an
infinite plane sheet, so fully treated by Maxwell and other writers. The author
has worked out the images of a fixed magnetic pole of variable intensity in
presence of a spherical current sheet, and has performed the corresponding investi-
gation for the cylinder under the influence of a line distribution of magnetism of
variable intensity parallel to the axis of the cylinder, the problem being in this
case two dimensional. From the results thus obtained the images of a moving
pole may be constructed in the same manner as for a plane sheet. In the particular
case of a pole revolving outside a spherical shell about its centre, the images which
determine the magnetic potential at any point zmside the shell lie on an equiangular
spiral.
12. On Thermal Relations between Air and Water.
By Huce Rosert Mit, D.Sc., F.R.S.L.
The conclusions stated in this paper were deduced mainly from the author's
observations on the Clyde Sea Area. The physical character of the Clyde Sea
Area depends mainly on the form of the hollows of which it is composed and
the degree of isolation of each from oceanic influences. The North Channel between
Scotland and Ireland was found always in a homothermic condition, z.e,, the tem-
perature was the same from surface to bottom, an effect traced to the tidal mixing
of the water. The Channel water was on the average of the whole year 1°7 F.,
warmer than the air at the Mull of Cantyre. The air reached its maximum in the
end of July, the water not until the middle of September. Up to that date the
air was warmer, but from September to April the water was warmer. On the
plateau or broad shallow stretching across the mouth of the Sea Area from
Cantyre to Galloway the water was usually highly heterothermic, z.e., the tempera-
ture varied greatly from surface to bottom. Only at the period of the annual
minimum was the temperature uniform throughout. On the plateau the Channel
water mixed with that of the great Arran basin, the deepest and most open of the
natural divisions of the Clyde Sea Area, In the Arran basin the water was homo-
thermic throughout at each spring minimum about the month of March, and as
heat was being stored or lost the lower layers remained homothermic, becoming
least so about the time of the autumn maximum. The surface layers heated up
most rapidly, and cooled down most rapidly, but the average temperature of the
whole mass of water was always lower than that of the Channel, except for about
a month at the spring minimum. The maximum temperature of the mass also was
retarded to the middle of October, up to which date the water as a whole was
colder than the air, but after that date was warmer till the spring minimum. The
condition of things in the more isolated barred off sea lochs, such as Loch Fyne
and Loch Goil, showed still more strongly the effects of isolation from oceanic
influence. The mass of the water in Loch Fyne, although nearly of the same
temperature as the other divisions about the period of minimum, was much colder
during the rest of the year than that of the Arran basin, which in turn was colder
than the Channel. The date of maximum temperature was a few weeks later than
that of the Arran basin, and at least three months later than that of the air. The
difference between the behaviour of the surface and bottom water with regard to
temperature became more and more marked with the degree of isolation from
oceanic water. In Loch Fyne and Loch Goil the warmth of summer did not affect
the bottom water for about six months, and the greatest cold of winter took about
three months to make itself felt at the bottom.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 707
13. On a New Artificial Horizon. By W. P. Swapzotr.
4
4
14. Investigations as to what would be the Laws which would Regulate the
Transplacement of a Liquid by a Moving Body; and Reasons why Ether
eludes our Senses. By HE. Masor.
708 REPORT—1893.
Section B—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor J. Emprson Reynoxps, M.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The PReEsIpDENT delivered the following Address :—
At the Nottingham Meeting of the British Association in 1866, Dr. H. Bence
Jones addressed the Section over which I have now the honour to preside on the
place of Chemical Science in Medical Education. Without dwelling on this topic
to-day, it is an agreeable duty to acknowledge the foresight of my predecessor as
to the direction of medical progress. Twenty-seven years ago the methods of inquiry
and instruction in medicine were essentially based on the formal lines of the last
generation. Dr. Bence Jones saw that modern methods of research in chemistry—
and in the experimental sciences generally—must profoundly influence medicine,
and he urged the need of fuller training of medical students in those sciences,
The anticipated influence is now operative as a powerful factor in the
general progress of medicine and medical education; but much remains to be
desired in regard to the chemical portion of that education. In the later stages:
of it undue importance is still attached to the knowledge of substances rather than.
of principles; of products instead of the broad characters of the chemical changes
in which they are formed. Without this higher class of instruction it is unreason-
able to expect an intelligent perception of complex physiological and pathological
processes which are chemical in character, or much real appreciation of modern
pharmacological research. I have little doubt, however, that the need for this
fuller chemical education will soon be so strongly felt that the necessary reform
will come from within a profession which has given ample proof in recent years of
its zeal in the cause of scientific progress.
In our own branch of science the work of the year has been substantial in
character, if almost unmarked by discoveries of popular interest. We may probably
place in the latter category the measure of success which the skill of Moissan has
enabled him to attain in the artificial production of the diamond form of carbon,
apparently in minute crystals similar to those recognised by Koenig, Mallard,
Daubrée, and by Friedel in the supposed meteorite of Canon de Diablo in Arizona.
Members of the Section will probably have the opportunity of examining some of
these artiticial diamonds through the courtesy of M. Moissan, who has also, at my
request, been so good as to arrange for us a demonstration of the properties of the
element fluorine, which he succeeded in isolating in 1887.
Not less interesting or valuable are the studies of Dr. Perkin, on electro-magnetic
rotation; of Lord Rayleigh, on the relative densities of gases; of Dewar, on
chemical relations at extremely low temperatures ; of Clowes, on exact measurements
of flame-cap indications afforded by Miners’ testing lamps; of Horace Brown and
Morris, on the chemistry and physiology of foliage leaves, by which they have been
led io the startling conclusion that cane-sugar is the first sugar produced during the
assimilation of carbon, and that starch is formed at its expense as a more stable
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 709
reserve material for subsequent use of the plant; or of Cross, Bevan, and Beadle,
on the interaction of alkali-cellulose and carbon bisulphide, in the course of which
they have proved that a cellulose residue can act like an alcohol radical in the
formation of thiocarbonates, and thus have added another to the authors’ valuable
contributions to our knowledge of members of the complex group of celluloses.
But it is now an idle task fora President of this Section to attempt a slight
sketch of the works of chemical philosophers even during the short space of twelve
months; they are too numerous and generally too important to be lightly treated,
hence we can but apply to them a paraphrase of the ancient formula—Are they
not written in the books of the chronicles we term ‘ Jahresberichte,’ ‘ Annales,’ or
“Transactions and Abstracts,’ according to our nationality ?
I would, however, in this connection ask your consideration for a question re-
lating to the utilisation of the vast stores of facts laid up—some might even
say buried—in the records to which reference has just been made. The need exists,
and almost daily becomes greater, for facile reference to this accumulated wealth,
and of such a kind that an investigator, commencing a line of inquiry with whose
previous history he is not familiar, can be certain to learn al/ the facts known on
the subject up to a particular date, instead of having only the partial record to be
found in even the best edited of the dictionaries now available. The best and
most obvious method of attaining this end is the publication of a subject-matter
index ofan ideally complete character. I am glad to know that the Chemical Society
of London will probably provide us in the years to come with a compilation which
will doubtless aim at a high standard of value as a work of reference to memoirs,
and in some degree to their contents, so far as the existing indexes of the volumes
of the Society’s Journal supply the information. Whether this subject-matter
index is published or not, the time has certainly arrived for adopting the imme-
diately useful course of publishing monographs, analogous to those now usual in
Natural Science, which shall contain all the information gained up to a particular
date in the branch of chemistry with which the author is specially familiar by
reason of his own work in the subject. Such monographs should include much
more than any mere compilation, and would form the best material from which a
complete subject-matter index might ultimately be evolved.
My attention was forcibly drawn to the need of such special recerds by noting
the comparatively numerous cases of re-discovery and imperfect identification of
derivatives of thiourea. In my laboratory, where this substance was isolated, we
naturally follow with interest all work connected with it, and therefore readily
detect lapses of the kind just mentioned. But when it is remembered that the
distinct derivatives of thiourea now known number considerably over six hundred
substances, and that their descriptions are scattered through numerous British and
foreign journals, considerable excuse can be found for workers overlooking former
results. The difficulty which exists in this one small department of the science I
hope shortly to remove, and trust that others may be induced to provide similar
works of reference to the particular branches of chemistry with which they are
personally most familiar.
When we consider the drift of investigation in recent years, it is easy to recog-
nise a distinct reaction from extreme specialisation in the prominence now given
to general physico-chemical problems, and to those broad questions concerning the
relations of the elements which I would venture to group under the head of ‘Com-
see Chemistry.’ Together these lines of inquiry afford promise of definite in-
ormation about the real nature of the seventy or more entities we term ‘ elements,’
and about the mechanism of that mysterious yet definite change in matter
which we call ‘ chemical action.’ Now and again one or other class of investiga-
tion enables us to get some glimpse beyond the known which stimulates the
imaginative faculty.
For example, a curious side-light seems to be thrown on the nature of the
elements by the chemico-physical discussion of the connection existing between
the constitution of certain organic compounds and the colours they exhibit.
_ Without attempting to intervene in the interesting controversy in which Armstrong
and Hartley are engaged as to the nature of the connection, we may take it as an
710 REPORT—1893.
established fact that a relation exists between the power which a dissolved chemical
compound possesses of producing the colour impression within our comparatively
small visual range, and the particular mode of grouping of its constituent radicals in
its molecule. Further, the reality of this connection will be most freely admitted
in the class of aromatic compounds; that is, in derivatives of benzene, whose con-
stituents are so closely linked together as to exhibit quasi-elemental persistence.
Tf, then, the possession of what we call colour by a compound be connected with
its constitution, may we not infer that ‘elements’ which exhibit distinct colour,
such as gold and copper, in thin layers and in their soluble compounds, are at least
complexes analogous to definitely decomposable substances? This inference, while
legitimate as it stands, would obviously acquire strength if we could show that any-
thing like isomerism exists among the elements; for identity of atomic weight of
any two chemically distinct elements must, by all analogy with compounds, imply
dissimilarity in constitution, and, therefore, definite structure, independently of
any argument derived from colour. Now, nickel and cobalt are perfectly distinct
elements, as we all know, but, so far as existing evidence goes, the observed differ—
ences in their atomic weights (nickel 58°6, cobalt 58°7) are so small as to be within
the range of the experimental errors to which the determinations were liable. Here,
then, we seem to have the required example of something like isomerism among
elements, and consequently some evidence that these substances are complexes:
of different orders; but in the cases of cobalt and nickel we also know that in
transparent solutions of their salts, if not in thin layers of the metals themselves,
they exhibit strong and distinct colours—compare the beautiful rosy tint of cobalt
sulphate with the brilliant green of the corresponding salt of nickel. Therefore,
in exhibiting characteristically different colours, these substances afford us some
further evidence of structural differences between the matter of which they consist,
and support the conclusion to which their apparent identity in atomic weight:
would lead us. By means of such side-lights we may gradually acquire some idea.
of the nature of the elements, even if we are unable to get any clue to their origin
other than such as may be found in Crookes’ interesting speculations.
Again, while our knowledge of the genesis of the chemical elements is as small
as astronomers possess of the origin of the heavenly bodies, much suggestive work
has recently been accomplished in the attempt to apply the principle of gravitation,.
which simply explains the relative motions of the planets, to account for the inter-
actions of the molecules of the elements. The first step in this direction was sug-
gested by Mendeleef in his Royal Institution lecture (May 31, 1889), wherein he
proposed to apply Newton’s third law of motion to chemical molecules, regarded as:
systems of atoms analogous to double stars. The Rev. Dr. Haughton has.
followed up this idea with his well-known mathematical skill, and, in a series of
papers just published, has shown that the three Newtonian laws are applicable to
explain the interactions of chemical molecules, ‘with this difference, that whereas:
the specific coefficient of gravity is the'same for all bodies, independent of the particu-
lar kind of matter of which they are composed, the atoms have specific coefficients
of attraction which vary with the nature of the atoms concerned.’ The laws of
gravitation, with this proviso, were found to apply to all the definite cases examined,
and it was shown that a chemical change of combination is equivalent to a planetary
catastrophe: So far the fundamental hypothesis of ‘ Newtonian Chemistry ’ bas led
to conclusions which are not at variance with the facts of the science, while it
gives promise of help in obtaining a solution of the great problem of the nature of
chemical action.
Passing from considerations of the kind to which I have just referred, permit
me to occupy the rest of the time at my disposal with a short account of a line of
study in what I have already termed ‘comparative chemistry,’ which is not only of
inherent interest, but seems to give us the means of filling in some details of a
hitherto rather neglected chapter in the early chemical history of this earth.
The most remarkable outcome of ‘comparative chemistry’ is the periodic law
of the elements, which asserts that the properties of the elements are connected in
the form of a periodic function with the masses of their atoms. Concurrently with
the recognition of this principle, other investigations have been in progress, aiming;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 711
at more exact definitions of the characters of the relations of the elements, and
ultimately of their respective offices in nature. Among inquiries of this kind
the comparative study of the elements carbon and silicon appears to me to
possess the highest interest. Carbon, whether combined with hydrogen, oxygen,
or nitrogen, or with all three, is the great element of organic nature, while silicon,
in union with oxygen and various metals, not only forms about one-third of the
solid crust of the earth, but is unquestionably the most important element of
inorganic nature. The chief functions of carbon are those which are performed at
comparatively low temperatures ; hence carbon is essentially the element of the
present epoch. On the other hand, the activities of silicon are most marked at
very high temperatures ; hence it is the element whose chief work in nature was
performed in the distant past, when the temperature of this earth was far beyond
that at which the carbon compounds of organic life could exist. Yet between these
dominant elements of widely different epochs remarkably close analogies are
traceable, and the characteristic differences observed in their relations with other
elements are just those which enable each to play its part effectively under the
conditions which promote its greatest activity.
The chemical analogies of the two tetrad elements carbon and silicon are
most easily recognised in compounds which either do not contain oxygen, or which
are oxygen compounds of a very simple order, and the following table will recall a
few of the most important of these, as well as some which have resulted from the
fine researches of Friedel, Crafts, and Ladenburg :—
Some Silicon Analogues of Carbon Compounds.
SiH, * s : . Hydrides . : . ‘ sy CH,
SiCl : : ; -\ - CCl,
Si,Cl, ; ; i wy Chlorides { ° : . rN GH,
SiO, : - < . Oxides. i Se . + C05
SiO, . ; : . Meta Acids : : 3 . H,CO,
HSiHO, . : : . Formic Acids . ; : - HCHO,
(SiHO),O0 : 5 . Formic Anhydrides . ; - (CHO),O?
HSi0; . : : . Oxalic Acids. : : op EGLO;
HSi(CH,)O, . ; . Acetic Acids. , ‘ . HC(CH,)0O,
HSi(C,H,)0, . : . Benzoic Acids . 5 : - HC(C,H,)0,
SiC,H,,H : . Nonyl Hydrides. : 4 . C,H,,H
BiH OH, <., ....Novyl Alcohols. . . |. C,H .OH
But these silicon analogues of carbon compounds are, generally, very different
from the latter in reactive power, especially in presence of oxygen and water.
For example, hydride of silicon, even when pure, is very easily decomposed, and, if
slightly warmed, is spontaneously inflammable in air; whereas the analogous marsh
gas does not take fire in air below a red heat. Again, the chlorides of silicon
are rapidly attacked by water affording silicon hydroxides and hydrochloric acid ;
but the analogous carbon chlorides are little affected by water even at com-
paratively high temperatures. Similarly, silicon-chloroform and water quickly
produce silico-formic acid and anhydride along with hydrochloric acid, while ordi-
nary chloroform can be kept in contact with water for a considerable time without
material change.
Until recently no well-defined compounds of silicon were known including
nitrogen; but we are now acquainted with a number of significant substances
of this class.
Chemists have long been familiar with the fact that a violent reaction takes
place when silicon chloride and ammonia are allowed to interact. Persoz, in 1830,
assumed that the resulting white powder was an addition compound, and assigned to
it the formula SiCl,, 6 NH,, Pik Besson, as lately as 1892, gave SiCl,, 5 NH,.
These formule only express the proportions in which ammonia reacts with the
chloride under different conditions, and give us no information as to the real nature
of the product; hence they are almost useless. Other chemists have, however,
carefully examined the product of this reaction, but owing to peculiar difficulties
712 REPORT—1893.
in the way have not obtained results of a very conclusive kind. It is known that
the product when strongly heated in a current of ammonia gas affords ammonium
chloride, which volatilises, and a residue, to which Schutzenberger and Colson have
assigned the formula Si,N,H. This body they regard as a definite hydride of
Si,N,, which latter they produced by acting on silicon at a white heat with pure
nitrogen. Gattermann suggests that a nearer approach to the silicon analogue of
cyanogen, Si,N,, should be obtained from the product of the action of ammonia on
silicon-chloroform ; but it does not appear that this suggestion has yet borne fruit.
It was scarcely probable that the above-mentioned rather indefinite compounds of
silicon with nitrogen were the only ones of the class obtainable, since bodies includ-
ing carbon combined with nitrogen are not only numerous but are among the most
important carbon compounds known. Further investigation was therefore neces-
sary in the interests of comparative chemistry, and for special reasons which will
appear later on; but it was evident that a new point of attack must be found.
A preliminary experimental survey proved the possibility of forming numerous
compounds of silicon containing nitrogen, and enabled me to select those which
seemed most likely to afford definite information. For much of this kind of work
silicon chloride was rather too energetic, hence I had a considerable quantity of
the more manageable silicon tetrabromide prepared by Serullas’ method, viz., by
passing the vapour of crude bromine (containing a little chlorine) over a strongly
heated mixture of silica and charcoal. In purifying this product I obtained inci-
dentally the chloro-bromide of silicon, SiClBr,, which was required in order to
complete the series of possible chlorobromides of silicon.1
Silicon bromide was found to produce addition compounds very readily with
many feebly basic substances containing nitrogen. But one group of bromides
of this class has yet been investigated in detail, namely, the products afforded by
_ thioureas. The typical member of this group is the perfectly definite but uncrys-
talline substance
; CSN,H,),Br
Pe (CSNY Be
Substituted thioureas afford similar bodies, the most interesting of which is the
allyl compound. This is a singularly viscid liquid, which requires several days at
ordinary temperatures to regain its level, when a tube containing it is inverted.
But these are essentially addition compounds, and are therefore comparatively un-
important.
In most cases, however, the silicon haloids enter into very definite reaction with
nitrogen compounds, especially when the latter are distinctly basic, such as aniline
cr any of its homologues. One of the principal products of this class of change is
the beautiful typical substance on the table, which is the first well-defined crystal-
line compound obtained in which silicon is exclusively combined with nitrogen.
Its composition is Si(NHC,H,),.” Analogous compounds have been formed with the
toluidines, naphthylamines, &c., and have been examined in considerable detail,
but it suffices to mention them and proceed to point out the nature of the changes
we can effect by the action of heat on the comparatively simple anilide.
When silicon anilide is heated carefully 7m vacuo it loses one molecule of aniline
very easily and leaves triphenyl-guanidine, probably the a modification; if the
action of heat be continued, but at ordinary pressure and in a current of dry
hydrogen, another molecule of aniline can be expelled, and, just before the last
trace of the latter is removed, the previously liquid substance solidifies and affords
a silicon analogue of the insoluble modification of carbodiphenyldiimide, which
may then be heated moderately without undergoing further material change. A
comparison of the formulz will make the relations of the products clear :—
Silicotetraphenylamide—Si(NHPh),
Silicotriphenylguanidine—Si : NPh. (NHPh),
Silicodiphenyldiimide—Si : (NPh),.
a Three years later Besson formed the same compound and described it as new.
2 Harden has obtained an uncrystalline intermediate compound, SiCl,(NHC,H,)..
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 713
‘Moreover, the diimide has been heated to full redness in a gas combustion
furnace while dry hydrogen was still passed over it; even under these conditions
little charring occurred, but some nitrogen and a phenyl radical were eliminated,
and the purified residue was found to approximate in composition to SiNPh, which
would represent the body as phenylsilicocyanide or a polymer of it. Even careful
heating of the diimide in ammonia gas has not enabled me to remove all the phenyl
from the compound, but rather to retain nitrogen, as the best residue obtained
from such treatment consisted of 8i,N,Ph, or the phenylic derivative of one of the
substances produced by Schutzenberger and Colson from the ammonia reaction.
It may be that both these substances are compounds of silicocyanogen with an
imide group of the kind indicated below—
SiN.
\yH: \NPh
sin” Sin”
Further investigation must decide whether this is a real relationship; if it be,
we should be able to remove the imidic group and obtain silicocyanogen in the free
state. One other point only need be noticed, namely, that when the above silicon
compounds are heated in oxygen they are slowly converted into SiO,; but the last
traces of nitrogen are removed with great difficulty, unless water-vapour is present,
when ammonia and silica are quickly formed.
Much remains to be done in this department of comparative chemistry, but we
may fairly claim to have established the fact that silicon, like carbon, can be made
to form perfectly well-defined compounds in which it is exclusively united with the
triad nitrogen of amidic and imidic groups.
Now, having proved the capacity of silicon for the formation of compounds of
this order with a triad element, Nature very distinctively lets us understand that
nitrogen is not the particular element which is best adapted to play the triad rdéle
towards silicon in its high-temperature changes, which are ultimately dominated
by oxygen. We are not acquainted with any natural compounds which include
silicon and nitrogen ; but large numbers of the most important minerals contain
the pseudo-triad element aluminium combined with silicon, and few include any
other triad. Phosphorus follows silicon in the periodic system of the elements as
nitrogen does carbon, but silicates containing more than traces of phosphorus are
rare; on the other hand, several silicates are known containing boron, the lower
homologue of aluminium; for example, axinite, datholite, and tourmaline.
Moreover, it is well known that silicon dissolves freely in molten aluminium,
though much of the former separates on cooling. Winkler has analysed the gangue
of aluminium saturated with silicon, and found that its composition is approxi-
mately represented by the formula SiAI, or, perhaps, Si,Al,, if we are to regard
this as analogous to O,N, or cyanogen. Here aluminium at least resembles nitrogen
in directly forming a compound with silicon at moderately high temperature. It
would appear, then, that while silicon can combine with both the triads nitrogen
and aluminium, the marked positive characters of the latter, and its extremely
low volatility, suit it best for the production of permanent silicon compounds
similar to those which nitrogen can afford.
With these facts in mind we may carry our thoughts back to that period in the
earth’s history when our planet was at a higher temperature than the dissociation
point of oxygen compounds. Under such conditions the least volatile elements were
probably liquids, while silicides and carbides of various metals were formed in
the fluid globe. We can imagine that the attraction of aluminium for the large excess
of silicon would assert itself, and that, as the temperature fell below the point at
which oxidation became possible, these silicides and carbides underwent some
degree of oxidation, the carbides suffering most owing to the volatility of the
oxides of carbon, while the fixity of the products of oxidation of silicides rendered
‘the latter process a more gradual one. The oxidation of silicides of metals which
had little attraction for silicon would lead to the formation of simple metallic
silicates and to the separation of the large quantities of free silica we meet with in
the solid crust of the earth, whereas oxidation of silicides of aluminium would not
SiN
714 REPORT—1893.
break up the union of the two elements, but rather cause the ultimate formation
of the alumino-silicates which are so abundant in most of our rocks.
Viewed in the light of the facts already cited and the inferences we have drawn
from them as to the nitrogen-like relationship of aluminium to silicon, I am
disposed to regard the natural alumino-silicates as products of final oxidation of
sometime active silico-aluminium analogues of carbo-nitrogen compounds, rather
than ordinary double salts. It is generally taken for granted that they are double
salts, but recent work on the chromoxalates by E. A. Werner has shown that this
view is not necessarily true of all such substances.
Without going into undue detail we can even form some conception of the
general course of change from simple aluminium silicide to an alumino-silicate, if
we allow the analogies already traced to lead us further.
We recognise the existence of silico-formyl in Friedel and Ladenburg’s silico-
formic anhydride; hence silico-triformamide is a compound whose probable formation
we can admit, and, on the basis of our aluminium-nitrogen analogy, an aluminium
representative also. Thus—
COH ye ye SiO,R!
N—COH ; N—SiOH : Al—SiOH 2 Al—Si0O,R’
\cox \sioH \ sion \sio,B’
Triformamide. Silico-triformamide. Silico-alumino- Salt of an alumino-
triformamide. silicic acid.
Now, oxidation of triformamide would lead to complete resolution into nitrogen
gas, carbondioxide gas and water rendering it an extremely unstable body ; under
similar conditions silico-triformamide would probably afford nitrogen gas and
silicic acid (or silicon dioxide and water) ; while the third compound, instead of
breaking up, would (owing to the fixity of aluminium as compared with nitrogen)
be likely at first to afford a salt of an alumino-silicic acid, in presence of much
basic material.
The frequent recurrence of the ratios Si,Al, Si,Al,, &c., in the formule of
natural alumino-silicates, suggests that some at least of these minerals are derived
from oxidation products of the above triformic type. Without stopping to trace
all the possible stages in the oxidation of the primary compound Al(Si0,R),, or
variations in basicity of the products, I may cite the four following examples out
of many others which might be given of resulting representative mineral groups :—
SiO,R’ gw) ade Viglen Si0,R’’”"?
Al—SiO,R’ : Al—SiO,R’, 3 Al—SiO,R’"”" =: Al—Si0,R’”
\si0,R' \gio,R!” \sio,R” \sio,R”
Beryl type (hemi-). Garnet type. Muscovite type. Xenolite type.
Five years ago Professor F. W. Clarke, of the United States Geological
Survey, published a most interesting paper on the structure of the natural sili-
cates. In this he adopts the view that the mineral xenolite, Si,A1,O,,, is the
primary from which all other alumino-silicates may be supposed to arise by various
substitutions. Nature, however, seems to teach us that such minerals as xenolite,
fibrolite, and the related group of ‘clays’ are rather to be regarded as end-products
of a series of hydrolytic changes of less aluminous silicates than primary substances
themselves ; hence the sketch which I have ventured to give above of the probable
genesis of alumino-silicates seems to provide a less arbitrary basis for Clarke’s
mteresting work, without materially disturbing the general drift of his subsequent
reasoning.
We may now consider for a moment in what direction evidence can be sought
for the existence in nature of derivatives of the hypothetical intermediate products
of oxidation between a primary silicide and its fully oxidised silicate,
1 In these cases where R!'’=Al it is, of course, assumed that the latter is acting
only as a basic radical.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 715
In the absence of a working hypothesis of the kind which I have already sug-
gested, it is not probable that direct evidence would yet be obtainable—this must
be work for the future—but when we consider that the existence of compounds of
the order in question would manifest themselves in ordinary mineral analyses by
the analytical products exceeding the original weight of material, we seem to find
some evidence on the point in recorded cases of the kind. A deficiency of a single
atom of oxygen in compounds having the high molecular weights of those in
question would be indicated by very small excesses (from 2 to 3 per cent.) whose
real meaning might be easily overlooked. Now, such results are not at all unusual
in analyses of mineral alumino-silicates. or instance, Amphiboles containing a
mere trace of iron have afforded 102-75 parts from 100, and almost all analyses
of Microsommite are high, giving as much as 103 parts. Im less degree Vesuvianite
and members of the Andalusite group may be noted. All these cases may be
capable of some other explanations, but I cite them to show that such excesses are
commonly met with in published analyses. On the other hand, it is scarcely to
be doubted that a good analyst, who obtained a really significant excess, would
throw such a result aside as erroneous and never publish it. I therefore plead for
much greater care in analyses of the kind in question and closer scrutiny of
results in the light of the suggestions I have ventured to offer. It is probable
that silicates containing only partially oxidised aluminium are rare; nevertheless
the search for them would introduce a new element of interest into mineralogical
inquiries.
If the general considerations I have now endeavoured to lay before you are
allowed their full weight, some of the alumino-silicates of our primary rocks reveal
to us more than we hitherto supposed. Regarded from this newer standpoint, they
are teleoxidised representatives of substances which foreshadowed in terms of silicon,
aluminium, and oxygen the compounds of carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen required
at a later stage of the earth’s history for living organisms. Thus, while the
sedimentary strata contain remains which come down to us from the very dawn of
life on this globe, the rocks from whose partial disintegration the preserving strata
resulted contain mineral records which carry us still further back, even to Nature’s
_ earliest efforts in building up compounds similar to those suited for the purposes of
organic development.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On Tools and Ornaments of Copper and Other Metals from Egypt and
Palestine. By Dr. J. H. Guapstonn, F.R.S.
The author gave an account of analyses of various specimens of metallic tools
and ornaments found by Dr. Flinders Petrie in Egypt and Mr. Bliss in Palestine.
The oldest copper tools were from Meydum, and date back probably to the fourth
Egyptian dynasty, about 3500 8.c. Other copper tools were obtained at Kahun,
and date 2500 B.c. These contain small quantities of arsenic, antimony, &c.; but
among the specimens from Meydum was a rod of bronze containing about 9 per
cent. of tin. Bronze needles were also found at Kahun, and of course bronze was
abundant in later periods. That tin was known in the metallic condition was
evidenced by a finger-ring made of tin belonging to the eighteenth dynasty, about
1400 n.c. Lead was often mixed with the bronze for the casting of statuettes.
The mound of Tel-el-Hesy, which is believed to be the Lachish of the Scriptures,
consists of the ruins of several successive Amorite towns, above which are the ruins
of the Israelitish town. A copper tool from the lowest stratum, and which could
not be of later date than 1500 3.c., was made of a very red, hard, brittle metal, of
a specific gravity of only 6:6, and consisted of cuprous oxide to the extent of about
25 per cent. This oxide, no doubt, gave the desired hardness to the copper. In
the strata dating from 1400 B.c. to 800 B.c. occurred many arrow-heads and other
objects made of bronze. In the upper Israelitish portion the bronze implements
were gradually replaced by iron. At Lachish there were also found a wire of
almost pure lead, and what seemed to be a bracelet of silver. The iatter was
716 REPORT—1893.
coated with chloride of silver, doubtless from the chlorides in the soil, and contained
6°5 per cent. of copper and 1°44 per cent. of gold.
At Illahun, in Egypt, some beads or buttons were found which proved to be of
metallic antimony badly reduced from the sulphide. They date back to about
800 B.c.
2. Report on International Standards for the Analysis of Iron and Steel.
See Reports, p. 437.
3. On Native Iron Manufacture in Bengal. By H. Harris and T, Turner.
4. On Nitride of Iron. By G. J. Fowuur, M.Sc.
This research was undertaken with the object of repeating and extending the
work of Stahlschmidt (‘Pogg. Ann.,’ v. cxxv., 1865, p. 37) on the same subject,
his results differing in many points from those of his predecessors.
The best way of preparing nitride of iron was found to be the following :—Iron
is reduced from the hydrate by hydrogen, in a tube of such dimensions that it can
be weighed, together with its contents, and thus the end of the reaction deter-
mined without exposing the iron to the air. When complete reduction has been
effected, the iron is heated in a fairly rapid current of ammonia gas, until no further
increase in weight is observed. The temperature should be kept a little above the
melting-point of lead.
The product obtained when the reaction was complete was analysed. The
nitrogen was determined by dissolving the substance in hydrochloric acid, evapo-
ee ae platinum chloride, and weighing the ammonium-platinum-chloride
obtained,
The hydrogen given off on solution of the substance in sulphuric acid was
measured,
The iron was determined by ignition and weighing as oxide, and by solution
in sulphuric acid and titration with permanganate.
As will be seen from the results obtained, the nitride prepared as above has a
composition corresponding to the formula Fe,N. On solution in hydrochloric acid
the following reaction takes place :—
Fe,N + 5HC1 = 2FeCl, + NH,Cl+H.
Found Calculated for Fe,N.
N . f oe ALOE Me 4 : ; : pee lkatgrlil
Ie) Gg : . 88-46 (mean of two titrations) . 88°89
88°43 (by ignition)
H - : . 23:1 c.c. from ‘275 subst. . . 24:4¢.¢
In another sample 10-94 N. was found. In a third case, in which the iron, after
solution of the nitride in acid, was precipitated by ammonia and weighed as oxide,
89-44 per cent. of iron was obtained and 10°5 per cent. of nitrogen, showing again
that the substance dissolves in acid according to the above equation, all the nitro-
gen being converted into ammonia.
No percentages of nitrogen above 11-1 could be obtained, while any percentage
below that could be got according to the time during which the iron had been
exposed to the current of ammonia.
These results are fully in agreement with those obtained by Stahlschmidt, and
confirm his conclusion that only one nitride of iron exists, and that it has the above
composition.
Nitride of iron is formed when iron amalgam is heated in ammonia, and also
when ferrous chloride or bromide is heated in this gas. These methods, however,
do not so readily give a product containing the full percentage of nitrogen, and free
from the presence of a third element.
Nitride of iron is a grey powder, rather less blue in tone than iron reduced from
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 717
the hydrate. On rubbing it is more gritty than iron prepared as above. It is
feebly magnetic.
Heated in hydrogen, ammonia is produced at about the same temperature as
that at which the nitride is formed.
It readily burns in chlorine, ferric chloride and nitrogen being formed.
Heated in carbon monoxide, no evidence of the formation of cyanogen com-
pounds could be obtained.
Steam at 100° slowly oxidises the nitride with evolution of ammonia.
Hydrogen sulphide begins to react with it at 200°, forming ammonium sulphide
and sulphide of iron.
Heated in nitrogen to the boiling-point of sulphur, no change occurs. The
temperature at which nitrogen is evolved by the action of heat alone must there-
fore be above this point.
An ethereal solution of iodine is without action upon the nitride.
From a slightly acidified solution of copper sulphate, nitride of iron deposits
copper.
Octal with ethyl iodide to 200° in a sealed tube, olefines are formed, and
iodides of iron and ammonium, the reaction evidently being
5C,H,1 + Fe,N = 2Fel, + NH,I + 5C,H, +H.
Heated similarly to 200° with phenol no reaction occurred.
Treated with a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid, analyses
showed that very little, if any, of the nitrogen is oxidised, the whole dissolving as
usual to form ammonium sulphate.
In conjunction with Mr. P. J. Hartog, the author has determined the heat of
formation of the nitride by dissolving it in sulphuric acid contained in a platinum
calorimeter, and observing the rise of temperature. Three well-agreeing experi-
ments showed that the substance is formed with evolution of about three calories.
In general the nitride of iron behaves as an ammonia derivative, the nitrogen
being either evolved in the free state, or converted into ammonium compounds,
according to circumstances.
Its constitution may possibly be
5. Report on the Silent Discharge of Electricity in Oxygen and other Gases.
See Reports, p. 439.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 165.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colowrs.—See Reports, p. 373.
2. Demonstration of the Preparation and Properties of Fluorine by Moissan’s
Method. By Dr. M. Mustans.
3. Interim Report on the Formation of Halci!s.
Ths Committee desired reappointment, as their work is unfinished,
718 REPORT—1893.
4. Report on the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in the
Presence of Oxygen.—See Reports, p. 381.
5. On the Iodine Value of Sunlight in the High Alps. By Dr. S. Rrpeat.
During the past winter, at St. Moritz, in the Engadine, I had an opportunity
of determining the intensity of the light as measured by the liberation of iodine
from an acidulated solution of potassium iodide on the lines formulated by the Air
Analysis Committee of Manchester. St. Moritz is at an altitude of about 7,000 feet
above the sea level, and a succession of bright, sunny days can usually be relied
upon, even in the depths of winter. The experiments in England, which have
been carried out chiefly in towns, have not given a maximum value for the quantity
of iodine that can be liberated by sunlight in one hour; and as the atmosphere in
St. Moritz is not only free from haze, but is also remarkable for its exceptionable
dryness, higher values than those likely to be obtained elsewhere were to be ex-
pected, Also, since the daily meteorological conditions of the place are carefully
taken and recorded in the ‘ Alpine Post,’ the observations may possibly be of addi-
tional value.
Total Mgms. H
Date No. of Hours Todine Vv ane Conditions
per 100 c.c. fag
1893, 1 Aol heokas) 47°25 13:5 Clouds, but bright
2 5:0 33°75 6°6 Dull all day
3 4:25 297 6:9 Sun one hour
4. . | 4:20 37°8 88 Dull, then sun
5. .| £0 39-0 975 | Bright
6 4:0 41:85 1046 | Bright
7h 6:0 43:2 7:2 Sun down two hours
8 5:0 41°85 8:37 | Bright
se 4°35 41°85 945 | Bright
10. 55 32-4 59 Dull
ike 4:5 37°8 8-4 Bright two hours
12. 6:0 36°45 6-0 Bright
13. 55 45°9 8:3 Bright
14. . | 4:25 27:0 6:3 Dull
15\ 55 28°35 51 Bright, then dull
16, 5:0 47:25 9°45 | Slight snow
17. 5:0 28°35 5:7 Bright
18. 8-0 51:3 6-4 Bright, sun down three hours
We . | 43 36°45 8-4 Bright
20. . | 6:0 (2 expts) 34:85 10°35 | Bright
22. . | 55 40°5 73 Snowing all day
23. = — — Snowing hard
24. 70 40:0 5:7 Dull
25. 4:0 40°5 1071 Bright
26. . | 9°5 (2 expts) 93-1 9:8 Bright
27. . | 42 53°3 12-7 Bright
28 70 58°5 8:3 Bright, then dull
29 6:0 52:0 8-8 Bright
30. «| 4:5 50°7 11:2 Bright
31. . | 6:0 50°7 8-4 Bright
The instructions laid down by the Air Analysis Committee were carefully
followed, and the solution of iodine taken as a standard was titrated with great
care. The hyposulphite solution was checked against the standard iodine solution
from time to time, and was kept in the dark when not in use. The only previous
values obtained in Switzerland in the winter are those of Professor Oliver, who
tells me that his winter average at Grindelwald for one hour’s sunlight was repre-
sented by 1°6 c.c. of the thiosulphate solution, equal to 8 mgms. of iodine per
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 719
100 c.c. This number represents only the average of the brightest days, and larger
results have been obtained in summer. My average for the nineteen brightest
days in January of the present year is equal to 9°34 mgms. of iodine per 100 c.c.
per hour. Owing to the situation of the village with regard to the surrounding
mountains, the total amount of light per day is small compared with places which
are less shut in; and, as will be seen from the accompanying table, the values
given are for the hours during which there was a bright sunlight. The actual
amount of possible sunlight on the days mentioned will be found in the meteoro-
logical records already referred to, It is interesting to note that in Manchester in
January 1892, with a day of 8:3 hours’ light, or nearly half as long again as at
St. Moritz, the total light per week-day averaged only 4-5 mgms. iodine, or about
that obtained during half an hour’s exposure at St. Moritz. Even on comparing
the Sunday values for the Manchester district, I find that the daily average is only
8-3 mgms., or less than the hour’s average at St. Moritz. I believe that the com-
paratively large amount of sunlight per day experienced in the High Alps contri-
butes largely in determining the hygienic value of a sojourn in these mountain
health resorts.
The maximum hour value was 13°5 mgms. per 100 ¢.c. on January 1, and the
lowest on January 24 of 5:7, and even this minimum was about 20 per cent. above
the average daily value in Manchester.
6. On a Modified Form of Bunsen and Roscoe's Pendulum Actinometer.}
By Dr. Artuur Ricwarpson and J. Quick.
In Bunsen and Roscoe’s pendulum actinometer the oscillations of a pendulum
cause a sliding shutter to pass backward and forward before sensitised paper, which
is thus exposed for a known time and again shaded from the light.
In the present form an arrangement has been devised whereby the backward
and forward motion of the shutter is brought about by a movement in one direc-
tion only.
This. is done in the following manner: the shutter, which is made of a
flexible material and in the form of an endless band, passes over the wooden
rollers, the adjacent surfaces being brought close together by means of two addi-
tional smaller rollers. Two slits of equal length are cut in the band, so that
when the latter rotates an aperture is uncovered when the slits overlap one
another, and which again close when the band has travelled round a certain
distance.
Beneath this aperture the sensitised paper is placed, which is thus exposed for
definite times depending upon the length of the slits and the velocity of the band.
In order to bring about the movement of the shutter one of the rollers is con-
nected with an eight-day clock, the escapement of which has been removed, the
alterations in the speed, usually occurring when a clock is running down under
such circumstances, being compensated by a fusee adjustment.
Two advantages are claimed for this modification :—
(1) It is portable, and measurements can be made when it is placed in any
osition.
: (2) The time during which any portion of the slit is open (over the sensitised
paper) is directly proportional to that occupied in opening the entire slit ; since the
rate at which the shutter moves is constant, whereas in the pendulum apparatus
a series of calculations must be made to determine the length of time during
which the slit is open for each mm, of its entire length,
7. On the Expansion of Chlorine Gas and Bromine Vapour under the
Influence of Iight. By Dr. Arraur Ricwarpson.
_ It was first observed by Budde that when chlorine is exposed to the influ-
ence of sunlight, an expansion of the gas occurs which is independent of the
' Published in the Phil. Mag., xxxvi. (1893), pp. 459-463.
720 REPORT—1893.
direct heating effects of the light. He also made a similar observation in the
case of bromine vapour. These statements have been repeatedly called in ques-
tion by other observers, who failed to obtain these results on repeating Budde’s
experiments.
Experiments made by the author, however, fully confirm Budde’s results, and
an arrangement is described in which the expansion of chlorine and bromine, as
compared with that of air, under the influence of light, can be exhibited as a
lecture experiment.
8. On the Cause of the Red Colouration of Phenol. By Cuartes A. Koun,
Ph.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Organic Chemistry, University College,
Liverpool.
The cause of the turning red of phenol has from time to time been the subject
of investigation, but the published results are vague and conflicting. That even
the purest carbolic acid of commerce becomes coloured on keeping has long been
observed, and the general view of the cause of this colouration has been to trace it
to some impurity or other contained in the phenol. By some the presence ofa
metal, especially copper or iron or their salts, has been regarded as the cause of
the reddening, by others the colcuration has been attributed to alkalis or to cresol,
which last in presence of the phenol has been oxidised with the formation of
rosolic acid. Fabini, who more recently has investigated the subject, regards the
colouration as due to the action of hydrogen peroxide on phenol containing
metallic salts in presence of ammonia, the presence of all three reagents being
necessary for the production of the colour.
Since oxidising agents, alkalis—especially ammonia—and metallic salts play
an important part in the turning red of phenol, the action of these and similar re-
agents on phenol of varying degrees of purity was tried.
The phenol used was the purest commercial product known as ‘ absolute phenol,’
and in the later experiments a sample of specially pure phenol, kindly prepared by
C. Lowe, Esq., of Manchester. The original product was repeatedly distilled from
glass vessels and the distillates after one, six, nine, and sixteen distillations care-
fully tested with ammonia, hydrogen peroxide, caustic potash, mixtures of these
reagents, and also with salts of iron and of copper both in the presence and absence
of alkalis and of hydrogen peroxide. In all cases characteristic colourations
ensue. That with strong ammonia is violet, and those with hydrogen peroxide,
caustic potash, dilute ammonia, hydrogen peroxide in presence of caustic alkali, or
of ammonia, metals or metallic salts with or without hydrogen peroxide, red or
reddish brown. Each of the three reagents which, according to Fabini, must all
be present in order to produce a colouration gives marked colourations on
its own account. The blue colouration obtained with ammonia is identical with
Phirson’s ¢ phenol-blue,’ and is probably phenol-quinone-imide. Sublimed phenol,
as well as phenol prepared by the saponification and subsequent decomposition of
gaultheria oil, behaves similarly.
Furthermore, ad/ the samples thus prepared, and which were found on testing
to be perfectly free from metallic impurities, turned red on exposure to ordinary
moist air. Hence it is to be concluded that the purest phenol does redden of its
own account, and not on account of the presence of impurities of any kind. This
reddening does not take place in the dark, nor is it effected by the less refrangible
rays of light. Phenol exposed in vacuo keeps colourless for months, as it also
does when exposed in presence of water in absence of air, or in presence of air when
perfectly dry. Both air and moisture are necessary for the colouration to ensue.
It has been shown by Dr. Richardson_that hydrogen peroxide is produced during
the reddening, and to its formation the reddening of phenol when exposed to
ordinary moist air is to be traced. The similarity of the colour produced by
hydrogen peroxide with that which phenol assumes on exposure supports this
statement. The colour is also produced by the electrolysis of phenol in acid solu-
tion. The colouring matter is not volatile, and the colouration is always accom-
panied by the absorption of moisture.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 721
The nature of the colouring matter produced is still under investigation ; the
essential point so far established is that pure phenol possesses the intrinsic pro-
perty of reddening when exposed to light in presence of air and moisture.
9. On the Rate of Evaporation of Bodies in Atmospheres of Different
Densities. By Dr. R. D. PHooxay,
The results of his experiments showed ‘ that under the same conditions of heat
and pressure a substance volatilises more quickly in an atmosphere of gas of lesser
density than in one of greater. For instance, 0:05 grm. of naphthalin, heated in a
bath of naphthalin vapour, volatilised in an atmosphere of hydrogen gas in 18
seconds, in air in 30, in carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, both of which possess
the same molecular weight, in 36 seconds.
Although these figures do not furnish sufficient data to determine the relative
densities of the gases, yet they amply justify the above conclusion.
An atmosphere of vapour, on the contrary, seems to have no influence on the
time taken for a substance to volatilise in it: 0-026 erm. of normal propyl alcohol,
heated in a steam bath, took one and the same time, 12 to 13 seconds,
to yolatilise in vapours of such different densities as that of ether, methyl, and
ethyl alcohol, chloroform, tetrachlor-methan, and ethyl iodide.
It is difficult to account for this anomaly. A certain difference in conditions
in the employment of the two classes of bodies—z.e., the true gases and the
vapours—must, however, be borne in mind, namely, that the gases were experi-
mented with at a temperature much more removed from their point of condensa-
tion than that of the vapours.
It will be therefore interesting to know whether experiments made with
vapours at a temperature equally removed from their point of condensation would
not give results similar to those obtained from gases,
Tt may be that a vapour must attain a certain degree of energy or velocity
ef its molecules before it can act like true gases in influencing the volatilisation
of a substance.
10. On the Occurrence of Cyano-nitride of Titanium in Ferro-manganese.
By T. W. Hoge.
In this paper is given a short account of the fact there are probably about half
a million isolated crystals of cyano-nitride of titanium in each cubic inch of the
high percentage ferro-manganese now used for steel-making purposes, titanium
carbide and nitride being also occasionally present.
The size of these crystals generally lies between 0:0001 and 0-001 of an inch,
comparatively few of them being larger than this.
The number of crystals has been counted, and the lowest estimate gave 336,000
to the cubic inch of alloy; asa matter of interest, the weight of this number of
Cubes of cyano-nitride of titanium of 0:0001 of an inch has been calculated and
found to be only 0:00003 of agramme. Similarly, the weight of the same number
of cubes of 0:001 of an inch weighs -03 gramme. The crystals are possessed of a
high metallic lustre with brilliant mirror-like facets, and occur in the form of
cubes, octahedra, and forms resembling the icositetrahedron ; there are also present
beautiful combinations of pyramids and prisms, and many of the cubes possess
interesting symmetrical face modifications, As these different forms are all found
together they are microscopic objects of great beauty and interest to the student of
crystallography. These crystals are obtained by careful elutriation of the car-
bonaceous residue left after treating considerable quantities of the ferro-manganese
with hydrochloric acid, cupric chloride, or dilute nitric acid: this latter is recom-
mended as being the most convenient. In using it the mixture must be kept as
cool as possible, and allowed to stand for about twenty-four hours; the larger
crystals separate at once, the smaller forms being retained in the residue, which
must be dried and gently pounded before submitting it to elutriation, This is best
1893. oA
722 REPORT—1893.
performed in a large porcelain basin, using plenty of water, gently rocking and
rotating the mixture, and allowing it to rest at intervals; the lighter portions are
then sucked up by means of a pipette, this being continued until nothing but the
copper-coloured crystals are left.
The largest quantity which has been separated in this way is equal to 032
er cent.
. Ferro-manganese containing different percentages of manganese and of different
makes has been examined, and, with the exception of spiegeleisen containing 11 per
per cent. of manganese, they have all been found to contain this remarkable com-
ound.
. As the quantities available for examination were small, with the exception of
determining the specific gravity and the amount of the titanium only qualitative
tests have been applied. In different specimens the specific gravity has beer found
to vary between 41 and 5:1, and the titanium from 60°5 to79'8 per cent. These
latter determinations include a small proportion of iron, which I have always found
to be present; this is also the case with crystals separated from an old blast-furnace
“bear. After several days’ heating with hydrochloric acid there is 1°5 per cent, iron
retained, and probably this is the cause of the crystals being slightly but distinctly
magnetic.
Attention is specially directed to the fact that much valuable information with
regard to the condition of the foreign elements may be obtained by decomposing
large quantities of the alloys with suitable reagents, and separating the substances
of different specific gravity from the residue. In doing this it is pomted out that
there is great danger of decomposing the compounds originally present, and form-
ing new ones asa result of the reaction which takes place between the reagent
and the various substances present. Such a method as is indicated in this paper
is recommended to be used in conjunction with the examination of etched speci-
mens, which of themselves do little beyond revealing changes of structure induced
by different modes of manipulation and varying temperatures. The insufficiency
of etched specimens to give us information with regard to the condition of im-
purities is evident from the fact that, being opaque, so nearly alike in colour, and
in such minute and uniformly distributed particles, they escape observation.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Interim Report on the History of Chemistry.
2. Report on the Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
See Reports, p. 387.
3. Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy.
4. Report on the Bibliography of Solution—See Reports, p. 372.
OSS Saaa-———=—— CC rrtrt™—“‘s;é;;Sr
Ss
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 723
5. Report on Solution.—See Reports, p. 438.
6. A Discussion on the Present Position of Bacteriology, more especially in
its relation to Chemical Science, was opened by Professor Percy F.
FRANKLAND, F’.R.S.
Professor FRANKLAND’s paper was ordered to be printed
in extenso among the Reports.—See Reports, p. 441.
7. Remarks on the Chemistry of Bacteria. By R. Warryeton, F.R.S.
8. On Fermentation in the Leather Industry. By J.T. Woop.
The science of bacteriology touches upon the leather industry in the following
important points :—
1. Putrefaction.
2. The Soaks.
3. Changes in lime liquors.
4. Bating or ‘ Puring.’
5. Drenching.
6. Fermentation of tan liquors,
The author only gave a short »éswmé of our present knowledge of the ‘ drench-
ing’ process, as this closely resembles ordinary fermentations.
Skins from the bate after washing are placed in vats containing an infusion of
bran in water (0°4 to 1 per cent. of bran) at a temperature of 30° to 35°C. This
ferments vigorously for eighteen to twenty-four hours with evolution of consider-
able quantities of gas and the formation of weak organic acids, which have a
slight swelling action on the skin, cleanse the pores, and make it in a fit condition
to receive the tannin. On examination with a high power of the microscope the
liquid is found to be swarming with active bacteria. They are mostly in the form
of pairs or dumb-hells, each cell 0°75 x 1:25; some form chains. I described! a
method by which the organism causing the fermentation was separated, as it re-
fused to ‘grow in ordinary nutrient gelatine, and lately, in conjunction with Mr.
W. H. Willcox, B.Sc., have made a complete examination of the products of the
actual fermentation as it takes place in the works, previous to carrying out a
similar research with the pure ferment.
We found the following gases evolved :—
Gases A | B C
AEE S 5 =. cat bbcreahoven 219 | 252 42-4
Eh oy oy vin een TOs aa 21 36
eR f3 55. Cacia 531 | = 46-7 28-2
Ne 240 | 260 25:8
A is from a vat containing no skins, one to two days,
B from a vat containing skins, two to three days.
C from a vat containing skins, three to four days.
The H,S is present only in small quantities (1 to 2 per cent.).
The principal acids found were acetic acid and lactic acid, accompanied by
small quantities of formic acid and butyric acid.
The following table shows the quantities found in an experimental drench per
1,000 c.c, :—
1 Journ, Soc. Chem, Ind., ix. 27.
3A 2
724 REPORT—1893.
Gramme.
Formic acid . A F . 4 2 é . 0°0306
Acetic acid . . se : : 5 : . 02402
Butyric acid . a : " : : 3 . 00134
Lactic acid . a ; 5 - 2 ‘i . 0O°7907
Total A : . 1:0749
We find in actual work that the quantity of acid produced varies from one to
three grms. per litre.
We found that an unorganised ferment, ‘cerealin,’ changes the starch of the
bran into glucoses and dextrin; the bacteria then ferment the glucoses, splitting
them up into the gases and acids already mentioned.
B. furfuris has no action on the cellulose of the bran, nor on the skins, as some
bacteria in the bate have; in every case where the skin is attacked it is putrefac-
tive or gelatine liquefying bacteria introduced from the bate, or in specially
favourable circumstances (hot, sultry weather) developing from germs always pre-
sent in the atmosphere. The gases evolved have only a mechanical action on the
skin, floating and distending them, and so enabling them better to take up the
acids. In carrying out this work we discovered a delicate test for lactic acid.
The presence of lactic acid was shown in the following manner :—10 c.c. of the
liquid were placed in a small distilling flask along with 2 c.c. strong H,SO, and
about 0°5 grm. potassium chromate in a little water. This was distilled and
the vapours received in a test tube surrounded by cold water; on adding magenta
solution discolourised by SO, to the liquid in the test tube a red colour was pro-
duced by the aldehyde formed from the lactic acid ; aldehyde was also recognised
by its smell. We tind this an exceedingly delicate test for lactic acid, and as far
as we know it is quite new in this form.
For 10 c.c. of liquid to be examined we find 2¢.c. strong H,SO, and 1 grm.
of potassium chromate to be the best proportions. Formic, acetic, propionic,
butyric, valerianic, succinic, malic, tartaric, and citric acids do not give the
reaction.
In conclusion, there are no doubt other organisms capable of fermenting a bran
infusion in a somewhat similar way, and the work of isolating and separately
examining their life-history and products yet remains to be done.
9. On some Ferments derived from Diseased Pears.
By Guorce Tate, Ph.D., FCS.
From diseased pears the author has isolated, among other micro-organisms,
three which possess morphological and chemical interest.
(1) A yeast (Saccharomyces viscosus) which is characterised by forming small
cells of an average length of 0:003 mm. and white, strongly viscid growths
upon solid nutrient media. It brings about no alcoholic fermentation of the better-
known sugars, but inverts cane sugar. It can propagate either by budding or by
endogenous division.
(2) A bacterial organism (Ascococcus luteus) forming yellow growths upon
nutrient gelatine. Growths of two types have been obtained, one showing
ascococct, the other only rods, It is an acid ferment of dextrose and mannitol.
(3) A bacterial organism forming white growths upon nutrient gelatine. Two
types of growth have been obtained upon nutrient media, one in which micrococct
and rods predominate, another in which the tendency to form ascococc? is strongly
marked. These two types are represented by widely differing macroscopic cultures
upon solid media. Both forms behave as levo-lactic ferments towards dextrose
and mannitol.
The organism is an inactive-lactic ferment of rhamnose, but after such action
still retains its power of decomposing dextrose into levo-lactic acid.
Se ei)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 725
10. On the Action of Permanganate of Potassium on Sodium Thiosulphate
and Sulphate. By G. HE. Brown and Dr. W. W. J. Nicot.
11. On the Application of Sodium Perowide to Water Analysis.
By Dr. S. Rrpgat and A. J. Boutr.
Now that sodium peroxide can be obtained commercially, its use in analysis
seems desirable. W. Hempel! has already shown that it is a useful oxidising
agent for the detection of chromium and manganese, and that it forms a very con-
venient reagent for opening up tungsten minerals and for effecting the decomposi-
tion of titanic iron ores. Since the commercial sodium peroxide is free from
sulphur, it can also be used quantitatively for estimating the sulphur in sulphides.
It occurred to us that an alkaline oxidising agent of this character, if used as a
substitute for alkaline permanganate in water analysis, might throw some light
upon the character of the organic nitrogen in waters. Hitherto either methods for
determining the total nitrogen—e.g., Frankland’s and Kjeldahl’s, or Wanklyn’s
well-known process in which only a portion of the nitrogen present in the organic
matter is discovered—have been employed. In this latter process very different
quantities of ammonia are obtained from the different classes of nitrogenous organic
bodies. Only when the nitrogen is present as some simple amido- compound like
urea, aspartic acid, or leucine does this process yield the whole of the nitrogen
present. Preusse and Tiemann” have shown in their review of the various pro-
cesses for determining organic substances in water that no reliance can be placed
upon this process for estimating the absolute quantity of nitrogen in many sub-
stances, and that, therefore, when used as a method of water analysis the quantities
of ammonia obtained are only relatively true for waters of the same type. A
comparison of the quantities of ammonia evolved from a water when treated with
alkaline permanganate and with sodium peroxide might therefore possibly afford
a means of differentiating the nitrogenous constituents. With this purpose in view
we have compared in the ordinary course of analysis the amounts of ammonia
given off under these two treatments. In one case when using one grm. of
sodium peroxide per half litre of water, the total ammonia evolved was equal to
0:027 part per 100,000, while with alkaline permanganate 0-050 part per 100,000
was obtained. On repeating this experiment with the same water and under
similar conditions, 0:026 part per 100,000 was yielded by the peroxide and 0-048
by the permanganate. The addition of a further quantity of the sodium peroxide
and further distilling did not increase the quantity of ammonia produced, and it
was therefore evident that the sodium peroxide had failed to break down the
organic nitrogenous substances present to the same extent as had the alkaline
permanganate. In fact, we have since found it possible to obtain a fresh quantity
of ammonia from a water after treatment with sodium peroxide by the addition of
the alkaline permanganate. The following table gives the results obtained in
parts per 100,000 with four samples of water :—
Perman-
a Free NH; | Peroxide | ganateafter, Free NH; ee
peroxide | id
Water A . 3 5 0:01 Trace 0007 | #OO1 0-008
Bere ‘: 5 0-001 0:004 0011 | 0-001 0:013
» Cre : A 0012 0-011 0015 | 0-012 0-027
5 De, : a 0-021 0:024 0:057 0-019 0:078
From these figures it will be seen that the sodium peroxide in no case oxidises
the organic matter present to the same extent as does the permanganate. The
peroxide seems to liberate a portion of the nitrogen which is included in that set
free by the alkaline permanganate, as the total ammonia obtained by the action of
1 Zeit. anorg. Chem., 3, 193. * Berichte, 12, 1906.
726 REPORT—1893.
the peroxide, followed by permanganate, is in most cases about equal to that
obtained when the water is distilled with alkaline permanganate alone. There
appears to be no ratio between the quantities of ammonia evolved by the two re-
agents, and therefore the nitrogenous organic matter present in waters might be
divided into two classes, viz., that which is oxidised by the sodium peroxide and
that which resists such treatment. The results obtained by Wanklyn’s process, as
compared with the total nitrogen present in a water, also show a differentiation in
the organic nitrogen substances present in waters, but this knowledge has hitherto
not been of any value owing to the complex nature of the problem. Further
experiments can alone decide whether the limited oxidation of the nitrogenous
matter in waters will throw any fresh light on the condition of these organic con-
stituents of water. We have, however, noticed that in some cases a water which
has been partially oxidised by the peroxide yields the remainder of its ammonia to
the alkaline permanganate with much greater rapidity than when the water has
not been so treated. We suggest that the explanation of this phenomenon may be
due to the presence in waters of organic nitrogenous substances which, when
partially oxidised, are then in a condition to be completely broken up by the
stronger reagent. This result has been obtained with waters containing fresh
sewage, but we hope by taking solutions containing nitrogenous compounds of
known constitution to confirm this suggestion, and to show that in this reagent
we have an oxidising agent which will be useful in establishing the constitution
of the nitrogen in complex organic substances.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Isomeric Naphthaline Derivatives—See Reports, p. 381.
2. On the Application of Electrolysis to Qualitative Analysis. By CHARLES
A. Kony, Ph.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Organic Chemistry, University
College, Liverpool.
Since the publication of C. Bloxam’s papers on ‘The Application of Electro-
lysis to the Detection of Poisonous Metals in Mixtures of Organic Matters’!
little has been done to apply this method of analysis to qualitative investigations,
despite the fact that Classen and his pupils, together with E. F, Smith and others,
have made rapid advances in electrolytic methods of quantitative analysis. Many
of these later methods offer special attraction for qualitative work, especially in
cases of medical and of medico-legal inquiry. They are not supposed to supersede
in any way the ordinary methods of qualitative analysis, but to serve as a final
and crucial means of identification for the more important mineral poisons. The
applicability of the methods for the detection of antimony, mercury, lead, copper,
and cadmium has been examined. The method originally devised by Bloxam for
the detection of arsenic has been more recently elaborated by Wolff, who has
succeeded in detecting 0:00001 grm. of arsenious acid electrolytically.
Antimony.—The method employed is that used in the quantitative estimation
by electrolysis, a method devised by Classen, and which ensures a complete separa-
tion from antimony and tin, The precipitated sulphide is dissolved in potassium
sulphide, any polysulphides present oxidised with hydrogen peroxide, and the
solution electrolysed with a current of 1:5-2°0 c.c. of electrolytic gas per minute
(10'436 c.c. at 0° and 760 mm.=1 ampére), a small circular piece of platinum
1 cm. in diameter being employed as the cathode. The deposited metal can be
confirmed for by evaporating a little ammonium sulphide on the foil. One part of
J. Chem. Soc., 18, pp. 12 and 338.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 727
antimony in 1,500,000 parts of solution may be thus detected. The precipitation
of small quantities is complete in one hour.
Mercury is separated from a nitric acid solution as metal, on a small closely-
wound platinum spiral. A current of 4-5 c¢.c. per minute can be used. As a
confirmatory test the spiral is washed, dropped into a test-tube, heated to sublime
the mercury, and then converted into the iodide by the addition of a small crystal
of iodine and warming gently: 0:0001 grm. of metal can be detected thus in
150 c.c. of solution.
Lead is precipitated either as peroxide at the anode from a nitric-acid solution
or as metal from an ammonium-oxalate solution; the latter method is more deli-
cate, but the former has the advantage that it can be made approximately quanti-
tative. In this case also 0:0001 grm. is readily detected, the confirmation being
effected by converting the metal or oxide into the sulphide or iodide.
Copper is electrolysed as usual from an acidified solution, and 0-00005 grm.
can be readily detected, the confirmation being effected by dissolving the precipi-
tated metal in acid and testing with potassium ferrocyanide. Quantitative results
with 1 mgrm., of metal are obtained thus.
Cadmium is best deposited from a potassium cyanide solution, with a current of
0:2 e.c. per minute. The yellow sulphide serves as the confirmatory test:
00001 grm. of metal can be thus detected.
The detection of the above metallic poisons in urine can be effected directly by
these methods as described, but owing to the presence of the organic matter it is
mecessary to pass the current twice as long as when aqueous solutions are employed.
In twenty-four hours a current of 1-2 c.c. per minute completely decomposes urine,
leaving a clear solution. In the case of lead the electrolysis of an ammonium-
oxalate solution gives a more delicate reaction than the separation as peroxide from
nitric acid solution. To detect these poisons in other cases the destruction of the
organic material with which they are associated, by the ordinary means, is
necessary.
These electrolytic tests are one and a half time more delicate than the colori-
metric tests for antimony and copper by means of sulphuretted hydrogen, and ten
times more delicate than the tests for mercury and lead by the same reagent.
It is further to be noted that the methods are in many cases methods of separa-
tion as well as of detection, e.g., the separation of lead from iron by electrolysis in
nitric acid solution. Also where it is desirable to obtain approximately quantita-
tive results, electrolysis possesses a marked advantage over the usual colorimetric
processes, because the erroneous results due to the influence of the varying con-
stituents in the solutions tested on the reliability of the reaction are entirely
obviated.
3. Interim Report on the Prowimate Constituents of Coal,
The Committee desired reappointment, as their investigations are not yet
completed.
4. Apparatus for Extraction for Analysis of Gases Dissolved in Water.
By Evear B. Truman, M.D., F.C.S., Borough Analyst, Nottingham.
A glass flask of 500 c.c. capacity is joined by means of its tubular termina-
tion to a second lower flask of 200 c.c. capacity by means of a water-joint.
In the lower flask is suspended from the upper one a thermometer, reading up to
150°C. From the neck of the upper flask proceed two millimetre tubes. The
right-hand one, after receiving a stopcock, expands into a cup having a
capacity of 30 c.c. The tube on the left rises to the level of the bottom of the
cup. This tube has two tubes supplied with stopcocks joined on to it at right
angles—one above and the other below. To the one above is attached, by a
water or glycerine joint, a mercury tube doubled on itself above and below,
and having a length when so doubled of 880 mm. This tube is graduated in
mm. from 0 to 400 in two directions, downwards in the open limb and upwards
728 REPORT—1893.
in the long limb, starting in each case from the level of the horizontal tube. This
tube is filled with mercury up to the zero points, and indicates the rate of exhaus-
tion of the apparatus, and is also a test of leakage.
The second tube a little further on points downwards for attachment to a
Geissler’s water-pump. Still further on a stopcock is let into the main horizontal
tube, which then bends downwards for communication with a Sprengel pump.
The apparatus is put into connection with both mercurial and water-pumps,
and the stopcock at the base of the cup is closed. By means of the water-pump the
apparatus is exhausted in a great measure of air; five minutes’ pumping with high-
pressure water produces a vacuum of 730 mm., when the barometer stands at 753.
The water-pump stopcock is then closed, and exhaustion is completed by the
Sprengel in about thirty minutes more.
The liquid to be examined for gases is then, after measurement, introduced by
the cup into the upper flask, whence it flows into the lower one.
The liquid is allowed to stand for an hour, so that gases disengaged at ordinary
temperatures may come off. These are collected by the Sprengel and analysed in
the usual way.
The vacuum having been restored, heat is cautiously applied to the lower flask
by means of a Bunsen burner. If carefully done there is no bumping. The effect
of heat is, by disengaging gas, to increase tension, and to enable the water to
become hotter. The mercury in the mercurial tube and that in the thermometer
rise. When the mercury in both places remains constant the Bunsen burner is
removed.
The gas given off by boiling is then collected and analysed.
5. A Discussion on Explosions in Ooal Mines, with special reference to the
Dust Theory, was opened by Professor H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.
6. The Application of the Hydrogen Flame in an Ordinary Miner’s Safety
Lamp to Accurate and Delicate Gas Testing. By Professor Frank
Ciowes, D.Sc. Lond.
The ‘flame cap’ or halo seen in the dark above a pale flame in air containing
combustible gas serves as the most rapid and practical means of detecting the
presence of inflammable gas or vapour in the air. The method has been in common
use by the miner, but the oil flame which he uses for the purpose is wanting, not
only in delicacy, but also inaccuracy. It will not readily detect the presence of less
than 3 per cent. of fire-damp in the air, whereas for modern purposes it should detect
less than 0°5 per cent.; and, owing to the variation in the size and adjustment of
this flame when applied to testing, its indications are very variable, and are not of
a standard character. Many objections exist to the employment of a separate
alcohol lamp carried for testing purposes. None of these applies to the use of the
hydrogen flame, especially when it is applied in an ordinary safety lamp burning
oil from a wick in the usual way. The hydrogen flame is the most delicate indi-
cator known, and it is applied of uniform size, giving standard and invariable
indications.
The author’s early work consisted in measurmg with accuracy the height and
noting the appearance of the flame cap appearing over the standard 10 mm,
(= 0:4 inch) hydrogen flame. The flame was exposed for this purpose to air containing
known percentages of gas in the ‘test chamber’ specially devised for the purpose.
The statement, previously made, that the hydrogen flame is the most delicate gas-
testing flame known was fully confirmed by comparing its indications with those
yielded by a small alcohol flame and by a reduced oil flame. The small alcohol
flame could not detect less than 1 per cent. of fire-damp, even under the most
favourable conditions; the reduced oil flame could not detect with certainty less
than 3 per cent.
The author then directed his attention to applying the hydrogen flame ina
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 729
practical way to the detection and measurement of minute quantities of fire-damp
in the air. This was ultimately effected by supplying the hydrogen from a small
steel cylinder containing the gas in a compressed condition. The cylinder can be
readily carried in the pocket, and, when necessary, it can be immediately attached
to the ordinary safety lamp, and made to furnish the standard hydrogen flame
burning at a jet in the lamp. The gas is kindled at the jet by the oil flame, which
is then extinguished. The accurate estimation of proportions of fire-damp in air
varying from 0:2 to 3 per cent. is rapidly and easily effected by the standard
hydrogen flame. Higher percentages are estimated either by reducing the size of
the hydrogen flame, or by employing the oil flame diminished in size until it
becomes non-luminous.
The small pocket cylinder is under a pound in weight, and when freshly charged,
by being connected with a store cylinder at 120 atmospheres’ pressure, it carries a
store of gas sufficing for over 200 tests. This combined lighting and testing safety
lamp has been found to be thoroughly practical in its nature after lengthened use
in several collieries, and it surpasses in convenience all the delicate and accurate
mine gas-testing apparatus yet described. The lamp, in a modified form, has been
adapted to detecting and measuring petroleum vapour in the air.
7. On the Gases enclosed in Coal Dust. By Professor P. P. Benson.
8. A Note on the Temperature and Luminosity of Gases.
By Protessor A. SMITHELLS.
9. On Ethyl Butanetetracarboxylic Acid, and its Derivatives.
By Bevan Luan, B.A., B.Sc., Bishop Berkeley Fellow of Owens Oollege.
When sod-malonic ether is treated with ethylene bromide, the chief product
is ethyl trimethylene dicarboxylate (1:1), thus :—
CH,Br CH,
bir, + 2CHNa: (COO C,H,), “du, DE = (COO C,H,), + CH,(COO C,H),
+2NaBr.
But at the same time a small quantity of an oil of high boiling-point is formed,
constituting only about 3 per cent. of the whole, which is ethyl butanetetracarboxy-
late,! thus :—
CH,Br CH, - CH: (COO C,H,),
| +2CH Na:(COO C,H,), = | + 2NaBr.
H,Br CH, -CH:(COO C,H,),
The fact that this interesting substance is produced in such small quantities
made its further investigation a matter almost of impossibility. More recently,
however, Professor Perkin has found that the substitution of ethylene chloride for
the bromide is effectual in greatly increasing the yield of ethyl butanetetracarboxyl-
ate. As soon as the new method for the preparation of this substance had been
thoroughly worked out, I investigated, at the suggestion of Professor Perkin, some
of its derivatives, and I desire to give a brief notice of some of the results at which
we have arrived. When treated with sodium ethylate, ethyl butanetetracarboxyl-
ate forms a di-sodium compound, which reacts readily with the iodides or chlorides
of the alcohol radicals, For example, when acted on by methy] iodide the reaction
takes place as follows :—
CH, —CNa: (COO C,H,), CH, —C:CH,:(COO C,H;),
+2CH,Br= | + 2NaBr,
CH, —CNa: (COO C,H,), CH, —C'CH,:(COO C,H;),
ethyl dimethylbutanetetracarboxylate being formed.
1 Perkin, Journ. C. S., 51, 1.
730 REPORT—i893,
In the course of this investigation I have already made a detailed study of the
di-methyl, di-ethyl, di-cetyl, and di-benzy] derivatives of ethyl butanetetracarboxyl-
ate, formed by the action of alcohol radicals on its di-sodium compound.
These derivatives on hydrolysis yield tetracarboxylic acids, which possess some
very remarkable properties, which have not been, so far as I know, observed in the
case of any other organic acids. These acids, although they contain four carboxyl
groups, do not in all cases behave as tetrabasic acids. On determining their basi-
city by titration with standard solution of potassium hydrate, some of them react
as di-basic acids. Notably is this the case with di-benzyl butanetetracarboxylic
acid, the result being the same whether phenol phthalein or litmus be used as the
indicator. In this connection it is to be noted that on forming the silver or calcium
salts of di-benzyl butanetetracarboxylic acid, they were found to have the formule
C,,H,,0,Ag, and C,,H,,0,Ca+2H,0 respectively. On the other hand, di-methyl
and di-ethyl butanetetracarboxylic acid on titration with potassium hydrate give
different results according as phenol phthalein or litmus is used as an indicator.
They behave as tetrabasic acids when phenol phthalein is employed. If, how-
eyer, one or two drops of litmus solution be added to the solution of these acids in
potassium hydrate, which, as shown by phenol phthalein, had been neutralised by
hydrochloric acid, a distinctly blue colouration is produced. On adding more
hydrochloric acid the blue colouration changes gradually to a red tint, and the
solution appears to become neutral to litmus, only when sufficient hydrochloric
acid is added to neutralise one half of the potassium hydrate, which was equivalent,
as shown by phenol phthalein, to the tetracarboxylic acid present. The silver
salts of di-methyl and di-ethyl butanetetracarboxylic acid, unlike that of di-benzyl
butanetetracarboxylic acid, are tetrabasic.
The di-substituted butanetetracarboxylic acids we have obtained, when heated
to 200°, all lose two molecules of carbonic anhydride, yielding di-substituted adipic
acids. The study of these acids appeared to be especially interesting in view of
the recent work on the di-substituted succinic, and glutaric, and pimelic acids. In
accordance with Van ’t Hoff’s theory, the di-substituted succinic and glutaric acids
are found in two modifications. The substituted pimelic acids, on the other hand,
have only been found in one modification.
Considerable interest is therefore attached to the question of isomerism in the
substituted adipic acids. We have found that the di-substituted adipic acids,
obtained from substituted butanetetracarboxylic acids, invariably exist in two
modifications, which are readily capable of separation by crystallisation from
benzene or toluene.
The difference between the melting points of the two modifications is usually
60-80°. For example, two modifications of di-benzyl adipic acid were isolated,
one crystallising in diamond-shaped crystals, which melted at 211—3°, the other
crystallising in six-sided prisms melting at 152°. Of these derivatives of adipic
acid the di-methyl alone have been previously obtained. They were prepared by
Zelinsky, by the hydrolysis of ethyl dicyandimethyl adipate.’ |
Experiments on succinic acid have shown that the more alkyl groups there are
introduced, the more readily can an anhydride formation take place, and it was
thought that this would also be the case in the adipic series. Now, the anhydride
of adipic acid has been formed, yet on attempting to form anhydrides by heating
the substituted adipic acids in sealed tubes with acetyl chloride, in no case could
any evidence of an anhydride formation be obtained. On the other hand, whether
the higher melting or lower melting modification was employed, a partial conversion
into the other modification was effected. This result is remarkable, and cannot at
present be understood.
The author has also formed ethyl dibromobutanetetracarboxylate, by the
action of bromine on a solution of ethyl butanetetracarboxylate in chloroform.
It crystallises in magnificent prisms, which melt at 82-3°. The author is engaged
in the investigation of this substance, and expects interesting results from the
study of its derivatives and its use in synthetical chemistry.
1 Ber., 24, ii. 997
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 731
10. On the Salts of a new Platinum-sulphurea Base. By W. J. SEt1,
M.A., F.C.S., F.1.C., and T, H. Hasterrientp, M.A.
The authors have obtained the salts of a base Pt(CSN.H,),(OH), by the action
of platinic chloride upon a hot solution of thiocarbamide in dilute hydrochloric
acid, and subsequent addition of the acid the salts of which are required. The
chloride Pt(CSN,H,) Cl, sulphate Pt(CSN,H,),SO,, and the picrate have been pre-~
pared and analysed.
The free base corresponding apparently to Reiset’s first base Pt(NH.),(OH),
has not yet been obtained pure, for its solutions undergo partial decomposition upon
evaporation even ina vacuum, That the crystalline residue thus formed contains
the base is evident from the fact that the above-mentioned salts can be regenerated
from it.
ll. On Citrazinic Acid. By W. J. Sett, WA., F.C.S., F.LC., and
T. H. Hasterrietp, M.A.
A. W. y. Hofmann has shown that citrazinic acid is in all probability to be re-
garded as a, a’ dioxyiso-nicotinic acid. In this paper it is shown that in a number
of cases the tautomeric keto formula more readily represents the reactions of the
substance. The chlorine, bromine, and isonitroso, and derivatives prepared with
a view to testing the constitution are quite in accordance with the keto formula,
whilst the phenylhydrazo derivative has not been sufficiently studied for the
authors to decide its constitution. Isonitroso-citrazinic acid
is a somewhat unstable substance, yielding a beautiful silver salt; when boiled
with dilute sulphuric acid it yields quinhydroketopyridin
which on oxidation with dilute nitric acid yields the corresponding quinone, and by
reduction appears to yield the hydroquinone which has not yet been obtained in
the analytically pure condition.
The above-mentioned quinhydroketopyridin dissolves in alkaline solutions with
the production of a deep-blue solution, and it appears to be to this cause that the
characteristic ‘ nitrite’ test for citrazinic acid is due. By the oxidation of isonitroso-
citrazinic acid with nitric or nitrous acids a bright yellow acid results which gives
very characteristic salts. The acid potassium and ammonium salts are precipitated
in the crystalline condition by adding the chlorides of these radicles to an aqueous
solution of the acid. Although the acid contains only two hydrogen atoms these
are both replaceable by metals. Reduction of the yellow acid leads to the formation
of the quinhydroketopyridin.
By the action of cold nitric acid upon citrazinic acid a substance is produced
which appears to be represented by the formula
CH
No,c% \co
le
Ne
N
732 REPORT—1893.
2.e,, it seems to be a nitroquinoketopyridin; the calcium salt of this substance
crystallises in beautiful yellow needles. Experiments are also in progress upon
the products of reduction of citrazinamide. The reduction takes the same course
as in the normal reduction of amides of the aromatic series, an alechol being
produced.
12. On a Nottingham Sandstone containing Barium Sulphate as a
Cementing Material. By Professor Frank Crowes, D.Sc.
The author draws attention to papers presented by him to former meetings of
the British Association (‘ Brit. Assoc. Reports,’ 1885, p. 1038, and 1889, p. 594).
These papers described sandstone extending over a large area at Bramcote and
Stapleford, in the immediate neighbourhood of Nottingham, in which crystallised
barium sulphate occurred in large quantity. Bramcote and Stapleford Hills and
the Hemlock stone were wholly composed of such stone. The largest quantity
found in the specimens analysed reached 50 per cent.; complete analyses were
given of specimens of sandstone from different parts of this district. The sulphate
was in a beautifully micro-crystalline condition, and the crystals had been identified
and separated both by Professor Lebour and by Mr. J. J. H. Teall. In some
parts of the sandstone the barium sulphate uniformly permeated the mass. In
other parts the sulphate occurred in streaks or network, the latter distribution
leading to a curious mammillated weathering of the surface of the rock, owing to
removal of the uncemented grains. Occasionally the cementing material occurred
in nodular patches, as seen in sections of the sandstone: this led to the formation
of the so-called ‘ pebble sand-beds’ at the top of one of these sandstone hills. The
beds were the effect of weathering; the uncemented sand-grains became loose
sand, and disseminated amongst the loose sand were the ‘pebbles,’ consisting
of masses of sand-grains bound together by barium sulphate. The author has not
been able to obtain from any source evidence of the occurrence of similar sandstone
in any other part of this country ; he is still without direct evidence whether the
sulphate has been deposited as such, as in the colliery boxes of Durham, or is the
result of chemical change occurring between calcium sulphate in solution coming
into contact with barium carbonate already deposited in the sandstone.
C—O E——
733
Section C.—Geroroey.
PRESIDENT OF THE Section.—J. J. H. Teatr, M.A., F.R.S., F.G:S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address :—
Ir is a striking and remarkable fact that, although enormous progress has been
made in petrographical science during the last hundred years, there has been com-
paratively little advance so far as broad, general theories relating to the origin of
rocks are concerned. In Hutton’s ‘Theory of the Earth,’ the outlines of which
were published in 1788, the following operations are clearly recognised :—The
degradation of the earth’s surface by aqueous and atmospheric agencies; the
deposition of the débris beneath the waters of the ocean; the consolidation and
metamorphosis of the sedimentary deposits by the internal heat and by the injec-
tion of molten mineral matter; the disturbance and upheaval of the oceanic
deposits; and, lastly, the formation of rocks by the consolidation of molten
material both at the surface and in the interior of the earth.
Hutton regarded these operations as efficient causes ordained for the purpose of
producing an earth adapted to sustain animal and vegetable life. His writings
are saturated with the teleological philosophy of the age to which they belong, and
some of his arguments strike us, therefore, as strange and inconclusive; moreover,
the imperfect state of the sciences of chemistry and physics occasionally led him
into serious error. Notwithstanding these imperfections, we are compelled to
admit, when viewing his work in the light of modern knowledge, that we can find
the traces, and sometimes far more than the traces, of those broad general theories
relating to dynamical geology which are current at the present day.
If Hutton had contented himself with proving the reality of the agencies to
which reference has been made, it is probable that his views would have been
generally accepted. But he went much further than this, and boldly maintained
that one or other of these agencies, or several combined, would account for all the
phenomena with which the geologist has to deal. It was this that gave rise to the
controversial fire which blazed up with such fury during the early years of this
century, and whose dying embers have not yet been extinguished.
The views of Hutton were in strong contrast to those of Werner, the celebrated
professor of mineralogy at Freiberg, to whom science owes a debt of gratitude as
great as that due to the Scottish physician. The value of a man’s work must not
simply be judged by the truth of the theory which he holds. I consider that the
Wernerian theory—by which I understand a reference to the early stages of
planetary evolution for the purpose of explaining certain geological facts—has
been on the wane from the time it was propounded down to the present day; but
T claim to be second to none in my admiration for the knowledge, genius, and
enthusiasm of the illustrious Saxon professor. The uniformitarian doctrines of
Hutton gave a very decided character to the theoretical views of British geologists
during the middle of the century, in consequence of the eloquent support of
734 REPORT— 1893.
Lyell; but of late there has been a tendency to hark back to a modified form of
Wernerism. This tendency can, I think, be largely traced to the recognition of
evolution as a factor in biology and physical astronomy. The discoveries in these
sciences may necessitate a modification of the views held by some of the extreme
advocates of uniformitarianism. This admission, however, by no means carries
with it the conclusion that the methods based on the doctrine of uniformitarianism
must be discarded. If I read the history of geology aright, every important
advance in the theoretical interpretation of observed facts relating to physical
geology has been made by the application of these methods. It does not, of course,
follow that the progress in the future will be exactly along the same lines as that
in the past ; but, if I am right in the opinion I have expressed, it is a strong reason
for adhering to the old methods until they have been proved to be inapplicable to
at least some of the facts with which the physical geologist has to deal. Let us
consider for a moment whether the recognition of evolution as a factor in biology
and physical astronomy gives an @ priort probability to some form of Wernerism,
The period of time represented by our fossiliferous records is perhaps equivalent
to that occupied by the evolution of the vertebrata, but all the great subdivisions
of the invertebrata were living in the Cambrian period, and must have been
differentiated in still earlier times. Is it not probable, therefore, that the fossili-
ferous records at present known represent a period insignificant in comparison
with that during which life has existed upon the earth? Again, is it not probable
that the period during which life has existed is a still smaller fraction of that
which has elapsed since the formation of the primitive crust? And if so, what @
priort reason have we for believing that the rocks accessible to observation contain
the records of the early stages of the planet’s history? But the advocates of the
diluted forms of Wernerism which find expression in geological writings at the
present day almost invariably refer to recent speculations in cosmical physics. The
views of astronomers have always had a powerful influence on those of geologists.
Hutton wrote at a time when the astronomical world had been profoundly affected
by Lagrange’s discovery, in 1776, of the periodicity of the secular changes in the
forms of the planetary orbits. The doubts as to the stability of the solar system
which the recognition of these changes had inspired were thus removed, and astro-
nomers could then see in the physical system of the universe ‘no vestige of a
beginning—no prospect of an end.’ Now itis otherwise. Tidal friction and the
dissipation of energy by the earth and by the sun are each referred to as fixing a
limit to the existing conditions. I have not the knowledge necessary to enable me
to discuss these questions, and I will therefore admit, for the sake of argument,
that the phenomena referred to indicate the lines along which the physical evolu-
tion of our planet has taken place; but does it follow that geologists should desert
a working hypothesis which has led to brilliant results in the past for one which
has been tzied again and again and always found wanting?
If there were absolute unanimity amongst mathematical physicists, it might be
necessary for us to reconsider our position. This, however, is not the case. After
referring to the argument from tidal friction, Professor Darwin, in his address to
the Mathematical and Physical Section for 1886, says:—‘On the whole, then, I
can neither feel the cogency of the argument from tidal friction itself, nor, accept-
ing it, can I place any reliance on the limits which it assigns to geological history.’
In reviewing the argument from the secular cooling of the earth, he points out
that the possibility of the generation of heat in the interior by tidal friction has
been ignored, and that the thermal data on which the calculations are based are
not sufficiently complete to remove all reasonable doubt. He regards the case
depending on the secular cooling of the sun as the strongest; but it is evident
that, in view of undreamt-of possibilities, he would not allow it to have much
weight in the face of adverse geological evidence. In conclusion he says :—
‘ Although speculations as to the future course of science are usually of little avail,
yet it seems as likely that meteorology and geology will pass the word of command
to cosmical physics as the converse. At present our knowledge of a definite limit to
geological time has so little precision that we should do wrong to summarily reject
any theories which appear to demand longer periods of time than those which now
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 735
appear allowable. In each branch of science hypothesis forms the nucleus for the
aggregation of observation, and as long as facts are assimilated and co-ordinated
we ought to follow our theory.’ Now, my point is that the uniformitarian
hypothesis, as applied to the rocks we can examine, has assimilated and co-ordinated
so many facts in the past, and is assimilating and co-ordinating so many new dis-
coveries, that we should continue to follow it, rather than plunge into the trackless
waste of cosmogonical speculation in pursuit of what may after all prove to be a
will-o’-the-wisp.
As an additional illustration of the want of agreement amongst mathematical
physicists on questions relating to the earth, I may refer to certain papers by
Mr. Chree.!’ This author maintains that the modern theory of elasticity points
to the conclusion that if a spherical globe, composed of a nearly incompressible
elastic solid of the size of the earth, were set rotating as the earth is rotating, it
would take the form which the earth actually possesses. How is the question of
the fixity of the earth’s axis affected by Mr. Chree’s researches, and by the recent
observations which prove a simultaneous change of latitude, in opposite directions,
in Europe and at Honolulu? If geological facts point to a shifting of the position
of the axis, is there any dynamical reason why they should not receive due con-
sideration? Geologists want as much freedom as possible. We do not object to
any limitations which are necessary in the interest of science, and we cordially
welcome, and as a matter of fact are largely dependent upon, assistance from other
departments of knowledge ; but those who would help us should bear in mind that
the problems we have still to solve are extremely difficult and complex, so that if
certain avenues of thought are closed on insufficient grounds by arguments of the
validity of which we are unable to judge, but which we are naturally disposed to
take on trust, the difficulties of our task may be greatly augmented and the
progress of science seriously retarded. So far as I can judge, there is no @ prior?
reason why we should believe that any of the rocks we now see were formed
during the earlier stages of planetary evolution. We are free to examine them
in our own way, and to draw on the bank of time to any extent that may seem
necessary. ;
For some years past the greater part of my time has been devoted to a study
of the composition and structure of rocks, and it has occurred to me that I
might, on the present occasion, give expression to my views on the question as
to whether the present position of petrographical science necessitates any important
modification in the theoretical views introduced by the uniformitarian geologists.
Must we supplement the ideas of Hutton and Lyell by any reference to primordial
conditions when we endeavour to realise the manner in which the rocks we can
see and handle were produced? The question I propose to consider is not whether
some of these rocks may have been formed under physical conditions different from
those which now exist—life is too short to make a discussion of geological possi-
bilities a profitable pursuit—but whether the present state of petrographical science
renders uniformitarianism untenable as a working hypothesis; and, if so, to what
extent. There is nothing original in what I am about to lay before you. All
that I propose to do is to select from the numerous facts and more or less conflict-
ing views bearing on the question I have stated a few of those which appear to
me to be of considerable importance.
The sedimentary rocks contain the history of life upon the earth, and on this
account, as well as on account of their extensive development at the surface, they
have necessarily received an amount of attention which is out of all proportion to
their importance as constituent portions of the planet. They are, after all, only
skin deep. If they were totally removed from our globe its importance as a mem-
ber of the solar system would not be appreciably diminished. The general laws
governing the formation and deposition of these sediments have been fairly well
1 C. Chree, ‘On Some Applications of Physics and Mathematics to Geology,’
Phil. Mag., vol. xxxii. (1891), pp. 233, 342.
736 REPORT—1893.
understood for a long time. Hutton, as we have already seen, clearly realised that
the land is always wasting away, and that the materials are accumulating on the
beds of rivers, lakes, and seas. The chemical effects of denudation are mainly seen
in the breaking up of certain silicates and the separation of their constituents into
those which are soluble and those which are insoluble under surface conditions.
The mechanical effects are seen in the disintegration of rocks, and this may, under
certain circumstances, take place without the decomposition of their component
minerals.! Quartz and the aluminous silicates, which enter largely into the compo-
sition of shales and clays, are two of the most important insoluble constituents. It
must be remembered, however, that felspars often possess considerable powers of
resistance, and rocks which contain them may be broken up without complete or
anything like complete decomposition of these minerals, Orthoclase, microcline,
and oligoclase are the varieties which most successfully resist decomposition ; and,
as a natural consequence, occur most abundantly in sedimentary deposits. It is
commonly stated that when felspars are attacked the general effect is to reduce
them to a fine powder, composed of a hydrated silicate of alumina, and to remove
the alkalies, lime, and a portion of the silica. But, as Dr. Sterry Hunt has so
frequently urged, the removal of alkalies is imperfect, for they are almost invariably
present in argillaceous deposits. Three, four, and even five per cent., consisting
mainly of potash, may frequently be found. This alkali appears to be present in
micaceous minerals, which are often produced, as very minute scales, during the
decomposition of felspars. White mica, whether formed in this way or asa product
of igneous or metamorphic action, possesses great powers of resistance to the ordi-
nary surface agencies of decomposition, and so may be used over and over again
in the making of sedimentary depesits. Brown mica is also frequently separated
from granite and other rocks, and deposited as a constituent of sediments; but it is
far more liable to decomposition than the common white varieties, and its geological
life is, therefore, comparatively short.? Small crystals and grains of zircon, rutile,
ilmenite, cyanite, and tourmaline are nearly indestructible, and occur as accessory
constituents in the finer-grained sandstones.* Garnet and staurolite also possess
considerable powers of resistance, and are not unfrequently present in the same
deposits. If we except the last two minerals and a few others, such as epidote, the
silicates containing lime, iron, and magnesia are, as a rule, decomposed by surface
agencies and the bases removed in solution; augite, enstatite, hornblende, and
jime-felspars are extremely rare as constituents of ordinary sediments.
The insoluble constituents resulting from the waste of land surfaces are deposited
as gravel, sand, and mud; the soluble constituents become separated as solid bodies
by evaporation of the water in inland seas and lagoons, by chemical action, and by
organic life. They are deposited as carbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and sometimes,
as in the case of iron and manganese, as oxides. The soluble silica may be deposited
in the opaline condition by the action of sponges, radiolaria, and diatoms, or as
sinter.
The question that we have now to consider is whether there is any marked
difference between ancient and modern sediments. One of the oldest deposits in
the British Isles is the Torridon sandstone of the north-west of Scotland. The
recent discovery of Olenellus high up in the stratified rocks which unconformably
overlie this deposit has placed its pre-Cambrian age beyond all doubt. Now this
formation is mainly composed of quartz and felspar, at least in its upper part, and
the latter mineral is both abundant and very slightly altered. One is naturally
tempted, at first sight, to associate the freshness of the felspar with the great age
of the rock—to assume either that the sand was formed at a time when the chemical
agents of decomposition did not act with the same force as now, or that they had
1 J. W. Judd, ‘Deposits of the Nile Delta,’ Pree. Royal Soc., vol. xxxix. 1886, p. 213.
2 *Notes on the Probable Origin of some Slates,’ by W. Maynard Hutchings,
Geol. Mag., 1890, p. 264.
3 ¢Ueber das Vorkommen mikroskopischer Zirkone und Titan-Mineralien,’ von
Dr. Hans Thiirach, Verhandl. d. phys.-medic. Gesellschaft zu Wiirzburg, N.F. xviii.
‘On Zircons and other Minerals contained in Sand,’ Allan B. Dick, Nature, vol. xxxvi.
(1887), p. 91. See also ‘Mem. Geol. Survey,’ Geology of London, vol. i. p. 523.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 737.
not been in operation for a sufficient length of time to eliminate the felspar. “A
pure quartzose sand is probably never formed by the direct denudation of a granitic
or gneissose area. The coarser sediments thus produced contain in most, if not in
all, cases a considerable amount of felspar. But felspar is more liable to decompo-
sition by percolating waters when it occurs as a constituent of grit than when
present in the parent rock. Silica may thus be liberated in a soluble form, and
subsequently deposited on the grains of quartz so as to give rise to secondary
crystalline faces, and kaolin may be produced as beautiful six-sided tablets in the
interstices of the grit. When the grit is in its turn denuded the felspar is still -
further reduced in amount, and a purer quartz-sand is formed. As the coarser
detrital material is used over and over again, thus measuring different periods of
time like the sand in an hour-glass, the felspar and other decomposable minerals
are gradually eliminated. The occurrence of a large amount of fresh felspar in the
Torridon sandstone might, I say, at first sight be thought to be due to the great
age of the rock. Any tendency to accept a view of this kind is, however, at once
checked when attention is paid to the pebbles in the coarser conglomeratic beds of
the same deposit. These consist largely of quartzite—a rock formed by the con-
solidation of as pure a quartz-sand as any known to exist in the later formations.
We are therefore led to the conclusion that the special features of the Torridon
sandstone are not a function of time, but of the local conditions under which the
rock was produced.
A similar conclusion may be reached by considering other types of sediment.
When the stratified rocks of the different geological periods represented in any
limited area are compared with each other certain marked differences may be
observed, but the different types formed in any one area at different times can
often be parallelled with the different types formed in different areas at the same
time, and also with those now forming beneath the waters of rivers, lakes, and seas.
Deep sea, shallow water, littoral and terrestrial deposits can be recognised in the
formations belonging to many geological periods, from the most ancient to the most
recent ; and there is no evidence that any of our sedimentary rocks carry us back
to atime when the physical conditions of the planet were materially different from
those which now exist. After reviewing all the evidence at my disposal, I must,’
however, admit that the coarser as well as the finer deposits of the earlier periods
appear to be more complex in composition than those of the later. The grits of the
Paleozoic formations, taken as a whole, contain more felspar than the sandstones of
the Mesozoic and Tertiary formations, and the slates and shales of the former contain
more alkalies than the clays of the latter. This statement will hold good for the
British Isles, even when allowance is made for the enormous amount of volcanic
material amongst the older rocks—a phenomenon which I hold to be of purely
local significance—but I strongly suspect that it will not be found to apply univer-
sally. In any case, it is not of much importance from our present point of view.
All geologists will admit that denudation and deposition were taking place in
pre-Oambrian times, under chemical and physical conditions very similar to, if not
identical with, those of the present day.
There is, however, one general consideration of more serious import. Additions
to the total amount of detrital material are now being made by the decomposition
of igneous rocks, and there is no doubt that this has been going on during the
whole period of time represented by our stratified deposits. It follows, therefore,
as @ necessary consequence that strict uniformitarianism is untenable, unless we
suppose that igneous magmas are formed by the melting of sediments.
o far we have been dealing with the characters of sedimentary rocks as seen
in hand-specimens rather than with those which depend on their distribution over
large areas. Thanks to Delesse! and the officers of the ‘ Challenger’ Expedition,”
an attempt has now been made to construct maps on which the distribution of the
sediments in course of formation at the present time is laid down. It is impossible
to exaggerate the importance of such maps from a geological point of view, for on
the facts which they express rests the correct interpretation of our stratigraphical
1 Lithologie du Fond des Mers. Paris, 1871.
* Report on Deep-sea Deposits, 1891.
1893.
Feds}
ie~]
738 REPORT—1893.
records, Imperfect as is our knowledge of the sea-beds of former geological
periods, it is in many respects more complete than that of the sea-beds of the
present day. The former we can often examine at our leisure, and follow from
point to point in innumerable exposures; the latter are known only from a few
soundings, often taken at great distances apart.'_ An examination of such imper-
fect maps as we have raises many questions of great interest and importance, to
one of which I wish to direct special attention—not because it is new, but because
it is often overlooked. The boundary lines separating the distinct types of deposit
on these maps are not, of course, chronological lines. They do not separate sedi-
ments produced at different times, but different sediments simultaneously forming
in diflerent places. Now, the lines on our geological maps are usually drawn by
tracing the boundary between two distinct lithological types, and, as a natural
consequence, such lines will not always be chronological lines. It is only when
the existing outcrop runs parallel with the margin of the original area of deposit
that this is the fact. Consider the case of a subsiding area—or, to avoid theory,
let us say an area in which the water-level rises relatively to the land—and, for
the sake of illustration, let us suppose that the boundary separating the districts
over which sand and mud are accumulating remains parallel to the old coast-line
during the period of deposition. This line will follow the retreating coast, so that
if, after the consolidation, emergence, and denudation of the deposits, the outcrop
happens to be oblique to the old shore, then the line on the geological map sepa-
rating clay and sand will not be of chronological value. That portion of it which
lies nearer to the position of the vanished land will represent a later period than
that which lies further away. If such organisms as ammonites leave their remains
in the different deposits, and thus define different chronological horizons with
approximate accuracy, the imperfection of the lithological boundary as a chrono-
logical horizon will become manifest. It is not that the geological map is wrong.
Such maps have necessarily to be constructed with reference to economic considera-
tions, and from this point of view the lithological boundaries are of paramount
importance. They are, moreover, in many cases the only boundaries that can be
actually traced. The geological millennium will be near at hand when we can
construct maps which shall represent the distribution of the different varieties of
sediment for each of the different geological periods. All we can say at present is
that increase of knowledge in this direction tends greatly to strengthen the uni-
formitarian hypothesis. We can see, for example, that during Triassic times
marine conditions prevailed over a large part of what is now the great mountain-
belt of the Euro-Asiatic continent, whilst littoral and terrestrial conditions existed
in the north of Europe; and we can catch glimpses of the onward sweep of the
sedimentary zones during the great Cretaceous transgression, culminating in the
widespread deep-sea * conditions under which the Chalk was deposited.
We turn now to the igneous rocks. Itis no part of my purpose to treat in
detail of the growth of knowledge from an historical point of view and to attempt
to allot to each observer the credit due to him; but there is one name that I
desire to mention in this connection, because it is that of a man who clearly
proved the essential identity of ancient and modern volcanic rocks by the appli-
cation of precise petrographical methods at a time when there was a very general
belief that the Tertiary and pre-Tertiary rocks were radically distinct. I need
hardly say that I refer to Mr. Samuel Allport.*| He wrote at a time when ob-
1 Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde, Bd. I1., s. 267.
2 See S. S. Buckman, ‘On the Cotteswold, Midford, and Yeovil Sands,’ Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlv. (1889), p. 440; and the same author, ‘On the So-called
Upper Lias Clay of Down Cliffs,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xlvi. (1890), p. 518.
Also J. Starkie Gardner, ‘On the Relative Ages of the American and the English
Cretaceous and Eocene Series,’ Geol. Mag., 1884, p. 492.
3 Theodor Fuchs, ‘Welche Ablagerungen haben wir als Tiefseebildungen zu
betrachten?’ Neues Jahrbuch f. Miner., &c., Beilage, Band II., p. 487.
4 «Tertiary and Paleozoic Trap-rocks,’ Geol. Mag., 1873, p. 196; ‘ British Car-
boniferous Dolerites,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxx. (1874), p. 529; ‘Ancient
Deyitrified Pitchstones,’ &c., Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. xxxiii. (1877), p. 449.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 739
servers in this country had to prepare their own sections, and those who, like
myself, have had the privilege of examining many of his slides scarcely know
which to admire most—the skill and patience of which they are the evidence, or
the conciseness and accuracy of his petrographical descriptions. His papers do
not occupy a large number of pages, but they are based on an amount of obser-
vation which is truly surprising. The general conclusions at which he arrived as
to the essential identity of ancient and modern igneous rocks are expressed with
the utmost confidence, and one feels, after going over his material, that this con-
fidence was thoroughly justified. It is curious now to note that the one British
champion of the distinctness of the Tertiary and pre-Tertiary rocks pointed to the
difference between the Antrim and Limerick traps. These traps differ in exactly
the same way as do the corresponding Tertiary and pre-Tertiary continental rocks,
with this important difference. On the Continent the ophitic structure is cha-
racteristic of the pre-Tertiary rocks, whereas in the north of Ireland it is a
marked feature of those of Tertiary age. We see, therefore, that the arguments
for the distinctness of the two sets of rocks derived from the two areas, based in
both cases on perfectly accurate observations, neutralise each other, and the cage
hopelessly breaks down as regards the basalts and dolerites.
In this country it is now generally recognised that, when allowance is made
for alterations which are necessarily more marked in the earlier than in the later
rocks, there is no important difference either in structure or composition between
the rhyolites, andesites, and basalts of the Paleozoic and Tertiary periods. But
identity of structure and composition may in this case be taken to imply identity
as to the physical conditions under which the rocks were produced. We are thus
led to picture in our minds long lines of volcanoes fringing the borders of Paleo-
zoic continents and rising as islands in the Paleozoic seas. Then, as now, there
issued from the craters of these volcanoes enormous masses of fragmental material,
a large portion of which was blown to dust by the explosive escape of steam and
other gases from the midst of molten rock; and then, as now, there issued from
fissures on their flanks vast masses of lava which consolidated as rhyolite, andesite,
and basalt. We may sum up the case as regards the volcanic rocks by saying that,
so long as observations are confined to a limited area, doubts may arise as to the
truth of the uniformitarian view, but these doubts gradually fade away as the area
of observation is extended. There are still some outstanding difficulties, such as the
apparent absence of leucite lavas amongst the Paleozoic formations; but as many
similar difficulties have been overcome in the past, it is improbable that those
which remain are of a very formidable character.
So far we have been referring to rocks formed at the surface of the earth
under conditions similar to those now in operation. But there are others, such as
granite, gneiss, and mica-schist, which are obviously unlike any of the products of
surface agencies. If these rocks are forming now, it must be beneath the surface.
This point was clearly realised by Hutton. Granite was proved by him to be an
igneous rock of subterranean origin. His conclusions as to the formation of the
schists are expressed in a passage so remarkable when viewed in connection with
what I regard as the tendency of modern research that I make no apology for
quoting it at length. ‘If, in examining our land, we shall find a mass of matter
which had been evidently formed originally in the ordinary manner of stratifica-
tion, but which is now extremely distorted in its structure, and displaced in its
position—which is also extremely consolidated in its mass, and variously changed
in its composition—which therefore has the marks of its original or marine com-
position extremely obliterated, and many subsequent veins of melted mineral
matter interjected; we should then have reason to suppose that here were masses
of matter which, though not different in their origin from those that are gradually
deposited at the bottom of the ocean, have been more acted upon by subterranean
heat and the expanding power, that is to say, have been changed in a greater
degree by the operations of the mineral region. If this conclusion shall be
thought reasonable, then here is an explanation of all the peculiar appearances
of the Alpine schistus masses of our land, those parts which haye been erroneously
3 B2
740 REPORT—1893.
considered as primitive in the constitution of the earth.’ Surely it is not claiming
too much for our author to say that we have there, sketched in broad outline, the
theories of thermal and dynamic metamorphism which are attracting so much
attention at the present day.
The hypogene origin of the normal plutonic rocks and their formation at
different periods, even as late as the Tertiary, are facts which are now so generally
recognised that we may leave these rocks without further comment and pass on to
the consideration of the crystalline schists.
Everyone knows that the statement, ‘He who runs may read,’ is untrue when
the stratigraphical interpretation of an intensely folded and faulted district is
concerned. The complexity produced by the earth-movements in such regions
can only be unrayelled by detailed work after definite paleontological and litho-
logical horizons have been established. But if the statement be untrue when
applied to districts composed of ordinary stratified rocks, still less can it be true of
regions of crystalline schist where the movements have often been much more
intense ; where the original characters of the rocks have been profoundly modified ;
and where all distinct traces of fossils have in most cases been obliterated. If
detailed work like that of Professor Lapworth at Dobb’s Linn was required to
solve the stratigraphical difficulties of the Southern Uplands, is it not probable that
even more detailed work will be required to solve the structural problems of such
a district as the Highlands of Scotland, where the earth-stresses, though some-
what similar, have operated with greater intensity, and where the injection of
molten mineral matter has taken place more than once both on a large and ona
small scale? With these few general remarks by way of introduction, I will now
call attention to what appear to me to be the most promising lines of investigation
in this department of geology.
The crystalline schists certainly do not form a natural group. Some are un-
doubtedly plutonic igneous rocks showing original fluxion ; others are igneous rocks
which have been deformed by earth-stresses subsequent to consolidation ; others,
again, are sedimentary rocks metamorphosed by dynamic and thermal agencies, and
more or less injected with ‘molten mineral matter’; and lastly, some cannot be
classified with certainty under any of these heads. So much being granted, it is
obvious that we must deal with this petrographical complex by separating from it
those rocks about the origin of which there can be no reasonable doubt. Until this
separation has been effected, it is quite impossible to discuss with profit the question
as to whether any portions of the primitive crust remain. In order to carry out this
work it is necessary to establish some criterion by which the rocks of igneous may
be separated from those of sedimentary origin. Such a criterion may, I think, be
found, at any rate in many cases, by combining chemical with field evidence.” If
associated rocks possess the composition of grits, sandstones, shales, and limestones,
and contain also traces of stratification, it seems perfectly justifiable to conclude
that they must have been originally formed by processes of denudation and
deposition. That we have such rocks in the Alps and in the Central Highlands of
Scotland, to mention only two localities, will be admitted by all who are familiar
with those regions. Again, if the associated rocks possess the composition of
igneous products, it seems equally reasonable to conclude that they are of igneous
origin. Such a series we find in the north-west of Scotland, in the Malvern Hills,
and at the Lizard. In applying the test of chemical composition it is very neces-
sary to remember that it must be based, not on a comparison of individual speci-
mens, but of groups of specimens. A granite and an arkose, a granitic gneiss and
a gneiss formed by the metamorphosis of a grit, may agree in chemical and even
in mineralogical composition. The chemical test would therefore utterly fail if
employed for the purpose of discriminating between these rocks. But when we
introduce the principle of paragenesis it enables us in many cases to distinguish
between them. The granitic gneiss will be associated with rocks having the
composition of diorites, gabbros, and peridotites ; the sedimentary gneiss, with rocks
1 Theory of the Earth, vol. i. p. 375.
2 H. Rosenbusch, ‘ Zur Auffassung der chemischen Natur des Grundgebirges,’ Min.
und petro. Mitth., xii. (1891), p. 49.
—a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 741
answering to sandstones, shales, and limestones. Apply this test to the gneisses of
Scotland, and I believe it will be found in many cases to furnish a solution of the
problem, Caution, however, is necessary ; for crystal-building and the formation of
segregation veins and patches in the sedimentary schists clearly prove that a
migration of constituents takes place under certain circumstances,
Recent work on the gneisses and schists of igneous composition has shown that
the parallel structure, by no means invariably present, is sometimes the result of
fluxion during the final stages of consolidation, and sometimes due to the plastic
deformation of solid rocks. When compared with masses of ordinary plutonic
rock, the principal points of difference, apart from those due to secondary dynamic
causes, depend on what may be called their extreme petrographical differentiation.
Indications of differentiation may, however, be seen in the contemporaneous veins
and basic patches so common in ordinary irruptive bosses, but they are never so
marked as in gneissic regions, like those of the north-west of Scotland, where
specimens answering in composition to granites, diorites, and even peridotites
may be collected repeatedly in very limited areas. The nearest approach to the
conditions of gneissose regions is to be found in connected masses of diverse
plutonic rocks, such as those which are sometimes found on the borders of great
granitic intrusions.
The tectonic relations of those gneisses which resemble igneous rocks in
composition fully bear out the plutonic theory as to their origin. Thus, the intru-
sive character of granitic gneiss in a portion of the Himalayas has been demon-
strated by General McMahon.' The protogine of Mont Blanc has been investigated
by M. Lévy ? with the same result. Most significant of all are the discoveries in
the vast Archean region of Canada. Professor Lawson * has shown that immense
areas of the so-called Laurentian gneiss in the district north-west of Lake Superior
are intrusive in the surrounding rocks, and therefore newer, not older, than these.
Professor Adams‘ has quite recently established a similar fact as regards the
anorthosite rocks—the so-called Norian—of the Saguenay River and other districts
lying near the eastern margin of the ‘Canadian shield.’ Now that the intrusive
character of so many gneisses is being recognised, one wonders where the tide of
discovery will stop. How long will it be before the existence of gneisses of Tertiary
age will be generally admitted? At any rate, the discoveries of recent years have
compelled the followers of Wernerian methods to evacuate large slices of territory.
Turning now to the gneisses and schists which resemble sedimentary rocks in
composition, we note that the parallel structure may be due to original stratifica-
tion, to subsequent deformation, or to both of these agencies combined. It must
also be remembered that they have often been injected with igneous material, as
Hutton pointed out. Where this has followed parallel planes of weakness, we
have a banding due to alternations of igneous and sedimentary material. This
injection Mit par lit has been shown by M. Lévy to be a potent cause in the forma-
tion of certain banded gneisses.
Will the various agencies to which reference has been made explain all the
phenomena of the crystalline schists and gneisses? I do not think that the present
state of our knowledge justifies us in answering this question in the affirmative.
Those who are working on these rocks frequently have brought under their notice
specimens about the origin of which they are not able to speak with any degree of
confidence. Sometimes a flood of light is suddenly thrown on a group of doubtful
rocks by the recognition of a character which gives unmistakable indications of
their mode of origin. Thus, some of the fine-grained quartz-felspathic rocks asso-
ciated with the crystalline schists of the Central Highlands are proved to have
1 «The Geology of Dalhousie,’ Records of Geol. Survey of India, vol. xv. part 1
(1882), p. 34. See also vol. xvi. part 3 (1883), p. 129.
2 «Les Roches Crystallines et Hruptives des Environs du Mont-Blanc,’ Bull. des
Services de la Carte Géologique de la France, No. 9 (1890).
% «On the Geology of the Rainy Lake Region,’ Annual Report Geol. Survey of
Canada for 1887.
4 ‘Ueber das Norian oder Ober-Laurentian von Canada,’ Neues Jahrbuch f. Mine-
ralogie, &c., Beilage, Band viii. p. 419.
742 REPORT—1893.
been originally sands like those of Hampstead Heath by the presence in them of
narrow bands rich in zircon, rutile, and the other heavy minerals which are so
constantly present in the finer-grained arenaceous deposits of all ages. Such
pleasant surprises as the recognition of a character like this increase our confidence
in the theory which endeavours to explain the past by reference to the present,
_and refuses to admit the necessity of believing in the existence of rocks formed
under physical conditions different from those which now prevail simply because
there are some whose origin is still involved in mystery.
A crystalline schist has been aptly compared to a palimpsest. Historical records
of priceless value have often been obscured by the superposition of later writings ;
so it is with the records of the rocks. In the case of the schists the original
characters have been so modified by folding, faulting, deformation, crystallisation,
and segregation that they have often become unrecognisable. But when the asso-
ciated rocks have the composition of sediments we need have no hesitation in
attributing the banded structure in some way to stratification, provided we clearly
recognise that the order of succession and the relative thicknesses of the original
beds cannot be ascertained by applying the principles which are valid in compara-
tively undisturbed regions.
In studying the crystalline schists nothing, perhaps, strikes one more forcibly
than the evidence of crystal-building in solid rocks. Chiastolite, staurolite, anda-
lusite, garnet, albite, cordierite, micas of various kinds, and many other minerals
have clearly been developed without anything like fusion having taken place.
Traces of previous movements may not unfrequently be found in the arrangement
of the inclusions, while the minerals themselves show no signs of deformation.
Facts of this kind, when they occur, clearly indicate that the crystallisation was
subsequent to the mechanical action. Nevertheless, it is probable that both
phenomena were closely related, though not in all cases as cause and effect. The
intrusion of large masses of plutonic rock often marks the close of a period of
folding, This is well illustrated by the relation of granite to the surrounding
rocks in the Lake District, the Southern Uplands of Scotland, and the west of
England. Those of the two first-mentioned localities are post-Silurian and pre-
Carboniferous, those of the last-mentioned locality are post-Carboniferous and pre-
Permian ; one set followed the Caledonian’ folding, the other set followed the
Hercynian folding. That the intrusion of these granites was subsequent to the
main movements which produced the folding and cleavage is proved by the fact
that the mechanical structures may often be recognised in the crystalline contact-
rocks, although the individual minerals have not been strained or broken. In
many other respects the rocks produced by so-called contact-metamorphism re-
semble those found in certain areas of crystalline schist. Many of the most
characteristic minerals are common to the two sets of rocks, and so also are many
structures. The cipolins and associated rocks of schistose regions have many
points of resemblance to the crystalline limestones and ‘ kalksilicathornfels ’ pro-
duced by contact-metamorphism.”
These facts make it highly probable that, by studying the metamorphic action
surrounding plutonic masses, we may gain an insight into the causes which have
produced the crystalline schists of sedimentary origin; just as, by studying the
intrusive masses themselves and noting the tendency to petrographical differentia-
tion, especially at the margins, we may gain an insight into the causes which
have produced the gneisses of igneous origin. In the districts to which reference
has been made the igneous material came from below into a region where the
rocks had been rendered tolerably rigid. Differential movement was not taking
place in these rocks when the intrusion occurred. Consider what must happen if
the folding stresses operate on the zone separating the sedimentary rocks from the
? This term is employed in the sense in which it is used by Suess and Bertrand.
* H. Rosenbusch, ‘ Zur Auffassung des Grundgebirges,’ Weues Jahr. f. Miner.,
Bad. II. 1889, p. 8.
% G. Barrow, ‘ On an Intrusion of Museovite-biotite-gneiss in the South-eastern
Highlands of Scotland, &c.,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol, xlix. (1893), p. 330. :
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 943
underlying source of igneous material. Intrusion must then take place during
interstitial movement, fluxion structures will be produced in the more or less
differentiated igneous magmas, the sediments will be injected and impregnated
with igneous material, and thermo-metamorphism will be produced on a regional
scale. The origin of gneisses and schists, in my opinion, is to be sought for in a
combination of the thermal and dynamic agencies which may be reasonably
supposed to operate in the deeper zones of the earth’s crust. If this view be
correct, it is not improbable that we may have crystalline schists and gneisses of
post-Silurian age in the north-west of Europe formed during the Caledonian fold-
Ing, others in Central Europe of post-Devonian age due to the Hercynian folding,
and yet others in Southern Europe of post-Cretaceous age produced in connection
with the Alpine folding.’ But if the existence of such schists should ultimately
be established it will still probably remain true that rocks of this character are in
most cases of pre-Cambrian age. May not this be due to the fact, suggested by a
consideration of the biological evidence, that the time covered by our fossiliferous
records is but a small fraction of that during which the present physical conditions
have remained practically constant ?
The good old British ship ‘ Uniformity,’ built by Hutton and refitted by Lyell,
has won so many glorious victories in the past, and appears still to be in such
excellent fighting trim, that I see no reason why she should haul down her colours
either to ‘Catastrophe’ or ‘Evolution.’ Instead, therefore, of acceding to the
request to ‘hurry up’ we make a demand for more time. The early stages of the
planet’s history may form a legitimate subject for the speculations of mathematical
physicists, but there seems good reason to believe that they lie beyond the ken of
those geologists who concern themselves only with the records of the rocks.
In this address I have ventured to express my views on certain disputed
theoretical questions, and I must not conclude without a word of caution. The
fact is, I attach very little importance to my own opinions, at least on doubtful
questions connected with the origin of the crystailine schists; but, as you have
done me the honour to accept me as your President, I thought you might like to
know my present attitude of mind towards some of the unsolyed problems of
geology. There is still room for legitimate difference of opinion on many of the
subjects to which I have referred. Meanwhile, we cannot do better than remember
the words with which one of our great living masters recently concluded an article
on a controversial subject: ‘Let us continue our work and remain friends.’
? Some geologists maintain that this is the case, others deny it. See H. Reusch,
‘ Die fossilienftihrenden krystallinischen Schiefer von Bergen in Norwegen,’ Leipzig,
1883 ; J. Lehmann, ‘ Veber die Entstehung der altkrystallinischen Schiefergesteine,
mit besonderer Bezugnahme auf des siichsische Granulitgebirge, Erzgebirge, Fich-
telgebirge, und bairisch-béhmische Grenzgebirge,’ Bonn, 1884; T. G. Bonney,
_ Several papers on the Alps, and especially ‘On the Crystalline Schists and their
Relation to the Mesozoic Rocks of the Lepontine Alps,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,
vol. xlvi. (1890), p. 188 ; A. Heim, contribution to the discussion on the last paper;
C. W. Giimbel, ‘ Geognostische Beschreibung des K. Bayern’ and ‘ Grundziige der
Geologie,’ Kassel, 1888-1892.
Although it is convenient to speak of the three types of folding which have so
largely influenced the structure of the European continent as if each belonged to a
definite period, it is important to remember that this is not strictly true. The
movements were prolonged; they probably crept slowly over the surface of the
lithosphere, as did the zones of sedimentation, so that those of the same type are
not in all places strictly contemporaneous.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Notes on the Water-bearing Capacity of the New Red Sandstone of
Nottingham. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, DL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
About half a century ago, before the problems of sanitation were generally
understood, the town of Nottingham was placed in a most unfavourable position as
744 REPORT—1893.
_ regards drainage and water-supply. As regards the former the drainage of the
houses for the most part was run off into cesspools sunk in the sandstone rock on
which the town is built ; and as regards the latter the water-supply was drawn
from wells sunk through the same formation down to the water-level, so that often
the cesspools and wells were in proximity to each other. The result of such a state
of affairs may easily be surmised. However excellent as a filter may be the sand-
stone rock, it must assuredly become clogeed with fecal matter when filtration of
water is carried on for an indefinite period, subject to such contamination as is
here referred to, and in course of time the water from the wells becomes unfit for
drinking and household purposes.
Now all this is changed: the cesspools have been closed or filled up, and the
water-supply is drawn from large and deep wells far removed from possibility of
contamination,
Few towns in central England are more favourably situated for purposes of
. water-supply than Nottingham. Built on a foundation of New Red Sandstone and
conglomerate, which rises at the Castle in a precipitous cliff above the valley of
the Trent, the formation on which the city stands in its prolongation northwards is
a source of water-supply of the highest excellence, and yields several millions of
gallons per day of pure water from three or four wells situated within a few miles
of the city.
The conditions which render this formation so well adapted for water-supply
may be briefly explained. The succession and character of the strata all combine
towards this end.
In descending order the succession is as follows :—
gypseous (slightly permeable).
Waterstones and Loner Laminated micaceous sandstones
Keuper Maris. . . Red and variegated marl, shaly and
Tatse Keuper Sandstone alternating with marls and shales.
Bunter Sandstone . . Soft yellow and reddish sandstone
and conglomerate (permeable).
{ Red Calcareous Maris, These are the strata separating the
Upper and Lower limestones of
pT | the Worksop district to the north
(impervious).
Loner Magnesian Lime- Sandy magnesian limestones.
stone
From the above succession it will be seen that the permeable beds of the Bunter
Sandstone, about 200 feet in thickness, are underlain by impervious marls of the
Permian series, which thus forma water-tight floor, effectually preventing the water
which percolates downwards from the surface to escape into the magnesian lime-
stone; and, as the beds dip eastwards at a small angle from the western margin of
the formation, an underground reservoir is thus formed with a naturally permanent
level corresponding to that of the springs which break out at the junction of the
sandstone with the marl along the western outcrop.
The proportion of the rainfall, taken at an average of 30 inches, which sinks
down into the Bunter Sandstone north of Nottingham must be very large owing to
the absence of drift deposits and the sandy character of the ground. As there is
no surface drainage the percolation cannot be less than about 20 inches per annum,
giving a supply of about 1,000,000 gallons to every 3 square miles, Taking the
area of the formation between Nottingham and Worksop at 120 square miles, the
amount of water which annually percolates into the rock and becomes a reservoir
of supply may be estimated at about 40,000,000 gallons per day.
This large quantity of water tends to flow eastwards, following the dip of the
beds; and that it has permanently saturated the Bunter Sandstone under an exten-
sive area occupied by the overlying formations is proved by the result of the boring
at Scarle, near Lincoln, which, commencing in the Lower Lias, passed down through
the Keuper marls into the Bunter, when the water came up with force and flowed
over the surface. This boring is at a minimum distance of 20 miles from the
1 Two feeders of water were struck—one at a depth of 917 feet in the Lower
Keuper Sandstone, and the other at 1,250 feet in the Bunter Sandstone.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 745
margin of the Bunter Sandstone. From these considerations it may be inferred
that Nottingham is most favourably situated as regards its water-supply for a long
period to come; a circumstance of great importance at a time when so many large
manufacturing towns are looking forwards with anxiety to the future as regards
this prime necessary of progress and prosperity.
Since the above was written I have been favoured by Mr. L. T. Godfrey Evans,
the Borough Engineer, with information, of which the following is a summary :—
There are four pumping stations, of which one, the Park, Zion Hill, is not now
in use. The others are:—
1. Basford or Bagthorpe, yielding 12,800,000 gallons per week.
2. Bestwood, yielding 11,800,000 a 4p
3. Papplewick, yielding 12,190,000 rf =
In all 36,790,000 gallons per week, or 5,257,143 gallons per
day.
The supply at Bestwood is decreasing, owing probably to mining operations in
the neighbourhood. The yield at the Park Station is about 5} millions of gallons
per week. The water is excellent.
2. On a Nottingham Sandstone containing Barium Sulphate as a Cementing
Material, By Professor Frank Crowes, D.Sc. (See p. 732.)
3. On the Discovery of a Concealed Ridge of pre-Carboniferous Rocks under
the Trias of Netherseal, Leicestershire. By Professor Epwarp Hutt,
PD, Eh.Ss HGS.
It is now generally recognised that the Leicestershire and Warwickshire Coal-
measures were deposited along the borders of a land surface of older Paleozoic
rocks, of which the visible representatives occur at Charnwood Forest and Ather-
stone. The attenuated condition of the Lower Carboniferous beds at Calke Abbey
on the north of the Leicestershire Coalfield and their entire absence below the
Coal-measures of Warwickshire show that these older rocks remained unsubmerged
till the commencement of the Upper Carboniferous period, when they were gradually
overspread, as the land became depressed, by successive deposits of the Coal period.
The general north-westerly trend of these old foundation rocks, both at Charnwood
- Forest and Atherstone, appears to indicate that this old land was composed of a
succession of ridges and furrows running in N.W. and S.E. directions; but as
the country is for the most part covered by Triassic strata the position of such
ridges and hollows can only be determined by experiment. One of these ridges
appears to have been in this manner determined at Netherseal Colliery in a boring
put down for the purpose of determining the extension of ‘the main coal.’ Having
been invited by Mr. G. J. Binns, F.G.S., the manager of the colliery, to give my
opinion regarding the age of the beds passed through in the lower part of the
- boring, I visited the colliery and inspected the cores which were brought up and
were arranged in their order of relative depth at the works. The following is an
abstract of the strata passed through :—
S Bunter Sandstone; light reddish-brown, pebbly
TRIAS ais l sandstone; 262 feet. ieee
: ; Grey and black shales and sandstones, with coa
COAL-MEASURES { and ironstone; plants abundant; 514 feet.
‘Reddish, purple and grey grit, sandstone and
PRE-CARBONIFEROUS 3 2
micaceous quartzite ; 19 feet.
The interest attaches to the beds called ‘ pre-Carboniferous.’ They consist of
. sandstones, grits, and quartzites, of purple and yellowish tints, occasionally shaly.
They contrast strongly with the Coal-measures, not only in the absence of beds of
coal, grey and black shale and ironstone, but also in the complete absence of plant
_ Temains with which the overlying Coal-measures are crowded; not one solitary
746 REPORT—-1893.
instance of any plant-form having been found amongst all the cores after careful
examination. It became clear that the beds were not of Carboniferous age, yet it
was very difficult to determine with certainty to what period they were to be
referred. Such sandstones, grits, and quartzites might be found in several pre-
Carboniferous formations, either the Old Red Sandstone, the Upper Silurian, Lower
Silurian (Ordovician),or Cambrian. A reference to the Old Red Sandstone was con-
sidered out of the question, as this formation is not found anywhere in this part
of England; nor did it seem probable that they were referable to the Upper or
Lower Silurian period, though this is possible. On the other hand, we cannot
forget that at no great distance to the south of the boring the Lower Cambrian beds
form the floor of the Coal-measures, and, although the cores at Netherseal boring
do not show a very strong resemblance to those of the Hartshill ridge, there is no
good reason why they may not be referable to the same general period, and con-
sist of beds not visible in that locality. For these reasons I am disposed with
some hesitation to regard them as of Lower Cambrian age; a view in which I am
supported by Professor Lapworth, who was kind enough to examine the specimens
of the cores which I brought away with me from Netherseal Colliery. I will only
add that no conclusion could be gathered regarding the question of unconformity
of these beds with the overlying Coal-measures, as the dip of both series appeared
to be very slight. A strong discordance could have been immediately detected.
Since the above was written No. 2 boring has entered these old rocks, and
the specimens brought up confirm the conclusion arrived at from the results of
boring No. 1. The rock entered at a depth of about 760 feet consists of reddish
vitreous quartzite, slightly micaceous, and very similar to the Hartshill stone of
‘Warwickshire.
4, On the Geology of the Coastland of Caria. By Joun L. Myres.
The interior of Caria, so far as it has been explored, presents only thick bedded
blue and grey limestones of Cretaceous age, lying almost horizontally, and forming
great plateaus with steep sea-slopes, the natural drainage falling partly into deep
gorges, partly into the frequent swallow-holes.
In the peninsula, however, which projects westward beyond Budrum (the
ancient Halikarnassos) the occurrence of a volcanic series, both below and above
the thick limestones, causes a complete change in the character of the country.
The ‘fundamental’ beds of this area are light-coloured crystalline quartzose
and felspathic rocks, which are interbanded with one another, and present occasion-
ally traces of foliation. The dips are almost universally to the east, and rise in
some places to the vertical, but are not wholly pre-Cretaceous. The age of these
beds is quite undetermined, but they may probably be correlated with the very
similar beds in Patmos, and with those which underlie the thick limestones in the
eastern half of the peninsula of Kavo Krio further south, and the white marble
series which represents them in Naxos, Attica, and elsewhere.
These beds are traversed, as in Patmos and Naxos, by numerous necks and
dykes of very various composition. Two or three types, however, may be distin-
guished, and appear to represent successive periods of volcanic action. In par-
ticular, a purple porphyritic rock which is especially common in the neighbourhood
of Gumashli (ancient Myndos), on the west coast, occurs as the main constituent
in an altered tuff, underlying the basal schists of the limestone series, in which
several other common types are not represented.
The pre-Cretaceous volcanic outbreak was not yet over when thegreat subsidence
began at the opening of the Limestone period ; for the last deposits of débris on
the flanks of the old land-mass have a distinctly subaqueous character, and are
immediately succeeded by fine clays and schists at the base of the great limestones.
The lower part of this series is in this region unusually full of thin sandy beds,
and it contains also a number of bands of black chert in the parts east of Budrum.
The higher beds, however, are cleaner, and conform to the more normal type
represented in the neighbouring areas of Kavo Krio, Kos, and Kalymnos. One
small outlier in the middle of the volcanic area has been wholly metamorphosed
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 747
into a coarsely crystalline and very clean white marble, strikingly like that of
Naxos; anda large area east of Budrum shows signs of similar but less complete
metamorphism. The basal sands and clays are in all cases much more altered than
the limestones associated with them.
At the end of the Limestone period a prolonged elevation allowed of the erosion
of the principal existing features of the Carian coastland ; so that the Tertiary beds
which cling about the slopes of the limestones and older rocks have all a littoral
character, which is maintained in the eastern part of Kos; though in the central
plain of that island deep-water limestones of some thickness occur. This series
consists of a basal breccia of limestone and fragments of crystalline rocks, followed
by sandstones and schistose clays, and then by thin-bedded cream-coloured clayey
limestones of the normal type. All these are locally altered where they come in
contact with rocks of the later volcanic series. In the absence of fossils these
beds can only be roughly correlated with the very similar rocks in Rhodes and
Crete to the south, and of Samos, Chios, and the mainland opposite to the north.
Above this normal series occurs a thick but very irregular accumulation of
volcanic débris, which can be associated with a second series of necks and dykes
in the old rocks. The limestone appears to have been largely denuded from the
western half of the peninsula before the outbreak took place; but boulders of it
occur in a very perplexing, mainly volcanic, breccia near Gumashli. A very
marked local variety of this volcanic series on the coast between Gumashli and Geretsi
supplied in classical and mediwval times an admirable peperino for building
purposes, which is still occasionally worked. The latest beds found in this area
are almost wholly composed of pumice, and may be referred to the very recent
volcanic centres in Kos and Nisyros. They fill several small bays in the penin-
sulas of Budrum and Kayo Krio, are well developed on the shores of Porto
Kalymno, and fringe the steep south-east shore of Kos, over against Nisyros, where
they contain larger fragments, and are associated with limestone. They are almost
always level; cliff breccias seldom occur more than twenty or thirty feet above
the sea-level, and are probably of very recent date.
It may be noted in conclusion that the argentiferous galena, which was worked
so largely in classical and medieval times at Gumashli (the Turkish name means
‘Silver Town’), is still found frequently, and of good quality, in the old rocks
of the neighbourhood. Many good veins of pyrolusite have lately been reported _
in the same series near Gumashli and Kephaloucha, and a cobalt mineral, not yet
assayed, is found in workable quantities at the latter place.
5. Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks.
See Reports, p. 465.
6. On the Discovery of Cephalaspis in the Caithness Flags.
By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F’.R.S.
_ The author described a new species of Cephalaspis (C. magnifica, Traq.), from
Spittal Pavement Quarry, Caithness, resembling C. Campbelltownensis, Whiteaves,
in having a pointed snout, but differing from it in having the cornua proportion-
ately short and broad-based, instead of slender and curved ; the cranial shield
is ornamented externally by a very fine tuberculation, and the inner margins of the
cornua are not denticulated. This is the first recorded occurrence of Cephalaspis in
the Orcadian area of the Old Red Sandstone north of the Grampians, and the species
is the largest known, the length of the cranial shield being no less than 8} inches.
7. Report on the Eurypterid-bearing Deposits of the Pentland Hills.
See Reports, p. 470.
748 REPORT—1893.
8. Ou some Vertebrate Remains not hitherto recorded from the Rhetic Beds
of Britain, By Montacue Browns, F.G.S., £.Z.8.
Plesiosaurus rostratus, Owen.!
In the autumn of 1890, when visiting Aust Cliff for a day, the writer found
some interesting vertebrate remains in the celebrated Rheetic ‘bone-bed’ there.
Amongst others was a large tooth which there was little difficulty in referring to
the so-called Termatosaurus alberti, a description of which, with figures, was pub-
lished by Plieninger * in 1844, and by Quenstedt* in 1858. This type of tooth has
been queried subsequently, indeed, by Quenstedt himself,‘ as pertaining to a Plesio-
saurus, but the species has never been determined. Since 1890 the Rhetics of
Aust Cliff, of Westbury-on-Severn, and of the Spinney Hills, Leicester, have
yielded to the writer teeth of the same character, and he has recognised similar
specimens, either unreferred or attributed to Termatosaurus albertii, in the British,
Bath, Bristol, Cardiff, Gloucester, and Leicester Museums, the Museum of Prac-
tical Geology, Jermyn Street, and some from the Rhetics of Stanton-on-the- Wolds,
Nottinghamshire, collected by Mr. E. Wilson, F.G.S.
During a visit to the Geological Department at South Kensington the writer
succeeded in referring them, with some certainty, to Plestosaurus rostratus, and
considered that, could some vertebre of the same Plesiosaurian be found, this
would furnish corroborative evidence. On a second and third visit to Aust, there-
fore (in 1891—-92)—hoth of several weeks’ duration—no pains were spared in search-
ing for vertebrze, with the result that several specimens were procured: and since
that time many have been acquired, by purchase and presentation, from the same
beds, and others have been recognised as Rhewtic specimens in the British, Bristol,
and Gloucester Museums ; whilst subsequent visits to the British Museum, and an
examination of the whole of the vertebra there definitely assigned to Plestosaurus
rostratus, have resulted in the conviction that the Rheetic Plesiosaurian vertebrae
are specifically identical. It is noteworthy also that one of the specimens in
the writer's possession—a cervical vertebra —might have been used for the figure
given by Owen® on tab. x. fig. 1, and the description tallies well, especially on
p. 23, where is stated the fact, patent on all the Rheetic specimens possessed or seen
by the writer, that ‘the fore surface of the centrum presents a slightly fibrous
character, not so smooth as in some other species, nor so irregular as in the Plesio-
saurus rugosus, for example;’ and again, on pp. 24, 25, ‘The sides of the neural
spines of these vertebrae are roughened by irregular or granulate ridges, directed
toward their summit, which is bent backward.’ Another agrees exactly with
No. 39849 British Museum specimen labelled Exetmosaurus rugosus, but which has
oie shown ° to be a vertebra of Plesiosawrus rostratus from the Lias of Lyme
egis.
The specific determination of this Plesiosaurus (hitherto recognised only as
Liassic) is a new record altogether for the Rhetic throughout the world, its yerte-
bree having hitherto been referred generically only, and its teeth having been
recorded as Termatosaurus albertii, Plieninger, and Plesiosaurus sp. non det. The
synonymy, therefore, will be as follows :—
1 A Monograph of the Fossil Reptilia of the Liassic Formations, part iii. (Paleon-
tographical Society, 1865), pp. 20-30, plates ix.-xiii. Note, however, that part of the
description between pp. 26-30 refers to Plesiosawrus conybcarei [-ri] (Sollas), as does
the whole of the plate (skull), tab. xiii. (see R. Lydekker, Catalogue of Fossil Rep-
tilia and Amphibia, British Museum, part ii. pp. 269, 270, and Woodward and Sher-
born).
Beitrage zur Paldontologie Wiirttemberg’s (1884), p. 123, tab. xii. figs. 93, 94.
Der Jura (1858), p. 33, and atlas, tab. ii. figs. 4-8.
Handbuch der Petrefaktenhunde (1885) p. 212, tab. xvi. figs. 7-10.
See note above (op. cit.).
Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia, British Museum, vol. ii. p. 273.
TS)
ao mm w&
ES —_ —
—_————
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 749
Plesiosaurus rostratus, Owen.
By Teeth. By Vertebrie.
| Termatosawrus albertii, Plieninger. Termatosaurus, Plesiosaurus ? Quen-
Plesiosawrus sp. non det. of various stedt.
authors. Plesiosaurian vertebrz of various
authors,
Termatosaurus crocodilinus, Quenstedt.
Teeth similar to those described and figured by Quenstedt! under the above
name, and not hitherto recognised as such in Britain, have been procured by the
writer from the Rheetics of Aust Cliff, Westbury-on-Severn, and the Spinney Hills,
Leicester, and others have been recognised by him in the collections in the British,
Bath, Bristol, Cardiff, Gloucester, and Leicester Museums, in the Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, and some collected by Mr. Wilson from Stanton-
on-the-Wolds. ‘
These recall the characters of an Ichthyosaurian tooth of the platyodont type,
and, indeed, are recorded by Mr. Wilson” as Ichthyosaurus platyodon ; yet a close
comparison of the tooth with that of Ichthyosaurus, and with those of Rhetic Laby-
rinthodontia, leads to the conclusion that it is to the latter (sp. ind.) they must be
assigned. In this connection the writer, having probably a larger amount of such
material at his disposal than is elsewhere known, is convinced that teeth of various
species of Saurichthys, Ag.,°> and other authors will have to be divided between the
Labyrinthodontia and various species of fishes, being, probably, called Saurichthys
erroneously.
Ceratodus (? latissimus), Ag.
In 1890 the writer found a small bone, which, having somewhat the texture and
appearance of a Ceratodus tooth, was labelled as probably pertaining to Ceratodus ;
but on the second visit, in 1891, more and larger pieces were found of the same
nature, but which, having the appearance of plates of the ichthyie skull, were pro-
visionally referred to Ceratodus. One was shown to Mr. A. Smith Woodward,
F.G.8., F.Z.S., who concurred in this opinion, at the same time calling attention to
a recent memoir upon the skull of a Ceratodus by F. Teller. On comparison with
the description and plates, it now appears that some of these bones are the
median and other plates of the skull of Ceratodus; and although, no doubt, they
have been collected before, and in one instance within the writer’s knowledge
attributed to Mastodonsaurus jegert,® a Labyrinthodont, yet this is the first instance
in which such specimens haye been definitely referrred ; consequently this will
be a new record for the Rhetic of Britain.
Some of the teeth of Ceratodus, collected in 1891 and 1892, are interesting as
having, in the case of the mandibular teeth, parts of the splenial attached, and
in the palatal teeth parts of the palato-pterygoid.
9. Note on a Fault at Oinder Hill.
By Grorce Fowter, M.Inst.C.H., F.G.S.
The underground observation of faults which are visible on the surface, and
are thus familiarly known, affords points of vantage for the elucidation of various
facts in connection with them, which mere surface examination cannot afford. It
has been the author’s good fortune to trace below ground a series of ‘faults,’ of
1 Der Jura, p. 33, and atlas, tab. ii.
2 «The Rheetics of Nottinghamshire,’ Q. J. G. S., 1882, p. 454,
8 Poissons Fossiles, vol. ii. pt. ii. (1843), p. 84.
* Ueber den Schidel eines fossilen Dipnoérs, Ceratodus Sturit nov. spcc., aus den
Schichten der oberen Trias der Nordalpen (1891).
5 Incorrectly determined as either a British genus or species; see Lydekker,
Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia, vol. iv. p. 142.
750 REPORT—1893.
which two are visible at the surface in the road leading by Cinder Hill Brickyard,
and which are laid down on the maps of the Geological Survey.
There are three points in connection with this series of ‘ faults’ which may be
especially interesting to this Association, and which were illustrated on the section
displayed on the screen. f
The first point of interest is that whilst the ‘throw’ of the ‘fault’ in the Per-
mian rocks at the surface only amounts to 76 feet, in the Coal Measures below the
‘throw’ amounts to 340 feet, a very much larger amount; and this shows that
there was an enormous movement prior to the deposition of the Permian strata,
and that there was a further small movement on the same lines after the deposi-
tion of the Permians. Both these movements took place when the rocks which
they affected had obtained their full degree of induration, and it is obvious that
the interval which elapsed between the two movements must have marked a long
period of geological time.
The second point which is noticeable about this series of ‘faults’ is the great
lateral movement of which it gives evidence. Whilst the ‘throw’ of the ‘fault’
on the slide or hade amounts to 340 feet, and the vertical displacement amounts
to 210 feet, the horizontal movement amounts to 270 feet, showing enormous
lateral movement.
A third point may also be noticed, whichis, that the main fault, though a large
one, practically makes no difference in the position of the zone of strata through
which it cuts. If the coal seam on the left of the section shown be continued at
its normal dip across the faulted ground, the position of the large ‘ fault,’ it was
seen that it practically meets the coal on the upcast or eastern side of that
‘throw.’ The rapid dip of the strata on the westward of the ‘fault’ line is thus
merely the slipping of the different beds along the fractural edge of the fault,
owing to the horizontal movement already indicated; and the fractures, the
alterations in inclination, are the result mainly of horizontal and not of vertical
movements.
10. On the Base of the Cambrian in Wales. By H. Hicxs, M.D.,
PD Toos ta.
If there is, as has been maintained by the author and others, a very marked
unconformity at the base of the rocks usually classed as Cambrian in Wales, the
evidence furnished by an examination of those basal beds which indicate shore
condition is of the utmost importance. ‘The author, therefore, in this paper gives
a summary of the results bearing on this question which he has obtained in his
examinations of these rocks in Wales.
PEMBROKESHIRE.
St. David's.—The basal beds are exposed on the north and south sides of the
pre-Cambrian Axis. _Wiere faults do not intervene the lowest beds are rough
conglomerates from 60 to 150 feet in thickness, in which pebbles over a foot in
diameter are very frequently met with. The matrix and pebbles vary constantly,
as they rest on different parts of the pre-Cambrian Axis, and there is the clearest
evidence of an unconformity between the conglomerates and the highest beds of
the Pebidian exposed in this area. The overlying beds, which are grits and sand-
stones, are ripple-marked, and show other proofs of having been deposited in
shallow shore-water. The author has recently re-examined the basal beds in this
area, and has accumulated additional evidence in support of the above view.
Ramsey Island.—The Cambrian conglomerates here rest on pre-Cambrian
felstones and breccias. The pebbles are mainly well-rolled fragments of felstones
cemented together by a felsitic matrix. Pebbles of quartzite and other materials
are occasionally found, but the main amount of the material was undoubtedly
derived from the rocks immediately underlying the conglomerates. The under-
lying rocks had undergone the marked changes now visible in them before the
fragments in the conglomerates had been broken off.
‘a
ae as are
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Cc. 75)
Trefgarn.—The pre-Cambrian rocks in this area are mainly felstones of a
peculiar type and volcanic ash, The conglomerates which repose on these rocks
contain pebbles of large size, and have been proved by microscopical examination
to be identical in character with the rocks on whose eroded surface they repose.
Here again the marked similarity in the minutest particulars between the rolled
fragments and the underlying rocks proves indisputably that the peculiar changes
which these rocks have undergone must have taken place before the fragments were
broken off, therefore in pre-Cambrian times.
MERIONETHSHIRE.
Harlech Mountain.—Near the centre of the well-known anticlinal of Cambrian
rocks in the Harlech Mountain there are conglomerates exposed which contain
fragments of granitoid rocks, felstones, &c., in addition to pebbles of quartzites
and quartz, and it is clear that they are, though not actually at the base, yet very
near the base of the Cambrian rocks of that area. The most important con-
glomerates, however, in this district are those which were discovered by Professor
Hughes and the author on the east side of the Trawsfynnydd Road, between Cae
Cochion and Penmaen. Here they are seen resting unconformably upon an older
series of rocks, and large fragments of the latter occur plentifully in the con-
glomerates.
ANGLESEY, AND CAERNARVONSHIRE.
As Sir A. Geikie has recently admitted that many of the rocks in Anglesey,
coloured on the Geological Survey Map of that island as ‘altered Cambrian (and
partly Silurian),’ are ‘undoubtedly far older than at least any of the Cambrian
rocks of Anglesey or Carnarvonshire,’ the evidence furnished by the basal beds
where they rest on these rocks is highly important. The author was the first to
point out, in a paper read before the British Association in 1879, that the patch
near the centre of Anglesey coloured as ‘intrusive granite chiefly of Lower Silurian
age’ contained within its boundary rocks of pre-Cambrian age, and evidently the
oldest rocks in the island. (The rocks in this patch Sir A. Geilkie now says appear
to him to be ‘unquestionably Archean.’) In the year 1884 the author further
showed that the Cambrian conglomerates near Llanfaelog contained large pebbles
of granitoid and other rocks, which, on microscopical examination, proved to be
identical with rocks ¢m situ in their immediate neighbourhood.
Professor Hughes has shown by fossil evidence that the beds which overlie the
conglomerates near Llanerchymedd are of Upper Cambrian age, and, as these are
separated by faults from the conglomerates and grits, it is clearly justifiable to
classify these beds as the basal beds of the Cambrian in that area. The basal
Cambrian beds near Beaumaris furnish equally convincing proofs of proximity to a
shore-line composed of pre-Cambrian schists and felsitic rocks.
Bangor and Caernarvon.—The basal beds at and near Caernarvon described by
Professor Hughes show clearly that they must have been deposited along a shore-
line where granitoid and felsitic rocks were undergoing denudation, and the absence
there of the usual thickness of overlying Cambrian rocks is due, the author believes,
mainly to faults, but in part also to the unevenness of the pre-Cambrian land sur-
face. There is much evidence in the various areas to show that the pre-Cambrian
land surface was very irregular in character, and that the Cambrian sediments
were accumulated along fairly well-defined lines of depression.
Bethesda, Llyn Padarn, and Moel Tryfaen.—The basal beds of the Cambrian in
these areas, where not removed by faults, are also conglomerates, and the frag-
ments in the conglomerates are mainly such as would be derived by denudation
from the ridge of rocks in the neighbourhood which had been claimed by the
author and Professor Hughes as of pre-Cambrian age. These views, put forward
in the year 1877, were not accepted by the chiefs of the Geological Survey; but
in the year 1891, in his anniversary address to the Geological Society, Sir A.
Geikie admitted that the rocks in this ridge, ‘ variously termed quartz porphyries,
felsites, and rhyolites,’ were not intrusive in the Cambrian rocks, but ‘the oldest
752 REPORT— 1893.
members of the volcanic series, and that ‘there is no true passage of the sedi-
mentary rocks into it; on the contrary, the conglomerates which abut against it
are in great part made out of its fragments, so that it must have been already in
existence before these Cambrian strata were deposited.’
The grits and slates which overlie the conglomerates in these areas have always
been classed by the Geological Survey as the Lowest Cambrian ; therefore any
attempt to extend the term Cambrian so that it might include the much older
rocks which the surveyors had incorrectly marked as intrusive, and ‘ chiefly of
Lower Silurian age,’ the author thinks is unwarrantable. The error which caused the
surveyors to class other pre-Cambrian rocks as ‘altered Cambrian’ equally renders
it impossible to group these with the Cambrian, especially as in no instance has it
been shown that the so-called ‘ altered Cambrian rocks’ have their equivalents
amongst the unaltered Cambrian rocks of the Survey. Moreover, it is certain that
there is a marked unconformity at the base of the Cambrian (unaltered Cambrian
of the Survey) in all the areas in Wales where the beds are seen to rest on the
rocks classed by the author and others as of pre-Cambrian age.
11. On the Reptilia of the British Trias. By EK. T, Newton, F.B.S8.
This communication is a review of our knowledge of the reptiles which have
been recorded from the Triassic strata of Britain. In the first place attention is
called to the teeth from Durdham Down, Bristol, described by Riley and Stutch-
bury in 1826 under the generic names of Paleosaurus and Thecodontosaurus,
which, with additional specimens, were further described by Professor Huxley in
1869, he regarding them both as dinosaurian. The two genera are distinguished
by the form of their teeth. Closely allied to Pal@osaurus is the tooth described
by Murchison and Strickland in 1837 as Megalosaurus, but subsequently named
Cladyodon by Owen. Another and still larger tooth, from the same neighbour-
hood, has been referred hy Professor Huxley to Teratosawrus (= Zanclodon) : it is
very similar to that of Cladyodon, but is more compressed, and has both anterior
and posterior edges serrated to the base.
Rhynchosaurus articeps, from the Keuper of Grinshill, Shropshire, was described
by Owen in 1841 from a skull, but was further illustrated by additional specimens,
including other parts of the skeleton, described by Professor Huxley in 1887.
This form, which is allied to the recent Sphenodon, is also near to the
Hyperodapedon, remains of which have been found in the Elgin Sandstone and
also in the Trias of Warwick and Devon. -Hyperodapedon was made known by
Professor Huxley in 1858, but first described it in 1869, and more fully in 1887
from a fine example now preserved in the British Museum.
Telerpeton Elginense, the celebrated lizard of the Elgin Sandstone, was found
in 1850 by Mr. Patrick Duff, and described by Dr. Mantell in 1851 as having
amphibian affinities. Additional examples were, however, described by Professor
Huxley in 1867, who showed that its affinities were with the lacertilia, and not
with the amphibia. Telerpeton is probably closely related to the living Sphenodon.
Stagonolepis Robertsoni was really the first reptile found in the Elgin Sandstone ;
aseries of scutes from Lossiemouth being thus named by Agassiz just fifty years ago
(1843), but were thought by him to be the scales of a fish. The reptilian nature
of this fossil was shown by Professor Huxley in 1858, and more abundant material
has been described by the same writer in 1875 and 1877, which has established
the crocodilian affinities of this Triassic reptile.
Dasygnathus longidens is the name suggested by Professor Huxley for a jaw
with long teeth from the Elgin Sandstone, which had at first been referred to
Stagonoleyis. This form Professor Huxley thought might be dinosaurian, but
additional information is much wanted to establish its true affinities.
‘The dicynodont remains, noticed by the present writer at the meeting of this
Association last year at Edinburgh, have now been worked out, and the results,
fully illustrated, will shortly appear in the ‘Phil. Trans.’ of the Royal Society.
Four forms nearly allied to Dicynodon haye been named Gordonia Traquairi,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ‘oe
-G, Huxleyana, G. Dufiana, and G. Juddiana, Another dicynodont more nearly
related to the Ptychognathus of Owen, but with a short muzzle and no teeth, has
been named Getkia Elginensis.
The peculiar horned reptile, resembling the Moloch lizard, but apparently most
nearly related to the South African Pareiasawrus, has been named Elginia
mirabilis.
Work among the Elgin reptiles is still going on, and two entirely new forms
are now made known for the first time. One of these was found by Mr. James
Grant, of Lossiemouth; and, although the exact locality is uncertain, there is no
doubt as to its being from the sandstone of the Elgin area. This specimen, which
includes the skull (about three inches long) and the front part of the trunk, is evi-
dently related to Stagonolepis.
The second new form was obtained by the Rev. Dr. Gordon from the Elgin
Sandstone of Spynie Quarry, and will eventually be preserved in the British
Museum. With the exception of the fore limbs and neck, nearly the whole of the
skeleton has been preserved. Much of the skull has been very successfully cleared
from the matrix by Mr. Richard Hall, of the British Museum, and was exhibited
at a soirée of the Royal Society, when its resemblance to Aétosaurus was pointed
out by Mr. Arthur Smith Woodward. This reptile is of much interest, as it seems
to be aform intermediate between the crocodiles and dinosaurs, being, apparently,
related on the one hand to the Parasuchia and on the other to the theropodous
dinosaurs. The skull is, in fact, that of a miniature megalosaur.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. A joint Discussion with Section E on the Limits of Geology and
Geography took place. (See p. 834.)
2. The Dissected Voleano of Crandall Basin, Wyoming.
By Professor JosppH Paxson Ipprnas.
The writer in exploring the north-eastern corner of the Yellowstone National
Park and the country east of it came upon evidences of a great voleano which had
been eroded in such a manner as to expose the geological structure of its basal
ortion.
; The work was carried on as a part of the survey of this region under the charge
of Mr. Arnold Hague, of the United States Geological Survey. This paper is an
extract from a chapter in the final report on the Yellowstone National Park in pro-
cess of completion, and the writer is indebted to Major J. W. Powell, Director of
the Survey, and to Mr. Hague, chief of the division, for permission to present it at
this time in anticipation of the publication of the final report.
The area of volcanic rocks described is but a small portion of the great belt of
igneous material that forms the mountains of the Absaroka range, lying along the
eastern margin of the Yellowstone Park. The volcano of Crandall Basin is one of
a chain of volcanic centres situated along the northern and eastern borders of the
Yellowstone Park, which are all distinguished by a greater or less development of
radiating dikes, and by a crystalline core eroded to a variable extent.
The Palzeozoic and Mesozoic strata which formed an almost continuous series
to the coal-bearing Laramie had been greatly disturbed, and almost completely
eroded in places, before the volcanic ejectamenta in this vicinity were thrown upon
= The period of their eruption is therefore post-Laramie, presumably early
ertiary.
The first eruptions of andesite were followed by those of basalt in great quan-
tities, and these by others of andesite and basalt like the first. This was succeeded
1893. 3¢
754 rErORT— 1893.
by a period of extensive erosion, reducing the country to nearly its present form.
Then came the eruption of a vast flood of rhyolite constituting the Park plateau,
which was followed in this region by smaller outbreaks of basalt. The last phase
of volcanic activity is found in the geysers and fumaroles which haye rendered the
region famous.
The voleano of Crandall Basin consists chiefly of the first series of basic ande-
sites and basalts. The earliest acid andesite which occurs beneath these rocks
appears to be the remnant of eruptions from neighbouring centres.
Nothing remains of the original outline of the voleano. The district is now
covered by systems of valleys and ridges of mountain peaks that rise 2,000 to 5,000
feet above the valley bottoms. The geological structure of the country, however,
makes its original character evident.
The outlying portions of the district to the south, west, and north consist of
nearly horizontally bedded tuffs and subaérial breccias of basic andesite and basalt.
With these are intercalated some massive lava flows, which are scarce in the lower
parts of the breccia, but predominate in the highest parts above an altitude of
10,000 feet. Here they constitute the summits of the highest peaks.
In contrast to the well-bedded breccias around the margin of the district the
central portion consists of chaotic and orderless accumulations of scoriaceous
breccia with some massive flows. These breccias carry larger fragments of rock and
exhibit greater uniformity in petrographical character.
A still more noticeable feature of the central portion of the district is the
occurrence of dikes, which form prominent walls, and may be traced for long dis-
tances across the country.
The greater number of them are found to converge toward a centre in the highest
ridge in the middle of the drainage basin of Crandall Creek. A small number
converge towards a second centre three or four miles east of the first. In the
southern part of the district there are many dikes trending towards a centre near
the head of Sunlight Basin, about fifteen miles south of the Crandall centre.
The centre towards which the Crandall dikes converge is a large body of
granular gabbro graduating into diorite. It is about a mile wide, and consists of
numerous intrusions penetrating one another, and extending out into the sur-
rounding breccia, which is highly indurated and metamorpbosed in the immediate
vicinity of the core. Within the area of indurated breccia the dike rocks become
rapidly coarser-grained as they approach the gabbro core. ‘This was undoubtedly
the central conduit of an ancient volcano, the upper portion of which has been
eroded away.
Upon comparing the geological structure of this region with that of an active
voleano like Etna it is apparent that the lava flows which form the summits of the
outlying peaks must have been derived from lateral cones fed by dikes radiating from
the central conduit ; and assuming that the volcano of Crandall Basin was similar in
type to that of Etna, an idea of its original proportions is derived by constructing
upon profile sections through the Crandall core the outline of Etna. Ifthe erosion
of the summits of the highest peaks is neglected the resulting height of the ancient
volcano above the limestone floor is estimated at 13,400 feet. Thisis undoubtedly
too low, and is well within the limits of present active volcanoes.
Erosion has removed at least 10,000 feet from the summit of the mountain to
the top of the high central ridge in which the granular core is situated, and has
cut 4,000 feet deeper into the valleys on either side. It has prepared for study a
dissected volcano, which, it is hoped, will in time reveal some of the obscurer
relationships existing between various phases of igneous rocks.
3. On Structures in Eruptive Bosses which resemble those of ancient
Gneisses. By Sir Arcuipatp Gerxis, F.R.S.
While it is now the general belief of geologists that the older granitoid and
banded gneisses were originally eruptive masses, considerable difference of opinion
exists as to the cause of the peculiar and characteristic structure which distin-
guishes gneiss from ordinary amorphous eruptive material. The pregnant sugges-
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 755
tion of Lehmann that this structure is essentially due to mechanical deformation
has been widely accepted, and has undoubtedly been of great service in the inves-
tigations of the last ten years among pre-Cambrian rocks. That the foliation of
many gneisses has arisen from the effects of enormous compression can no longer be
disputed. But among these rocks other structures occur which cannot be satisfactorily
so explained. In the granulitic gneisses, where the folia are thin, and where over
considerable spaces a marked uniformity of lithological character prevails, crushing
and recrystallisation have no doubt played a chief part in the production of the
gneissic structure. But in the coarsely banded varieties, where thick layers of
different chemical and mineralogical composition alternate irregularly with each
other, mechanical deformation seems to be wholly inadequate to account for this
arrangement. The author stated that he had pointed out some years ago that a
close analogy might be traced between this banded character and certain structures
to be observed in the deeper portions of large intrusive bosses. He had since then
had opportunities of repeating and extending his observations, which had led him
to the belief that the coarsely banded arrangement in the ancient gneisses was not
due to any subsequent crushing and recrystallisation, but was a structure developed
in the original, massive, or eruptive rock before its final consolidation. In the
deeper-seated parts of intrusive bosses he had noticed that the component minerals
had sometimes been segregated in parallel bands, each of which was marked by
the predominance of one of them, and that the minerals had there crystallised in
much larger forms than in the main body of the rock. Layers of felspar, pyroxene,
olivine, and iron ores had in this way been separated out, and could be traced in
alternate parallel bands for distances of many yards, sometimes even exhibiting
puckered, folded, and inverted structures. Such segregations were so like the
hornblendic, felspathic, quartzose, and pyroxenic bands of many gneisses that
the observer could hardly at first believe that they were not portions of some
ancient rock enclosed within the eruptive boss. He could soon convince himself,
however, that they were really integral parts of the general mass, Not only is
the banded structure of the gneisses perfectly reproduced in the bosses, but another
equally characteristic structure, that of the pegmatite veins, is likewise simulated.
Occasionally veins of this nature composed of the same minerals as the boss, but
aggregated in different proportions, may be seen, not only in the main amorphous
mass of the rock, but even traversing the segregated bands. So closely does this
association of structures resemble that of the old gneisses as to impress the convic-
tion on the observer that it probably represents the origin of some of the most
conspicuous features in these rocks. Illustrations of the structures described may
be found in eruptive bosses of Paleozoic age, but the best examples which the
_ author has seen occur among the Tertiary gabbros of the Western Isles.
4, On the Pittings in Pebbles from the Trias.
By Professor W. J. Sottas, D.Sc., F.R.S.
The singular indentations in the pebbles of the pebble beds of the Trias have
been variously attributed to solution and pressure, and in limestone pebbles Sorby
has conclusively shown how both have shared in their formation. No one, how-
ever, appears to have suggested the influence of slight movements as a powerful
adjunct to pressure; and yet earth tremors are of such constant occurrence that
slight movements must exist. How great may be the influence of these is proved
by the incised bones of the great Irish deer, which have made sharp and deep cuts
into each other wherever they have happened to lie in contact, and this although
only under the pressure of a peat bog. Still better illustrations are afforded by
some pebbles, to which my attention has been directed by my colleague Mr.
MacHenry. These are from an ancient beach over which the tram line passes at
Tritonville, Sandymount: they are covered with impressions essentially similar to
those on the Trias pebbles, a result of the perpetual jarring produced by the pass-
ing trams. It is obvious that under the great pressure to which the Trias pebble
beds have been exposed the slightest trembling at points of contact would produce
similar or even more marked effects,
8c2
756 REPORT—1893.
5. On Bones and Antlers of Cervus giganteus incised and marked by
Mutual Attrition while buried in Bogs or Marl. By V. Batt, C.B.,
LL.D., F.B.S.
From time to time bones and antlers of this extinct deer have been found with
peculiar cuts and marks upon them, which have suggested to some observers the
work of man; careful examination has shown, however, that these cuts and
polished and indented surfaces are all really due to the same cause, namely, the
sawing or rubbing together of bones and antlers as they lay in contact while em-
bedded in marl underlying peat. We cannot say with any degree of certainty
what the cause of the movement may have been. It may perhaps have been due
to alternate expansion and contraction, up and down, according to the amount of
moisture in the bog; possibly, however, it was connected with earth-tremors, the
origin and extent of which cannot be so easily explained.
The several finds of these cut bones, of which examples were exhibited to the
Section, were made at Legan, five miles south of Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford ;
and on the left bank of the river Camoge, one mile from Lough Gur, and close to
Kilcullen House, Co. Limerick.
In the former case, which was described by Professor Jukes in the year 1863,
the bones lay in shell marl 2 or 3 feet thick, resting on blue clay (drift) and
covered by 16 feet of peat; but originally, before being cut, the peat had been
50 feet thick at this spot. In the Lough Gur locality, which is described by Dr.
Carte, the mode of occurrence of the bones was similar.
6. On a Mass of Cemented Shells dredged from the Sea Bed.
By Professor W. H. Herpmay, F.R.S8.
7. Note to accompany the Exhibition of a Geological Map of India.
By R. D. Oupuam, A.R.S.M., F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of India.
Two maps are exhibited, on the scales of 96 and 32 miles to the inch
respectively. The smaller is a chromo-lithograph, and will be published shortly
with the second edition of that portion of the ‘Manual of the Geology of India’
which deals with the stratigraphical and structural geology of the Empire. The
larger is a manuscript map representing in greater detail the state of our know-
ledge of Indian geology at the end of 1892.
It is well known that the Indian Empire is divisible into three geological
regions, which are recognised as (1) the Peninsular, (2) the extra-Peninsular, and,
separating them, (3) the Indo-Gangetic alluvium.
It is in the extra-Peninsular region that most of the additions to our know-
ledge of Indian geology have been made since the publication of a general map
with the first edition of the ‘ Manual of the Geology of India.’ The most important
of these additions, so far as the area coloured goes, are in Upper Burma and the
country explored by my colleague Mr. Griesbach while attached to the Afghan
Boundary Commission; but, besides actual additions to the coloured area, great
additions have been made to our knowledge of the stratigraphy and correlation of
the rocks within the area which was coloured on the previous map.
Among the most important stratigraphical features of the extra-Peninsular area
may be ranked the fine development, and abundant fossils, of the Lower Trias of
the Central Himalayas; the rich fauna of this period, very scantily represented in
Europe, is now under description, and the publication of the results must be
looked forward to as an important addition to geological knowledge. Another
feature is the very fine development of Cretaceous and Tertiary beds on the
western frontier, and here the main stratigraphical break is not between the
Cretaceous and Tertiary, but at the base of the Lower Cretaceous of accepted
chronology.
Structurally the most important feature of the extra-Peninsular area is the
great disturbance the beds have undergone, a disturbance which has taken place
——wE—— Lx“ I
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 757
rincipally within the Tertiary era, and mainly within the latter half of it. In
fact, none of the mountains which bound the Indian Empire appear to have existed
in anything like their present form or size at the commencement of the Tertiary
era.
The Indo-Gangetic alluvium occupies a zone of depression formed entirely
within the Tertiary era concomitantly with the elevation of the extra-Peninsular
ranges. The surface deposits are all Recent or Pleistocene in age, but the occur- -
rence of extinct mammals in the alluvium of the Jumna, some of which are
identical with those of the uppermost Siwalik beds, points to an Upper Tertiary
age of the deeper seated deposits of the Gangetic alluvium, whose thickness has
been proved to reach 1,300 feet under Lucknow.
The Peninsular area differs from the extra-Peninsular in having been dry land
since the close of the Paleozoic era, and in the very small amount of disturbance
the rocks have undergone during this period. Two of its main geographical
features appear to be of very ancient date. On the north-west the Aravalli range
of the present day is the mere wreck of a mountain range whose elevation was
completed in the Vindhyan period ; the exact age of this system cannot be deter-
mined, as no fossils have been found in it, but it is certainly pre-Carboniferous,
though probably not much older than Devonian. On the east the present coast-
line appears to have been approximately determined about the same period, and
the manner in which the small patches of marine deposits found on the east coast
thin out against the older rocks shows that throughout the Secondary era the sea
could never have extended much west of the present coast, though dry land may
at times have extended further to the east.
The west coast appears to be of much more recent origin. Throughout the
Secondary era there seems to have been a more or less continuous land connection
between Southern India and South Africa; at the close of the Secondary era,
however, this was broken up, the present west coast defined, and the range of the
Western Ghats elevated. ‘he paleontological evidence of the former connection
between India and Africa is very complete, and, besides this, there is a very re-
markable analogy between the geology of the two regions. The Karoo series of
the interior of South Africa and the Uitenhage series of the coast are represented
in India physically, stratigraphically, and paleeontologically by the Gondwanas of
the interior of the Peninsula and the Upper Gondwana outliers of the east coast.
So far reference has only been made to the most important features of what is -
known, and it will be well now to point out briefly what has still to be done. .
Within the thoroughly settled districts of the Peninsula large areas have been left
uncoloured because absolutely nothing is known of them, and even in the area
which has been coloured much remains to be done. The vast area coloured with
one uniform tint of pink contains many varieties of rock, and at least two—probably
many more—successive systems of deposits, besides intrusive and eruptive rocks of
the most diverse kinds. The succession and correlation of the various rock systems
which are classed as Transition, Cuddapah, and Vindhyan have yet to be esta-
blished; while the relation between the Upper and Lower Gondwana beds and the
proper classification of this great series of river deposits, ranging in age from Car-
boniferous to Cretaceous, have still to be worked out.
In the extra-Peninsular area the Himalayas have much information to yield,
especially as regards the zonal distribution of the Siwalik fauna, and the sequence
and correlation of the great series of as yet unfossiliferous slates and limestones of
the North-west Himalayas. On the east our newly-acquired province of Burma,
besides almost the whole of Assam, has to be surveyed, and the very fine series
of Tertiary rocks and the economically important mineral deposits have to be
examined in detail.
If fact, the most pressing need of the immediate future is not so much the
exploration and imperfect examination of new regions as the completion and
filling up of gaps in our knowledge of the geology of the land which lies within
our frontier.
758 REPORT—1893.
8. Geological Sketch of Central East Africa. By Watcor Grsson, F.G.S.
The tract of country described in this paper is situated in Equatorial Hast
Africa. It extends from the coast inland to the N.W. borders of Victoria
Wyanza.
The small island of Mombasa, the starting-point of the expedition, lies fifty
miles north of the island of Pemba. A narrow creek, fordable at low water,
separates the island from the mainland. .
The sea cliffs are composed of coral rock, which also forms an inland belt
about two miles broad, with a general elevation of 50 feet, which sometimes rises
to 100 feet. A fringing reef borders the coast. The shore sand consists of
comminuted corals and shells mixed with rounded fragments of quartz, orthoclase,
garnets, and splinters of clear blue cyanite. These constituents appear to be
derived from a submerged ridge, of which the Seychelles Islands are a remnant.
Tke coral rock rests on a sedimentary series consisting of shales, limestones,
flaggy sandstones, grits, and conglomerates in descending order. The beds dip
gently to the east. They extend inland to the borders of the Taru Plain, a
distance of about forty-seven miles.
The beds are of marine origin, ammonites and ichthyosaurian remains having
been found near Rabai and other localities.
It is impossible to correlate these beds with any occurring in South Africa,
but they appear to form a belt running many miles north and south of Mombasa.
The sedimentary beds rest unconformably on a metamorphic series, consisting
of gneisses, schists, and intrusive granites. The strike is N.N.W. and 8.S.E., and
the dip is generally high. The beds are often intensely folded (Ndange River).
Biotite is the commonest mica, and orthoclase the predominant felspar. The
schists contain much cyanite, full of iron inclusions. Common garnets are
plentiful. Hornblendic rocks are remarkably scarce, the main mass being mica-
ceous. Graphite schists occur, and the Bura Hills are largely composed of a
crystalline limestone containing scales of graphite. No fossils could be detected.
Quartz veins and quartzites are only feebly developed. They form gently un-
dulating country or else nearly level plains (Taru, Serengeti) through which low
isolated hills of gneiss and granite protrude.
It is evident that they have suffered enormous denudation. They no doubt
represent a complex metamorphosed series of sediments and intrusive rocks, but of
what geological age or ages it is impossible to state.
The intrusive granites are generally pegmatites. Porphyritic granite covers a
large area in Kayirondo. Biotite is the essential mica, and a pink orthoclase the
predominant felspar. The relation of this large mass of granite to the gneisses
and schists could not be ascertained.
The area covered by granite and metamorphic rocks is enormous. Fully two-
thirds of Central Kast Africa are composed of these rocks, The remaining portion
of the country, excepting the narrow coast belt of sedimentary rocks, is formed of
recent volcanic rocks.
No traces of the fossiliferous sandstones and shales found by Professor Drummond
near Lake Tanganyika, and quite recently by Mr. Joseph Thomson to the west of
Lake Nyassa and around Lake Bangweolo, were detected. If further investigation
proves their absence from East Africa to be a fact, then we have in the deposits
oe Lake Tanganyika the most northerly extension of the Karoo beds of South
rica.
Volcanic rocks form the grandest scenery in East Africa. They occur in two
forms, giving rise to two distinct types of scenery. They have either built up
tall isolated mountains like Kilimanjaro (19,718 ft.), Kenia (18,000 ft.), Elgon
(14,000 ft.), Chibchangani (12,000 ft.), besides numerous other smaller hills, or they
are arranged in lines running north and south. The lavas, tuffs, and ashes composing
the high central plateaux of Mau, Kamasia, and Lykipia have evidently issued
from a north and south fissure. The site of this fissure is now occupied by the
chain of lakes commencing with Naivasha on the south, and terminating northward
in Lake Baringo. Along this line recent eruptions, some still giving out steam,
_”
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 759
have broken out, and it is the interception of the drainage by the material thrown
out from these vents that forms the lakes Naivasha, Nakuru, and Elmeteita.
Highly acid and ultra-basic rocks are represented. Kilimanjaro and the
Kyulu Mountains are chiefly built up of basic rocks, while the lavas of Lykipia
and the Mau plateaux are chiefly acid. It appears that the latter localities have
been the seat from which acid lavas have continued to be poured from times prior
to the first eruptions of Kilimanjaro up to the present day.
The basic lavas of Kilimanjaro do not extend very far from the original point
of issue. At least this is so to the north, for no lavas were found on the plains of
Lytokitok, distant thirty miles north of Kilimanjaro. On the other hand the
acid lavas of Mau and Lykipia extend for great distances. Eastwards they
stretch as far as the Athé plain, about fifty miles, and westwards to near the shores
of Victoria Nyanza, a distance of nearly one hundred miles.
Further westward, in Busoga and Buganda, basic igneous rocks pierce the
metamorphic rocks, but without possessing any general trend.
With the exception of the still active volcanoes it is impossible to state even
the approximate geological age of any of the eruptions. Some of the volcanoes are
possibly only dormant, others are certainly extinct, but none appears to be of great
geological antiquity. All that can be safely asserted is that they are long
subsequent to the deposition of strata containing ammonites, for, whereas the
conglomerates of these sedimentary deposits contain pebbles of schist and gneiss,
they nowhere yield fragments of igneous or volcanic rocks.
9. Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius.—See Reports, p. 471.
10. Ox Quartz Enclosures in Lavas of Stromboli and Strombolicchio, and
their Effect on the Composition of the Rock. By Professor H. J.
Jounston-Lavis, M.D., M.R.C.S., B.-es-Se., F.G.S.
In a recent dolerite lava stream that reaches the sea at Punta Pietrazza, on the
island of Stromboli, are numerous inclusions of vein quartz and quartzite. These
attain several centimetres in diameter; some specimens are almost clear glassy,
while others are opaque and granular.
They have undergone more or less softening and fluxion, if not actual fusion,
by the lava. They are surrounded by a glassy crust containing numerous augite
crystals, more especially at the periphery. Where the glassy envelope has formed
veins penetrating along the fissures in the quartz, augite crystals have crystallised
out of this vitreous fluid. The amount of augite in the vicinity of these quartz
enclosures is greater than the average in the surrounding lava, showing that the
quartz has afforded a material necessary for the individualisation of augite. The
crystallisation of such out of the glass envelope would have been more complete
if sudden cooling of the lava had not prevented such a result.
The small island of Strombolicchio, close to Stromboli, is the wreck of an old
volcanic neck. The rock composing it is lighter than the lavas of Stromboli, being
of a purple tint, in which dark bottle-coloured and also bright emerald green
augites are visible, the latter being fewer but very striking. The Strombolicchio
rock is crowded with quartz enclosures, more opaque, more granular, and en-
wreathed with numerous emerald green augites. This green crust is seen micro-
scopically to be composed of mixed grains of quartz and augite. We can trace
the emerald green augites to an origin in the quartz which has combined with the
residual fluid of basic oxides with insufficient silica for the individualisation of a
mineral to form an augite.
The process is seen better here on account of the slow cooling of the plug and
the absence of the mechanical disturbance in the flowing stream of lava of the
Punta Pietrazza.
I have elsewhere shown the olivine nodules and many loose crystals are nothing
more than altered limestone enclosures, and here we see quartz adding augite to a
laya which may owe its diminished acidity in part to the absorption and conversion
‘
760. REPORT—1893.
of quartz into augite, the supply of the free silica possibly affecting the rock in
other ways as to its composition, not so easily demonstrable as the one here
described.
This is one more fact which goes to show that igneous rocks are markedly modi-
fied in their composition by the rocks they traverse. I have pointed out elsewhere
that it is not a case of simple fusion or fluxion but rather one of selective diffusion.
11. On the Gypsum Deposits of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire.
By A. T. Mercatrs, F.G.S.
The gypsum deposits of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire belong to the Keuper
series (Triassic). The ‘Upper Marls,’ in which the gypsum deposits occur, con-
sist of beds of marls with minor bands of sandstone. Rock salt is apparently absent
in both counties, but gypsum is abundant.
The chief gypsum works in Nottinghamshire are at Newark, Orston, Barton,
Thrumpton Gotham, and Kingston, and in Derbyshire at Chellaston and Aston.
The gypsum varies in thickness from a mere film to fifteen feet or so, and occurs in
the marls in the form of ‘ bowls, ‘cakes,’ beds, and thin bands or veins, and
in every degree of purity. The more massive portions are usually saccharoidal or
amorphous, and the purest kind is by the trade termed ‘Supertine.’ The tough
variety, commonly called ‘ Alabaster,’ which is worked up into ornaments, is found
only in the Chellaston district. The thin bands or ‘rivings’ are fibrous (‘satin
spar’). These gypsum deposits were probably formed in salt lakes or inland seas,
similar to the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah.
After extraction gypsum is cleaned, ground down to flour, and burnt. The
burning drives off the combined water. When ground down to flour and properly
burnt gypsum possesses the valuable property of recombining with water, and
setting from a thin paste into a solid mass. The mineral thus treated forms
plaster of Paris, and is en ingredient in Keene’s and other hardened cements.
12. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest—See Reports, p. 475.
13. On a Bed of Oolitic Iron-ore in the Lias of Raasay.
By Horace B. Woopwarp, F.G.S.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]
The author drew attention to the occurrence in Raasay of a bed of oolitic iron-
ore which had not been previously noticed. ‘The bed in question attains a thick-
ness of five feet, and lies at the top of the Middle Lias, beneath the dark shales of
the Upper Lias. The stratigraphical position is thus approximately the same as
that of the Cleveland iron-ore, although in Yorkshire the upper part of the Middle
Lias contains a series of ironstone bands.
An analysis of the Raasay ore, made by Mr. A. B. Dick, showed in the grey
(unweathered) rock 29 per cent., and in the brown (weathered) rock 37 per cent.,
of metalliciron. The discovery of the iron-ore was made during the progress of
the Geological Survey.
14. Note on a Transported Mass of Chalk in the Boulder Clay at Catworth
in Huntingdonshire. By A. C. G. Cameron, Geological Survey.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Survey. }
In this paper the author comments upon the abundance of chalk fragments and
boulders that culminate in the Drift around the highest points in the county west
of the town of Huntingdon. At particular elevated spots there are outcrops of
white Chalk which are dug up and used about the farmyards, where it sets hard, ,
SS a aS
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 761
making a firm bottom like cement. At Catworth, near Kimbolton, on the summit
of high ground overlooking the plain of the Oxford Clay, there is a mass of chalk
of great size, regularly interstratified with flint and lying on Boulder Clay. The
very unusual phenomenon is presented of a village, or the greater and principal
part of a village, built on chalk far away from any place where the Chalk forma-
tion occurs in place, or any outliers of that rock are seen. The evidence is striking.
There are ponds and pits about in bare chalk, the soil in the gardens is chalk, and
the graves in the churchyard leave off in chalk. There are numerous old excayva-
tions besides, whence hundreds of loads of chalk have been got out and carted
away to the farms adjacent.
The flints in this chalk are angular, and show little signs of being weathered or
worn, and there are in it besides thick tabular masses of flint. Copious springs
issue at the base of this chalk, and it is therefore an important water-bearing bed
in the village. The water in the wells sunk through the chalk to the clay beneath
frequently runs over the top; while in that portion of the village which is outside
the chalk area no water can be got by sinking in the clay. Besides Chalk there are
boulders of other rocks clustered about this village, but none of notable size. It is
not clear whether the Catworth Chalk is all one boulder—it may, perhaps, be
several boulders with clay between—but as the material has been transported
unaltered from the parent rock, it is not, in any sense of the term, a reconstructed
chalk,
15. Augen Structure in Relation to the Origin of Eruptive Rocks and Gneiss.
By J. G. Goopcut1p, F.G.S8.
The author discriminates between two types of augen structure—that (also
termed phacoidal structure) in which the ‘eyes’ are not necessarily crystalline in
structure, but are the unsheared portions of the rock which have escaped conver-
sion into the schist to which their matrix has been reduced, and that in which the
‘eyes’ are crystalline minerals, generally undeformed, and of later date in origin
than the movements which haye produced the schistosity.
True augen structure occurs under two different conditions. In the one the
constituents out of which the augen have been formed were already in existence
within the rock, and their development ina crystalline form is merely a case of
regeneration under plutonic conditions. In the other class of augen structure
one or more of the essential constituents that go to form the ‘ eyes’ did not ori-
ginally exist within the rock, bat have been introduced at a late period in its his-
tory from some foreign source.
Both of these classes of augen structure appear to be due to segregatory action,
which came into play at a time when the rocks in which the structure occurs were
in a potentially molten condition arising from the heat developed by earth move-
ments acting under great pressure. Under these conditions of high temperature a
slight and very gradual relief of the pressure referred to permitted some of the
less refractory minerals to pass into a condition which favoured their segregating
from a state of diffusion throughout the mass. Under these circumstances the
more refractory minerals remained practically unaffected. If, following the dimi-
nution of pressure (which is equivalent in this case to a rise of temperature), there
ensued a fall of temperature, the newly-formed minerals passed into the crystalline
condition, while the rock material within which the augen had been developed
still retained the schistose or other structure impressed upon it by the earth move-
ments of prior date.
According to this view, therefore, phacoidal amphibolite and augen-amphibolite
are respectively the results of mechanical and chemical action upon the same
original type of rock.
In the other types of augen structure the ‘eyes’ are developed by the
heat generated by earth movements, as in the former case; but an essential
component of one or more of the constituents of the augen has been derived
from an outside source. Augen of this class may consist of any one of several
minerals; but those of most importance in the present connection are the
762 REPORT—1893.
augen of one or other of the felspars. These consist of crystalline and, usually,
very clear and fresh felspar, which has been developed, in the cases specially under
consideration, in rocks of detrital origin, from whose original constituents the
soluble alkalies had been removed by surface agencies. When such rocks were first
acted upon by plutonic agencies they did not, therefore, contain the whole of the
constituents out of which new felspar could arise. The question in such a case
is, Whence came the alkalies which have combined with the silicates of alumina to
form the felspar? In a few cases it may be surmised that part of the alkaline
matter may have been introduced through the agency of percolating waters de-
rived from a land-surface, or from the bottom of the sea. In such cases the alka-
lies liberated by the weathering are partly returned underground, there to enter
upon a new cycle of change. But it is just possible that the chief source of most
of the alkalies that are introduced into rocks in process of metamorphism may lie
within the inner zones of the earth’s crust, whence both potassium and sodium may
be expelled in some mobile form capable of diffusing itself throughout certain
kinds of rock, and there enter into new combinations in the manner already
suggested.
Augen structure graduates into true pegmatite, in which certain rock-forming
silicates have aggregated into zones or bands following the planes of structural
weakness in the rock wherein they occur. True pegmatite is thus of subsequent
origin to the consolidation of the rock in which it occurs: in this respect, amongst
others, it differs from ‘giant granites.’ Pegmatite, according to this view, is not
intrusive in the ordinary sense of the word, but is developed zn situ as a conse-
quence of local and slight relief of pressure when the parent rock was in a poten-
tially molten state resulting from earth-creep under plutonic conditions.
The continued formation of bands of pegmatite along the dominant planes of
wealkmess in a schistose rock of metamorphic origin must result in the develop-
ment of a truly foliated (not schistose) rock, into whose structure crystalline
felspar enters as an essential constituent. Such a rock would differ in no respect
from a true gneiss.
If the superincumbent pressure is relieved per saltwm, while any given rock is
subjected to a temperature above that of the fusing point of its most refractory
constituent, the entire mass enters into a state of fusion, in which form it eats its
way upward until a communication is established between the subterranean zones
of fusion and the surface, and a volcano is the result.
It would thus appear that augen structure is one of the first stages alike in the
conversion of a metamorphic rock into gneiss, and in that fusion of deep-seated
masses which eventually leads to the formation of the non-foliated rocks of erup-
tive origin,
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. The Genetic Relations of the Basic Hruptive Rocks of Gran (Kristiania
Region). By Professor W. C. Bricaur, of the University of Kristiania.
This paper dealt with a series of eruptive bosses and laccolites forming a line
of hills, of which the chief, in order from north to south, are:—(1) Brandberget,
(2) Sélvsberget, e Viksfjeld, and (4) Dignaes. The main rock type in these
bosses was called by the author Olivine-gabbro-diabase. It is basic (48 per cent.
SiO,) in (1), rather less basic (47 per cent.) in (2), and somewhat acid (49 per cent.)
in (4). From the intimate connection of the minerals in the different types, and
the occurrence of all intermediate varieties, it was proved that these rocks had
segregated in succession from a magma whose average composition was not unlike
that of the rock of Sélvsberget. The gradation in chemical composition produced -
i i a ie
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 763
a similar gradation in the mineral percentages, the felspar increasing from 12 per cent.
to 64 per cent., and the pyroxene diminishing from 67 per cent. to 10 per cent. in a
southerly direction. The author briefly stated that the contact metamorphism due
to these plutonic rocks was quite different in character from that produced by a
neighbouring mass of quartz-syenite in the same group of sedimentary rocks.
The eruptive bosses are accompanied by a great series of dikes and sheets of lam-
prophyric character, and varying from camptonite to bostonite. The author brought
forward a quantity of evidence to prove that (1) these two extreme types, with
SiO, percentages varying from 40 to 56, had been derived from the same magma;
that (2) 9 parts of camptonite and 2 of bostonite (about the proportion observed
in the field) would give a magma of the composition of the Olivine-gabbro-diabase
of Sdlvsberget ; that (3) these lamprophyric dikes had been derived from the same
magma as the plutonic rocks; and that (4) the differentiation had been effected
while the magma still remained fluid. It was further shown that the differentiation
was probably due to the migration of less soluble constituents to the cooling
margin; that the camptonites had a composition closely allied to that of the brown
hornblendes of the area; and that, while the essential cooling of the plutonic rocks
had taken place in the eruptive bosses themselves, the dike rocks had segregated
before extrusion.
A subsidiary differentiation of the plutonic rocks has also taken place in some
of the bosses, giving rise in the pure basic Brandberget to a pyroxenite (with 95 per
cent. pyroxene) and augite-diorite, and in the less basic Sélvsberget pyroxenite and
labrador-porphyrite.
Other points of information to be noted were: (1) That, under different physical
conditions, not only various mineral aggregates, but rocks of varying chemical
composition had resulted from the differentiation of the same magma; (2) that
similar products result in this case from the segregation of an Olivine-gabbro-
diabase magma as have elsewhere been derived from a magma that has produced
nepheline-syenite; (3) that the direction of segregation, according to laws of
crystallisation, throws considerable light on the order of volcanic eruptions from
neighbouring centres.
2. Petrological Features of the Dissected Volcano of Orandall Basin,
Wyoming. By Professor JosrpH Paxson Ippinas.
It will not be possible in an abstract to do more than present in the briefest
manner the more salicnt features of the petrology of the rocks of this voleano. The
rocks are mostly the same as those in various parts of the Yellowstone National Park,
some of which haye been described in another place. The older acid breccia con-
sists of fragments and dust of hornblende-mica-andesite, hornblende-andesite, and.
hornblende-pyroxene-andesite. They are partly glassy and partly holocrystalline.
In some places they appear to pass into the overlying breccia, but in others they
have been eroded and weathered before the latter were thrown over them.
The upper breccia, which constitutes the main mass of the volcano, is basaltic
as a whole. It consists of pyroxene-andesite and basalt, the latter predominating
in the upper part of the accumulation. The massive flows, so far as investigated,
are all basalt. The composition varies constantly within narrow limits. A great
part of these rocks contain glassy ground mass.
The rocks constituting the dikes exhibit more variation than the breccias,
though the majority of them are like the breccias in composition and habit, being
basalt. They are generally more crystalline. A great many dike rocks resemble
the basalts in outward appearance, but have no olivine, and are more crystalline.
The absence of olivine appears to be due to the conditions which influenced the
crystallisation of the rocks, and not to their chemical composition, for in some
cases what appear in hand specimens to be decomposed olivines are found to be
paramorphs after this mineral, consisting of grains of augite, magnetite, and biotite.
As the rocks become more crystalline biotite becomes an essential constituent, the
porphyritic minerals lose their sharpness of outline and assume some of the
microscopical characteristics they possess in gabbro.
764 REPORT—1893.
Within the core the coarsest-grained forms are gabbro. The composition
varies in different parts of one rock mass, and also between different intrusions
within the core. The transition is from a gabbro to a diorite with biotite and quartz ;
and the extreme variety is that form of granite called haplite, the range in silica
being from 51°81 to 71°62 per cent. Fine-grained andesitic equivalents of diorite
occur in dikes outside of the core, but none of the most siliceous varieties has
been found outside of it.
From this it appears that towards the end of volcanic activity near the core the
composition of the magmas became more and more siliceous, and the volume of the
lava erupted smaller. But this change in composition was not uninterrupted, for
there are evidences of the alternate eruption of basic magmas as well. Dilkes of
more siliceous rocks are traversed by later dikes of basic rocks. This has taken
place both inside and outside of the core.
Some of these basic rocks are exceptionally low in silica for rocks of this region.
They are all found at some distance from the core, with one exception, which
ig an intrusion within it. They are lamprophyric, and approach more or less
closely camptonites, monchiquites, kersantites, and minettes. They are connected
with the basalts of the region by mineralogical and structural transitions.
These exceptionally basic rocks are the chemical complements of the acid ones
in the core, and appear to be among the latest eruptions. While they agree with
one another in having a low percentage of silica, they differ in the relative abun-
dance of magnesia, lime, and iron oxide on the one hand and of alumina, soda,
and potash on the other.
As already pointed out by the writer in another place, the variability in
composition of all the igneous rocks in this volcano illustrates one mode of
differentiation of a magma at a particular centre of eruption. A comparison of the
chemical and mineral composition of the rocks of this district furnishes additional
evidence of the fact that magmas which are chemically similar will crystallise into
different groups of minerals, according to the conditions through which they pass.
Thus chemically similar magmas may form basalt under one set of conditions and.
gabbro under others, the first composed of plagioclase, augite, olivine, magnetite,
and sometimes hypersthene, the second consisting of plagioclase, augite, hyper-
sthene, and biotite, besides some magnetite, orthoclase, and quartz, with or without
hornblende. Minerals, then, which are primarily functions of the chemical
composition of rocks are also functions of the physical conditions affecting
crystallisation.
Some of the conditions under which the molten magmas solidified within the
dikes and core of the volcano of Crandall Basin may be inferred from a considera-
tion of the geological structure of this ancient volcano, The magmas which
solidified within that portion of the core now exposed and those in dikes within a
radius of two miles must have occupied positions at nearly the same distance
beneath the surface of the voleano—that is, at a depth of about 10,000 feet. The
latter rocks were as deep or as abysmal as the former, and yet their degrees of
crystallisation range from glassy to coarsely granular. The influence of pressure
on the crystallisation is not recognisable either in the size of grain or the phase of
crystallisation.
Marked changes in the crystallisation may be traced horizontally in the imme-
diate vicinity of the core. They are rapid near the core, and are accompanied by
the induration and metamorphism of the surrounding rocks, They are in great
measure independent of the size of the rock-body, since narrow dikes within the
core are coarse-grained, while much broader ones in the surrounding breccias are
very fine-grained. It was unquestionably the differences in the temperature of the
core-rocks and of the outlying breccias which affected the degree of crystallisation.
The former must have been more highly heated than the surrounding rocks, and
the magmas solidifying within them cooled much more slowly than those injected
into the outlying parts of the volcano. In this case the depth at which the
magmas solidified appears to have been of little moment in comparison with the
temperature of the rocks by which they were surrounded.
The core of gabbro and diorite, with an intricate system of veins of middle-
Lod
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 765
grained porphyritic rocks, and radiating dikes of aphanitic and glassy lavas, encased
in an accumulation of tuffs and breccias, with flows of massive lava, constitute an
extinct or completed volcano, The central core consists of magmas that closed
the conduit through which many of the eruptions had reached the surface. In
solidifying they became coarse-grained. The question naturally suggests itself,
Are these rocks any less volcanic than those that reached the surface? What
part of a volcano is non-volcanic ?
3. Berthelot’s Principle applied to Magmatic Concentration.
By Avrrep Harker, M.A., F.G.S.
The paper deals with that type of concentration in which an igneous rock-
magma, supposed originally homogeneous, has been differentiated by accumulation
of the more basic ingredients in the cooler marginal part of the liquid. The author
tries to find a physical cause for this action by comparing such a magma with a
saturated saline solution, and applying Berthelot’s ‘ principle of maximum work’ or
the cognate one of ‘most rapid degradation.’ The migration of the least soluble
ingredients to the part of the liquid most easily saturated would determine
crystallisation, the process which in the case supposed would give the most rapid
evolution of heat.
4. On the Origin of Intermediate Varieties of Igneous Rocks by Intrusion
and Admiature, as observed at Barnavave, Carlingford. By Professor
W. J. Sottas, D.Sc., F.R.S.
The two principal kinds of rocks composing the mountain of Barnavave are a
dark-coloured, almost black, gabbro and a light-coloured, almost white, grano-
phyre. This extreme contrast in colour renders the study of their relations to each
other in the field acomparatively easy task. The gabbro which overlies the grano-
phyre was the first-formed rock, and had already cooled and solidified before the
granophyre was injected into it. The injection of granophyre has been of the
most searching character, and the rock can be traced from the parent mass through
dykes of all gradations in size down to the minutest films and specks which fill
cracks and cavities in and amongst the constituent minerals of the gabbro. The
gabbro has thus become converted locally into the quartz gabbro of authors, and
it is suggested that in other cases, as that of Carrock Fell, this rock has had a
similar origin. The granophyre, on the other hand, contains fragments of the
gabbro, ranging from great blocks down to mere crystal dust of its constituent
minerals, labradorite and augite. It thus passes into hornblendic granophyre, the
syenite’ of the Survey. There is no evidence here, as has been erroneously sup-
posed, of the differentiation of an originally homogeneous magma, and the minute
granophyric dykes are neither contemporaneous nor segregation products. On
the contrary, rocks of intermediate character have been produced from already dif-
ferentiated and opposed types solely by admixture.
5. On the Transformation of an Amphibolite into Quartz-mica-diorite.
By Professor W. J. Sottas, D.Sc., F.R.S.
On the steep northern side of tne upper lake of Glendalough, Co. Wicklow, a
coarsely crystalline rock, weathering spheroidally, protrudes in a bold mass through
the surrounding Ordovician mica-schists, which it welds at the junction into des-
mosite. It consists almost entirely of hornblende, possesses a specific gravity of
3°03, and analysed in bulk gives the following results :—
Silica . Cc : = : ‘ : : é é . 48°94
Alumina 2 ‘ 0 a : : 5 . 10:54
Ferric oxide . : : : : é : : : ae Yicais!
Manganese oxide . : : : : ; : : ; 15
Lime . re ° - 7 : 5 - 7 . 0°29
Magnesia. “ 4 ‘ , : c : : . 20°66
Water . 3 , 3 : : : ; : lsc
766 REPORT—1893.
Great interest attaches to the remarkable change in character and composition
which the rock undergoes on passing from its eastern to its western boundary :
quartz and orthoclase as well as plagioclase felspar appear as additional consti-
tuents; simultaneously the hornblende becomes actinolitic, and gives rise to a
profusion of black mica. From an amphibolite the rock changes into a quartz-
mica-diorite.
Numerous veins of quartz traverse the adjacent schists, and can be traced on
the western side of the amphibolite up to and into it; they contain potash felspar
near the junction, and it is to their influence that the transformation of the
amphibolite is unquestionably due.
Another instance is thus afforded of a rock of intermediate type resulting from
the admixture of already differentiated material.
6. On some Igneous Rocks of South Pembrokeshire, witi a Note on the Rocks
of the Isle of Grassholme. By ¥.T. Howarp, B.A., and E. W. Smatt,
M.A., B.Sc.
I. Constitution of the District.—The district is largely composed of rocks of
Old Red Sandstone age with smaller patches of Silurian and Ordovician strata,
bounded on the N. by Carboniferous rocks. The igneous rocks may be roughly
divided into two groups: the first or northern group runs in a more or less E.
and W. direction, and marks the southern boundary of the Culm, while the second
(in the §.W.) occurs as isolated patehes, associated principally with rocks of
Silurian age.
II. Reference is given to the previous work of Kidd, De la Beche, Murchison,
Aveline, Rutley, Hicks, Davies, and Teall.
III. Detailed Description of the Igneous Rocks.—(A) Northern group.—Sub-
divided into three distinct patches: (a) In 8.E. running from Benton Castle
N.W. to Rosemarket, and from Benton Wood to Waterless. Practically all the
rocks of this patch are quartz felsites or rhyolites; several of them show good
flow structure and spherulites; much alteration has occurred in places, and the
rocks have become brecciated. At Waterless is a rock (marked as granite on the
Survey map), composed of quartz and felspar, whose connection with the felsites
is not very clear. (6) To N. and E. of the last, stretching from near Llangwm
to beyond Tier’s Cross. The rocks of this patch show great alteration, readily
weathering down to a felspathic gravel. On the Survey map the patch is
marked partly as syenite and partly as greenstone. Dr. Hicks describes the de-
composed form of the rock seen in the railway cuttings at Johnstone as a
granitoid rock, very similar to the Dimetian. Two large quarries at Annikell
amd Targate give the only good exposures of the unweathered rock, chiefly a coarsely
crystalline aggregate of quartz and hornblende, with a gneissose structure.
Microscopically some portions might be described as typical hornblende schist,
others as quartz diorite, granitic in aspect. Mr. Watts suggests that this rock
may possibly be allied to the soda granites of Leinster, described by Professor
Sollas. Another rock, a highly quartzose granite with microcline, appears to be
later than the diorite: it shows much evidence of crushing and straining. A
greenish black fine-grained rock (macroscopically appearing to be an ordinary
dolerite, microscopically showing fresh stumpy plagioclase set in large plates of
hornblende, apparently of primary origin) seems to be intrusive into the quartz
diorite. It is doubtless the rock referred to by Dr. Hicks as diabase ; it should
perhaps be called an epidiorite, or proterobase. (c) The third portion of group
A runs from Romans Castle on a narrow strip past Walwyns Castle up to
Talbenny, where the outcrop broadens and forms the cliffs of Goultrop Head.
As described by Dr. Hicks, Mr. Davies, and Mr. Teall, the main rock appears to
be an altered quartz diorite penetrated by a whiter granite; besides which there
seem to be basic dykes, all more or less altered, some epidiorite, others hornblende
schists. The rock at Walwyns Castle appears, however, to be a felsite.
(B) Southern group.—tThis group consists of a number of patches, which
Ld
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 767
appear on the Survey map as greenstone, between St. Ishmael’s on the E., Dale
on the S8., Wooltack Park on the W., and Musclewick Bay on the N., including
also Midland Island and part of Skomer. The rock seen in a small quarry at Crab-
hall was described by Mr. Teall as a somewhat basic porphyrite. What appears
to be the same rock is found exposed in several places on the opposite side of the
Mullock stream. At Marloes Sands the continuation of the Crabhall rock appears
in the cliff as a black dense rock much traversed by quartz and epidote. Micro-
scopically it is a perfect dolerite, generally ophitic in structure with plagio-
clase in augite plates, but sometimes granular ; there seems to be some hypersthene,
and serpentine is present, probably after the same mineral. From Marloes
Beacon this rock seems to continue, until it appears in contact with Llandeilo rocks
in Musclewick Bay. The rock found here, however, is shown by the microscope to
be a felsite (probably a soda felsite), and not a variety of the dolerite.
At Martins Haven the same ophitic hypersthene dolerite is found which occurs
at Marloes Beacon and in Marloes Bay.
IV. Age of the Igneous Rocks—The age of these rocks appears to have been
regarded by the Survey as post-Carboniferous, while some of them at any rate have
been claimed by Dr. Hicks as pre-Cambrian. The felsites in the Benton area are
almost entirely associated with beds of Old Red Sandstone, and there does not seem
to be any satisfactory evidence of intrusion. Such a continuous mass of quartz
felsite, with well-marked spherulitic and fiuxion structure, seems to suggest
rather a flow than an intruded mass. On this supposition the beds must be at
least post-Silurian.
The rocks from Llangwm to Talbenny are in almost every instance associated
with Llandovery beds on the one hand and Carboniferous strata on the other.
The Carboniferous strata are reversed in dip, and the line of junction is in our
opinion a line of thrust. The evidence seems to indicate that the rocks are not
post-Carboniferous, the Culm measures being apparently unaltered near the junc-
tion, and that, judging by lithological character, they did not occupy their present
position as a ridge in Llandovery, Old Red, or Carboniferous times. With regard to
the southern area we could not find clear evidence of intrusion, all the chief
junctions appearing to be faulted ones; still there seems to be little doubt that
rocks microscopically simiJar rest on different measures of Silurian age.
Grassholme, a small island about seven miles from the mainland, but rarely
visited, appears to be the continuation of the ridge from Wooltack Park and
Skomer towards the S.E. corner of Ireland.
No clastic rocks were found, the main rocks being ophitic dolerite, with
corroded augite and some bands of secondary epidote and quartz,
7. Notes on a Hornblende Pikrite from Greystones, Co. Wicklow.
By W. W. Warts, M.A., F.G.S.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]
In this paper the author gave a description of a rock which forms a dyke in the
Cambrian slates and grits of Greystones, in Co. Wicklow. It is a dark, dense,
coarsely crystalline rock, showing largecrystals of hornblende with lustre-mottling,
owing to the weathering-out of olivine crystals. It becomes finer-grained at the
margins. An analysis by Dr. Sullivan was added.
The hornblende is of the usual green type, and occurs in large crystals
enclosing pseudomorphs of olivine, now made up of magnetite and probably a
colourless amphibole. A colourless hornblende also occurs either as cores or
borders to the green crystals. A third type of hornblende present shows few
cleavage cracks and much magnetite dust. Apatite is a constituent, but there is
no felspar in the rock, The margin of the dyke is much sheared and phacoidal
in structure.
8. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens of Fossils.
See Reports, p. 482.
768 REPORT—1893.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. A Discussion on Coral Reefs, Fossil and Recent, was
opened by Professor W. J. Souuas, 2.8.
2. Twenty Years’ Work on the Younger Red Rocks (Permian and Trias).
By Rev. A. Irvine, D.Sc., B.A., F.G.S.
The author reviews the work done by himself and in collaboration with other
geologists on the Permian and Trias since he commenced the study of them in the
North Midlands more than twenty years ago. He shows why the use of the term
‘ Poikilitic ’’ and its connotation was given up by him after further work in Britain
and in Germany ; that it is necessary to recognise (as the earlier writers had done)
two distinct systems in these rocks; that the strata called ‘ Bunterschiefer’ by
Murchison are really the base of the Trias of Central Germany, and are sharply
cut off from the Zechstein ; that there is a distinct differentiation of the two systems
from each other on physical as well as stratigraphical grounds, on account of the
great difference as to the derivation of their materials in the relation the Permian
and Trias bear to the adjacent older land.
The chief results of the author’s work on the Red Rocks of Devon in the years
1887-1892 are then summarised ; further evidence of the contemporaneity of the
volcanic rocks and the breccia-sandstone series is given ; and attention is drawn to
the new edition of the l-inch map of the Geological Survey, on which the
Permians of Devon, as described by himself, are delineated. He regrets that he is
not able to accept (for reasons given in his published papers) the delimitation of
the Keuper, at the expense of the Bunter, which is adopted on that map, the base
of the Keuper having been traced in the valleys of the Otter and the Sid.
Sections are added (i.) at Saltern Cove on the west side of Torbay ; (ii.) at
Kimberley, Notts, in which there is the plainest evidence of great unconformability
between the Dyas or Permian and the older Paleozoic rocks.
The author concludes with a note on the probable physical history of the series
of strata under consideration.
The following are the more important papers of the author herein referred to :—
‘The Geology of the Nottingham District’ (Proc. G. A., vol. iv.) ; ‘Classification
of the European Permian and Trias’ (Geol. Mag., 1882); ‘Triassic Deposits of
the Alps’ (Zbid., November, 1882); ‘The Dyas and Trias of Central Europe’
(Q. J. G.S., August, 1884); ‘The Permian-Trias Question’ (Geol. Mag., July,
1884); ‘Report on the Permian and Trias’ (International Geol. Cong., London,
1888); ‘The Red Rocks of the Devon Coast Section’ (Q. J. G. S., February,
1888) ; ‘Supplementary Note’ on the same (Zbid., February, 1892); ‘The Base of
the Keuper in Devon’ (Zézd., February, 18938).
See also the following papers :—
H. B. Geinitz, ‘On the Limits of the Zechstein, &c. (Nova Acta Acad, Leop.,
Dresden, 1885), and summary of the same by A. Irving (Geol. Mag., May, 1885) ;
E. Hall, ‘On the Red Rocks of South Devon’ (Q. J. G@. S., February, 1892),
3. On the Trias of the Midlands. By Professor C. Larworrs, F.B.S.
A, On the Occurrence of Fossils in the Magnesian Limestone of Bulwell, near
Nottingham. By Baron A. von Retnacu and W. A. EH. Ussuer.
At Bulwell, near Nottingham, good sections are exposed in stone and brick
pits. The stone pits exhibit from 5 to 20 feet of yellowish brown Magnesian
limestones, in beds of from 8 inches to 1 foot, with rather irregular surfaces. The
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 769
limestone is very occasionally compact and sub-crystalline. It consists for the
most part of an aggregate of recrystallised materials, giving it the appearance of a
sandstone. Very occasionally quartz pebbles of small size are met with in the
denser portion. Certain markings on the irregular bed surfaces, which resembled
the rude internal casts of molluscs, led us to make a closer investigation, which,
from feeble casts and cavities, as if resulting from the solution of shell matter,
introduced us to certain proofs of the presence of organisms. These are in a very
imperfect state of preservation, but enough of the form remains to confidently
assert the presence of Schizodus and of Aucella Hausmanni, forms which
characterise the Upper Magnesian limestone.
The fossil casts are plentiful, sometimes occurring through the stone for a
thickness of 2 or 3 feet. Through their imperfect condition one can only say
that the other casts suggested Schizodus Schlotheimit, S. rotundatus, Edmondia,
Gervillia antiqua. In brick pits near the stone pits, over a floor of Magnesian
limestone, we find a section of from 5 to 15 feet of red marly clay, with pale
brown and greenish arenaceous beds and bands in places apparently dolomitie and
resembling the Magnesian limestone below. These clays are immediately overlain
by the Red sandstone (lower mottled) of the Bunter. Proceeding towards
Nottingham sections of Bunter pebble beds are shown, exhibiting their false
bedded courses, and containing occasional lines of pebbles or scattered pebbles of
hard liver-coloured quartzite and other stones, amongst which we noticed fragments
of igneous rock, one quartz porphyry being of a type familiar in Germany and in
the Teignmouth breccias of the south-west of England. The marly clay with
intercalated sandstones recalls the passage beds of marl and sandstone on the coast
between Exmouth and Straight Point, though the latter are more than ten times
its thickness.
5. Note on the ‘Himlack’ Stone near Nottingham.
By Professor EK. Hurt, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Professor F. Clowes having expressed his opinion at a previous meeting of the
Section‘ that the Himlack stone had been formed artificially by quarrying out the
rock which formerly inclosed it, the author desired to controvert this statement, and
maintained that this remarkable rock was a monument of natural denuding agency,
either marine or atmospheric. Some thirty years since, when working on the
Geological Survey, he had sketched and described this rock, as will be seen on
reference to the Survey memoir ‘On the Triassic and Permian Rocks of the
Midland Counties’ (1869), p. 34. The rock, which is 20 feet high, consists in its
ppper part of the ‘pebble beds, and in its lower of the ‘lower mottled sandstone,’
of the Bunter sandstone; and at the time the memoir was written the author
considered the rock to be a remnant of marine denudation, an old sea-stack of the
post-Pliocene period.
Its great antiquity is evinced by its name ‘Himlack,’ which is clearly a
Celtic word.
6. On the Junction of Permian and Triassic Rocks at Stockport.
By J. W. Gray, F.G.S., and Percy F. Kenpatt, F.G.S.
The Stockport section has for nearly thirty years been regarded as furnishing
the typical illustration of an unconformity between the Permian rocks and the
overlying Bunter. The Geological Survey memoir relating to the district gives
the following three vertical sections :—
Heaton Mersey Hope Hill Stockport
West East
Trias. Trias. Trias.
Permian marl, 129 feet. Permian 1arl, 25 feet. Permian marl (absent).
Permian sandstone. Permian sandstone. Permian sandstone.
1 Page 745.
1893. 3D
770 REPORT— 1893.
By a fortunate chance boreholes have within the last ten years been put down
at each of the localities named; the authors have had opportunities of watching
the progress of the work, and the investigation has yielded results entirely
different from those previously recorded.
At the most easterly exposure a good brook section displays a considerable
thickness of the marls. The details of the well sections are as follows :—
West Heaton Mersey Hope Hill Stockport East
Bunter — = ae
Collyhurst marls. 143 feet 6 inches, 150 feet, 134 feet.
The authors consider that the close correspondence in thickness of the upper-
most member of the Permian series in all three sections justifies the opinion that,
whatever may be the case elsewhere, there is no evidence of unconformity at
Stockport. The facts brought to light have an important bearing upon the
question of water supply, and also encourage the expectation that coal may be
profitably worked beneath the newer rocks at long distances from the western
edge of the Cheshire coalfield.
7. Note on some Molluscan Remains lately discovered in the English Keuper.
By R. Butten Newton, F.G.S., British Museum (Natural History).
This communication directs attention to the discovery, by the Rey. P. B. Brodie
and Mr. E. P. Richards, of some obscure impressions of lamellibranch shells in
the green gritty marls of the Upper Keuper Sandstone of Shrewley, Warwickshire,
which form the first evidence of a molluscan fauna from these beds as developed in
this country. The matrix appears to be so peculiarly unfavourable for the reten-
tion of shell structure that it is doubtful whether any better material than the
present will ever be forthcoming. The specimens indicate truly marine types,
though on account of bad preservation only three of them could be selected for
description as exhibiting certain characters in their contours and sculpturing, which
“mnight be of service in ascertaining their probable generic positions. Estheria
minuta is the one invertebrate form hitherto recorded from the British Keuper;
that is, excluding the Foraminifera described by Professor T. R. Jones and W. K.
Parker,! which came from an alabaster pit at Chellaston, near Derby, and which
were doubtfully referred by the authors to an Upper Triassic age. The very
modern facies of the Foraminifera has suggested the highly probable idea that they
were derived from superficial deposits,
Associated in the matrix containing these molluscan impressions are fragments
of cestraciont spines and teeth (Acrodus Keuperinus) and a part of a carapace of
the small phyllopodous crustacean, Estheria minuta.
The specimens described are identified as—
(1) Thracia (2?) Brodiei (x. sp.).
(2) Goniomya Keuperina (n. sp.).
(3) Pholadomya(?) Richardsi (n. sp.).
Such generic forms as are represented here have not apparently been reported
from rocks of a similar period on the Continent or elsewhere.
Fifteen specimens and a diagram accompanied the paper,
8. Observations on the Skiddaw Slates of the North of the Isle of Man. By
Herpert Botton, Assistant Keeper, the Manchester Museum, Owens
College.
The Skiddaw slate group of the north of the Isle of Man consists of alterna-
tions of quartzites, schists, slates, and bedded volcanic ash, penetrated by intrusive
sheets and dykes and ramifying quartz veins.
1 «On some Fossil Foraminifera from Chellaston, near Derby,’ Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soe., 1860, vol. xvi. pls. 19, 20, pp. 452-458.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. T71
North of a line drawn from Port Mooar through Snaefell to Peel, the general
dip of the slate is to the north-north-west at an angle varying from thirty degrees
to nearly vertical.
The lowest beds exposed in this area crop at Port Mooar along the axes of a
series of anticlinal folds, which occupy the whole of the bay and extend south to
Gob-ny-Garvain. These beds consist of massive iron-stained quartzites and schists
overlaid by well-bedded slates. Northwards, by St. Maughold’s Head and thence
to Ramsey, the slates dip steadily to the north-north-west, the angle of dip varying
between fifty and sixty degrees. Several dykes cut through the slate, whilst
quartz veins run in all directions. The dykes run very nearly in the line of strike,
and at first sight appear bedded and not intrusive.
That the quartz veins originated subsequent to the dykes is seen by their pene-
trating the latter.
Interbedded with the slates are thick sheets of volcanic ash much resembling
quartzites. t
The slates of St. Maughold’s Head have yielded Paleochorda and certain oval
structures which are evidently organic.
In the neighbourhood of Ballure Glen and Ballastowel Hill, the slates are
badly bedded, and full of irregular pebble-like inclusions, which give to the rock
a brecciated appearance. These have yielded the cast of a trilobite much resembling
Asaphus or A‘glina, and also certain other structures which may possibly prove
organic. North and north-west from Ballastowell, the Skiddaw slates consist of
irrecularly bedded iron-stained slates with interbedded volcanic ash, the latter often
of considerable thickness. '
Near Sully Glen Station occurs the singular and isolated hill of Cronk Lumark,
made up of a ‘shivery’ slate. Ina quarry on the north side of the hill specimens
were discovered of Dictyonema sociale and of a new species not yet described.
A series of dip observations taken along Sully Glen, Tholt-e-Will, and over
the summit of Snaefell, shows that the dip changes round towards the west,
causing axes of the anticlinal folds to emerge on the west coast, a little
to the south of Peel, where the cliffs exhibit a series of contortions and folds not
unlike those of Gob-ny-Garvain and Port Mooar.
The conclusions deduced from these observations are as follows :—
(1) That the Skiddaw slates of the north of the Isle of Man dip north-north-
west from an axis of folding which runs from Gob-ny-Garvain and Port Mooar on
the east to a little south of Peel on the west.
(2) That there exists a series of contemporaneous beds of volcanic ash.
(3) That the Skiddaw slates are fossiliferous, and by their fossils show a relation
with the Lingula Flags of the Cambrian.
9. On the Volcanic Phenomena of Japan.
By Professor J. Mitnz, F.2.S.
10. On the Radiolarian Cherts of Cornwall. By Howarp Fox, F.G.S.
The Mullion Island radiolarian cherts were first recognised by Mr. J. J. H.
Teall, F.R.S.,in rocks sent to him by the author last autumn, and a joint paper was
read at the Geological Society’s meeting, February 8 last, describing the manner
in which they occur. Dr. Hinde accompanied the paper with a description of the
"species recognised and with micro-photographs of the individual organisms.
Last Easter Mr. Teall, Professor Lapworth, and the author traced these cherts
for about 650 yards in the cliffs and on the foreshore from the south end of Nelly’s
Cove, near Porthallow, Meneage, to near Ligarath Point, south of the Nore Point.
Subsequently the author has examined the coast and some inland districts between
he River and Fowey, and has found other exposures in the following
places :—
Pendoner Beach, Veryan (for about 1,000 yards).—Beds many feet thick at the
“west end of this beach, on which the raised beach rests. Angular fragments of
3D2
772 REPORT—1893.
chert are enclosed in the raised beach, and in one place a mass of chert and slate
cliff has been thrust over it, and thus the chert appears both above and below as
well as in the raised beach. Towards the eastern end of this beach the chert beds
become thinner and more impure and ferruginous, and the limestone beds become
thicker ard more numerous,
Portloe Point, Veryan.—Here several beds, varying from one to six inches in
thickness, are seen for 20 yards in the volcanic breccia (or ‘ trappean conglomerate ’
of De la Beche) associated with some small amount of shale and grit, more or less
decomposing from the presence of iron. Two small exposures are traced inland,
one of which is 500 yards west of Portloe Point.
Pecunnen Cove, Gorran.—N.W. of the Dodman beds of chert are seen in
perpendicular thinly laminated crushed dark slates for 60 yards, accompanied by
numerous lenticles and bands of black quartzite and yellowish grey limestone.
Inland exposures are traced at intervals in a line extending for five miles
inland from Pendoner Beach in a N.E. direction through the village of Veryan
to Tolearne Mill, north of St. Michael Caerhays. These cherts on the mainland
are less pure than those in Mullion Island, and the structure of the individual
organism is destroyed. Some specimens show signs of great shearing and
crushing, and have no traces of radiolaria; others show shearing with slight
traces of radiolaria, whilst others show no signs of crushing, and have clear round
spaces, evidently due to radiolaria. In many of the specimens examined a
considerable amount of ferric oxide has been formed by the decomposition and
oxidation of pyrites, and possibly also of ferriferous carbonate. At Portloe Point
the chert appears to pass into quartz.
The Meneage and Veryan cherts are associated with the well-known Ordovician
quartzites of those districts, and appear to lie immediately under them; but the
sequence is not absolutely clear, and no typical fossils have yet been found in
the shales and slates with which the cherts are interbanded.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. A Discussion on Geological Education was Opened by the Reading of the
Following Papers by Professors Cote and Lrzoour.
Geology in Secondary Education.
By Professor Grenvitte A. J. Cort, M.R.LA., F.G.S.
This paper is intended to be introductory to a discussion of the methods of
teaching geology, with a view to making the general results of research in that
science more accessible as a branch of education.
The need for selection of subjects in modern education is fully admitted ; but
it is urged that, following on the study of elementary chemistry and physics,
geology forms a subject of such far-reaching importance that it should be included
in the general curriculum for boys and girls about the age of sixteen or seventeen.
The utility, in a technical sense, of such knowledge is not here insisted on,
But everyone upon this earth should be capable of appreciating his surroundings,
and particularly the past history of life upon the globe, if he is to be able to pass
judgment upon current affairs, and to play his part as an individual organism.
It is urged that geology is asfundamentally important as history, and tends to
modify very largely our conceptions of the relations between what is called
‘antiquity’ and ourselves. Besides this, in common with other natural sciences,
it encourages a love of truth where statements can be safely made, and of reserve
where assertions would be merely dogmatic.
The course suggested for all pupils is one in which mineral details are subor-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 773
dinated, except where they are important in explaining the origin of certain broad
features, such as familiar and local landscapes. It is proposed to avoid the use
of microscopic sections, and rather to rely upon powdered specimens for the deter-
mination of the constituents of such simple rocks as are dealt with. The greatest
stress for general purposes is to be laid upon an outline of stratigraphical geology,
and its illustration by such beds, unconformities, &c., as may be exhibited in the
environs of the school. The outdoor character of the study should be insisted on ;
and the fact that the broader generalisations of the science are based on the colla-
tion of local observations will not be among the least valuable results of the intro-
duction of the subject into our educational systems.
On Geology in Professional Education. By Professor G. A. Lexour,
M.A., F.G.S., of the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
The author has for many years been engaged in teaching geology in a Univer~
sity college situated in a centre of great mining and manufacturing activity.
The students with whom he had to deal were many of them, therefore, being
educated for some branch or other of engineering, and took up the subject of
geology with a view to its future utility rather than as an academic subject
merely. For professional students of this type he thought that the ordinary
geological courses in colleges of this kind were, asa rule, too long. In his own
college, for instance, geology comprised two or three annual series of about ninety
lectures each, with a field-day every week and a field-week every year, besides
(for second and third year men) at least eight hours per week of laboratory work.
This was not too long for men going up for title or degree examinations in geology,
and still less was it too much for those, necessarily few in number, who intended.
to become professional geologists; but for future mining or civil engineers and
managers of works he contended that it was excessive. Such men need not be
trained into experts in geology. It was enough that they should leave their
college with so clear a grasp of the principles of the science and such an insight
into its methods that they should be enabled to understand the reports of the
geological experts whom they might employ, and to distinguish between the real
expert and the quack. At present the conclusions of a report are often all that
appears practical to and all that is really read by the interested parties. This would
he otherwise had they been taught to understand the reasons on which the con-
clusions are based. A sound knowledge of principles could alone give this com-
petence, and this could be obtained in at most a single year's course of the length
previously referred to.
But if he advocated shorter courses for professional students it must not be
supposed that he was therefore in any way in favour of special courses for special
men. There was but one geology, whatever be the future career of the learner.
There was no more a ‘ geology for engineers’ or a ‘ geology for agriculturists’ than
there was (as had been suggested years ago in ‘ Exeter Change’) a ‘ geology for the
blind’ or a ‘geology for rural postmen.’ The principles were the same for all,
though in the time to be spent and in the number and selection of the illustrative
facts brought under the notice of students there was ample room for judicious
adjustment.
In attempting to carry out those views he had been overwhelmingly impressed
by the value of practical work. If, as Professor Cole had well urged, outdoor
work was useful for schoolboys, it was doubly useful for older students. The field
was to the geologist what the laboratory was to the chemist, and for petrology
and palzontology geologists now needed laboratories of their own.
As regards field-work, he had found it useful to adopt a scheme in which the
region examined by his students was treated as an unknown bit of country would
be in the limited time at the disposal of the class; maps and reports were
drawn up exclusively from the observations actually made, leaving out of
consideration all points of which the knowledge had been derived from other
774 REPORT— 1893.
sources. This method gave a sense of the reality of the work scarcely attainable
otherwise.
Practical petrological work he had found generally popular with professional
students—much more so than paleontological museum work, some of which must,
however, of course, be done.
He thought that much more use than is commonly the case might be made of
the experimental method in teaching students of this class. He found, for instance,
that a machine designed by himself for the reproduction on the lecture-table of
most of the phenomena connected with folds, faults, and thrusts gave great
definiteness to the ideas of his pupils, and at the same time added very much to
the interest taken in the lectures. This was the case also with many of Daubrée’s
experiments on lamination and foliation, and on joints produced by torsion, which
could easily be adapted for demonstration purposes. The fact that sediment is
deposited more rapidly in salt than in fresh water once seen is never forgotten—
if only mentioned it is seldom remembered. The production of tinstone (cassiterite)
in a porcelain tube from chloride of tin and water vapour can be managed within
an hour’s lecture, and impresses upon the student’s mind one method of vein-filling
from below in a manner unequalled by any amount of talk. The synthesis of
several minerals can also, with a little trouble, be carried out with the best effects
where a friendly chemical or metallurgical laboratory is at hand.
Added to experiments such as these, actual measurements with goniometers,
observations of specific gravity by various methods, testings of hardness, streak,
fusibility, and the like, should be made; and now that we had the benefit of
Professor Cole’s most excellent ‘ Aids in Practical Geology,’ they could be made with
much greater ease than formerly.
Time precluded the author from entering into further detail, but he trusted
that enough had been said to show that in teaching professional students of the
University College order he was inclined to rely very largely upon general
principles, illustrated as far as possible by lecture experiments and by actual work
done by the students themselves in the field and geological laboratory.
2. The Glaciation of Asia. By Prince Kroporkin.
There has lately been a good deal of discussion about the glaciation of Asia,
and especially of Siberia.
To speak of the glaciation or non-glaciation of an immense continent, without
taking into account its orographic structure, is evidently utterly misleading. One
must have first a clear idea of what Asia is from the orographer’s point of view.
I have, therefore, marked what is known about the glaciation of Siberia upon
a map, in which Petermann has embodied the ideas I advocate about the oro-
graphy of Siberia. The different tints with which it is coloured will show at a
glance the structure of that part of the continent.
Lilac represents the plateau (12,000 to 16,000 feet high in the south, 4,000 to
5,000 feet high in the north), with a depression—the lower plateau—coloured in
a lighter shade of lilac. Deep and broad valleys penetrate into it from the west.
They have been its drainage valleys. The high plateau has never been submerged
since the Devonian age.
Brown colour represents the border-ridge of the plateau and the Alpine tracts,
indented by deep valleys, which fringe the plateau and consist of chains running
north-east (the older ones) and north-west (the younger ones).
} tebe libero represents the high steppes and prairies, 1,000 to 2,000 feet
2 .
hig
Green shows the lowlands under 1,000 feet, and mostly wnder 500 feet, above
the sea.
Now, taking into consideration all that is known about the old glaciers of
Siberia, we may, I think, sum it up as follows :—
The lowlands, in all probability, have not been glaciated. Immense portions of
them were under the sea, perhaps during the Glacial age, and most certainly
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. VTS"
during the post-Glacial period, up to what is now the 150 feet level, which
means a great portion of the green space of the map.
Neither have the steppes, under 2,000 feet, been glaciated; but many moun-
tain-ridges which rise over them (all under 6,000 feet) were covered with extensive
laciers.
i The whole of the border-ridge has been glaciated. Immense glaciers in the
Tian-Shan, and immense caps of ice further north, covered it, the ice being dis-
charged into the typical longitudinal valleys which fringe the border-ridge, and
descending there to a very low level (about 1,000 feet).
Ice also covered large parts and filled many valleys of the Alpine tracts which
fringe the plateau. The secondary smaller plateaux, rising amidst these Alpine
tracts (such as the Patom plateau, 58° north latitude, 115° east longitude, now
5,000 to 6,000 feet high), were totally buried under the ice. This suggestion of
mine has now been confirmed by Obrucheff.
As to the plateau itself, I am very much inclined to think that the whole of
the Vitim plateau and the north-west Mongolia plateau, east and south-west of
Lake Baikal, were totally covered with an ice cap. So also the highlands further
north.
There is reason to believe that the Pamirs were ice-bound in the same way,
and the great extension of formidable glaciers in the Himalayas is fully proved in
my opinion.
I also consider that the eastern border-ridge of the plateau—the Great Khin-
gan—has been ice-bound. Where I have crossed it (50° north latitude) it bears
traces of extensive glaciation.
As to the southern portion of the High Plateau—Tibet, Ordos, and highlands of
the Hoang-ho, as also the highlands on the Amur in Manchuria and China—so far
as my information goes, we must suspend judgment, and are sorry that we have
no reliable information either in favour of or against glaciation. In fact, we know
nothing in this respect as regards these countries.
But I must mention that the portions of North and Middle Asia which have
been glaciated are, like the glaciated areas of Europe, always surrounded by a
girdle of Loess. In Turkestan and on the Lena, as well as in South Russia or on
the Rhine, a fringe of Loess marks the outer limits of glaciation; and those
geologists who consider Loess intimately connected with glaciation, and as having
been formed on the outer borders of large glaciers and ice caps, as it undoubtedly
has been in the case of Europe, will see in the Loess of China an indication,
though not yet a proof, of the probable extension of immense glaciers in the
southern part of the Great Khingan, north and west of Peking, as well as in the
Hoang-ho highlands.
I leave it to persons better acquainted than myself with the geology of Persia,
Asia Minor, and Armenia to decide how far the south-western plateau of Asia has
been invaded by ice.
My conclusion for Siberia and the adjoining parts of Mongolia might thus be
provisionally expressed as follows :—
All regions now over 3,000 feet of altitude have been covered either with ice caps
on the plateaux, or with large glaciers in the Alpine tracts, the glaciers descending
in the valleys to levels of about 1,000 feet above the sea. Regions below 2,000 feet
have probably nov been glaciated.
3. On some Assumptions in Glacial Geology.
By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Three assumptions, often treated as axiomatic by modern glacialists, were
discussed :—
(1) That boulder clays are ground moraines. The modes of transport of
débris by ice were described. It was admitted that, the more extensive the glacier,
the greater the amount (in proportion) of sub-glacial débris; but it was denied
that there was any proof that such a deposit (ground moraine) ever attained ‘a
considerable thickness. vl
776 REPORT—1893.
(2) That glaciers were potent excavators. It was shown that all the evidence
pointed in the opposite direction, and that this dogma was irreconcilable with the
former one.
(3) That ice can scoop loose material from a sea-bed, carry it overland, and
deposit it unharmed far from and high above the water level. Instances were
given from the Swiss lowlands to show the improbability of this hypothesis.
The deposits in this region differ from the British boulder clays (among other
things) in the absence of lenticular intercalations of sand and gravel. These
boulder clays are probably of more than one origin. They are not likely to be
understood until there is more attention to facts and abstention from hypotheses.
4. On the Glacial Period, its Origin and Effects, and the Possibility
of its Recurrence. By C. A. Linpvatt, of Stockholm.
The author in this paper recalls the various explanations of the phenomena
of the Quaternary period offered by different observers. Linné supposed the
kames to contain the history of the first emergence of Sweden; Sepstrém (1836),
Berzelius, Von Buch, and to a certain extent Sir A. Geikie, attributed the phe-
nomena to a mighty current of water sweeping from north to south; Dr. Siljestrém
(1838) says that, even admitting the current, the upper valleys of Norway must
have been marked by glaciers. Sir C. Lyell refers to geographical changes;
Sir R. Ball calls in astronomical changes; but most modern geologists call in the
action of inland ice.
The author's theory is that the phenomena are due to the continued action of
ocean currents and loose drift ice. In Pleistocene times the Gulf Stream must
have swept over Lapland and back through the archipelago of Northern Europe
laden with drift ice. This ice, aided by tidal action and the gradual uplift of the
land, is considered capable of moving and carrying large blocks of stone, masses
of gravel and sand along the bottom of the sea, and of accounting for the denudation
and striation of rocks and many other phenomena of the Glacial period in Sweden,
Switzerland, Ireland, Norway, and North America.
5. Report on the High-level Shell-bearing Deposits at Clava, Chapelhall,
and other Localities—See Reports, p. 483.
6. Report on Erratic Blocks.—See Reports, p. 514.
7. On some Shell-middens in North Wales.
By P. W. Assorr and P. F. Kenpatt, F.G.S.
The authors describe the occurrence of many well-preserved examples of
Cardium edule and other species of edible mollusca exposed in a bank of earthy
clay on the slopes of Penmaenmawr, about 200 yards from a farmhouse, ‘the
Quinta,’ on the old road from Llanfairfechan to Conway. They regard them as
kitchen-midden refuse, as they were associated with bones of birds, bits of charcoal,
and a sheep’s tooth. Traces of the foundations of huts were observed, but there
was no remembrance remaining in the neighbourhood of any dwellings on the
spot.
, A second bed, in which the shells were extremely numerous, was observed in
the Aber Valley, about 50 yards above the Bridge. It was exposed beneath the
roots of a large tree which clung to the breached side of a fine terminal moraine,
and the shell-bed presented the deceptive appearance of being overlaid by the
materials of the moraine. The whole of the marine shells were of edible species,
but it was remarked that the interior of a valve of Ostrea was encrusted with
Polyzoa. The authors consider that both accumulations were brought together by
human agency, and are of comparatively modern date.
~I
~I
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 7
8. A Map of the Esker Systems of Ireland.
By Professor W. J. Soutas, D.Sc., F.R.S.
{Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. |
Nowhere probably can the study of Kames or Eskers be more profitably under-
taken than on the Central Plain of Ireland, over which they are strewn in count-
less numbers. Hitherto they have been investigated rather individually than
collectively, though, thanks to the careful mapping of the officers of the Geological
Survey, the material for establishing their connection as members of great groups
or systems lies ready to hand.
Much, however, is to be learnt from the individual Esker. The current bedding
of the masses of well-rounded pebbles and sand of which it is composed is such as
to point to rapid accumulation in running water, while the numerous instances of
irregular disturbance and ‘caving in’ can be most feasibly explained by the melt-
ing of enclosed masses of ice. One of the most striking peculiarities of form is the
steepness of the sides, which frequently approaches the angle of repose of the con-
stituent material, and forces upon one the idea of the existence during deposition
of a sustaining wall, by which the running water was prevented from distributing
its load far and wide over the surrounding plains. Such a wall might conceivably
have been furnished by a previous lateral extension of the Esker itself, since removed
by river action, but such a supposition is unsupported by evidence. A more
probable suggestion is that the support was furnished by ice, and that the Esker
may represent a ‘ cast,’ as it were, of a glacier tunnel in gravel and sand. On this
hypothesis all the known characters of Eskers find an explanation, and many inci-
dental details, such as the long lakelet or shallow streams by which they are not
unfrequently flanked.
All explanations of Eskers depending on marine action may be summarily dis-
missed, for not only do they fail to afford a single parallel instance to the point,
but they are directly negatived by the universal absence of marine shells; of the
thousands of existing Irish Eskers, not one has afforded a fragment of a contempo-
raneous marine fossil, in spite of most persistent and careful search. Either, then,
we must admit, on the hypothesis of an Esker sea, that marine shells were absent
from its floor over the whole breadth of Ireland, and through a bathymetrical
range of 300 feet, or that having once existed they have since entirely disappeared.
One alternative is not more improbable than the other, as is shown by the frequent
occurrence of fragmentary marine shells in the sands and gravels of the Middle
Glacial Drift, as on Ballyedmonduff and elsewhere at elevations of over 1,000 feet.
The fluviatile origin of Eskers, so ably advocated by the American geologists,
Chamberlin, Lewis, and Wright, finds its strongest support in their relations to
one another as parts of a system. In the map exhibited Eskers may be traced
pursuing their winding, serpentine path for miles together, but at the same time
with a convergence which ends frequently in their joining one by one together, like
the tributaries of a river, to form a main stream. As with tributary rivers so
here, the apices of the angles at the places of junction point in one general direc-
tion, that of the general convergence. From individual ridges also small spurs are
frequently given off, usually including an acute angle, which points in the same
direction as those made by the main branches. When, as sometimes happens, the
direction is reversed, signs are not wanting that this is the result of a ‘loop,’ such
as is So common in the course of undulating streams, and of which the Shannon, as
it winds among the Eskers, affords instructive examples for comparison.
Accepting the fluviatile origin of Eskers, one may deduce from their present
distribution that of the ancient drainage systems of the Irish glaciers. From the
map two systems are clearly discernible, a smaller, corresponding to the glacier of
Sligo and Roscommon, and the other vastly larger, embracing the whole Central
Plain, with a general flow from west to east and a discharge probably by the basin
of the Liffey.
778 REPORT—1893.
9. On some Shelly Clay and Gravel in North-east Aberdeenshire.
By Ducatp Bett, F.G.S.
This paper referred chiefly to a remarkable deposit of red clay, containing frag-
ments of marine shells, which Mr. Jamieson, of Ellon, had described some years
ago as occurring on the eastern border of Aberdeenshire, from sea-level up to about
300 feet.1 This clay seems to be derived, not from the rocks of the district,
but from rocks farther south, viz., in the Old Red Sandstone of Kincardine and
Forfarshire. In short, land-ice from the southward appears to have come along
the coast, bringing with it this red clay and other débris from the Old Red forma-
tion ; and this conclusion is confirmed by the strive on the projecting points along
the coast.
The cause of this remarkable movement of the ice was, of course, the ice-
blocked condition of the North Sea, as suggested by the late Dr. Croll in connec-
tion with Messrs. Peach and Horne’s admirable paper on the boulder clay of
Caithness.
But the difficulty with regard to this ‘fine red mud’ is that it seems to imply
‘deep or at least quiet water’ for its deposition. There is no evidence at the
bottom of it of littoral mollusca, or of beach-sand and gravel between it and the
underlying grey boulder clay of the district, so that ‘it looks as if still water of
some depth had at once taken the place of the glacier.’
This Mr, Jamieson accounts for by supposing that ‘the ice did not break up till
a considerable amount of submergence had occurred,’ that deep-sea water at once
took the place of the glacier, and received from it the red mud with fragments of
shells taken up by it from some part of the sea-bed over which it had passed; and
that these settled down immediately on the surface of the grey boulder clay; and
this process he imagines to have begun at the extremity of the northward-
moving glacier, in the neighbourhood of Peterhead, and to have crept southward
along the coast as the ice gradually broke up.
To this there appear several weighty objections; but the one to be specially
urged at present is this :—It was the ice-blocked condition of the North Sea that
compelled the ice from the Old Red district to move northward along the coast
from Stonehaven to Peterhead. As soon as this gave way the ice would un-
doubtedly pass on eastward out to sea. Where would it most likely give way
first—if not to the south? So that before—probably long before—it was open sea
at Peterhead, it would be more free and open at Stonehaven. What, then, could
make the ice go northward, hugging the coast to Peterhead? The dominating
factor in the case was the ice-blocked condition of the North Sea. While this
continued, there could not be the deep still water there to receive the clay ; when
this ceased, there could not be the northward-moving glacier to bring the clay.
There seems to be but one way out of this dilemma. If deep and compara-
tively still water be required for the deposition of the clay, is it necessary to have
recourse to a ‘ great submergence’ in order to obtain it? Must it be sea-water ?
May it not have been accumulations of fresh-water caused by the ice passing across
the transverse valleys and hollows, and so forming lakes along its margin wherein
such sediments would accumulate? Mr. Jamieson has in the kindest and most
candid way expressed his acceptance of this modification of his theory.
This is exactly parallel to what has lately been made out by Mr. Lamplugh in
the neighbourhood of Flamborough Head ;* and it is confirmed by the sagacious
inference of the late Dr. Fleming, who, some fifty years ago, without knowing how
such lakes could be formed, surmised that the clay had been deposited ‘in some
immense lake into which the sea only made a temporary irruption.’ The author
concluded by suggesting that this explanation might yet be found applicable to
other localities, which had recently been the subject of investigation.
1 Quar. Jour. Geal. Soc., vol. xxxviii. p. 160.
2 Tbid., vol. xlvii. p. 428.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 779
10. On the pre-Glacial Form of the Ground in Lancashire and Cheshire.
By C. E. De Rancz, F.G.8., of H.M. Geol. Survey.
The author arrived at the following conclusions :—
1, The carving out of rock valleys has been mainly due to fluviatile action,
operating before the Glacial period, when the land stood at least 300 feet higher
above the sea-level than it does at present.
2. The valleys which lie below sea-level are entirely choked up by glacial
drift, and absolutely concealed, and but for extensive boring operations their
presence would never have been suspected.
3. The materials and irregular alternation of sequence of glacial material in
the infra-sea-level valleys are identical with the character of the deposits above the
sea-level.
4, There is now ample proof that these ‘choked-up’ valleys extend a con-
siderable distance under the Irish Sea.
5. The glacial deposits extend up to 1,260 feet on the slopes of the Cumberland,
Lancashire, Cheshire, and Oarnarvonshire hills, margined by erratic blocks of large
size that extend further and rise higher than the drift, and form a‘ fringe’ deposit,
such as has been described in the United States, marking the limit of the margin
of the ice-sheet, the highest boulder in Cheshire occurring at 1,364 feet.
6. The glacial deposits consist of (a) tough dark till with local fragments in
the neighbourhood of shales, especially of Coal-measure age; (4) clay with local
angular fragments of sandstone and a few erratic pebbles; (c) boulder clay, a red
or reddish-brown clay passing into marl, which when washed contains rounded and
glaciated grains of sand, of erratic origin, which are microscopic specimens of like
shape and like origin to the boulders that occur in the clay, and which range in
size up to 12 feet; (d) sands and gravels: these contain fragments of marine shells,
up to 1,260 feet : these fragments are water-worn, often striated, and are themselves
erratics. The author has never found two valves of a bivalve united ; the species are
representative of different ‘depth zones,’ and univalves contain sand or silt of a dif-
ferent character from the sand by which they are surrounded. The sands also contain
fragments of all sizes of boulder clay, often angular and ragged, as if torn off; the
sands are generally current-bedded, but often show distinct signs of ‘ fluxion struc-
pang have been apparently formed partly in freshwater lakes and partly under
and-ice,
7. Deep borings and sinkings invariably give a series of these clays and sands,
often repeated eight or ten times over; consequently it is obvious that, though a
bed of sand in one area may divide a bed of clay into an ‘upper’ and a ‘lower
boulder clay,’ it isnot only no¢ certain that such upper boulder clay is on the same
horizon as the local upper boulder clay in an adjacent area, but it is exceedingly
improbable that it should be so.
8. The average thickness of the alternations of boulder clay and sands is
such that, as arule, the deepest Lancashire and Cheshire drift valleys of 80 to 150
feet disclose sections of the first three members of the series, and fully justify
Professor Hull’s classification of an upper and lower boulder clay, divided by a
middle sand and gravel, often called the ‘middle drift.’ Had the beds been
thinner, the true succession would have at once been recognised as far more
numerous than the three-fold sequence observed by Professor Hull.
9. The interior composition of a glacial drift mound, or of a drift plateau
between two valleys, is nearly always delusive as regards the surface indications.
A constant arrangement of the surface deposit in a drift mound is a base of boulder
clay, a strip of sand, a wide slope of boulder clay, and a crest or ridge of sands
and gravels. As arule it is at once obvious that the clay on the upper slope is
overlying the sand and gravel of the ridge, but as a rule it is far less obvious that
the clay at the foot of the slope is really not underlying, as at first sight seems
apparent, but overlying the upper boulder clay, and is ‘ plastered’ over the sands
and gravels of the mounds, which resemble in section the coats of an onion—beds
of variable thickness of boulder clay surrounding and washing an internal core of
sand and gravel.
780 REPORT—1893.
10. In upland valleys filled with ordinary boulder clay the surface of the clay
is often obscurely ter7aced with descending gradients, corresponding to the floor of
the bottom of the rock valley, and is apparently due to gigantic flood-waters, which
at lower levels deposited glacio-fluviatile gravels, 100 feet above the level of existing
streams.
11. The irregular original deposition of drift mounds upon a plain (also formed
of drift) encloses what the late Mr. Mackintosh, F.G.S., called ‘ mere-basins,’ and
the American ‘ kettle-holes’: they are areas in which the natural drainage is ob-
structed, and formerly only flowed away by percolation through sand-banks at the
sides. They were originally probably all tilled with more or less water. Many of
these meres still remain in Lancashire and Cheshire, and vary in size from a few
yards to more than a mile across. They are now all more or less artificially
drained. The sites of a very large number are indicated by thick peat mosses.
These constantly are found resting directly on sand, showing that the outfall of the
water in the sands, at the time of the growth of the peat, was closed.
12. The more closely the surface of the drift-covered ground in relation to its
origin is studied, the more recent does the termination of the glacial episode
appear to he.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On the Distribution of Granite Boulders in the Clyde Valley.
By Ducaup Bett, F.G.S.
The object of this paper was to connect the granite boulders which are found
in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, Helensburgh, Gonrock, &c., with a granitic
tract recently described by Messrs. Teall and Dakyns, of the Geological Survey, as
occurring in the mountainous region which lies between the head of Loch Fyne on
the one hand and of Loch Lomond on the other (‘Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc.,’ May,
1892). This tract, which occupies about twelve square miles, contains at least two
varieties of granite: a porphyritic variety, with large crystals of orthoclase, easily
recognisable, and a non-porphyritic variety ; also, near its margin or junction with
the mica schist, bands of tonalite and diorite. These varieties correspond with
boulders found in the Clyde valley, especially in its western part, and along the
shores of the various lochs that open out from it. The supposition put forth many
years ago by Mr. Smith, of Jordanhill,! that these boulders had been transported
from the Ben Cruachan district, was not borne out by the characteristics of the
rocks, and was opposed to all that was now known regarding the general glacia-
tion of the district. In harmony with that glaciation, however, boulders from the
Glen Fyne tract referred to, dispersed by Loch Fyne, Loch Eck, and the Holy
Loch ; by Loch Sloy, Loch Long, and the Gareloch ; and in a much smaller pro-:
portion by Loch Lomond (the tract lying almost entirely to the western side of the
watershed of that loch), could, it was evident, reach the various localities where
they are now found. The author showed specimens of the granite referred to.
2. On the Derbyshire Toadstone. By H. Annoup-Bemross, M.A., F.G.S.
Toadstone is a local name for the igneous rocks interbedded with the Carboni-
ferous limestones of Derbyshire. It occurs in a district of 25 by 20 miles. The
upper and lower portions of a bed are sometimes amygdaloidal. The spheroidal
structure is often well marked, the columnar more seldom and less perfectly.
Toadstone varies very much in the amount of weathering it has undergone. It
' Researches in Newer Pliocene and post-Tertiary Geology, pp. 12, 141.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 781
often decomposes to a sort of clay containing nodules of less altered rock, so that
it has been supposed that toadstone in some localities ‘replaces’ a bed of clay in
others. For this reason, and also because of the loose way in which the word is
used by miners, statements as to the number of beds of toadstone and of the
presence or absence of ore in it must be accepted with reserve. Careful mapping
over the whole district will be necessary to ascertain the actual number of beds.
Two at least may be seen exposed in several places, and there may be three or even
four beds. The Black Hillock shaft has been supposed to be one of the vents
through which the toadstone came up to the surface, because the bottom of the
rock was not reached. Farey, however, maintains that this bed was sunk through,
and a careful examination of the mine heap and shaft shows that the dolerite is
not coarse-grained, and that there is no trace of agglomerate or of tuff. An
occurrence of lead ore in the toadstone of the Wakebridge mine was next de-
scribed. The rock in whieh the ore occurred when examined under the microscope
proved to be a decomposed olivine-dolerite. The ore was as good in the toadstone
as in the limestone. That the toadstone is contemporaneous with the limestone is
proved by it being interbedded with the latter, by the occurrence of stratified tufts
in various parts of the district, and by the non-alteration of the beds immediately
above the igneous rock, though in one or two places a clay bed below it has been
caused to assume a columnar structure.
Very many specimens have been coilected from all the outcrops of toadstone,
which are some fifty in number, and many of them have been examined under the
microscope. The lavas consist mainly of olivine-dolerite, the augite being both
in ophitic plates and in irregularly shaped grains. The rock is much more fresh
and less amygdaloidal than has been generally supposed. The tuffs are in some
cases well preserved, and the outlines of the lapilli very clearly defined. The
author hopes shortly to finish the examination of these rocks, and to offer the
details to the Geological Society.
3. Note on the Perlitic Quartz Grains in Rhypolite.
By W. W. Warts, M.A., F.G.S.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey.]
The author exhibited specimens of that variety of the Sandy Braes Rhyolite
from County Antrim which was formerly called Perlite. A microscopical exami-
nation of the rock shows crystals of sanidine and grains of quartz embedded in a
brown glass. The latter shows perlitic structure in great perfection. In addition,
however, the grains of quartz exhibit a series of cracks, which are distinctly per-
litic in character. ‘hus a structure which was supposed to be confined to glasses
that have cooled rather rapidly is shown to occur rarely, but occasionally, in crys-
tals. Hitherto only one case has been observed in which the cracks entered from
the crystals to the matrix ; the perlitic cracks in the two constituents for the most
part are independent.
4. On the Minute Structure of the Skeleton of ‘Monograptus Priodon.’
By Professor W. J. Souias, D.Sc., F.R.S.
[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. ]
Remains of Monograptus priodon in an exceptionally perfect state of preserva-
tion occur in the Silurian limestone of Barnham Hill, Co. Tipperary, and are ex-
hibited in the official collection of the Geological Survey in Dublin. These have
been examined in thin slices under the microscope, and as a preliminary result the
author describes the structure of the wall.
Most of the sections are transverse and display the ccenosarcal canal and one
hydrotheca ; they measure a little over 15 mm. along the greater, and about
1 mm. along the shorter axis. The wall, 0-025 mm. in thickness, consists of black
782 REPORT— 1893.
carbonaceous material in a more or less fragmentary condition, but sufficiently
continuous. to enable the existence of three layers to be determined: an outer
and inner, which are very thin, separated by a space, now filled with calcite, from
a thicker middle layer, which measures from 0:005 to 0:01 mm. across. The
middle layer sometimes breaks up into threads, and the superficial films have a
reticular appearance, which may, however, be due to post-mortem changes. In
the region of the virgula and also along the free edges of the thece the wali
thickens, partly by an enlargement of the space between the layers, and partly by
a thickening of the middle layer. Thus, in one example the total thickness of the
wall in the virgular region is 0:075 mm., and of the virgula itself, which represents
the middle layer, 0°037 mm.; similarly at the margin of the theca the total thick-
ness was found to be 0:085 mm., the included middle layer measuring 0:045 mm.
Thin threads of carbonaceous material extend from the middle to the superficial
layers, and are particularly obvious in the thickened regions. The virgula would
appear to possess no independent existence; it seems to be merely a thickening of
the middle layer.
5. Report on the Circulation of Underground Water.
See Reports, p. 463.
[Maps, specimens, and photographs of geological interest were exhibited each
day in the Temporary Museum from 10 a.m. to 6 P.M. ]
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SucTION—Reyv. H. B. Tristram, M.A., LL.D., D.D., F.R.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
[For the President’s Address see p. 784.]
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—See Reports, p. 523.
2. On the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands. By D. Suarp, F.B.S,
The islands were formerly supposed to be rich in plant and comparatively poor
in animal life. But the progress of knowledge is modifying this latter view. In
1880 Wallace in ‘Island Life’ furnished the following statistics as to this archi-
pelago—viz,: birds, 43 species, 24 of them peculiar to the islands; land and fresh-
water mollusca, 300 or 400 species, all peculiar ; insects, scarcely anything known ;
plants, 689 species, 377 peculiar.
After one year’s investigation by the committees of the British Association and
of the Royal Society, and incorporating the recent results of the work of private
naturalists, the figures are: birds, 78 species, 57 of them peculiar; land and fresh-
water mollusca, 475 species, all peculiar ; insects, 1,000 species, 700 of them peculiar ;
plants (according to Hillebrand), 999 species, 653 peculiar (many of those not
peculiar being introduced by man).
But the investigations of the committees show that these results are very in-
complete, at any rate in the case of the insects, which cannot be estimated at less
than 3,000 species, 2,500 or 2,600 of the number being peculiar.
These numbers in the case of the fauna are less than those of approximately
similar areas in less insular parts. Devonshire has 84 resident species of birds and
30 summer migrants, The insects amount to about 6,000 species, and the land and
fresh-water mollusca to 97 species, the vascular plants being about the same in
number as those of the Sandwich Islands.
But there has already been very great extinction in this latter area, much of it
probably even before the discovery and appropriation of the islands by civilised
man.
The working of the British Association and of the Royal Society committees
seems to offer the only chance of investigating the fauna. The native creatures
are extremely difficult to find, and the usual inducements to sportsmen and collectors
are wanting; while the small population and the absence of great centres of intel-
lectual activity in the islands render it very improbable that the work will be
accomplished by residents in the archipelago, though these might give very valuable
assistance,
784 REPORT— 1893.
3. Interim Report on a Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds
at Lighthouses.—See Reports, p. 524.
4, Report on the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands.
See Reports, p. 524.
5. Note on the Discovery of Diprotodon Remains in Australia.
By Professor W. Srieuinc.
6. The following Address, by Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.R.S., President of the
Section, who was not able to attend the Meeting, was read by Sir W. H.
Fuiower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Address :—
Ir is difficult for the mind to grasp the advance in biological science (I nse the term
biology in its wide etymological, not its recently restricted sense) which has taken
place since I first attended the meetings of the British Association, some forty
years ago. In those days, the now familiar expressions of ‘ natural selection,’
‘isolation,’ ‘the struggle tor existence,’ ‘ the survival of the fittest,’ were unheard of
and unknown, though many an observer was busied in culling the facts which
were being poured into the lap of the philosopher who should mould the first
great epoch in natural science since the days of Linnzus,
It is to the importance and value of field observation that I would venture in
the first place to direct your attention.
My predecessors in this chair have been, of recent years, distinguished men who
have searched deeply into the abstrusest mysteries of physiology. Thither I do
not presume to follow them. I rather come before you as a survivor of the old-
world naturalist, as one whose researches have been, not in the laboratory or
with the microscope, but on the wide desert, the mountain side, and the isles of
the sea.
This year is the centenary of the death of Gilbert White, whom we may look
upon as the father of field naturalists. It is true that Sir T. Browne, Willughby,
and Ray had each, in the middle of the seventeenth century, committed various ob-
servations to print; but though Willughby, at least, recognised the importance of
the soft parts as well as the osteology, in affording a key to classification, as may
be seen from his observation of the peculiar formation, in the Divers (Colymbide)
of the tibia, with its prolonged procnemial process, of which he has given a figure,
or his description of the elongation of the posterior hranches of the woodpecker's
tongue, as well as by his careful description of the intestines of all specimens which
came under his notice in the flesh, none of these systematically noted the habits
of birds, apart from an occasional mention of their nidification, and very rarely do
they even describe the eggs. But White was the first observer to recognise how
much may be learnt from the life habits of birds. He is generally content with
recording his observations, leaving to others to speculate. Fond of Virgilian
quotations (he was a fellow of Oriel of the last century), his quotations are
often made with a view to prove the scrupulous accuracy of the Roman poet, as
tested by his (White’s) own observations.
In an age, incredulous as to that which appears to break the uniformity of
nature, but quick to recognise all the phenomena of life, a contrast arises before the
mind’s eve between the abiding strength of the objective method, which brings
Gilbert White in touch with the great writers whose works are for all time, and
the transient feebleness of the modern introspective philosophies, vexed with the
problems of psychology. The modern psychologist propounds his theory of man
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 789d
and the universe, and we read him, and go on our way, and straightway forget.
Herodotus and Thucydides tell a plain tale in plain language, or the Curate of
Selborne shows us the hawk on the wing, or the snake in the grass, as he saw them
day by day, and, somehow, the simple story lives and moves him who reads it
long after the subtleties of this or that philosophical theory have had their day and
assed into the limbo of oblivion. But, invaluable as has been the example of
Gilbert White in teaching us how to observe, his field was a very narrow one,
circumscribed for the most part by the boundaries of a single parish, and on the
subject of geographical distribution (as we Inow it now) he could contribute
nothing, a subject on which even the best explorers of that day were strangely
inobservant and inexact. A century and a half ago, it had not come to be recog-
nised that distribution is (along, of course, with morphology and physiology), a
most important factor in determining the facts of biology. It is difficult to esti-
mate what might have been gained in the case of many species, now irreparably
lost, had Forster and the other companions of Captain Cook, to say nothing of
many previous voyagers, had the slightest conception of the importance of noting
the exact locality of each specimen they collected. They seem scarcely to have
recognised the specific distinctions of the characteristic genera of the Pacific
Islands at all, or, if they did, to have dismissed them with the remark, ‘ On this
island was found a flycatcher, a pigeon, or a parrot similar to those found in New
Holland, but with white tail-feathers instead of black, an orange instead of a
scarlet breast, or red shoulders instead of yellow.’ As we turn over the pages of
Latham or Shaw, how often do we find for locality ‘ one of the islands of the South
Sea,’ and, even where the locality is given, subsequent research has proved it
erroneous, as though the specimens had been subsequently ticketed ; as Le Vaillant
described many of his South African birds from memory. Thus Latham, after
describing very accurately Rhipidura flabellifera, from the south island of New
Zealand, remarks, apparently on Forster’s authority, that it is subject to variation ;
that in the island of Tanna another was met with, with a different tail, &c., and
that there was another variety in the collection of Sir Joseph Banks. Endless per-
plexity has been caused by the Pszttacus pygmeus of Gmelin (of which Latham’s
type is at Vienna) being stated in the inventory as from Botany Bay, by Latham
from Otaheite, and in his book as inhabiting several of the islands of the South Seas,
and now it proves to be the female Psittacus palmarum from the New Hebrides.
These are but samples of the confusion caused by the inaccuracies of the old
voyagers. Had there been in the first crew who landed on the Island of Bourbon,
I will not say a naturalist, but even a simple-hearted Leguat, to tell the artless tale
of what he saw, or had there been among the Portuguese discoverers of Mauritius
one who could note and describe the habits of its birds with the accuracy with
which a Poulton could record the ways and doings of our Lepidoptera, how vastly
would our knowledge of a perished fauna have been enriched! It is only since we
learned from Darwin and Wallace the power of isolation in the differentiation of
species that special attention has been paid to the peculiarities of insular forms.
Here the field naturalist comes in as the helpful servant of the philosopher and
the systematist by illustrating the operation of isolation in the differentiation of
species. I may take the typical examples of two groups of oceanic islands, differ-
ing as widely as possible in their position on the globe—the Sandwich Islands in the
centre of the Pacific, thousands of miles from the nearest continent, and the Canaries,
within sight of the African coast—but agreeing in this, that both are truly oceanic
groups, of purely volcanic origin, the ocean depths close to the Canaries, and be-
tween the different islands, varying from 1,500 to 2,000 fathoms. In the one we
may study the expiring relics of an avifauna completely differentiated by isolation ;
in the other we have the opportunity of tracing the incipient stages of the same
process.
The Sandwich Islands have long been known as possessing an avifauna not
surpassed in interesting peculiarity by that of New Zealand or Madagascar; in
fact, it seems as though their vast distance from the continent had intensified the
influences of isolation, There is scarcely a passerine bird in its indigenous fauna
which can be referred to any genus known elsewhere. But, until the very recent
1893. 3E
786 REPORT—1893.
researches of Mr. Scott Wilson, and the explorations of the Honourable W. Roth-
schild’s collectors, it was not known that almost every island of the group possessed
one or more representatives of each of these peculiar genera. Thus, every island
which has been thoroughly explored, and in which any extent of the primeval
forest remains, possesses, or has possessed, its own peculiar species of Hemzgnathus,
Himatione, Pheornis, Acrulocercus, Loxops, Drepanis, as well as of the massive-
beaked finches, which emulate the Geospiza of the Galapagos. Professor Newton
has shown that while the greater number of these are, probably, of American
origin, yet the South Pacific has contributed its quota to this museum of ornitho-
logical rarities, which Mr. Clarke very justly proposes to make a distinct biological
sub-region.
That each of the islands of this group, however small, should possess a flora
specifically distinct suggests thoughts of the vast periods occupied in their differen-
tiation.
In the Canary Islands, either because they are geologically more recent, or
because of their proximity to the African coast, which has facilitated frequent
immigrations from the continent, the process of differentiation is only partially
accomplished. Yet there is scarcely a resident species which is not more or less
modified, and this modification is yet further advanced in the westernmost islands
than in those nearest to Africa. In Fuertaventura and Lanzarote, waterless and
treeless, there is little change, and the fauna is almost identical with that of the
neighbouring Sahara. There is a whin-chat, Pratincola dacotie, discovered by my
companion, Mr. Meade-Waldo, peculiar to Fuertaventura, which may possibly
be found on the opposite coast, though it has not yet been met with by any collectors
there. Now, our whin-chat is a common winter visitant all down the West African
coast, and it seems probable that isolation has produced the very marked characters
of the Canarian form, while the continental individuals have been restrained from
variation by their frequent association with their migratory relations. A similar
cause may explain why the blackbird, an extremely common resident in all the
Canary Islands, has not been modified in the least, since many migratory indi-
viduals of the same species sojourn every winter in the islands. Or take the blue
titmouse. Our familiar resident is replaced along the coast of North Africa by a
representative species, Parus ultramarinus, differentiated chiefly by a black instead
of a blue cap, and a slate-coloured instead of a green back. The titmouse of Lan-
zarote and Fuertaventura is barely separable from that of Algeria, but is much
smaller and paler, probably owing to scarcity of food and a dry desert climate.
Passing, 100 miles further to sea, to Grand Canary, we find in the woods and forests
a bird in all respects similar to the Algerian in colour and dimensions, with one ex-
ception—the greater wing coverts of the Algerian are tipped with white, forming a
broad bar when the wing is closed. This, present in the Fuertaventura form, is re-
resented in the Canarian by the faintest white tips, and in the birds from the next
islands, Tenerife and Gomera, this is altogether absent. This form has been recog-
nised as Parus tenerife. Proceeding to the north-west outermost island, Palma,
we find a very distinct species, with different proportions, a longer tail, and white
abdomen instead of yellow. In the Ultima Thule, Hierro, we find a second very
distinct species, resembling that of Tenerife in the absence of the wing bar and in
all other respects, except that the back is green like the European, instead of slate
as in all the other species. Thus we find in this group a uniform graduation of
yariation as we proceed further from the cradle of the race.
A similar series of modifications may be traced in the chaffinch (Fringilla),
which has been in like manner derived from the North African F. spodiogena, and
in which the extreme variation is to be found in the westernmost islands of Palma
and Hierro. The willow wren (Phylloscopus trochilus), extremely numerous and.
zesident, has entirely changed its habits, though not its plumage, and I have felt
justified in distinguishing it as Ph. fortunatus, In note and habits it is entirely
different from our bird, and though it builds a domed nest it is always near the top
of lofty trees, most frequently in palm-trees. The only external difference from
our bird consists in its paler tarsi and more rounded wing, so that its power of
flight is weaker, but, were it not for the marked difference in its habits and voice,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 787
A should have hesitated to differentiate it. In the kestrel and the great spotted
woodpecker there are differences which suggest incipient species, while the forests
-of the wooded western islands yield two very peculiar pigeons, differing entirely
from each other in their habits, both probably derived from our wood-pigeon, but
even further removed from it than the Columba trocaz of Madeira, and, by their dark
chestnut coloration, suggesting that peculiar food—in this case the berries of the tree
Jaurel—has its full share in the differentiation of isolated forms, If we remember
-the variability of the pigments in the food of birds, and the amount absorbed and
transferred to the skin and plumage, the variability in the tints and patterns of
many animals can be more readily understood.
One other bird deserves notice, the Caccabis, or red-legzed partridge, for here,
and here alone, we have chronological data. The Spaniards introduced Caccabis
rufa into Canary, and C. petrosa into Tenerife and Gomera, and they have never
spread from their respective localities. Now, both species, after a residence of only
400 years, have become distinctly modified. C.7wfa was introduced into the Azores
also, and changed exactly in the same manner, so much so that Mr. Godman, some
years ago, would have described it as distinct, but that the only specimen he
procured was in moult and mutilated, and his specimen proves identical with the
Canarian bird. Besides minor differences, the beak is one-fourth stouter and longer
than in the European bird, the tarsus very much stouter and longer, and the
back is grey rather than russet. The grey back harmonises with the volcanic dark
soil of the rocks of the Canaries, as the russet does with the clay of the plains of
England and France. In the Canaries the bird lives under different conditions
from those of Europe. It is on the mountain sides and among rocks that the
stouter beak and stronger legs are indispensable to its vigorous existence. It is
needless to go into the details of many other species. We have here the effect of
changed conditions of life in 400 years. What may they not have been in 4000
centuries? We have the result of peculiar food in the pigeons, and of isolation in
all the cases I have mentioned. Such facts can only be supplied to the generaliser
and the systematist through the accurate and minute observations of the field
naturalist.
The character of the avifauna of the Comoro Islands, to take another insular
group, seems to stand midway in the differentiating process between the Canaries
and the Sandwich Islands. From the researches of M. Humblot, worked out by
MM. Milne-Edwards and Oustalet, we find that there are twenty-nine species
acknowledged as peculiar ; two species from South Africa and twenty-two from
Madagascar in process of specification, called by M. Milne-Edwards secondary or
derived species.
The little Christmas Island, an isolated rock 200 miles south of Java, only 12
miles in length, has been shown by Mr. Lister to produce distinct and peculiar
forms of every class of life, vegetable and animal. Though the species are few
in number, yet every mammal and land bird is endemic; but, as Darwin remarks,
to ascertain whether a small isolated area, or a large open area like a continent,
has been more favourable for the production of new organic forms, we ought to
make the comparison between equal times, and this we are incapable of doing.
My own attention was first directed to this subject when, in the year 1857-58, I
spent many months in the Algerian Sahara, and noticed the remarkable variations
in different groups, according to elevation from thesea, and the difference of soil and
vegetation. The ‘Origin of Species’ had not then appeared; but on my return
my attention was called to the communication of Darwin and Wallace to the
Linnean Society on the tendencies of species to form varieties, and on the perpetua-
tion of varieties and species by means of natural selection. I then wrote:! ‘It is
hardly possible, I should think, to illustrate this theory better than by the larks
and chats of North Africa. In all these, in the congeners of the wheatear, of the
rock chat, of the crested lark, we trace gradual modifications of coloration and
of anatomical structure, deflecting by very gentle gradations from the ordinary
type, but, when we take the extremes, presenting the most marked differences. . , .
In the desert, where neither trees, brushwood, nor even undulations of surface
1 This, 1859, pp. 429-433.
: 352
788 REPORT—1893.
afford the slightest protection to an animal from its foes, a modification of colour,
which shall be assimilated to that of the surrounding country, is absolutely
necessary. Hence, without exception, the upper plumage of every bird—whether
lark, chat, sylviad or sand-grouse —and also the fur of all the small mammals, and
the skin of all the snakes and lizards, is of the uniform isabelline or sand-colour. It
is very possible that some further purpose may be served by the prevailing colours,
but this appears of itself a sufficient explanation. There are individual varieties
of depth of hue among all creatures. In the struggle for life which we know to
be going on among all species,a very slight change for the better, such as im-
proved means of escape from its natural enemies (which would be the effect of an
alteration from a conspicuous colour to one resembling the hue of the surrounding
objects), would give the variety that possessed it a decided advantage over the
typical or other forms of the species. . . . To apply the theory to the case of the
Sahara. If the Algerian Desert were colonised by a few pairs of crested larks—
putting aside the ascertained fact of the tendency of an arid, hot chmate to bleach
all dark colours—we know that the probability is that one or two pairs would be
likely to be of a darker complexionthan the others. These, and such of their offspring
as most resembled them, would become more liable to capture by their natural
enemies, hawks and carnivorous beasts. The lighter-coloured ones would enjoy
more or less immunity from such attacks. Let this state of things continue for a
few hundred years, aud the dark-coloured individuals would be exterminated, the
light-coloured remain and inherit the land. This process, aided by the above-
mentioned tendency of the climate to bleach the coloration still more, would in a
few centuries produce the Galerita abyssinica as the typical form; and it must
be noted that between it and the European G. cristata there is no distinction but
that of colour,
‘But when we turn to Galerita tsabellina, G. arenicola, and G. macrorhyncha,
we have differences, notonly of colour, but of structure. These differences are most
marked in the form of the bill. Now, to take the two former first, G. arenicola has
a very long bill, G. isabellina a very short one; the former resorts exclusively to
the deep, loose, sandy tracts, the latter haunts the hard and rocky districts. It is
manifest that a bird whose food has to be sought for in deep sand derives a great
advantage from any elongation, however slight, of its bill. The other, who feeds
among stones and rocks, requires strength rather than length. We know that
even in the type species the size of the bill varies in individuals—in the lark
as well as in the snipe. Now, in the desert, the shorter-billed varieties would
undergo comparative difficulty in finding food where it was not abundant, and con-
sequently would not be in such vigorous condition as their longer-billed relations.
In the breeding season, therefore, they would have fewer eggs and a weaker
progeny. Often, as we know, a weakly bird will abstain from matrimony alto-
gether. The natural result of these causes would be that in course of time the
longest-billed variety would steadily predominate over the shorter, and, in a few
centuries, they would be the sole existing race; their shorter-billed fellows dying
out until that race was extinct. The converse will still hold good of the stout-
billed and weaker-billed varieties in a rocky district.
‘Here are only two causes enumerated which might serve to create, as it were,
a new species from an old one. Yet they are perfectly natural causes, and such
as I think must have occurred, and are possibly occurring still. We know so
very little of the causes which, in the majority of cases, make species rare or
common that there may be hundreds of others at work, some even more powerfal
than these, which go to perpetuate and eliminate certain forms “ according to
natural means of selection.”’
It would appear that those species in continental areas are equally liable to
variation with those which are isolated in limited areas, yet that there are many
counteracting influences which operate to check this tendency. It is often assumed,
where we find closely allied species apparently interbreeding at the centre of their
area, that the blending of forms is caused by the two racescommingling. Judging
from insular experience I should be inclined to believe that the theory of inter-
breeding is beginning at the wrong end, but rather that while the generalised forms
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 789
remain in the centre of distribution we find the more decidedly distinct species at
the extremes of the range, caused not by interbreeding, but by differentiation.
To illustrate this by the group of the blue titmouse. We find in Central Russia,
in the centre of distribution of the family, the most generalised form, Parus pleskit,
_ partaking of the characters of the various species east, west, and south. In the
north-east and north it becomes differentiated as P. cyaneus; to the south-west
and west into P. ceruleus and its various sub-species, while a branch extending
due east has assumed the form of P. flavipectus, bearing traces of affinity to its
eee P. cyaneus in the north, which seems evidently to have been derived
rom it.
But the scope of field observation does not cease with geographical distribu-
tion and modification of form. The closet systematist is very apt to overlook or
to take no count of habits, voice, modification, and other features of life which
have an important bearing on the modification of species. ‘I'o take one instance, the
short-toed lark (Calandrella brachydactyla) is spread over the countries border-
ing on the Mediterranean ; but, along with it, in Andalusia alone is found another
species, C. betica, of a rather darker colour, and with the secondaries generally
somewhat shorter. Without further knowledge than that obtained from a com-
parison of skins, it might be put down as an accidental variety. But the field
naturalist soon recognises it as a most distinct species. It has a different voice, a
differently shaped nest; and, while the common species breeds in the plains, this
one always resorts to the hills. The Spanish shepherds on the spot recognise their
distinctness, and have a name for each species. Take, again, the eastern form of
the common song-thrush. The bird of North China, Turdus auritus, closely
resembles our familiar species, but is slightly larger, and there is a minute differ-
ence in the wing formula. But the field naturalist has ascertained that it lays
eges like those of the missel-thrush, and it is the only species closely allied to our
bird which does not lay eges of a blue ground colour. The hedge accentor of
Japan (Accentor rubidus) is distinguished from our most familiar friend, Accentor
modularis, by delicate differences of hue. But, though in gait and manner it
closely resembles it, I was surprised to find the Japanese bird strikingly distinct in
habits and life, being found only in forest and brushwood several thousand feet
above the sea. I met with it first at Chiusenze—6,000 feet—hbefore the snow had
left the ground, and in summer it goes higher still, but never descends to the
cultivated land. If both species are derived, as seems probable, from Accentor
immaculatus of the Himalayas, then the contrast in habits is easily explained. The
lofty mountain ranges of Japan have enabled the settlers there to retain their
original habits, for which our humbler elevations have afforded no scope.
On the solution of the problem of the migration of birds, the most remarkable
of all the phenomena of animal life, much less aid has been contributed by the
observations of field naturalists than might reasonably have been expected. ‘The
facts of migration have, of course, been recognised from the earliest times, and
have afforded a theme for Hebrew and Greek poets 3,000 years ago. Theories
which would explain it are rife enough, but it is only of late years that any
systematic effort has been made to classify and summarise the thousands of data
and notes which are needed in order to draw any satisfactory conclusion. The
observable facts may be classified as to their bearing on the Whither, When, and
How of migration, and after this we may possibly arrive at a true answer to the
Why? Observation has sufficiently answered the first question, Whither ?
There are scarcely any feathered denizens of earth or sea to the summer and
winter ranges of which we cannot now point. Of almost all the birds of the holo-
arctic fauna, we have ascertained the breeding-places and the winter resorts. Now
that the knot and the sanderling have been successfully pursued even to Grinnell
Land, there remains but the curlew sandpiper (Zringa subarquata), of all the
known European birds, whose breeding ground is a virgin soil, to be trodden, let
us hope, in a successful exploration by Nansen, on one side or other of the North
Pole. Equally clearly ascertained are the winter quarters of all the migrants.
The most casual observer cannot fail to notice in any part of Africa, north or
south, west coast or interior, the myriads of familiar species which winter there,
790 REPORT—1893.
As to the time of migration, the earliest notes of field naturalists have been the:
records of the dates of arrival of the feathered visitors. We possess them for
some localities, as for Norfolk by the Marsham family, so far back as 1736. In
recent years these observations have been carried out on a larger and more
systematic scale by Middendorff, who, forty years ago, devoted himself to the
study of the lines of migration in the Russian Empire, tracing what he called the
isopipteses, the lines of simultaneous arrival of particular species; and by Professor
Palmén, of Finland, who, twenty years later, pursued a similar course of investiga-
tion; by Professor Baird on the migration of North American birds; and sub-
sequently by Severtzoff as regards Central Asia, and Menzbier as regards Eastern
Europe. As respects our own coasts, a vast mass of statistics has been collected
by the labours of the Migration Committee-appointed by the British Association
in 1880, for which our thanks are due to the indefatigable zeal of Mr. John
Cordeaux, and his colleague Mr. John Harvie Brown, the originators of the scheme
by which the lighthouses were for nine years used as posts of observation on
migration. The reports of that Committee are familiar to us, but the inferences
are not yet worked out. I cannot but regret that the Committee has been allowed
to drop. Professor W. W. Cooke has been carrying on similar observations in the
Mississippi valley, and others, too numerous to mention, have done the same else-
where. But, as Professor Newton has truly said, All these efforts may be said to
pale before the stupendous amount of information amassed during more than tifty
years by the venerable Herr Giitke of Heligoland, whose work we earnestly
desire may soon appear in an English version.
We have, through the labours of the writers I have named, and many others,
arrived at a fair knowledge of the When? of migration. Of the How? we have
ascertained a little, but very little. The lines of migration vary widely in different
species, and in different longitudes. The theory of migration being directed
towards the magnetic pole, first started by Middendorff, seems to be refuted by
Baird, who has shown that in North America the theory will not hold. Yet, in
some instances, there is evidently a converging tendency in northward migrations.
The line, according to Middendorff, in Middle Siberia is due north, in Eastern
Siberia S.E. to N.W., and in Western Siberia from S.W. to N.E. In European
Russia Menzbier traces four northward routes: (1) A coast line coming up from
Norway round the North Cape to Nova Zembla. (2) The Baltic line with bifur-
cation, one proceeding by the Gulf of Bothnia, and the other by the Gulf of Finland,
which is afterwards again subdivided. (3) A Black Sea line, reaching nearly
as far north as the valley of the Petchora. (4) The Caspian line, passing up the
Volga and reaching as far east as the valley of the Obi by other anastomosing
streams.
Palmén has endeavoured to trace the lines of migration on the return autumnal
journey in the eastern hemisphere, and has arranged them in nine routes:
(1) From Nova Zembla, round the west of Norway, to the British Isles. (2) From
Spitzbergen, by Norway, to Britain, France, Portugal, and West Africa.
(3) From North Russia, by the Gulf of Finland, Holstein, and Holland, and then
bifurcating to the west coast of France on the one side, and on the other up
the Rhine to Italy and North Africa. (4 a) Down the Volga by the Sea of Azof,
Asia Minor, and Egypt, while the other portion (4 4), trending east, passes by
the Caspian and Tigris to the Persian Gulf. (5) By the Yenesei to Lake Baikal
and Mongolia. (6) By the Lena on to the Amoor and Japan. (7) From East
Siberia to the Corea and Japan. (8) Kamschatka to Japan and the Chinese
coast. (9) From Greenland, Iceland, and the Faroes to Britain, where it joins
line 2. tas
All courses of rivers of importance form minor routes, and consideration of
these lines of migration might serve to explain the fact of North American
stragglers, the waifs and strays which have fallen in with great: flights:of the
regular migrants having been more frequently shot on the east coast of England
and Scotland than on the west coast or in Ireland. They have not crossed the
Atlantic, but have come from the far-north, where a very slight deflection east
or west might alter their whole course, and. in that:case. they. would:maturally
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 791
strike either Iceland or the west coast of Norway, and in either case would
reach the east coast of Britain. But if, by storms and the prevailing winds of
the North Atlantic coming from the west, they had been driven out of their
usual course, they would strike the coast of Norway, and so find their way hither
in the company of their congeners.
As to the elevation at which migratory flights are carried on, Herr Giitke, as
well as many American observers, holds that it is generally far above our ken, at
least in normal conditions of the atmosphere, and that the opportunities of observa-
tion, apart from seasons and unusual atmospheric disturbance, are confined chiefly
to unsuccessful and abortive attempts. It is maintained that the height of flight
is some 1,500 to 15,000 feet, and if this be so, as there seems every reason to
admit, the aid of land bridges and river valleys becomes of very slight importance.
A trivial instance will illustrate this. There are two species of blue-throat,
Cyanecula suecica and C. leucocyana: the former with its red-breast patch is abun-
dant in Sweden in summer, but is never found in Germany, except most acciden-
tally, and the other isthe common form of Central Europe. Yet both are abundant
in Egypt and Syria, where they winter, and I have, on several occasions, obtained
both species out of the same flock. Hence we infer that the Swedish bird makes
its journey from its winter quarters with scarcely a halt, while the other proceeds
leisurely to its nearer summer quarters. On the other hand, I have more than
once seen myriads of swallows, martins, sand-martins, and, later in the season,
swifts passing up the Jordan Valley and along the Bukaa of Central Syria at so
slight an elevation that I was able to distinguish at once whether the flight consisted
of swallows or of house-martins, This was in perfectly calm clear weather. One
stream of swallows, certainly not less than a quarter of a mile wide, occupied
more than half an hour in passing over one spot, and flights of house-martins,
and then of sand-martins, the next day were scarcely less numerous. These
flights must have been straight up from the Red Sea, and may have been the
general assembly of all those which had wintered in Kast Africa. I cannot think
that these flights were more than 1,000 feet high. On the other hand, when
standing on the highest peak in the Island of Palma, 6,500 feet, with a dense mass
of clouds beneath us, leaving nothing of land or sea visible, save the distant Peak
of Tenerife, 13,000 feet, I have watched a flock of Cornish choughs soaring above
us, till at length they were absolutely undistinguishable by us except with field-
lasses.
: As to the speed with which the migration flights are accomplished, they
require much further observation. Herr Gatke maintains that godwits and
plovers can fly at the rate of 240 miles an hour (!), and the late Dr. Jerdon stated
that the spine-tailed swift (Acanthylis caudacutus), roosting in Ceylon, would
reach the Himalayas (1,200 miles) before sunset. Certainly in their ordinary
flight the swift is the only bird I have ever noticed to outstrip an express train on
the Great Northern Railway.
Observation has shown us that, while there is a regular and uniform migration
in the case of some species, yet that, beyond these, there comes a partial migration
of some species, immigrants and emigrants simultaneously, and this, besides the
familiar vertical emigration from higher to lower altitudes and vice versd, as in the
familiar instances of the lapwing and golden plover. There is still much scope for
the field naturalist in observation of these partial migrations. There are also
species in which some individuals migrate and someare sedentary. E.y., in the few
primeval forests which still remain in the Canary Islands, and which are en-
shrouded in almost perpetual mist, the woodcock is sedentary, and not uncommon.
I have often put up the bird and seen the eggs; but in winter the number is
vastly increased, and the visitors are easily to be distinguished from the residents
by their lighter colour and larger size. The resident never leaves the cover of
the dense forest, where the growth of ferns and shrubs is perpetual, and fosters a
‘moist, rich, semi-peaty soil, in which the woodcock finds abundant food all the
year, and has thus lost its migratory instincts.
‘But why do birds migrate? Observation has brought to light many facts
which seem to increase the difficulties of a satisfactory answer to the question. The
792 REPORT—1 893.
autumnal retreat from the breeding quarters might be explained by a want of
sufficient sustenance as winter approaches in the higher latitudes, but this will not
account for the return migration in spring, since there is no perceptible diminution
of supplies in the winter quarters. A friend of mine, who was for some time
stationed as a missionary at Kikombo, on the high plateau south-east of Victoria *
Nyanza Lake, almost under the equator, where there is no variation in the
seasons, wrote to me that from November to March the country swarmed with
swallows and martins, which seemed to the casual observer to consist almost
wholly of our three species, though occasionally a few birds of different type
might be noticed in the larger flocks. Towards the end of March, without any
observable change in climatic or atmospheric conditions, nine-tenths of the
birds suddenly disappeared, and only a sprinkling remained. These, which had
previously been lost amid the myriad of winter visitants, seemed to consist of four
species, of which I received specimens of two, Hirwndo puella and H. senegulensis.
One, described as white underneath, is probably H. ethiopica; and the fourth, very
small, and quite black, must be a Psalidoprocne. All these remained through
spring and summer. The northward movement of all the others must be
through some impulse not yet ascertained. In many other instances observa-
tion has shown that the impulse of movement is not dependent on the weather
at the moment. This is especially the case with sea birds. Professor Newton
observes they can be trusted as the almanack itself. Foul weather or fair, heat
or cold, the puffins, F'ratercula arctica, repair to some of their stations punctually
on a given day, as if their movements were regulated by clockwork. In like
manner, whether the summer be cold or hot, the swifts leave their summer
home in England about the first week in August, only occasional stragglers
ever being seen after that date. So in three different years in Syria I noticed the
appearance of the common swift (Cypselus apus) in myriads on one day in the
first week in April. In the case of almost all the land birds, it has been ascer-
tained by repeated observations that the male birds arrive some days before the
hens. I do not think it is proved that they start earlier ; but, being generally
stronger than the females, it is very natural that they should outstrip their
weaker mates, I think, too, that there is evidence that those species which
have the most extended southerly have also the most extended northerly range.
The same may hold good of individuals of the same species, and may be accounted
for by, or account for, the fact that, e.g., the individuals of the wheatear or of
the willow wren which penetrate furthest north have longer and stronger wings
than those individuals which terminate their journey in more southern latitudes.
The length of wing of two specimens of Saxzcola wnanthe in my collection from
Greenland and Labrador exceeds by ‘6 inch the length of British and Syrian
specimens, and the next longest, exceeding them by ‘6 inch, is from the Gambia.
So the sedentary Phylloscopus trochilus of the Canaries has a perceptibly shorter
wing than European specimens.
To say that migration is performed by instinct is no explanation of the mar-
vellous faculty, it is an evasion of the difficulty. Professor Mobius holds that
birds crossing the ocean may be guided by observing the rolling of the waves, but
this will not hold good in the varying storms of the Atlantic, still less in the vast
stretch of stormy and landless ocean crossed by the bronze cuckoo (Chrysococcyx
lucidus) in its passage from New Guinea to New Zealand. Professor Palmén ascribes
the due performance of the flight to experience, but this is not confirmed by field
observers, He assumes that the flights are led by the oldest and strongest, but
observation by Herr Giitke has shown that among migrants, as the young and old
journey apart and by different routes, the former can have had no experience. All
ornithologists are aware that the parent cuckoos leave this country long before
their young ones are hatched by their foster-parents. The sense of sight cannot
guide birds which travel by night, or span oceans or continents in a single flight.
In noticing all the phenomena of migration, there yet remains a vast untilled
region for the field naturalist.
What Professor Newton terms ‘the sense of direction, unconsciously exercised,’
is the nearest approach yet made to a solution of the problem, He remarks
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 793
how vastly the sense of direction varies in human beings, contrasting its absence
in the dwellers in towns compared with the power of the shepherd and the
countryman, and, infinitely more, with the power of the savage or the Arab. He
adduces the experience of Middendorff among the Samojeds, who know how to
reach their goal by the shortest way through places wholly strange to them. He
had known it among dogs and horses (as we may constantly perceive), but was
surprised to find the same incomprehensible animal faculty unweakened among
uncivilised men. Nor could the Samojeds understand his inquiry how they did
it. They disarmed him by the question, How now does the arctic fox find its way
aright on the Tundra, and never go astray ? and Middendorff adds: ‘I was thrown
back on the unconscious performance of an inherited animal faculty ;’ and so are we !
There is one more kind of migration, on which we know nothing, and where
the field naturalist has still abundant scope for the exercise of observation. I
mean what is called exceptional migration, not the mere wanderings of waifs
and strays, nor yet the uncertain travels of some species, as the crossbill in search
of food, but the colonising parties of many gregarious species, which generally,
so far as we know in our own hemisphere, travel from east to west, or from
south-east to north-west. Such are the waxwing (Ampelis garrula), the pastor
starling (Pastor roseus) and Pallas’s sandgrouse, after intervals sometimes of
many years, or sometimes for two or three years in succession. The waxwing
will overspread Western Europe in winter for a short time. It appears to be
equally inconstant in its choice of summer quarters, as was shown by J. Wolley in
Lapland. The rose pastor regularly winters in India, but never remains to breed.
For this purpose the whole race seems to collect and travel north-west, but
rarely, or after intervals of many years, returns to the same quarters. Verona,
Broussa, Smyrna, Odessa, the Dobrudscha, have all during the last half-century been
visited for one summer by tens of thousands, who are attracted by the visitations
of locusts, on which they feed, rear their young, and go. These irruptions, how-
ever, cannot be classed under the laws of ordinary migration. Not less inexpli-
cable are such migrations as those of the African darter, which, though never yet
observed to the north of the African lakes, contrives to pass, every spring, unob-
served to the lake of Antioch in North Syria, where I found a large colony rearing
their young; and which, so soon as their progeny was able to fly, disappeared to
the south-east as suddenly as they had arrived.
There is one possible explanation of the sense of direction unconsciously exer-
cised, which I submit as a working hypothesis, We are all aware of the instinct,
strong both in mammals and birds without exception, which attracts them to the
place of their nativity. When the increasing cold of the northern regions, in
which they all had their origin, drove the mammals southward, they could not
retrace their steps, because the increasing polar sea, as the arctic continent sank,
barred their way. The birds reluctantly left their homes as winter came on, and
followed the supply of food. But as the season in their new residence became
hotter in summer, they instinctively returned to their birthplaces, and there
reared their young, retiring with them when the recurring winter impelled
them to seek a warmer climate. Those species which, unfitted for a greater
amount of heat by their more protracted sojourn in the northern regions, per-
sisted in revisiting their ancestral homes, or getting as near to them as they
could, retained a capacity for enjoying a temperate climate, which, very gra-
dually, was lost by the species which settled down more permanently in their
new quarters, and thus alaw of migration became established on the one side, and
sedentary habits on the other.
If there be one question on which the field naturalist may contribute, as lion’s
provider to the philosopher, more than another, it is on the now much disputed
topic of ‘mimicry,’ whether protective or aggressive. As Mr. Beddard has re-
‘marked on this subject, ‘ The field of hypothesis has no limits, and what we need
is more study ’—and may we not add, more accurate observation of facts? The
theory of protective mimicry was first propounded by Mr. H. W. Bates, from his
‘observations on the Amazon. He found that the group of butterflies, Heliconiide,
conspicuously banded with yellow and black, were provided with certain glands
794 REPORT— 1893.
which secrete a nauseating fluid, supposed to render them unpalatable to birds. In
the same districts he found also similarly coloured butterflies, belonging to the
family Pieride, which so closely resembled the others in shape and markings as to
be easily mistaken for them, but which, unprovided with such secreting glands,
were unprotected from the attacks of birds. This resemblance, he thought, was
brought about by natural selection for the protection of the edible butterflies,
through the birds mistaking them for the inedible kinds. Other cases of mimicry
among a great variety of insects have since been pointed out, and the theory of
protective mimicry has gained many adherents. Among birds, many instances
have been adduced, Mr. Wallace has described the extraordinary similarity be-
tween birds of very different families, Oriolus bourwensis and Philemon moluc-
censis, both peculiar to the island of Bouru. Mr. H. O. Forbes has discovered a
similar brown oriole, Oriolus decipiens, as closely imitating the appearance of the
Philemon timorlautensis of Timor-laut. A similar instance occurs in Ceram. But
Mr. Wallace observes that, while usually the mimicking species is less numerous
than the mimicked, the contrary appears to be the case in Bouru, and it is difficult
to see what advantage has been gained by the mimicry. Now, all the species of
Philemon are remarkably sombre-coloured birds, and the mimicry cannot be on
their side. But there are other brown orioles, very closely resembling those
named, in other Moluccan islands, and yet having no resemblance to the Philemon of
the same island, as may be seen in the case of the Oriolus pheochromus and
Philemon gilolensis from Gilolo. Yet the oriole has adopted the same livery which
elsewhere is a perfect mimicry. May it not therefore be that we have, in this
group of brown orioles, the original type of the family, undifferentiated? As they
spread east and south we may trace the gradation, through the brown striation of
the New Guinea bird, to the brighter, green-tinged form of the West Australian
and the green plumage of the Southern Australian, while westward the brilliant
yellows of the numerous Indian and African species were developed, and another
group, preferring high elevations, passing through the mountain ranges of Java,
Sumatra, and Borneo, intensified the aboriginal brown into black, and hence were
evolved the deep reds of the various species which culminate in the crimson of
Formosa, Orzolus ardens, and the still deeper crimson of O. trailli of the
Himalayas.
It is possible that there may be similarity without mimicry, and, by the five
laws of mimicry as laid down by Wallace, very many suggested cases must be
eliminated. We all know that it is quite possible to find between species of very
different genera extraordinary similarity which is not mimetic. Take, for instance,
the remarkable identity of coloration in the case of some of the African species
Macronyx and the American Stwinella, or, again, of some of the African Cam-
pophage and the American Ageleus. The outward resemblance occurs in both
cases in the red as well as in the yellow-coloured species of all four groups.
But we find that the Macronya of America and the Campophage of Africa, in
acquiring this coloration, have departed widely from the plain colour found in
their immediate relatives. If we applied Mr. Scudder’s theory on insects, we must
imagine that the prototype form has become extinct, while the mimicker has
established its position. This is an hypothesis which is easier to suggest than
either to prove or to disprove. Similar cases may frequently be found in botany.
The strawberry is not indigenous in Japan, but in the mountains there I found a
potentilla in fruit which absolutely mimicked the Alpine strawberry in the minutest
particulars, in its runners, its blossoms, and fruit; but the fruit was simply dry
pith, supporting the seeds and retaining its colour without shrinking or falling
from the stalk for weeks—a remarkable case, we cannot say of unconscious
‘mimicry, but of unconscious resemblance. Mimicry in birds is comparatively rare,
and still rarer in mammals, which is not surprising when we consider how small is
the total number of the mammalia, and even of birds, compared with the countless
species of invertebrates, Out of the vast assemblage of insects, with their varied
colours and patterns, it would be strange if there were not many cases of accidental
resemblance, A strict application of Wallace’s five laws would, perhaps; if all the
‘circumstances were known, eliminate many accepted instances.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 795
As to cases of edible insects mimicking inedible, Mr. Poulton admits that even
unpalatable animals have their special enemies, and that the enemies of palatable
animals are not indefinitely numerous.
Mr. Beddard gives tables of the results obtained by Weismann, Poulton, and
others, which show that it is impossible to lay down any definite law upon the
subject, and that the likes and dislikes of insect-eating animals are purely relative.
One of the most interesting cases of mimicry is that of the Volucella, a genus
of Diptera, whose larvee live on the larve of Hymenoptera, and of which the
perfect insect closely resembles some species of humble-bee. Though this fact is
unquestioned, yet it has recently given rise to a controversy, which, so far as one
who has no claim to be an entomologist can judge, proves that, while there is much
that can be explained by mimicry, there is, nevertheless, a danger of its advocates
pressing it too far. Volucella bombylans occurs in two varieties, which prey upon
the humble-bees, Bombus muscorum and B. lapidarius, which they respectively
yesemble. Mr. Bateson does not question the behaviour of the Volucel/a, but states
that neither variety specially represents B. muscorum, and yet that they deposit
their eges more frequently in their nests than in the nests of other species which
they resemble more closely. He also states that ina show-case in the Royal College
of Surgeons, to illustrate mimicry, two specimens of another species, B. sylvarum,
were placed alongside of the Volucella, which they do resemble, but were labelled
B. muscorum.
But Mr. Hart explains the parasitism in another way. He states that a nest
of B. muscorum is made on the surface, without much attempt at concealment, and
that the bee is a peculiarly gentle species, with a very feeble sting ; but that the
species which the Volucella most resemble are irascible, and therefore more dangerous
to intruders. If this be so, it is difficult to see why the Volucel/a should mimic the
bee, which it does not affect, more closely than the one which is generally its
victim. I do not presume to express any opinion further than this, that the in-
stances I have cited show that there is much reason for further careful observation
by the field naturalist, and much yet to be discovered by the physiologist and the
chemist, as to the composition and nature of animal pigments.
I had proposed to occupy a considerable portion of my address with a statement
of the present position of the controversy on heredity, by far the most difficult and
important of all those subjects which at present attract the attention of the hiolo-
gist ; but an attack of illness has compelled me to abandon my purpose. Not that
I proposed to venture to express any opinions of my own, for, with such protago-
nists in the field as Weismann, Wallace, Romanes, and Poulton on the one side,
and Herbert Spencer and Hartog on the other,‘ Non nostrum inter vos tantas
componere lites.’
So far as I can understand Weismann’s theory, he assumes the separation of
germ cells and somatic cells, and that each germ cell contains in its nucleus a
number of ‘ ids,’ each ‘ id’ representing the personality of an ancestral member of
the species, or of an antecedent species. ‘The first multicellular organism was
probably a cluster of similar cells, but these units soon lost their original homo-
geneity. As the result of mere relative position, some of the cells were especially
fitted to provide for the nutrition of the colony, while others undertook the work
of reproduction.’ The latter, or germ-plasm, he assumes to possess an unlimited
power of continuance, and that life is endowed with a fixed duration, not because
it is contrary to its nature to be unlimited, but because the unlimited existence of
individuals would be a luxury without any corresponding advantage.
Herbert Spencer remarks upon this: ‘The changes of every aggregate, no matter
of what kind, inevitably end in a state of equilibrium. Suns and planets die, as
well as organisms,’ But has the theory been proved, either by the histologist, the
microscopist, or the chemist? Spencer presses the point that the immortality of
the protozoa has not been proved. And, after all, when Weismann makes the, con-
tinuity of the germ-plasm the foundation of a theory of heredity, he is building
upon a pure hypothesis,
From the continuity of the germ-plasm; and its relative segregation from: the
body at large, save with respect to nutrition, he deduces, a prioré, the impossibility
796 REPORT— 1893.
of characters acquired by the body being transmitted through the germ-plasm to
the offspring. From this he implies that where we find no intelligible mechanism
to convey an imprint from the body to the germ, there no imprint can be conveyed.
Romanes has brought forward many instances which seem to contradict this theory,
and Herbert Spencer remarks that ‘a recognised principle of reasoning—“ the law
of parsimony ”—forbids the assumption of more causes than are needful for the
explanation of phenomena. We have evident causes which arrest the cell mul-
tiplication, therefore it is illegitimate to ascribe this arrest to some property
inherent in the cells.’
With regard to the reduction or disappearance of an organ, he states ‘ that
when natural selection, either direct or reversed, is set aside, why the mere cessation
of selection should cause decrease of an organ, irrespective of the direct effects of
disease, I am unable to see. Beyond the production of changes in the size of parts,
by the selection of fortuitously arising variation, I can see but one other cause for
the production of them—the competition among the parts for nutriment. . . . The
active parts are well supplied, while the inactive parts are ill supplied and dwindle,
as does the arm of the Hindu fakir. This competition is the cause of economy of
growth—this is the cause of decrease from disease.’
I may illustrate Mr. Herbert Spencer’s remarks by the familiar instance of the
pinions of the Kakapo (Stringops)—still remaining, but powerless for flight.
As for acquired habits, such as the modification of bird architecture by the
same species under changed circumstances, how they can be better accounted for than
by hereditary transmitted instinct, I do not see. I mean such cases as the ground-
nesting Didunculus in Samoa haying saved itself from extinction since the intro-
duction of cats, by roosting and nesting in trees; or the extraordinary acquired
habit of the black-cap in the Canaries, observed by Dr. Lowe, of piercing the
calyx of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis—an introduced plant—to attract insects, for which
he quietly sits waiting. So the lying low of a covey of partridges under an
artificial kite would seem to be a transmitted instinct from a far-off ancestry not
yet lost; for many generations of partridges, I fear, must have passed since the
last kite hovered over the forefathers of an English partridge, save in very few
parts of the island.
I cannot conclude without recalling that the past year has witnessed the
severance of the last link with the pre-Darwinian naturalists in the death of Sir
Richard Owen. Though never himself a field-worker, or the discoverer of a single
animal living or extinct, his career extends over the whole history of palzeonto-
logy. J say paleontology, for he was not a geologist in the sense of studying
the order, succession, area, structure, and disturbance of strata. But he accumu-
lated facts on the fossil remains that came to his hands, till he won the fame of
being the greatest comparative anatomist of the age. To him we owe the building
up of the skeletons of the giant Dinornithide and many other of the perished forms
ot the gigantic sloths, armadilloes, and mastodons of South America, Australia,
and Europe. He was himself a colossal worker, and he never worked for popu-
larity. He had lived and worked too long before the Victorian age to accept
readily the doctrines which have revolutionised that science, though none
has had ‘a larger share in accumulating the facts, the combination of which of
necessity produced that transformation. But, though he clung fondly to his old
idea of the archetype, no man did more than Owen to explode the rival theories of
both Wernerians and Huttonians, till the controversies of Plutonians and Nep-
tunians come to us from the far past with as little to move our interest as the blue
and green factions of Constantinople.
Nor can we forget that it is to Sir Richard’s indomitable perseverance that we
owe the magnificent palace which contains the national collections in Cromwell
Road. For many years he fought the battle almost alone. His demand for a build-
ing of two stories, covering five acres, was denounced as audacious. The scheme
was pronounced foolish, crazy, and extravagant; but, after twenty years’ struggle,
he was victorious, and in 1872 the Act was passed which gave not five, but more
than seven acres for the purpose. Owen retired from its direction in 1883, having
achieved the crowning victory of his life. Looking back in his old age on the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 797
scientific achieverents of the past, he fully recognised the prospects of still further
advances, and observed, ‘The known is very small compared with the knowable,
and we may trust in the Author of all truth, who, I think, will not let that
truth remain for ever hidden.’
I have endeavoured to show that there is still room for all workers, that the
naturalist has his place, though the morphologist and the physiologist have rightly
come into far greater prominence, and we need not vet abandon the-field-glass
and the lens for the microscope and the scalpel. The studies of the laboratory
still leave room for the observations of the field. The investigation of muscles,
the analysis of brain tissue, the research into the chemical properties of pigment,
haye not rendered worthless the study and observation of life and habits. As you
cannot diagnose the Red Indian and the Anglo-Saxon by a comparison of their
respective skeletons or researches into their muscular structure, but require to
know the habits, the language, the modes of thought of each; so the mammal,
the bird, and even the invertebrate, has his character, his voice, his impulses, aye,
I will add, his ideas, to be taken into account in order to discriminate him, There
is something beyond matter in life, even in its lowest forms. I may quote on this
the caution uttered by a predecessor of mine in this chair (Professor Milnes
Marshall): ‘ One thing above all is apparent, that embryologists must not work
single-handed ; must not be satisfied with an acquaintance, however exact, with
animals from the side of development only ; for embryos have this in common with
maps, that too close and too exclusive a study of them is apt to disturb a man’s
reasoning power.’
The ancient Greek philosopher gives us a threefold division of the intellectual
faculties—gpornors, emurtnun, cvvecis—and I think we may apply it to the sub-
division of labour in natural science: dpdvycts, 7 ra kaP exagru yvepitovea, is the
power that divides, discerns, distinguishes—7.e., the naturalist; cuveous, the opera-
tion of the closet zoologist, who investigates and experiments; and ério7npyy, the
faculty of the philosopher, who draws his conclusions from facts and observations.
The older naturalists lost much from lack of the records of previous observa-
tions ; their difficulties were not ours, but they went to nature for their teachings
rather than to books. Now we find it hard to avoid being smothered with the
literature of the subject, and being choked with the dust of libraries. The danger
against which Professor Marshall warns the embryologist is not confined to him
alone; the observer of facts is equally exposed to it, and he must beware of the
danger, else he may become a mere materialist. The poetic, the imaginative, the
emotional, the spiritual, all go to make up the man; and if one of these is missing,
he is incomplete,
I cannot but feel that the danger of this concentration upon one side only of
nature is painfully illustrated in the life of our great master, Darwin. In his early
days he was a lover of literature, he delighted in Shakespeare and other poets ;
but after years of scientific activity and interest, he found on taking them up
again that he had not only grown indifferent to them, but that they were even
distasteful to him. He had suffered a sort of atrophy on that side of his nature,
as the disused pinions of the Kakapo haye become powerless—the spiritual, the
imaginative, the emotional, we may call it.
The case of Darwin illustrates a law—a principle we may call it—namely, that
the spiritual faculty lives or dies by exercise or the want of iteven as does the bodily.
Yet the atrophy was unconscious. Far was it from Darwin to ignore or depreciate
studiesnot hisown, He has shown us this when he prefixed to the title-page ofhisgreat
work the following extract from Lord Chancellor Bacon :—‘ To conclude, there-
fore, let no man, out of a weak conceit of sobriety, or an ill-applied moderation,
think or maintain that a man can search too far, or be too well studied in the book
of God’s word, or in the book of God’s works, divinity or philosophy, but rather
let men endeavour an endless progress or proficience in both.’ In true harmony
is this with the spirit of the father of natural history, concluding with the words,
“O Lord, how manifold are Thy works! in wisdom hast Thou made them all: the
earth is full of Thy riches,’
798 REPORT— 1893.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On the Physico-chemical and Vitalistic Theories of Life.
By J. S. Haupane,
2. On the Effect of the Stimulation of the Vagus Nerve on the Disengagement
of Gases in the Swinming-bladder of Fishes. By Dr. CuristTIAN Bon. '
3. On Malformation from Pre-natal Influence on the Mother.
By Aurrep R. Wattacez, D.C.L., F.R.S.
In a letter to ‘ Nature’ (August 24) on ‘ Pre-natal Influences on Character,’ I
stated—rather hastily, as it now appears—that physiologists rejected the notion of
physical peculiarities being thus caused, both on account of the total absence of
trustworthy evidence and also on theoretical grounds. In the article ‘ Deformities ’
in the new edition of ‘ Chambers’s Encyclopzedia’ (by Professor A. Hare) I find the
following statement:—‘In an increasing proportion of cases which are carefully
investigated it appears that maternal impressions, the result of shock or unpleasant
experiences, may have a considerable influence in producing deformities in the
offspring. This has long been a popular theory, and it is one that recent scientific
observation is tending to confirm.’
In consequence of my letter in ‘ Nature’ several alleged cases of the kind above
referred to have been sent me, one of which, being illustrated by a photograph and
attested by a perfectly competent observer, will, I think, interest all biologists.
The account was sent me by Dr. Richard Budd, M.D., F.R.C.P., Physician to the
North Devon Infirmary. The following is a copy of his statement :—
‘In the year 1861 a gamekeeper named Croucher was admitted to the North
Devon Infirmary in consequence of a gunshot wound of the right forearm. The
arm was amputated just below the elbow. Croucher left the infirmary before the
wound was quite healed, in the belief that his wife would be able to dress it. In
this he was mistaken; but a young woman, the wife of a neighbouring farmer,
volunteered her services, and continued to dress the wound till it was healed.
Some six or seven months after this young woman was confined, and her child was
born minus the right forearm, and the stump was a facsimile of Croucher’s. The
gamekeeper’s arm became somewhat wasted by the pressure induced by an artificial
arm, and therefore the resemblance of the two arms (in the photograph taken some
years later) is not so exact as it was at first. The photographs were taken by
me.
‘ (Signed) RicHarp Bupp, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
‘ Physician to the North Devon Infirmary,
‘Barnstaple: September 4, 1893.’ -
In a letter Dr. Budd adds: ‘ With regard to the Croucher case, I am not aware
that the facts have been published in any of the medical periodicals, but I exhibited
and explained the photographs at a grand meeting at the College of Physicians (in
November 1876), when most of the celebrated physicians of the world were present,
and they created the deepest interest.’
] presume that the birth of a child with an arm exactly resembling that in the
photograph is an exceedingly rare occurrence in England, and that the probability
of one being thus born in the same place where there was a man with a similar
arm is exceedingly slight. When we add to this the further improbability of sueh
a child being born within nine months after the accident, and the mother being the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 799
particular woman who repeatedly dressed the wounded arm, it seems impossible té
ayoid accepting a causal connection between the two events.
Should such a connection be established, both on the physical and mental side,
we have evidently a new cause of modification distinct from normal heredity.
It has more analogy with the supposed inheritance of acquired variations, but
is quite distinct from it. It seems not unlikely that some of the cases of supposed
heredity of mutilations may be really due to this mental effect on the mother, It
therefore becomes very important that the whole subject should be thoroughly in-
vestigated.
The following letter has also been received from Dr, Budd :—
‘ Barnstaple: September 10, 1893,
‘My dear Sir,—Some years ago the late Sir Frederick Williams, Bart., sent a
brood mare, that had just been covered by a thorough-bred stallion, from his seat
in Cornwall, Tregullo, to his shooting-cottage at Heanton Puncharden, near
Barnstaple. When the groom entered the stable the following morning he
found tkat one of the mare’s eyes was hanging by a nail in the wall, The
mare was then placed for a run in the Braunton marshes, In due time she
produced a foal minus an eye on the same side as the mare’s. The year following
this mare again had a foal with one eye; but the third year she had a foal with two
good eyes, the impression on her brain having worn out. This, in my opinion, is
quite as interesting a case as Croucher’s.
‘In great haste to save this post,
‘ Yours sincerely,
‘RicHARD Bupp,’
4. On Calorimetry by Surface Thermometry and Hygrometry.
By Aveustus D, Wainer, M.D., F.R.S.
This is in continuation of a communication made at the Liége Congress of
Physiology (1892). Of the conclusions then published the only one needing to be
quoted for the present purpose is that the alteration of temperature of a limb in
consequence of the evercise of its muscles is mainly a vascular effect. Which signifies
that the measurements given below are of muscular and vascular phenomena, not
of muscular phenomena alone.
To form an approximate estimate of the calorimetric value of surface thermo-
metric readings I proceeded as follows: Readings were taken at intervals of an
internal and of an external thermometer in connection with an indiarubber sphere
of known surface, containing a known weight of warm water, allowed to cool in
still air, Readings of a third thermometer gave the temperature of the air, The
internal thermometer indicated the heat loss in calories ; the external thermometer
gave indications that were proportional with the temperature-difference (hereafter
referred to as the T.D.) between the surface of the sphere and the surrounding air.
In this way it was estimated that each degree of indicated T.D. signified a heat-
emission of approximately 12:5 calories per 1,000 cm.? per minute.
The T.D. observed on the naked forearm was, under ordinary conditions, found
to be between 10° and 15°C, Assuming that, ceteris paribus, the radiation from
the skin was equal to that from the indiarubber, and taking the superficial area of
the forearm (not including the hand) at 500 em.”, the heat-emission within the
above range of T.D. is 62°5 to 94 cals. per minute.
Theoretically there are two obvious weak links in this argument, but for
practical purposes it may be acted upon; it affords a more tangible series of expres-
sions for variations of heat-emission under various conditions than is afforded by
merely thermometric terms, and the calorimetric values thus obtained possess at
least an equal degree of accuracy with those obtained by partial calorimetry.
The weak links are (1) that Newton’s law of cooling is not absolutely correct ;
(2) that the coefficient of radiation varies with the nature of the cooling surface.
1. Newton's law is not absolutely correct ; the heat-emission by radiation and
conduction per 1° T.D. is a diminishing value with diminishing T.D. We may
800 REPORT—1893.
not therefore, strictly speaking, give the value of heat-emission as constant per
degree T.D., nor make, as above, the assumption that cal.=T.D.x x. But the dis-
crepancy is not very serious within a range of 5° or even of 10°, and it is easily
eliminated. Thus we may treat the discharge at 10° T.D. as a constant, and give
the variations per degree above this value. Or, better, we may draw up a table
of the values T'.D.1*55 x x. The following table gives in three parallel columns the
calorimetric values per minute per 1,000 cm.? of temperature-differences such as
are ordinarily observed on the human forearm; 1° on the least accurate assumption
cal. =T.D. x «; 2° on the more accurate assumption cal. =C+(T.D.—10) «; 3° on
the least inaccurate assumption cal. =x T.D.!'*°5. Variations of barometric pressure
have been treated as negligible. Calories per minute per 1,000 cm.*; or millicalories
per minute per cm.” :—
T.D. Cal. =12'5 T.D. Cal. =120+15(T.D.—10) Cal.=7 T.D.1259
15 187-5 195 197-50
14 175 180 181:24
13 1625 165 165°42
12 150 150 149°88
11 137°5 135 13463
10 125 120 119:70
2. The coefficient of radiation varies with the nature of the radiating surface,—
Heat is emitted from a warm surface, such as the human skin, by conduction, by
evaporation, and by radiation. We may not assume that loss by radiation is
identical from the surface of the indiarubber. sphere and from an equal area of
human skin. Moreover, we must admit as theoretically possible that the radiating
power of the skin, apart from alterations of temperature, may vary.
I have not attempted to determine what is the percentage of the total loss borne
by radiation alone, nor the variations of that percentage with varying character of
surface. I have (1) taken simultaneous and separate estimates of the loss (a) by
evaporation, (4) by conduction and radiation conjoined ; (2) made experiments to
see whether the loss by radiation cwm conduction was sensibly altered by gross
differences of the radiant surface ; (3) compared roughly by thermopile and galvano-
meter the radiation of a warm indiarubber surface with that of the human skin ;
and (4) tried whether radiation from the human skin varied parallel with variations
of T.D., or in such wise as to suggest the intervention of a distorting factor, such
as an alteration of the radiating power.
All these were comparatively rough experiments, made not to determine actual
alterations of heat-emission with alterations of radiant power, but to determine
whetlier the latter could be regarded as markedly influencing the result, and thus
forbidding the translation of surface thermometer readings of T.D. into calorimetric
values of heat-emission.
I found (1) that two otherwise similar spheres with respectively white and
black covers showed no difference in the rate of cooling outside the range of
experimental error, apart from variations due to differences of T.D., or of thickness
of cover, or of moisture of cover, or of air; (2) that practically the amount of
radiation was proportional to the T.D., within a range of variation of 10°C. ;
(3) that the radiant power of the indiarubber surface did not sensibly differ from
that of the skin of the forearm, with identical values of the T.D.
From which I concluded (1) that variations of radiant power are negligible in
observations of this order; (2) that the absolute calorimetric standard obtained
from observations on the cooling sphere of water might without gross error be
applied to the heat-emission of the human skin.
3. The evaporation factor in heat-emission has to be separately dealt with—To
1 Dr. Stewart, in the course of experiments on the radiation from the animal body
(Studies from the Physiological Laboratory of Owens College, Manchester, 1891), has
anticipated me in this first conclusion, to the effect that heat-emission depends upon
the T.D. and not upon variations of radiating power.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 801
this end I used a simple hygrometer, consisting of a shallow glass capsule, in the
_ flat bottom of which some calcium chloride solution had been evaporated to dryness.
The amount of water vapour discharged was ascertained by weighing the capsule
before and after it had been left inverted for a given period over the skin or other
surface of evaporation ; the corresponding quantity of heat emitted was taken as
equal to the weight of water x by the latent heat of evaporation. By preliminary
trials it was found that the water discharge varied from 2 to 20 mgrms. per
20 cm.” per 10 min. at various parts of the skin under ordinary varying conditions,
and that a capsule inverted over a wet surface can absorb between 80 and 90
megrms. per 20 cm.” per 10 min.’ It was also found by trial on a wet cooling
sphere that the amount of heat ascertained by means of the internal thermometer
to be lost was approximately found by calculations from the data furnished by the
external thermometer and the hygrometer conjointly. Thus, eg., against a loss
of 400 cals. per min. indicated by the internal thermometer there were
found 150 cals. by the surface thermometer (the T.D. being 12°, and taking out
from the calorimetric values tabulated above the corresponding number) plus 240
to 270 cals. by the evaporation of 400 to 450 milligrammes of water.
Assuming that the graduation is not grossly inaccurate, and that the argument
upon which it rests is not grossly incorrect, the following numbers represent the
state of heat-emission from a human forearm, with a superficial area of 500 em.,
(a) during rest after rest, (6) during rest after previous moderate exertion. The
air temperature during experiment was 20°.
After Rest After Exertion
T.D. 122 14°
Te. heat-emission in cals. per min, . poke ay 90
Water-emission in grammes per 20 cm.?
per 10 min. - : ; 0:004 0:030
J.e. heat-emission in cals. per min. . : 6 45
Total heat-emission in cals. per. min. : 81 135
In carrying out investigations of this character, it is of great advantage to
employ the graphic method. Amount and rhythm of muscular exercise are
recorded by a dynamograph, as described in my ‘introduction to Human Phy-
siology’; surface-temperature by an air-thermograph, the essential part of which
is a thin metal box strapped to the limb, and connected with a piston-recorder in
contact with a slowly revolving cylinder, as will be described in a future com-
munication ; the area of the thermographic curve thus recorded represents a calori-
metric value, and its ordinate a rate of heat-emission.
The method is easily carried out; the surface thermometer (or thermograph)
and the calcium chloride hygrometer are well adapted to the clinical investigation
of the heat and water emission of the skin under various pathological conditions.
5. On a Method of Recording the Heart Sounds.
By Professor W. ErntHoven.
6. On Nerve Stimulation. By F. Gorcu, F.R.S.
7. On the Digestive Ferments of a large Protozoon.
By Marcus Hartoe and Avueustus H. Dixon.
The authors haye experimented with Pelomyxa palustris, of which the largest
individuals attain a diameter up to 2 or even 3 millimetres (4-3 inch).
This organism, which is a gigantic multi-nucleate amceba, is found in abundance
in the mud at the bottom of a small concrete tank at Queen’s College, Cork. After
? Details will be given in a further communication dealing with cutaneous secretion.
1898. 3F
802 REPORT— 1893.
collecting the mud and levigating off the fine silt, the organisms are collected by
sucking them up from among the coarser débris, treated with 95 per cent. spirit,
picked out singly with a mounted needle from the débris which had necessarily
been sucked up with them, dried over oil of vitriol, and pounded. The impalpable
powder (moistened with alcohol, as water wets it with difficulty) is extracted
with water.
The watery extract shows the following properties :—
1. It hydrolyses starch paste in a neutral solution, but much less readily in
presence of dilute mineral acids. It converts the starch rapidly into erythro-dextrin,
but the formation of a sugar which will reduce alkaline copper solution is somewhat
tardy.
2. It has no action whatever on thymolised milk in two days.
3. It liquefies fibrin rapidly in presence of dilute acids, but it is only after
prolonged action that a distinct biuret reaction reveals the presence of pepsin.
4, It only attacks fibrin very slowly, and partially in neutral solution, and
indol and skatol are not formed.
The enzymes present, therefore, resemble ptyalin and pepsin; trypsin, rennin,
and steapsin (or pialyn) appear to be absent.
About 1,000 individuals furnish one grain of dry substance. Two series of
experiments were made with about this quantity of material each time. It is
proposed to repeat and complete the research in the autumn.
8. Report on the Physiological Action of the Inhalation of Oxygen.
See Reports, p. 551.
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY.
1. On the Luminous Organs of Cephalopoda. By Witttam E. Hoyts.
It was recorded by Vérany so long ago as 1851 that certain spots on the body and
arms of the rare and beautiful cuttlefish (Histioteuthis Bonelliana) gave out a phos-
phorescent light in the dark, but no subsequent observer has been fortunate enough
to have the opportunity of confirming his observation, or indeed of procuring a
specimen of the species. The allied form (Histioteuthis Riippellit), which has spots
of precisely similar appearance, has been several times examined, though never
in the living condition. During the early part of the present year Professor
Joubin, of Rennes, published an account of his examination of the structure of
these organs. My own investigations have been made upon Histioteuthis Riippellit,
upon another rare species, Calliteuthis reversa, and upon two species of Enoplo-
teuthis, a genus remarkable for having a number of the suckers developed into for-
midable hooks.
As regards the first, the specimen at my disposal was not in a very satisfactory
state of preservation, so that I can say no more than that my results on the whole
agree with those of Joubin,
In Calliteuthis, a genus not far removed systematically from Histioteuthis, the
organs are essentially similar in distribution and in appearance to the naked eye,
and, as might therefore be expected, they are very similar in structure. The most
noticeable differences are that the distinction between the lens and the transparent
cone of Joubin is scarcely marked, and that the mirror situated anteriorly to the
main part of the organ is scarcely marked. These points may, however, be due to
the sections having been made from a very young specimen.
In Enoploteuthis the appearance and structure of the organ are very different.
‘When the surface of the body is examined under a pocket-lens there are seen
among the ordinary chromatophores larger round spots, each having a pearly centre
surrounded by a ring of pigment, and usually somewhat raised above the general
level of the epithelium. These spots are confined to the ventral aspect of the
animal, but are found on the mantle, funnel and arms, as well as round the eyes.
~
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 803
fm one species I found three or four isolated ones in the centre of the dorsal
surface of each fin.
In section it is seen that each organ is a spheroidal body embedded in the sub-
cutaneous cellular tissue, and consisting of the following parts: (1) an outer pig-
mented cup with a considerable aperture (a quarter of its circumference) in front.
(2) A lining within the cup, consisting of a single layer of cuboidal cells, with
spherical nuclei, easily stained. (3) The anterior aperture of the pigment cup is
filled by a lenticular body, composed of masses of a structureless yellowish
material, to all appearance cuticular in nature, with small deeply-stained cells
between the masses. (4) From the back of the lens there projects into the centre
of the organ a conical plug, composed of deeply-stained cells. These are seen in
transverse sections to be disposed concentrically round the axis of the cone, pro-
ducing the effect of the well-known ‘cell nests’ of an epithelioma, (5) The space
between this plug and the cells lining the pigment cup is filled with a clear trans-
parent mass. In its peripheral portions this seems to be made up of thin layers
arranged concentrically like the coats of an onion; whilst nearer the centre it has
the form of curved rods, wider in front than behind, amongst which nuclei are
sparsely scattered.
In most cases a space, most likely a blood lacuna, was seen around the organ;
no nerve supply could be traced out.
It is impossible without an opportunity of examining the living animal to say
what part of this apparatus is the active agent in producing the light ; indeed, it
must be remembered that positive proof of its being a luminous organ at all is
still wanting.
Of similar structures as yet described in other animals it seems to resemble
most nearly the photospheria of Myctiphanes norvegica, a schizopod crustacean
examined by Messrs. Vallentine and Cunningham. As regards origin, these organs
are probably to be regarded as highly modified chromatophores; an analogous
modification would be found in the thermoscopic spots recently described by
Joubin in another cephalopod.
2. Report on the Marine Zoology of the Irish Sea —See Reports, p. 526.
3. Interim Report on a Deep-sea Tow-net.
4, The Origin of Organic Colour. By F. T. Mort, F.R.G.S.
In a complete plant of the higher orders there are three distinct schemes of
colour—viz., the browns, olives, and maroons of the stem and branches, the greens
of the foliage, and the reds, yellows, and blues of the blossom.
These indicate a successive decrease in the amount of light absorbed, which
must be the result of changes in the absorbing capacity of the molecules. It is
suggested that the cause of these changes may be found in the specially organic
phenomenon of food assimilation, and the concentration of energy in the molecular
structure which this implies. If such energy is stored in the form of increased
molecular vibration, sets of molecules will successively reach the maximum limit
of vibration possible to them, and will lose the power of further absorption.
Thus the amount of reflected light will increase as the plant attains maturity; and
as the arrest of growth which accompanies the formation of blossom throws upon
the vibration of the molecules the energy otherwise expended upon growth, a
marked increase of reflected light from the flower is the natural result.
5. Remarks on the Roots of the Lemna and the Reversing of the Fronds in
Lemna trisulea. By Nina F, Layarp.
The roots of the various English Lemne are usually described as identical in
form and structure, if, indeed, they receive any attention at all; but a careful
3 F2
804 REPORT—1 893.
comparison of their forms will show certain distinct, albeit slight, differences,
sufficiently marked to make it possible to identify a plant by means of the root
alone. ,
One of the objects of this paper was to point out those differences by means of
diagrams in which the respective roots of Lemna minor, trisulca, gibba, and
polyrhiza were represented side by side.
Besides a considerable variety in the length of the various root-fibres, a
microscopic examination of the sheaths which protect the apex shows that neither
are they uniform in shape, but, ranging from the comparatively blunt and straight
ampulla of Lemna minor to the slightly pointed sheath of Lemna gibba, they
become blade-like in Lemna polyrhiza, and, finally, sharply pointed and with a
tendency to curve in Lemna trasulea.
As the plant matures the sheath becomes a ruddy brown colour, and is seen
under the microscope to be freckled with brown blotches, probably the decaying
outer cells of the case. This hardening of the ampulla is a very necessary security
against the attacks of water insects, which feed upon the delicate root fibres, often
commencing at the extremity of the root and working their way upwards.
It is interesting to speculate as to possible other uses for this rather phenomenal
root-cap. The functions of the root-caps of terrestrial plants are easily recognised
in their adaptability to the purpose of forcing a way for the fibre through soil or
pebbles, but here we have plants suspended in the water, and yet furnished with
something very similar. This difficulty has been met by the suggestion that the
sheath of the Lemna is not a root-cap, but really a persistent digestive pouch ; but,
even without this explanation, one has only to take into consideration the
characteristics of the habitat of the duckweed to see that the ampulla is continu-
ally required to do the work of any ordinary root-cap of terrestrial plants. Owing
to the stagnant nature of the ponds and dykes where it flourishes the plant is
subjected to violent alternations of drought and plenty, and in the dry season
myriads of perishing Lemne are left high and dry on the banks. The more
fortunate individuals, growing where the water is deeper, are gradually let down
as it becomes more shallow, until at last, striking their roots on the soil at the
bottom, they are embedded in the mire, and there await the return of rain.
A curious hooked appearance which is occasionally seen in the ampulla of Lemna
trisulca was also represented in the diagrams.
In the long chains formed by a number of connected fronds of Lemna trisulea
it will not infrequently be found that the root-fibres spring sometimes from below
the frond and hang downwards, and sometimes from what appears to be the
surface of the frond, reaching upwards. A careful observation of the tendency of
this submerged duckweed under certain circumstances to twist into an almost spiral
form led the author to the conclusion that in such cases the fronds had completely
revolved in their sockets, so that what had at first been underneath was now
uppermost, throwing the root attached to it up to the surface. Further observa-
tions seemed to point to the fact that this habit is confined to cases where the
submerged Lemna trisulca is covered from light and air by a thick overgrowth of
other weeds, such as Lemna minor, with which it is often associated ; for in a pond
where this was not the case the uncovered chains of Lemna trisulca were lying
almost flat, but after being placed in a basin already containing Lemna minor
they also assumed an irregular spiral form in the course of a few weeks. Should
this change be found to be attributable to a want of air it may possibly point to a
respiratory function in the root-fibre.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Interim Report on the Botanical Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 805
2. Interim Report on the Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs.
See Reports, p. 552.
3. On the Aitiology and Life-history of some Vegetal Galls and their
Inhabitants.| By G. B. Roruera.
In the restricted sense in which the term is here applied, galls are defined as
complex organisms resulting from the co-operation of a plant and an animal; and
to determine the extent and modus operandi of these two factors in their produc-
tion is one of the many interesting problems which this study presents. ‘Though
abnormal with regard to the plant, inasmuch as their presence is exceptional and
foreign to the performance of its proper functions, galls are in themselves as normal
as any other organisms. Each has its own characteristic form, its special habitat,
and its proper office. Hence, after referring to the great diversity of these
organisms and their wide distribution, the writer proceeds to trace out the life-
history of certain typical galls, those of Cynips Kollari, Teras terminalis, and
Biorhliza aptera being specially dealt with.
What is there, he asks, in the casual presence of the ovum of the gall-producing
insect, in the action of the developing larva, in the mechanical puncture of the
parent cynips, or in the deposit of a tiny drop of irritating fluid by which it is said
the ovipositing is accompanied—what is there in any one, or more, or all of these,
or, it may be, in the action of some other factor yet to be discovered, that impels
these wonder-working changes by which the gall itself is initiated and its future
growth and development accompanied? Reviewing the various attempts made to
answer this and cognate questions, as also the arguments by which the generally
accepted view of the deposit by the parent cynips of a special virus is supported,
the author denies the alleged analogy upon which the conclusion thence arrived at
rests. The presence of the ovum (not found in any of the cases stated) may be, he
suggests, as necessary a factor in the production of the gall as is the deposit of a
specific virus; while in many cases galls are found to result from the action of
other animals than terebrant hymenoptera—as, for example, of kermes, cecydomiz,
and acari—where no such poison-gland as that referred to exists. Very early in
his investigations (now extending over a period of five-and-twenty years) the
writer arrived at the conclusion that another agent, as potent as that of this hypo-
thetical virus, was essential to the production of, at least, some species of vegetal
galls, such agent being the presence and action of a living larva. In illustration
of this the ‘ oak-apple’ may be taken. Here the parent cynips (Biorhiza aptera—
the agamic form of Terasterminalis), by a dexterous use of her terebra prepara-
tory to ovipositing, makes a cut across the axis of a winter bud of the oak, above
_the circlet of scales by which it is surrounded, so as to separate the cone-like
apex with its appendages. In the space thus prepared a variable number of
eggs is laid—at times as many as two hundred and fifty or more. Should these,
however, notwithstanding the incision, fail to be deposited, or, if laid, perish
during the winter, no growth, normal or abnormal, takes place from the divided
axis. This remains brown, dry, and inactive. If, on the other hand, healthy ova
are present, and these hatch out their living embryos, then, by the action of these
upon the dormant tissues, new and peculiar powers of growth are manifested—
powers which result in the production, not of a normal branch, but of an abnormal,
tumour-like gall. Here, then, we have a series of facts, positive and negative,
which point to the action of the embryo, and not to the deposit of a special virus
by the parent cynips, as the direct and necessary agent in the production of the
gall. Granting, for the sake of illustration, the existence and potency of such
virus, ought we not in such case to expect that, even in the absence of living larvee,
the normal energies of the fluid would be exerted, and a gall, destitute though it
might be of normal occupants, of necessity result? In the author’s long experience
no facts confirmatory of this view have been met with, nor is it probable that any
such barren galls exist. Are we not, then, justified in discarding the hypothesis of
' Published in extenso in Natural Science, November 1893.
806 REPORT—1 893.
a specific virus deposited by the parent cynips, and in attributing to the activities
of the living embryos, combined with the normal forces of the plant, the genesis
and metamorphoses of the gall ?
This view has since been emphasised by Dr. Beyerinck, of Utrecht, who, as a
deduction from the same facts, holds that in the action of the cynipide larve, and
not in the injection of a specific virus by the parent cynips, the cause of gall forma-
tion is solely to be found. Whether so or not, however, this, at least, may safely
be concluded, namely, that while, on the one hand, in those chemical and other
forces which produce growth greater activity is induced by the stimulus of the
injected fluid—assuming this to be actually present—so, on the other, those
mechanical conditions which determine form in organic beings are furnished to a
large extent by the contact of the included ovum and by the activities of the
embryonic larva.
Resting in this solution cf the problem, the author proceeds to deal with the
facts of parthenogenesis ana metagenesis, as exhibited in the gall-producing
cynipide, and then to trace the operations of phytophagous and entomophagous
inquilines and parasites,
‘The unbidden crew of graceless guests’ ( Virgil),
which, season by season, decimate the cynips’ larve, the legitimate possessors of
the gall, living on their fatty juices, or so robbing them of their food that they die of
poverty and inanition. But here, again, as if to punish wrong and work retributive
justice, these inquiline and parasitic enemies in turn are preyed upon by other
parasites lower in the scale of creation than themselves, which thin their ranks, and
thus, in a rude and barbarous way, maintain the necessary balance of organic life.
4, On some New Features in Nuclear Division in Lilium martagon.
By Professor J. B. Farmer.
A careful examination of the course of development of the pollen in Lilium
martagon shows the presence of a varying number of bodies which seem to have
escaped the observation of those who have hitherto investigated this plant. To
these bodies the general term ‘granule’ has been given, as one which involves no
assumption as to their real nature. These granules are not easily made clear except
by the careful use of selective stains. One of the best methods, though by no
means the only one, of sharply differentiating them is that of double staining with
hematoxylin and orange G. The great importance of the granules lies in the
fact that a variable number of them may become converging points for the achro-
matic spindle fibres, and the whole spindle thus becomes multipolar and ¢rregular.
This does not, at any rate in the earlier stages of karyokinesis, terminate in any
definite granule which may be regarded as a ‘centrosome.’ This behaviour on the
part of the granules obviously affects deeply the whole question of the individuality
of the centrosome.
As to the origin of the granules, it is of extreme interest to find that they
appear suddenly in the cytoplasm, which had hitherto been perfectly free from
them. Their appearance is immediately subsequent to the fragmentation of the
large nucleolus during the preparatory stages of division, and moreover in their
staining reactions they exactly coincide with those presented by this structure. A
possible connection between the nucleolus and the granules is thus indicated.
_ During the later period of division the granules become fewer and larger, but
their ultimate fate is not as yet quite clear.
The above points were illustrated by photomicrographs.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 807
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On Coral Reefs. By W. J. Soutas, M.A., F.B.S.
A discussion on Coral Reefs was opened by the reading of this Paper.
2. Report on Work carried on at the Zoological Station, Naples.
See Reports, p. 537.
3. Report on Work carried on at the Biological Station, Plymouth.
See Reports, p. 546.
A. Interim Report on the Indes Generum et Specierum Animalium.
See Reports, p. 553.
5. A few Notes on Seals and Whales seen during the Voyage to the Antarctic,
1892-93. By Wm. S. Bruce.
During the recent Antarctic cruise at least three kinds of seals were seen. These
were all true seals; no fur seals were seen. They were the sea-leopard (Steno-
rhynchus leptonyx), Weddell’s false sea-leopard (Leptonyx Weddellii), and a
creamy-white seal, probably the crab-eating seal (Lobodon carcinophaga). There
were two others, which were possibly younger forms of sea-leopard and crab-eating
seals respectively. The latter, instead of being white, was mottled pale grey, but:
similar in form and size to, and often found among, the white seals. In December all
the seals were in very bad condition, thinly blubbered and grievously scarred. The
females were scarred as freely as the males. There was no marked preponderance
in the number of the females. During January their condition improved, and by
February they were heavily blubbered and free from scars. Loving the sun, they
lie on the pack ice all day digesting their meal of the previous night, which con-
sists chiefly of fish or small crustaceans, or both; the penguin is also occasionally
their victim, and I have found stones in their stomachs.
By February the embryo is well developed, gestation probably beginning in
December, It is extremely regrettable that it was during this period the indis-
criminate slaughter took place, almost all the females towards the end of January
and February being with young.
All the seals were found on the pack ice; the sea-leopard was on the outer-
most streams, and was most frequently to be found singly, though two or three
might be on one piece of ice, but seldom more. Weddell’s false sea-leopard was
very rare, only four of them having been seen. The creamy-white seal and the
pale mottled grey were in greatest abundance: these are found in fours, fives, or
even tens—the greatest number I have seen on one piece was forty-seven. On
one occasion we found some seals on a tilted berg; so high was the ledge above the
water-level that our men with difficulty clambered up and secured their prey.
This illustrates their great power of jumping from the water on to the ice. I have
a them rising about 9 feet above water, and cover distances of fully 20 feet in
ength.
Tt is of interest to note that we saw no trace of any whale resembling the bow-
head or Greenland black whale (Balena mysticetus) which Ross reported to have
seen in very great numbers. There were, however, hunchbacks, finbacks, bot#le-
noses, and grampuses.
808 REPORT—1893.
6. On the Penguins of the Antarctic Ocean. By C. W. Donat, M.B.
The penguin is one of the most interesting of living birds, Its shape, erect
posture, rigid flippers, its feathers, anatomy, and habits are all characteristic. The
most common form in this region is the black-throated species—Dasyrhamphus
adelias (H. & J.). A large rookery of this species, situated on the south shore of
Joinville Island, was visited. On one occasion they were seen in large schools,
each directed by an individual of larger species—probably an Emperor. On the
ice he usually progresses in the erect posture. In the water he generally proceeds.
like a porpoise—in a prolonged dive broken at intervals of about thirty yards as
he rises for breath——leaping clean out of the water, and immediately disappearing
with scareely a ripple, after clearing a space of two to two and a half feet. Ex-
petimenting on them, one was found to survive being held under water for six
minutes, ‘Their food consists chiefly of a large shrimp-like crustacean of the genus
Euphausia, Their stomachs generally contain a number of angular pebbles. Large
flocks of a white-throated penguin of the type described as D. Hereulis (Finsch)
were seen in February. [am of opinion that these are the young of D. adelie.
The Emperor Penguin— Aptenodytes Fosteri—was met with on several occasions.
One of these—of great size and beautiful plumage—was 4 feet 10 inches from tip of
beak to extremity of tail. It weighed 741b. One specimen of the Kinged Penguin
—Pygosculis antarctica—was obtained. A rookery occupied by the white-headed
penguin—Pygosculis papua—was visited. The nests here were lined by feathers
from the parents’ breasts. I saw no crested penguins nor any specimen of the
King—Aptenodytes longirostris. What I believe to be a new species of crested
penguin was seen on the S. Orkneys by Captain Sarsen.
7. On the Development of the Molar Teeth of the Elephant, with Remarks on
Dental Series. By Professor J. CLevandD, F.B.S.
A specimen was exhibited from the lower jaw of an Indian elephant of a molar
tooth enclosed in its sac, and consisting of a series of seventeen transverse lamine,,
each surmounted by comparatively elongated cusps. As yet only the cusps of
the hindermost lamina were covered with caps of dentine, and the lammz were
separated one from another by projections of the saccular wall. It was pointed
out that the cusps became afterwards less distinct by the growth of enamel taking
place on the surface, and that the lamin by remaining uncovered with dentine for
a considerable period were enabled to enlarge to three or four times the breadth
that they exhibited in the specimen. The elephant’s molars may be said to he
doubly compound ; the cusps, originally separate, being united by the laminz on
which they are placed, and the lamin being joined together afterwards by a com-
mon base on which the dentine is at a later period continued down, to be prolonged
finally into fangs. It is doubtful if any hard distinction can be drawn between a
transverse row of cusps conjoined together and a transverse series of separate teeth.
Teeth ought to be recognised as occurring in the jaws in longitudinal and
transverse series. The temporary and permanent teeth of mammals are in point
of fact derived from papillae forming respectively an outer and an inner range,
while the additional teeth occurring occasionally in the human subject are
instances of a third papilla being developed internal to the inner range; just as in
sharks many teeth may lie in one transverse line. But this arrangement is disguised
by each tooth being temporarily included in a sac, and has escaped notice.
The specimen has been presented to the British Museum.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 809
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Certain Gregarinide, and the possible connection of Allied Forms
with Tissue Changes in Man. By Cuarues H. Carrin, M.D., M.R.C.P.,
and James Miuiar, M.D.
After giving a general review of the classification of the protozoa, the writers
pointed out that they were chiefly interested in the sporozoa, and that.because of
their parasitic habits, especially in the bodies of the higher vertebrates. There
was much still unknown of the habits, life-history, and distribution of these
organisms, and the co-operation of biologists with medical men was invited for
the elucidation of many unsettled questions, One of these was how far certain
of the sporozoa, at present classified as distinct species and genera, were to he
properly so considered, and how far some of them were really alternative forms
of the same organism modified by change of host and other external influences.
A detailed description was given of the authors’ own observations on the
development of the coccidium oviforme of the rabbit. On the authority of
L. Pfeiffer 1it was stated that in the body of its host, the coccidium multiplies
by means of a most prolific zodspore formation, while in external media it forms
lasting spores. The authors took some material derived from the rabbit’s gall-
bladder, containing coccidia, and watched the development of the parasite under
different external conditions. When the specimens were first observed, the
granular protoplasm, contained in the coccidium capsule, had already contracted
into a rounded mass, lying either in the centre, or somewhat to one end. The
first specimen to show further change: was one kept in ordinary water at the
temperature of the air, and unsealed so that there was free access of air to it.
Within a space of two days the granular ball had divided into two, and in some
instances into four portions. Sometimes the final division was into three portions
instead of four. Asan ultimate result of the segmentation the parent coccidium
came to contain three or four sporoblasts, each containing one or two (generally
two) refractile translucent bodies (spores) and some granular matter, the so-called
nucléus de religuat. The authors entirely failed to see the C-shaped rod with
thickened ends, which has been described * as lying within the sporoblasts. At a
later stage individuals were met with in which the sporoblasts could be seen
making their way out of the containing capsule and floating free in the surround-
ing fluid. The authors believe this is the first time this phenomenon has been
actually observed ; but they feel some doubt as to whether what they saw was
entirely spontaneous, or had been assisted by the pressure of the cover-glass used
in mounting the specimen on the slide. Probably under ordinary circumstances
the spores remain unchanged for an indefinite time, and only undergo further
change when they reach the interior of a new host. Ultimately they give origin
to amceboid germs which penetrate into epithelial cells. The authors regard
the interior of the tissue-cells as the necessary abode of the young forms of all
sporozoa; and if this opinion is correct, they see great difficulties in the way of
artificial cultivation of coccidia or any other true cell-parasite.
The tissue-changes in the rabbit’s liver due to a known parasite (the coccidium)
were stated to bear a close resemblance to those which constitute cancer in the
human subject. In the latter bodies have of late years been described and which
by many observers are considered as protozoa. The authors showed by means of
lantern slides the structure of these latter bodies as they had found them in their
oo The reasons for looking upon them as parasites were briefly—
1. The cell-growth, which is the fundamental change in cancer, is quite ana-
logous to the changes produced in animal tissues by known parasites. 2. They
1 Untersuchungen iiber den Krebs, Jena, 1893.
2 Leuckart, The Parasites of Man, 1886.
810 REPORT—1893.
have a clearly defined outline and structure, which differ from those of tissue-cells
and their nuclei; they are differently affected by stains. 3. Several observers,
and among them one of the present authors (Dr. Cattle '), have published descrip-
tions of what they consider to be a sporing process on the part of the ‘parasite.’
4, They are found most abundantly where the disease is active and spreading ;
not where it has died out, and been replaced by scar-like connective tissue.
5. Drs. Ruffer and Soudakewitch report they have seen the parasite moving and
dividing on the warm stage.
The authors concluded by expressing the opinion that by further observation
and experiment, the protozoon of cancer might in time become an established
fact. The Paper was illustrated by lantern slides.
2. On the Wings ef Archeopteryx and of other Birds.
By C. Hurpert Horst.
The slender hind limbs, the small pelvis, the weak vertebral column made up
of amphiccelous vertebrae, and the presence in the fore limb of long, slender,
clawed fingers, admirably adapted for climbing in trees, justify the view that
Archeopteryx was a quadruped using the free fingers of the fore limb much as
the corresponding free fingers of the Pterosauria may have been used, and as the
fingers of the ‘flying’ squirrels and phalangers, and of Galeopithecus, and as the
thumbs of a bat, are undoubtedly used.
These three slender digits of the wing of Archeopteryx would, however, be
useless for such a purpose if the seven large primary quills were attached to them
as usually described, and the quills themselves would be useless if so attached ; for
the three slender fingers are far too weak, especially at the joints, to withstand the
torsional stress to which they would be exposed in flight if the quills were attached
to them. A single stroke of the wing would twist those fingers off at the joints.
Such an attachment, indeed, would render both the fingers and the wings useless.
Comparison of the wing of <Archeopteryx with the dissected wing of an
ordinary bird suggests the position and size and form of bones which would be
adequate to support the primary quills of Archeopteryx. Of these bones Owen
figured two metacarpals and a very large carpal bone, and their equivalents have
never been exposed in the Berlin specimen.
In the Berlin specimen, however, the presence of those bones is indicated, and
they may even be made out in part ina photograph. The anterior (or preaxial)
border of the wing from the carpal angle to the tip of the primary quills forms a
bold curve which passes wnder the three slender fingers. A faint depression
behind and parallel to the same fingers indicates roughly the hinder border of the
group of bones and ligaments, The slender fingers not only do not contribute to
the support of the wing, they do not even lie in the wing at all, but upon its
feather-clad surface. The position of the three fingers and the numbers of
phalanges (2, 3, and 4 respectively) which they possess show these to be the
digits I, II., and IIT. of the normal pentadactyle limb, and there is hardly room for
doubt that two fingers still lie buried in the Berlin slab—fingers which supported
the primary quills, which were the equivalents of the two large digits partially
exposed in the London specimen, and were also the homologues of the two large
digits of an ordinary bird’s wing. These were of course IV. and V., and therefore
the two large digits of an ordinary bird’s wing are IV. and V., and the ‘ala
spuria’ is all that remains of the other three.
Well-known arguments against the descent of birds from pterodactyls rest
upon the assumption that the two large digits are II. and III., and hence collapse
if the interpretation above suggested be accepted.
3. On the Sensory Canal System of Fishes. By Water HE. CoLLince.
The importance of that system of sensory organs in fishes known as the sensory
canal, lateral lines, &c., system has not yet been sufficiently estimated, and the
1 British Medical Journal, July 1893.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. &ll
absence of any recent systematic investigation has led me to give some attention
to the same.
Its important bearing upon general morphology may be grouped under three
headings :—
Gi.) The important modifications that its presence has effected in the cranial and
other bones of the skull.
(ii.) The modifications in the cranial nerves.
(iii.) The evidence of the evolution of a series of sensory organs.
My investigations have been chiefly carried out upon Ganoids, the more important
results of which are summarised below.
In Polypterus :—
1. There is a complete absence of dendriform branches, and also of any openings
corresponding to primitive pores. In these two features it agrees with the more
highly specialised Ganoids.
2. The connection of the operculo-mandibular branch with the main canal is
established contrary to the statements of Traquair, Allis, and Pollard, though not
in the manner figured by Wiedersheim.
3. The presence of a canal traversing the series of lateral canal bones, and of
another running across the cheek-plate, also a rudimentary one in the preoper-
culum.
4. The distinctness of the preoperculum hitherto considered as doubtful by both
Huxley and Traquair.
In Lepidosteus :—
1. The presence of a system of dendritic branches which, passing off from the
main canal, anastomose and form a dense network, which resembles in many points
that found in the Selachia.
2. The absence of any branching on the lateral canal.
3. The presence of a preorbital commissure, not previously described as occur-
ring in the Ganoids, and a prenasal commissure.
4, The distinctness of the preoperculum, termed by Parker interoperculum.
From further investigations, not yet completed, we may state that—
1. The canal system in the Elasmobranchs approaches in many points the
condition found in the Selachoid Ganoids, both in the course of the canals,
branches, sensory organs, &c., and in the branching of the lateral canal and in the
distribution of the cranial nerves.
_ 2, It seems very probable that the numerous sensory organs that have been
described can be reduced to three or four, which are really only stages in the
evolution of a sense-capsule.
4, On the Starch of the Chlorophyll-granule, and the Chemical Processes
involved in its Dissolution and Translocation. By Horace T. Brown,
F.R.S.
Important advances have been made of late years in our knowledge of the
carbohydrates and of the transformations which some of them undergo when they
are acted upon by various enzymes or soluble ferments. The work described in
this paper was an attempt by the author and his colleague, Dr. G. H. Morris, to
apply the experience gained by a long acquaintance with the carbohydrates to the
elucidation of some of the metabolic processes at work in green leaves.
They have been able to throw some new light upon the chemical and physio-
logical processes involved in the formation of autochthonous starch, the first visible
product of assimilation in the chloroplasts, have succeeded in explaining the mode
of dissolution of this starch within the plant cell, and have demonstrated the nature
of the wandering metabolites intermediate between the starch and the formation of
new tissue. Full details of most of the results and of the methods employed will be
found in the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society,’ 1893, p. 604. (See also ‘ Annals
of Botany,’ vol. vii. p. 271.)
It is possible to dates ins with great accuracy the starch of the chloroplasts of
the leaf by converting it (after extraction of the ready-formed leaf-sugars) into
812 REPORT—1893.
maltose and deatrin by hydrolysis with malt-diastase. The products of hydro-
lysis, when quantitatively determined by means of the polarimeter and by their
cupric-reducing power, are a measure of the starch from which they are derived.
In applying this method to a critical examination of the influence of surrounding
conditions on the formation of leaf-starch, precautions have to be taken to arrest
the vitality of the leaf at the moment of its separation from the plant.
The results of many varied experiments point consistently to the conclusion
that starch is not an essential linkin the chain of chemical products beginning with
the inorganic materials, carbon dioxide and water, and ending with the form in
which the assimilated material passes out of the leaf. No proof, direct or indirect,
could be obtained of that rapid building up and breaking down of the starch which
must be going on in every assimilating cell of starch-producing plants, if all the
metabolites of a carbohydrate nature have to pass through the form of starch.
It appears almost certain that the deposition of starch within the chloroplast is
governed by the same laws as those which regulate its deposition in the amyloplast
of non-assimilating cells, and that this is primarily conditioned by the rate at which
the soluble carbohydrates are supplied to the cell. Starch is only deposited in the
chloroplasts or amyloplasts when the supply of this soluble material is greater than
the local requirements of the individual cell, or its immediate powers of trans-
location.
When leaves are placed under conditions favourable for the depletion of their
starch, the starch grains which are embedded in the chloroplast of the stomatice
guard-cells are yery much more stable than those of the palisade-cells or of the
spongy parenchyma. ‘This is due to the comparative physiological isolation of the
guard-cells, an isolation brought about by the more or less complete cuticularisa-
tion of their walls, by their slight lateral attachment to the cells of the epidermis,
and by the fact that they have no immediate connection with the mesophyll and
the conducting sheaths surrounding the vascular bundles, ‘The guard-cells, in fact,
do not belong to the general republic of the assimilating cells of the parenchyma,
but are autonomous, By the aid of their chloroplasts, which are always present,
they assimilate only for themselves; and, on the other hand, when the conditions
of illumination render assimilation no longer possible, the carbohydrate which they
have stored up in the form of starch is only drawn upon for their own individual
requirements, and is not passed into the stem, as are the products of dissolution of
the starch formed in the parenchyma,
When it is considered how important it is to the plant that these guard-
cells should be kept in a high state of working efficiency, and no matter what the
variations in illumination may be, the advantages derived from the isolation and
autonomous nature of these cells are very apparent.
A great number of experiments were made in order to determine the mechanism
by which the starch is redissolyed in the living cell of the leaf parenchyma, and
rendered available for the requirements of the plant. It was found, notwithstand-
ing the statements of Wortmaun to the contrary, that leaves always contain far
more diastase within their tissue than is necessary for the complete dissolution of
the starch at any time present. A method was devised for the relative determina-
tion of the amount of this enzyme in the leaf, and the results of a great number of
such determinations were given. 5
The leaves of the leguminosee are pre-eminently rich in this enzyme, those of
Pisum sativum having a diastatic activity equal to from one-half to one-third that
of an average barley-malt.
The full diastatic effect of leaves is only apparent when the tissue, previously
dried at a low temperature, is brought into actual contact with the starch solution.
Mere infusions of the leaf are not \ery active, and if it contains any considerable
amount of tannin, which is sometimes the case (eg., Hop, and Hydrocharis
morsus-ran@), the leaf infusion has no hydrolytic action at all on starch, owing to
the enzyme having been prevented from going into solution by the tannin.
The products of the hydrolysis of starch under the action of leaf-diastase have
been carefully studied, and are found to be identical with those formed under simi-
lar conditions by malt-diastase.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 813
In a living plant, placed under favourable conditions, the starch of the chloro-
plasts disappears with much greater rapidity than it does if the leaf has been
previously treated by some method which arrests the vitality of its cells, but does
not affect the activity of the contained diastase. At first sight this fact, upon
which Wortmann lays great stress, seems to negative the idea that the dissolution
of the starch is due to hydrolysis by diastase. Recent experiments carried out by
the author and his colleague have, however, convinced them that the action on
the starch is really conditioned by the diastase, but that the action is enhanced
and rendered continuous by the ability of the living elements of a cell to seize
upon the chemical products of hydrolysis, and to remove them from the sphere of
action by passing them into adjoining cells.
The amount of diastase present in leaf-cells is found to be subject to periodic
fluctuations. Like the fluctuations in the amount of starch, those of diastase
appear to be governed by the intensity of illumination. The conditions, however,
which are favourable to a decrease of starch are just those which are favourable
to an increase of diastase, and wice versié; so that we find more diastase
in a leaf during the night than during the day. This variation really appears
to depend upon the rate of nutrition of the cells. Whilst these are sup-
plied with an abundance of material in the form of freshly assimilated
sugars they elaborate little or no diastase, but when the supply of these sugars
falls off diastase is secreted for the purpose of dissolving the excess of carbohydrate
which has been stored up as starch. The secretion of diastase by the leaf-cell, and,
in fact, by every starch-containing cell, isa phenomenon of partial starvation, and
as necessary for the autophagy of the cell. A precisely similar phenomenon had
been previously observed during the germination of certain endospermous seeds."
This is a principle which will probably be found of general application to all cases
of secretion of enzymes both by animal and vegetable organisms.
Certain experiments are then discussed which were planned with a view to
ascertain the nature of the sugars existing in the leaf, their variations in amount
at different periods, and the relation which each sugar bears on the one hand to
the first product of assimilation, and on the other to the starch deposited within
the chloroplasts. The leaves of Tropeolum majus were selected for this portion
of the inquiry.
The only sugars which could be detected in any quantity were cane-sugar,
dextrose, levulose, and maltose. Only mere traces of the pentoses could be found.
The results yielded by a study of the quantitative variations in the amount of
the sugars and starch of leaves, when these have been placed under determinate
conditions, are decidedly opposed to the view that either dextrose or levulose is the
first sugar formed in the assimilative processes. Cane-sugar appears to be the first
distinctly recognisable carbohydrate which is formed. There is every reason to
believe that this cane-sugar, which may be regarded as the starting-point of all
the metabolic changes taking place in the leaf, accumulates in the cell-sap of the
leaf parenchyma when assimilation is proceeding vigorously. When the concen-
tration passes beyond a certain point starch commences to be elaborated by the
chloroplasts at the expense of the cane-sugar. This starch forms a more stable
reserve substance than the cane-sugar itself, and is drawn upon when the more
readily metabolised cane-sugar has been partially used up.
5. On Cytological Differences in Homologous Organs.
By Professor G. Giuson, of Louvain.
Remarkable differences may be detected in the minute structure of certain
organs which are considered as unquestionably homologous; and it would not be
without interest to know to what extent these differences may lead the morphologist
to modify his views as to this homology.
A striking instance of such differences is found amongst the nephridia or
segmental organs,
' Cf. Brown and Morris, Jowr. of Chem. Soc., 57 (1890), p. 458.
814 REPORT—1893.
The nephridium of certain beings is an epithelial tube, the lumen of which
owes its origin to the disjunction of the cells. This is the case with the vertebrate
and other forms.
In other beings, as for instance the leeches, the organ is not really epithelial, if
we give this word its original and etymological signification. It consists of an
aggregation of cells with no disjunctive cavity whatever. All the lumina it
possesses run through the body of the cells, and thus are itracellular ductules,
as Professor Lang was the first to remark long ago. In Clepsine, for instance, the
whole organ consists of a single row of cells, with three separate canals running
through it. These canals end in the upper part of this row of cells by spreading
into a bunch of tiny ramifications creeping in the cytoplasm (fig. 1, 7.d.).
In Hirudo the structure is a little more complicated by the fact that a sheath
of cells surrounds the central canal. The cytoplasm of these cells contains a
number of ramified ductules uniting from cell to cell, and opening at certain places
into the central duct. The wall of this latter always shows in a transverse section,
only as one single cell; that is to say, that its lumen is also an intracellular cavity.
It may be remarked that I do not take the usual diagrams of the nephridium
as ordinarily given according to the observations of Bourne, Schultze, and others,
but the somewhat different one lately given by Bolsius, I know that Bolsius’s
diagrams have been criticised by Mr. Bourne, of Madras. Nevertheless, I cannot
help considering his views as much more nearly correct than those generally
accepted. It is to be hoped that Bolsius will soon give some explanations about
his disagreement from Mr. Bourne’s descriptions.
Besides, be these diagrams accepted or not, we may remark that, whilst in
vertebrates and other forms the nephridium is epithelial, and its lumen znter-
cellular, t.e., disjunctive, in the leeches, on the contrary, the organ is not epithelial,
and its lumen is not disjunctive, but always éntracelluar.
It seems to me that differences of this character have a certain importance,
at least for the evolutionist, for they imply corresponding differences in the pro-
cesses of histogenesis,
The homology of the excretory organs of the different groups of animal forms
is, indeed, still uncertain, We do not exactly know which are homogenetic and which
simply homoplastic, to use two excellent terms proposed by Professor Ray Lankester.
Every kind of information about them should be taken into consideration, and it is
desirable that a minute cytological survey of the nephridia should be carried out
through all groups.
But whatever may be the results of these investigations, I do not believe that
such differences as those I have been speaking of could ever be regarded as a real
objection against the homology, nor even against the homogeny, between the
nephridia belonging to various animal groups.
If we admit, as I believe we must in the hypothesis of evolution, that the non-
epithelial state was primary, there is no theoretical difficulty in considering the
passage to the epithelial state as the result of a cellular division, which took place
at a given moment of the phylogenetic evolution. The vanishing, or better the
non-developing, of the internal ductules must then be considered as a second stage
of the evolution.
An interesting confirmation of this opinion lies in the fact that two stages of a
similar evolution are found as actual dispositions in other organs, which are, I
believe, undoubtedly homogenetic, 7.e., the silk glands of insects. I have been
engaged in the study of these organs for some time, and found them built on the
same plan in four orders, viz., neuroptera, lepidoptera, diptera, and hymenoptera.
They consist of two tubes uniting in the head, to form a single canal opening on
the inferior lip of the larva. Each of these glandular tubes ordinarily consists of a
small number of cells; it is quite common to find only two cells in a transverse
section (fig. 3’).
But if we examine a similar section of the gland in a peculiar family of
hymenoptera, the tenthredinida, we observe a very remarkable difference ; the
organ still consists of a tube, the wall of which is composed of flat cells, but, in
addition to that, two series of spheroidal cells are attached to the sides. Hach
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 815
of these cells contains a system of tiny canals running through their cytoplasm
(fig. 2’, z.d.). These cells are the secreting elements; they continually cast the silk
substance into the tube. 20. ( ‘
If we suppose that the silk gland was originally composed of a single row of
cells, like the nephridium of the leeches, these two different structures of the silk
glands may be regarded as corresponding to the two stages of the evolution which
I have hypothetically indicated for the nephridium. f .
(a.) In the case of tenthredinida, the primary cells, after having divided several
times in the course of evolution, have been disjoined from one another in such a
NEPHRIDIA Sirk GLANDS
(Merely intracellular stage, unknown)
Fic. 1.—Leech.
(Intermediate stage, unknown)
Fie. 3.—Vertebrate. Fic. 3'.—Lepidopter.
way that some of them compose the wall of an epithelial excretory canal, and some
others remain as supendages to that wall. The first have lost their internal
ductules, the second keep them still, and are the silk-producing elements.
(6.) In the case of a simple tubular gland, as that of lepidoptera, the cells have
not only divided and separated from one another, but have all lost their internal
ductules, and secrete through their inner face only.
Now, although I give all this as mere supposition, it is desirable to know
whether there exists or not among the nephridia any disposition corresponding to
816 REPORT—1893.
the tenthredinian type of silk glands, which is composed of a central epithelial duct,
together with several elements containing still intracellular ductules.
It seems to me that the existence of these two types of structure in organs so
undoubtedly homogenetic as the silk glands of insects shows that there is no
argument against the homology of the nephridia of the leeches with those of other
forms, either lower or higher, in the fact that the cavities of one set are intra-
cellular, those of the other intercellular.
At all events, the chief object of this communication is to show: (1) that
cytological and histological differences, radical as they may be, must not always
be considered as a final objection to the homogenetic relations between homologous
organs; (2) that these differences deserve, however, to be taken into consideration,
and that some interesting researches might be undertaken in that direction.
6. On Karyokinesis in the Fungi. By Harotp Wacer, F.L.S.
Numerous observations have been made on nuclear division in the fungi which
tend to show that in this group, as in the higher plants, it is indirect. In most
cases, however, the observations seem to \indicate that the division is very much
simpler than in the higher plants. \
Sadebeck and Fisch in Exoascus, and Hartog in Saprolegnia, have described a
simple nuclear division in which the chromatic portion of the nucleus divides into
two more or less equal parts. The author has described, in Peronospora, the
division of the nucleus as taking place by) the production, in the first place, of
a number of chromosomes, which divide into two groups, each of which becomes
adaughter nucleus. The division of the nucleus in these cases is certainly simpler,
so far as the observations at present are con¢erned, than those in the higher plants.
At the Cardiff Meeting of the Association, however, the author described the
structure of the nucleus, and the process of nuclear division in Agaricus stercorarius,
and pointed out that not only had the nucleus ¢ structure closely resembling that
of the higher plants, but also that the nuclear division more nearly resembles that
of the latter, inasmuch as a distinct equatorial plate and apparent spindle figure
were formed.
More recently Rosen has described nuclear division among the Hymenomycetes
in species other than those examined by theauthor. It will be useful to summarise
briefly his results. According to him the nucleus possesses a distinct membrane,
nucleolus, and homogeneous nuclear thread or threads. In the process of division
the thread or threads divide up into a number of short pieces; then a separation
of these into two groups takes place, both nucleolus and nuclear membrane persist-
ing. The nucleus then divides into two halves; the nucleolus disappears, and two
new nucleoli appear, one in each nucleus. Rosen concludes therefore that the
division is a very simple one, and generalises thus for all the fungi. His results
do not agree with the author’s described prior to the appearance of his paper,
except in the fact that the nucleolus persists for a long time.
Lister’s beautiful observations on division of the nucleus in the Myxomycetes
do not support Rosen's generalisation, for according to the former a distinct spindle
figure is formed, and the process of division closely resembles that which takes place
in the higher plants, except, perhaps, in the longitudinal splitting of the threads,
which has not yet been seen,
Gjurasin has very recently published a paper on nuclear division in the Asci of
Pezxiza vesiculosa, in which he shows that not only is a spindle figure produced,
but that even the protoplasmic radiations at the poles of the spindle are visible.
He notes here, also, the extraordinary persistence of the nucleolus.
The observations recently made by the author on certain species of the Agari-
einer, Agaricus (Stropharia) stercorarius and Amanita muscarius all tend to show
that we are dealing with precisely the same changes in the indirect division of the
nucleus as in those of the higher plants. The nucleus consists of a membrane,
nuclear network, and nucleolus; the network is composed either of a single thread
or more than one: it consists of a ground substance, which stains light blue, in
which more deeply stained granules are embedded. The nucleus takes up a con-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 817
siderable portion of the diameter of the basidium. When division is about to
take place the nuclear threads break up into a number of short pieces ; the nuclear
granules run together and give these piecesa homogeneous appearance. The mem-
brane gradually becomes more and more indistinct, especially at the upper end of
the nucleus; the nuclear threads group themselves at this point and form an equatorial
plate, they become shorter and thicker and now stain bright red instead of blue;
the nucleolus persists all this time, but has been gradually getting fainter; the
chromosomes at the same time becoming bright red. A nuclear spindle now
appears ; it consists of a few threads, the exact number of which could not be made
out; and in Stropharia stercorarius, but not so clearly in Amanita muscarius, a
deeply stained dot (centrosome?) can be made out at each pole of the spindle.
The chromosomes now divide into two groups, which begin to move along the
spindle to the poles. The nucleolus has by this time almost entirely disappeared.
When the chromosomes reach the poles of the spindle they become condensed into
two irregular masses which stain red. A nuclear membrane then appears around
each, and from these red masses threads apparently radiate more or less regularly.
The nuclei then increase in size, a new nucleolus appears in each, and a distinct
network is formed, so that the nuclei now resemble the original nucleus of the
basidium. Then these two nuclei begin to divide, the process being exactly
similar to the original division, and four nuclei are produced, one for each spore of
the basidium.
7. On Variation of Fecundity in Trifolium pratense and its varieties
and Trifolium medium. By Witiiam Witson.
Trifolium pratense.—Purple Clover is known as being prolific in seeds. While
there exist several varieties of it, caused perhaps by the peculiar conditions under
which each exists, such as the soil, none of these varieties is so good a seed-
producer as the normal type, as far as is known.
The most important variety, supposed by some to be a hybrid between Purple
Clover and Zigzag Clover, and known as 7rifolium perenne, Perennial Red, and
as the Cowgrass of commerce, has the commercial value of its seeds higher than
those of Purple Clover on account of the weakness in seed-producing. Although
the plants may yield as many flowers, the seed is deficient, while it has a more
penetrating root.
Touching next upon Trifolium medium, Zigzag Clover or Cowgrass of botany,
I find from observations on plants in an endigenous state, and by transplanting,
that the seeds are very few in number.
There is a form of Trifolium, which differs in characters from all the forms
mentioned, which I call Perennial Meadow Clover, which is an abundant seed-
producer in its endigenous condition.
8. On the Cortex of Tmesipteris tannensis, Bernh.
By R. J. Harvey Grson, I0.A., F.L.S.
After reference to the existing literature on the subject, the author drew
attention to the difference of opinion on the nature and mode of deposit of the
brown substance contained in the cells of the inner cortex of Tmesipteris tannensis
(Bernh.) and other species. He supports the view held by Bertrand and Dangeard
that the substance is deposited in the cell wall, not in the cell cavity, and showed
that by means of suitable reagents and care in manipulation, the presence of both
tannin and iron could be demonstrated in the deposit. He suggested the possi-
bility of the tannate of iron having been absorbed from the roots of the tree ferns
on which Tmesipteris is probably not an epiphyte but a parasite. Evidence was
also adduced that there exists in the stem and rhizome of Tmesipteris a true
endodermis with cuticularised radial walls, lying between the layer containing
the brown deposit and the pericycle.
1893. 34
818 REPORT—1893.
9, Cn Lime Salts in relation to some Physiological Processes in the Plant.
By Dr. J. Cuarx.
The seeds of many Alpine and other plants when germinating at a low tempe-
rature are incapable of utilising their reserve food-supplies to any great extent,
unless there be 1 to 15 per cent. of carbonate of lime present in the soil, the
quantity varying with different species. When germination takes place at a low
temperature, say 5° C., on a soil where the carbonate of lime falls below the
necessary minimum, the seedlings perish. When seeds of the same species
germinate at a temperature varying from 15° C. to 30° C. in a soil poor in lime,
nearly the whole of the reserve food-supply is utilised, and if subsequently removed
to a more congenial temperature, the seedlings continue to grow in a normal
manner. Hither lime or a high temperature is therefore necessary for the trans-
location of material from the seed to the growing parts of the seedling. The
varying amount of carbonate of lime present in the soil must consequently be a
powerful factor in determining the local distribution of plants.
Tn connection with the occurrence and distribution of lime salts in the living
plant, the author has been led to the conclusion that the disappearance in the
spring of the calcium oxalate accumulated in the bark of many trees during the
previous autumn is probably due to the activity of certain bacteria. These bacteria
are capable under favourable conditions of converting calcium oxalate into calcium
carbonate, and are found in the early spring associated with the cells in which the
oxalate is stored.
10. On the development of the ‘ Ovipositor’ in the Cockroach (Periplaneta
orientalis). By Professor A. Denny.
It is well known that in the adult female of this familiar insect the abdomen
is possessed of only seven sterna, while in the male we find nine well developed.
That the two missing sterna in the female are represented by the ‘ovipositor’ has
long been known, but up to the present time their development does not appear to
have been completely worked out. An examination of a complete series of prepara-
tions has brought to light several new facts which necessitate a revision of the
usually accepted views concerning the morphology of this organ. In the first
stage (recently hatched) the abdomen presents nine sterna similarly developed in
both sexes, and in each case the terminal sternum is characterised by a pair of
unjointed ‘styles’ (a feature peculiar to the male in the adult). The ninth sternum
at this stage shows a posterior median cleft, which in subsequent stages deepens
and widens until the body of the sternum is almost divided into separate halves.
Jn an early stage of development two pairs of simple unjointed appendages (the
gonapophyses) appear in connection with the eighth and ninth sterna. The ap-
pendages of the ninth sternum at first lie upon its dorsal surface and are not visible
from the exterior, but are afterwards brought into view by the division of the
sternum. The separated halves of the ninth sternum by degrees assume an appen-
dage-like outline, and eventually become the so-called outer pair of ‘posterior
gonapophyses.’ ‘Thus, in the ovipositor of the adult the three pairs of appendages
are not homologous (as generally supposed), there being a pair of anterior gona-
pophyses and a pair of posterior (inner) gonapophyses which originate as appen-
dages of the eighth and ninth sterna respectively, while the so-called ‘outer’ posterior
gonapophyses have a different origin, being formed by metamorphosis of the ninth
sternum. The eighth sternum gradually diminishes in size up to the final stage,
where it is represented by little more than the small median plate which supports
the spermatheca (which has hitherto been regarded as representing the ninth
sternum), and a pair of plates upon which rest the anterior gonapophyses,
generally described as basal joints of these appendages. Further, the thin plate
which carries the aperture of the uterus is not the eighth sternum (as usually
supposed), but originates as a fold of the intersternal membrane between segments
seven and eight.
819
Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
PRESIDENT oF THE SEctIonN—Hewry Srxsouw, Sec.R.G.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—
[PLATE V.]
GuoeRapny, the child of Mathematics and Astronomy, stands in the relation of
mother to half a dozen other sciences, which have long ago left the parental roof to
establish sections of their own. Like every other science, geography is so closely
connected with, and dependent on, its allied sciences that it is impossible to treat
of the one without invading the province of the others. No one supposes that
the making of maps is the whole duty of the geographer. The accurate delineation
of the trend of coast-lines, the courses of rivers, the heights of mountains, the
depths of seas, or the position of towns is only the skeleton which underlies the
real science of geography.
The study of geography may be divided into various sections, but it must always
be remembered that they dovetail into each other, as well ag into the allied sciences,
to such an extent that no hard-and-fast line can be drawn between them. The
object of dividing so comprehensive a section as that of geography into sub-sections
is more practical than scientific. The classification of facts is an important aid to
memory, and introduces order into what might otherwise seem to be a chaos of
knowledge.
The foundation of ell geography is EXPLORATION ; but before the traveller can do
good geographical work he must acquire the necessary knowledge embraced in the
science of CARTOGRAPHY. This includes a practical acquaintance with the various
instruments used in making a survey, the necessary mathematical and astronomical
knowledge required for their use, and a familiarity with the accepted mode of
expressing the geographical facts that may be acquired on a chart or map.
Exploration may then be undertaken with some chance of ultimate success, but
the object of exploration must be something more than the filling up of blanks in
our maps. Many other subjects must receive attention, subjects which are
collectively included in the term physical geography, but which require treatment
under different heads. Of these the most obvious is the geographical distribution
of light and heat, as well as the more fitful alternations of wind and rain with
calm and drought; in other words, the numerous causes which combine to
produce climate. Meteorology or crtmAToxoey, the geography of the air, is a most
important branch of geography in general; and when we come to inquire into the
changes which have taken place in the climate of different parts of the earth’s
surface, especially those which have affected the Polar Basin, we enter upon a
subject which has claimed a Jarge share of the attention of geologists, who have
also made a profound study of the geographical distribution of the various kinds
ofrock which are found on the crust of the earth. Another sub-section of great
importance is the geographical distribution of organic life. The geographical
ranges of the species and genera, both of plants and animals, have become a subject
of vastly increased importance since so much attention has been directed to the
3G 2
820 REPORT— 1893.
theory of evolution, and the paramount importance of the human race is so great.
that ethnological geography may fairly claim to be treated as a sub-section apart.
from the study of the rest of the fauna of a country. Inasmuch as a map with
the towns left out is only half a map, the geographer cannot afford to neglect the:
races of men with which he comes in contact, nor the remains (architectural or
otherwise) which existing nations have produced or past races have left behind
them.
I propose on the present occasion to elaborate these subjects at greater detail,
and, with your permission, to take the Polar Basin as an example.
There is only one Polar Basin; the relative distribution of land and water and.
the geographical distribution of light and heat in the Arctic region is absolutely
unique. In no other part of the world is a similar climate to be found. The
distribution of land and water round the South Pole is almost the converse of that:
round the North Pole. In the one we have a mountain of snow and ice cover-
ing—it may be a continent, it may be an archipelago, but in any case a lofty
mass of congealed water surrounded by an ocean stretching away with very little
interruption from land to the confines of the tropics. In the other we have a
basin of water surrounding a comparatively flat plain of pack ice, some of which
is probably permanent (the so-called paleocrystic sea), but most of which is
driven hither and thither in summer by winds and currents, and is walled in by
continental and island barriers broken only by the narrow outlets of Behring Strart
and Baflin’s Bay and the broader gulf which leads to the Atlantic Ocean, and
even that interrupted by Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Franz Josef Land. When we
further remember that this gulf is constantly conveying the hot water of the
tropics to the Arctic Ocean, and that every summer gigantic rivers are pouring
volumes of comparatively warm water into this ocean, we cannot but admit that
the climatic conditions near the two poles differ widely from each other.
In looking at a map of the Polar Basin one cannot help remarking the curious
fact that the North Pole is so very nearly central, and a glance at the southern
hemisphere also shows a rough sort of symmetry in the distribution of land and
water round the South Pole, It is a curious coincidence if this be only accident.
The history of the
EXPLORATION
of the Polar Basin is a very long and a very tragic story. Much has been done,
but much remains to do. The unexplored regions of the Polar Basin may be
estimated at a million square miles. No part of the world presents greater
difficulties to the explorer. Many brave men have perished in the enterprise, and
more have only just succeeded in passing through the ordeal of hunger and cold
with their lives. For the most part the heroic endurance of the tortures of famine
has shown a marvel of discipline, though occasionally the commanders of the
expeditions have had to enforce obedience to the verge of cruelty, both in the case
of men and of dogs. There are, indeed, a few ghastly stories of mutinous men
who have been shot, and of cases where it has been found necessary to resort
to human food to save the lives of the survivors, but the records of Arctie
exploration are records of which any nation might be proud.
Of recent years there has been but little done to explore the unknown parts of
the Polar Basin. Adventurous journeys in Central Africa and Central Asia have
somewhat eclipsed the exploration of the Arctic regions. Two visits to Greenland
cannot, however, be entirely passed by in silence. In the summer of last year an
expedition went to the north of Greenland under the command of Lieutenant
Peary, succeeded in reaching latitude 82°, and added material evidence to prove
that Greenland is an island. The expedition sailed on June 6, 1891, steamed up
Baffin’s Bay and Smith’s Sound, and on July 25 dismissed the ship and established
themselves in winter quarters in McCormick Bay, on the north side of Murchison
Sound, in latitude 78°. They laid in a stock of game for the winter, guillemots and
reindeer. A most interesting proof of the successful organisation of the expedition
is the fact that Mrs. Peary was one of the party, and was able to accompany her
husband on his sledge trip which started on the 18th of the following April.
7 ADDRESS, Nottingham, September, 1893.
f ee Siege
| RAIN & SNOW. \ | «ceo
Under 5 inches |_| 5toroinches \g
Wao 50" ~—=Ss« Oo ee
“ VEGETATION. \ «
S oN
Be 7
AROUMAGIE, LUG IVUL WCRLOE WU SAUIIICLICO, GUUUU 1aLILUUe TU y IS uepenuene Lor Mis
firewood upon the Gulf Stream, which brings him an ample supply from the Gulf
.of Mexico, whilst the Eskimo on the Greenland coast, in the same latitude, trusts
SIX POLAR CHARTS itustrating Mr. HENRY SEEBOHM’'S PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, Nottingham, September, 1893.
(TEMPERATURE <0)"
Coldest Month.
Ry
30 a
RING ska
si “3 4s ! ft
~ Actual MeanTem- GE) Vaiter - as"
perature of Month: aoe
-_— L ra tof oe 4 ? i“
[om SC oa] = [inl Woodland. [| Grassland (Steppe, Prairie, &c). (i) Tundra and Aijing. (Desert.
Cl ss pee te 718 ¥ (Snow and ser:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 821
Tt took them a week in their dog sledges to round Inglefield Gulf, during
which they discovered thirty glaciers, ten of them of the first magnitude. During
the next three months they explored the north coast of Greenland, as far east as
longitude 34° W., when a great bay was reached which they named Independence
Bay, as they discovered it on July 4. The northern shore of this bay was free
from snow and ice. On August 6 they regained their winter quarters in McCormick
Bay. On the 8th the steamer arrived, and on the 24th they started for home,
reaching Philadelphia on September 23. During the sledge journey they travelled
for a fortnight at an average elevation of 8,000 feet above the sea. Besides their
important additions to the map of Greenland, the suggestive fact that the
thermometer can rise to 41° F., and torrents of rain can fall in the middle of
February as far north as latitude 78°, must be regarded as a valuable discovery.
It was hardly to be expected that so successful a journey should not be followed
by a second attempt in order to follow up the discoveries of the first. Peary has
already started for the north of Greenland with a more carefully organised staff
for a longer expedition. They expect to be absent two years or more. It has
been arranged to spend the coming winter not far from their previous quarters.
In March they hope to start for Independence Bay, which was discovered on the
previous expedition, and there the party will divide, with the object of completing
the survey of the coast line of Greenland by reaching Cape Bismarck if possible,
wad at the same time to explore the northern coast line of Independence Bay,
hoping that it may land them further north than the highest point yet reached by
any Arctic traveller.
In the summer of 1888 Dr. Nansen was bold enough to cross the continent of
Greenland about latitude 64°, reaching an altitude of 9,000 feet, and he told his
story to this Section in his own simple words on his return. The distance across
was about ten degrees, and the highest point was about one-third of the way across
from the east coast. If the scientific results were necessarily somewhat meagre, Dr.
Nansen established a reputation for bravery and physical endurance which he hopes
to increase by an attempt to reach the North Pole, The ‘Fram’ has already
started from Hammerfest, and was telegraphed a few weeks ago from the east
coast of Norway. The intention is to enter the Kara Sea and to push northwards
and eastwards, hoping that the warm currents caused by the great Siberian rivers
will enable them to get well into the ice before winter begins. Once frozen into
the pack ice, Nansen hopes to be carried by the currents somewhere near the
North Pole, and, after drifting for two or three years, he hopes finally to emerge
from his ice prison somewhere on the east coast of Greenland. Foolhardy as the
expedition appears, it is nevertheless planned with great skill, and its chances of
success are supposed to be based upon a sufficiently accurate knowledge of the
ocean currents of the Polar Basin.
These currents, so far as they are known, are very interesting. The Mackenzie
and the great Siberian rivers flow into the Polar Basin, and the current through
Behring Strait is supposed to do the same; but both these sources of supply can
only be regarded as of minor importance. Between Spitzbergen and Finmark,
however, the Gulf Stream enters the Polar Basin 300 or 400 miles wide. To
compensate for these inward currents there are two outward currents, one on
each side of Greenland, which, coming from the centre of cold, do their best to
intensify the rigours of that mountainous island.
Nansen hopes that the current which carried the ‘Jeannette’ from Herald
Island, north of Behring Strait, in a north-westerly direction, for 500 or 600 miles is
the same current that flows down the east coast of Greenland, and he bases his hopes
upon three facts. First, that many articles from the wreck of the ‘Jeannette’ were
found on an ice floe off the south coast of Greenland three years afterwards ;
second, that a harpoon-thrower of a pattern unknown except in Alaska was picked.
up on the south-west coast of Greenland; and, third, that drift-wood supposed to
be of Siberian origin is stranded regularly in considerable quantity on the coasts of
Greenland. The Norwegian at Hammerfest, about latitude 70°, is dependent for his
firewood upon the Gulf Stream, which brings him an ample supply from the Gulf
_of Mexico, whilst the Eskimo on the Greenland coast, in the same latitude, trusts
’
822 . REPORT—1893.
to a current from the opposite direction to bring him his necessary store of wood
from the Siberian forests.
We can only hope that Nansen will find the currents as fayourable to his needs,
and that so much bravery may be supported by good luck.
By no means the least important physical feature of the Polar Basin is its
gigantic
RIVER SYSTEMS.
The rivers which flow into the Arctic Ocean are some of them amongst the
greatest in the world.
Some idea of the relative sizes of the drainage areas of a few of the best known
rivers may be learnt from the following table, in which the Thames, with a
drainage area of 6,000 square miles, is the unit :—
9 Thames equal 1 Elbe (54,000).
2 Elbes » 1 Pechora (108,000).
21 Pechoras » 1 Danube (270,000).
2 Danubes y 1 Mackenzie (540,000),
2 Mackenzies ,, 1 Yenisei (1,080,000).
2 Yeniseis 9, 1 Amazon (2,160,000).
Perhaps a more scientific classification of rivers would be to call those with @
drainage area (between 2,560,000 and) over 1,280,000 square miles rivers of the
first magnitude, a category which contains the Amazon alone. There are ten rivers
of the second magnitude, with drainage areas between 1,280,000 and 640,000 square
miles (Ob, Congo, Mississippi, La Plata, Yenisei, Nile, Lena, Niger, Amur,
Yangtse). There are twelve rivers of the third magnitude, with drainage areas be-
tween 640,000 and 320,000 square miles (Mackenzie, Volga, Murray, Zambesi,
Saskatchewan, Ganges, St. Lawrence, Orange, Orinoco, Hoang Ho, Indus, and
Bramaputra). ‘There are more than a dozen rivers of the fourth magnitude, with
drainage areas between 320,000 and 160,000 square miles, but none of them empties.
itself into the Arctic Ocean. They include the Danube, Euphrates, and several
of the African and South American rivers. Of the numerous rivers which are
of the fifth magnitude, with drainage areas between 160,000 and 80,000 square
miles, the Pechora belongs to the Polar Basin. The number of rivers of lesser
magnitude is legion, and it is only necessary to quote one of each as an example.
6th magnitude (80,000 to 40,000), Rhine.
7th - (40,000 to 20,000), Rhone,
8th A (20,000 to 10,000), Garonne.
9th i (10,000 to 5,000), Thames.
There is nothing that makes a greater impression upon the Arctic traveller than
the enormous width of the rivers. The Pechora is only a river of the fifth magni-
tude, but it is more than a mile wide for several hundred miles of its course. The
Yenisei is more than three miles wide for at least a thousand miles, and a mile
wide for nearly another thousand. Whymper describes the Yukon as varying
from one to four miles in width for three or four hundred miles of its length. The
Mackenzie is described as averaging a mile in width for more than a thousand
miles, with occasional expansions for long distances to twice that size.
The drainage area does not measure the size of the Arctic rivers at all
adequately. Though the rainfall of many of them is comparatively small, the size
of the rivers is relatively very large, owing to the sudden melting of the winter's
accumulation of snow, which causes an annual flood of great magnitude, like the
rising of the Nile. Even on the Amur in Eastern Siberia, and on the Yukon in
Alaska, the annual flood is important enough, but on the rivers which flow north
into the Polar Sea the damming up of the mouths by the accumulations of ice
produces an annual deluge, frequently extending over thousands of square miles,
a catastrophe the effects of which have been much underrated and never
adequately described.
If we assume that the unknown regions are principally sea, then the Polar
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 823
Basin, including the area drained by all rivers flowing into the Arctic Sea, may be
roughly estimated to contain about 14,000,000 square miles, of which half is land
and half water. In the coldest part of the basin the land is either glacier or tundra,
and in the warmer parts it is either forest or steppe.
Greenland, the home of the
GLACIER,
and the mother of the icebergs of the Northern Atlantic, rises 9,000 or 10,000
feet above sea level, whilst the sea between that lofty plateau and Scandinavia is
the deepest known in the Polar Basin, though it is separated from the rest of the
Atlantic by a broad belt or submarine plateau connecting Greenland across Iceland
and the Faroes with the British Islands and Europe. Iceland, Spitzbergen, and
Novaya-Zemlia, the latter a continuation of the Urals, are all mountainous and full
of glaciers. The glaciers of Southern Alaska are some of the largest in the world.
The glaciers and the icebergs have a literature of their own, and we must pass
them by to say a word or two about
THE TUNDRA,
The Arctic Sea, which lies at the bottom of the Polar Basin, is fringed with a
belt of bare country, sometimes steep and rocky, abruptly descending in more or
less abrupt cliffs and piles of precipices to the sea, but more often sloping gently
down in mud banks and sand hills representing the accumulated spoils of countless
ages of annual floods, which tear up the banks of the rivers and deposit shoals of
detritus at their mouths, compelling them to make deltas in their efforts to force a
passage to the sea. In Norway this belt of bare country is called the Fyjeld, in
Russia it is known as the Tundra, and in America its technical name is the Barren
Grounds. In the language of science it is the country beyond the limit of forest
rowth.
4 In exposed situations, especially in the higher latitudes, the tundra does really
merit its American name of barren ground, being little else than gravel beds
interspersed with bare patches of peat or clay, and with scarcely a rush or a sedge to
break the monotony. In Siberia at least this is very exceptional. By far the
greater part of the tundra, both east and west of the Ural Mountains, is a gently
undulating plain, full of lakes, rivers, swamps, and bogs. The lakes are diversified
with patches of green water plants, amongst which ducks and swans float and dive ;
the little rivers flow between banks of rush and sedge; the swamps are masses of
tall rushes and sedges of various species, where phalaropes and ruffs breed, and the
hogs are brilliant with the white fluffy seeds of the cotton grass, The groundwork
of all this variegated scenery is more beautiful and varied still—lichens and moss of
almost every conceivable colour, from the cream-coloured reindeer moss to the scarlet-
cupped trumpet moss, interspersed with a brilliant alpine flora, gentians, anemones,
saxifrages, and hundreds of plants, each a picture in itself, the tall aconites, both
the blue and yellow species, the beautiful cloudberry, with its gay white blossom
and amber fruit, the fragrant Ledum palustre and the delicate pink Andromeda
polifolia. In the sheltered valleys and deep watercourses a few stunted birches,
and sometimes large patches of willow scrub, survive the long severe winter, and
serve as cover for willow grouse or ptarmigan. The Lapland bunting and red-
throated pipit are everywhere to be seen, and certain favoured places are the
breeding grounds of snipe, plover, and sandpipers of many species. So far
from meriting the name of barren ground, the tundra is for the most part a
veritable paradise in summer. But it has one almost fatal drawback—it swarms
with millions of mosquitoes.
The tundra melts away insensibly into the
FOREST,
but isolated trees are rare, and in Siberia there is an absence of young wood. on
the confines of the tundra. The limit of forest growth appears to be retiring south-
ward, if we may judge from the number of dead and dying stumps but this may
824 REPORT—1893.
be a temporary or local variation caused by exceptionally severe winters. The
limit of forest growth does not coincide with the isotherms of mean annual tem-
perature, nor with the mean temperature for January nearly so closely as it does
with the mean temperature for July. It may be said to approximate very nearly
to the July isotherm of 53° F. We may therefore assume that a six-foot blanket
of snow prevents the winter frosts from killing the trees so long as they can be
revivified by a couple of months of summer heat above 50° F.
The limit of forest growth is thus directly determined by geographical causes.
In Alaska and in the Mackenzie Basin it extends about 300 miles above the Arctic
Circle, but in Eastern Canada the depression of Hudson’s Bay acts as a vast ice-
house and the forest line falls 500 miles below the Arctic Circle, whilst on the east
eoast of Labrador the Arctic current from Baffin’s Bay sends it down nearly as far
again. On the other side of the Atlantic the limit of forest growth begins on the
Norwegian coast on the Arctic Circle, gradually rises until it reaches 200 miles
farther north in Lapland, is depressed again by the ice-house of the White Sea, but
has recovered its position in the valley of the Pechora, which is rather more than
maintained until a second vast ice-house, the Sea of Okotsk, combined with Arctic
currents, repeats the depression of Labrador in Chuski Land and Kamchatka,
There are no trees on Novaya-Zemlia. Two or three species of willow grow
there, but they are dwarfs, seldom attaining a height of three inches. Novaya-
Zemlia enjoys a comparatively mild winter, the mean temperature of January,
thanks to the influence of the Gulf Stream, being 15° F. above zero in the south,
and only 5° F. below zero in the north. The absence of trees is due to the cold
summers, the mean temperature of July not reaching higher than 45° F. in the
south, whilst in the north it only reaches 38° F. :
The Indians of Canada have discovered that when they want to find water in
winter it is easiest reached under thick snow, the thinnest ice on the river or lake
being found under the thickest blanket of snow. On the same principle the tree
roots defy the severe winters protected by their snow shields, but they must have
a certain temperature (above 50° F.) to hold their own in summer.
The influence of the snow blanket is very marked in determining the depths to
which the frost penetrates beneath it. Thus we find that a Norwegian writer,
alluding to latitude 62°, remarks ‘ that the ground is frozen from one to two and a
half feet in winter, but this depends upon how soon the snow falls. Higher up
the mountains the ground is scarcely frozen at all, owing to the snow falling sooner,
and, in fact, if the snow falls very early lower down it is scarcely frozen to any
depth.’ Similar facts have been recorded from Canada in latitude 53°. ‘On
this prairie land, when there is a gocd fall of snow when the winter sets in, the
frost does not penetrate so deep as when there is no snow till late.’ Another
writer a little further south, in latitude 51°, says: ‘I am safe in saying that the
frost penetrates here to an average of five feet, except when we have had a great
depth of snow in the beginning of winter, in which case it does not penetrate
nearly so far.’
It is not so easy to explain the boundary line between the forest and the
STEPPE.
There are two great steppe regions in the Polar Basin, one in Asia and the other
in America. The great Barabinski steppe in South-west Siberia stretches with
but slight interruptions across Southern Russia into Bulgaria. The great prairie
region of Minnesota and Manitoba reaches the Mackenzie Basin, and outlying plains
are found almost up to the Great Slave Lake. The cause of the treeless condition
of the steppes or prairies has given rise to much controversy. My own experience
in Siberia convinced me that the forests were rocky, and the steppes covered
with a deep layer of loose earth, and I came to the conclusion that on the rocky
ground the roots of the trees were able to establish themselves firmly so as to
defy the strongest gales, which tore them up when they were planted in light soil.
Other travellers have formed other opinions. Some suppose that the prairies were
once covered with trees which have been gradually destroyed by fires. Others
a i
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 825
suggest that the earth on the treeless plains contains too much salt or too little
organic matter to be favourable to the growth of trees. No one, so far as I know,
has suggested a climatic explanation of the circumstance. Want of drainage may
produce a swamp and the deficiency of rainfall may cause a desert, both conditions
being fatal to forest growth, but no one can mistake either of these treeless dis-
triets for a steppe or prairie. The
ANTHROPOLOGY
of the Polar Basin presents many points of interest. On the American coasts of
the Arctic Ocean the Eskimo lives a very similar life to the Lapp in Norway and
the Samoyede in the tundras of Siberia. These races of men resemble each other
very much in their personal appearance, and still more so in their habits. Their
straight black hair, with little or no beard, their dark and obliquely set eyes, their
high cheek bones and flat noses, and their small hands and feet testify to their
Mongoloid origin. They are all indebted to the reindeer for their winter dress
and for much of their food, and they all have dogs; but the Eskimo travel only with
dogs, and the Lapp only with reindeer, whilst the Samoyede uses both dog sledges
and reindeer sledges. ‘They all lead a nomadic life, trapping fur-bearing animals
in winter and fishing in summer; they resemble each other in many other customs
and beliefs, but they are nevertheless supposed to have emigrated to the Arctic
regions from independent sources, and many characters in which they resemble
each other are supposed to have been independently acquired.
The various races which inhabit the Polar Basin below the limit of forest
growth are too numerous to be considered in detail.
Most zoologists divide the Polar Basin into two zoological regions, or, to be
strictly accurate, they include the Old World half of the Polar Basin in what
they call the Palearctic region, and the New World half in the Nearctic region;
but recent investigations have shown that these divisions are unnatural and can-
not be maintained. Some writers unite the two regions together under the name
of the Holarctic region, whilst others recognise a circumpolar Arctic region above
the limit of forest growth, and unite in a second region the temperate portions of
the northern hemisphere. In the opinion of the last-mentioned writers the circum-
polar Arctic region differs more from the temperate regions of the northern hemi-
sphere than the American portion of the latter does from the Eurasian portion.
The fact is that
LIFE AREAS,
or zoo-geographical regions, are more or less fanciful generalisations. The geo-
graphical distribution of animals, and probably also that of plants, is almost entirely
dependent upon two factors, climate and isolation, the one playing quite as im-
portant a part as the other. The climate varies in respect of rainfall and temper-
ature, and species are isolated from each other by seas and mountain ranges. ‘The
geographical facts which govern the zoological provinces consequently range
themselves under these four heads. It is at once obvious that the influences which
determine the geographical distribution of fishes must be quite different from those
which determine the distribution of mammals, since the geographical features which
isolate the species in the one case are totally different from those which form im-
passable barriers in the other. It is equally obvious that the climatic conditions
which influence the geographical range of mammals must include the winter cold as
well as the summer heat, whilst those which determine the geographical distribution
of birds, most of which are migratory in the Arctic regions, is entirely independent
of any amount of cold which may descend upon their breeding grounds during the
months which they spend in their tropic or sub-tropic winter quarters.
Hence all attempts to divide the Polar Basin into zoological regions or pro-
vinces are futile. Nearly every group of animals has zoological regions of its own,
determined by ‘geographical features peculiar to itself, and any generalisations
from these different regions can be little more than a curiosity of science. The
mean temperature or distribution of heat can be easily ascertained. It is easy to
generalise so as to arrive at an average between the summer heat and the winter
cold, because they can be both expressed in the same terms. When, however, we
826 REPORT—1893.
seek to generalise upon the distribution of animal or vegetable life, how is it
possible to arrive at a mean geographical distribution of animals? How many
genera of mollusks are equal to a genus of mammals, or how many butterflies are
eaual to a bird P
If there be any region of the world with any claim to be a life area, it is that
part of the Polar Basin which lies between the July isotherm of 50° or 53° F.
and the northern limit of organic life. The former corresponds very nearly with
the northern limit of forest growth, and they comprise between them the barren
grounds of America and the tundras of Arctic Europe and Siberia.
The fauna and flora of this circumpolar belt are practically homogeneous; many
species of both plants and animals range throughout its whole extent. It consti-
tutes a cireumpolar Arctic region, and cannot consistently be separated at Behring
Strait into two parts of sufficient importance to rank even as sub-regions.
Animals recognise facts, and are governed by them in the extension of their
ranges; they care little or nothing about generalisations. The mean temperature
of a province is a matter of indifference to some plants and to most animals. The
facts which govern their distribution are various, and vary according to the needs
of the plant or animal concerned. Toa migratory bird the mean annual temper-
ature is a matter of supreme indifference. To’a resident bird the question is
equally beside the mark. The facts which govern the geographical distribution of
birds are the extremes of temperature, not the means. Arctic birds are nearly
all migratory. Their distribution during the breeding season depends primarily
on the temperature of July, which must range between 53° and 35° F. It is very
important, however, to remember that it is actual temperature that governs them,
not isotherms corrected to sea level. If an Arctic bird can find a correct isotherm
below the Arctic Circle by ascending to an elevation of 5,000 or 6,000 feet
above the level of the sea, it avails itself of the opportunity. Then the region of
the Dovrefeld above the limit of forest growth is the breeding plan of many abso-
lutely Arctic birds ; but this is not nearly so much the case on the Alps, because
the cold nights vary too much from the hot days to come within the range of the
birds’ breeding grounds. Here, again, the mean daily temperature is of no import-
ance. It is the extreme of cold which is the most potent factor in this case, and
no extreme of heat can counterbalance its effect.
In estimating the influence of elevation upon temperature it has been ascer-
tained that it is necessary to deduct about 3° F’. for every thousand feet. The
ISOTHERMAL LINES
are very eccentric in the Polar Basin. The mean temperature of summer is quite
independent of that of winter. The isothermal lines of J uly are regulated by geo-
graphical causes which do not affect those of December, or operate in a contrary
direction, The Gulf Stream raises the mean temperature of Iceland during winter
to the highest point which it reaches in the Polar Basin, viz., 30° to 85° F .y Whilst
in summer it prevents it from rising above 45° and 50° F., a range of only 15°. In
the valley of the Lena in the same latitude the mean temperature of January is 55°
to 50° F, below zero, whilst that of July is 60° to 65° F. above zero, a range of 115°.
The close proximity of the Pacific Ocean has a much less effect on the mean
temperature at Behring Strait, which is in the same latitude as the north of Iceland.
The mean temperature for January is zero, whilst that for J uly is 40° F. The
mean temperature for January in the same latitude in the valley of the Mackenzie
is 25° below zero, whilst that for July is 55° F, In this case the contrast of the
ranges is 40 and 80, which compared with 15 and 115 is small, but the geo-
graphical conditions are not thesame. Behring Sea is so protected by the Aleutian
chain of islands that very little of the warm current from Japan reaches the
straits. It is deflected southwards, so the Aleutian Islands form a better basis for
comparison. Their mean temperature for January is 35° F., whilst that for July
is 50° F., precisely the same difference as that to be found in Iceland.
The influence of geographical causes upon climate being at present so great, it
is easy to imagine that changes in the distribution of land and water may have
had an equally important influence upon the climate of the Polar Basin during the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 827
recent cold age, which geologists call the Pleistocene period. It is impossible for
the traveller to overlook the evidences of this so-called Glacial period in the Polar
Basin, and whether we seek an explanation of the geographical phenomena from
the astronomer or the geologist, or both, it is impossible to ignore the geographical
interest of the subject.
No sciences can be more intimately connected than geography and
GEOLOGY.
A knowledge of geography is absolutely essential to the geologist. To dis-
criminate between one kind of rock and another is a comparatively small part of
the work of the geologist. To ascertain the geographical distribution of the
various rocks is a study of profound interest. If the geologist owes much to the
geographer, the latter is also largely indebted to the labours of the former. The
geology of a mountain range or an extended plain is as important to the physical
geographer as the knowledge of anatomy is to the figure painter.
The geology of the Polar Basin is not very accurately known, and the subject
is one too vast to be more than mentioned on an occasion like the present ; but
the evidences of a comparatively recent ice age in eastern America and western
Europe are too important to be passed by without a word.
In the sub-Arctic regions of the world there is much evidence to show that the
climate has in comparatively recent times been Arctic. The present glaciers of
Central Europe were once much greater than they are now, and even in the
British Islands glaciers existed during what has been called the ice age, and the
evidence of their existence in the form of rocks, upon which they have left their
scratches and heaps of stones, which they have deposited in their retreat,
are so obvious that he who runs may read. Similar evidence of an ice age is
found in North America, and to a limited extent in the Himalayas, but in the
alluvial plains of Siberia and North Alaska, as might be expected, no trace of an
ice age can be found.
Croll’s hypothesis that an ice age is produced when the eccentricity of the
earth’s orbit is unusually great has been generally accepted as the most plausible
explanation of the facts. It is assumed that during the months of perihelion
evaporation is extreme, and that during the months of aphelion the snowfall is
considerably increased. The effect of the last period of high eccentricity is supposed
to have been much increased by geographical changes. The elevation of the shallow
sea which connects Iceland with Greenland on the one hand, and the south of
Norway and the British Islands on the other, would greatly increase the accumu-
lation of snow and ice in those parts of the Polar Basin where evidence of a
recent ice age is now to be found; whilst the depression of the lowlands on either
side of the Ural Mountains, so as to admit the waters of the Mediterranean through
the Black and Caspian Seas, might prevent any glaciation in those parts of the
Polar Basin where no evidence of such a condition is now discoverable. But this
is a question that must be left to the geologist to decide.
The extreme views of the early advocates of the theory of an ice age have
been to a large extent abandoned. No one now believes in the former existence of
a Polar ice cap, and possibly when the irresistible force of iceedammed rivers has
been fully realised, the estimated area of glaciation may be considerably reduced.
The so-called great ice age may have been a great snow age, with local centres of
glaciation on the higher grounds,
The zoological evidence as to the nature, extent, and duration of the ice age
has never been carefully collected. The attention of zoologists has unfortunately
been too exclusively devoted to the almost hopeless task of theorising upon the
causes of evolution, instead of patiently cataloguing its effects. :
There is a mass of evidence bearing directly upon the recent changes in the
climate of the Polar Basin to be found in the study of the present geographical
distribution of birds. The absence of certain common British forest birds (some of
them of circumpolar range sub-generically, if not specifically) from Ireland and the
North of Scotland is strong confirmation of the theory that the latter countries
were not very long ago outside the limit of forest growth.
828 REPORT—1893.
The presence of species belonging to Arctic and sub-Arctic genera on many of
the South Pacific Islands is strong evidence that they were compelled to emigrate
in search of food by some great catastrophe, such as an abnormally heavy snowfall,
and the fact that no island contains more than one species is strong evidence that
this great catastrophe has only occurred once in recent times. The occurrence of
a well-recognised line of migration from Greenland across Iceland, the Faroes,
and the British Islands to Europe is strongly suggestive of a recent elevation of
the land where the more shallow sea now extends in this locality. The extraordi-
nary similarity of the fauna and flora of the Arctic regions of the Old and New
Worlds can only be found elsewhere in continuous areas, and, had it not been for
the unfortunate division of the Arctic region into two halves, Palearctic and
Nearctic, would haye attracted much more attention than it has hitherto received.
THE RAINFALL
of the Polar Basin is small compared to that with which we are familiar, but its
visible effects are enormous. In Arctic Europe and Siberia it is supposed to
average about thirteen inches per annum; in Arctic America not more than nine
inches. The secret of its power is that about a third of the rainfall descends in
the form of snow, which melts with great suddenness.
The stealthy approach of winter on the confines of the Polar Basin is in strong
contrast to the catastrophe which accompanies the sudden onrush of summer.
‘One by one the flowers fade, and go to seed if they have been fortunate enough to
attract by their brilliancy a bee or other suitable pollen-bearing visitor. The
birds gradually collect into flocks, and prepare to wing their way to southern
climes. Strange to say, it is the young birds of each species that set the example.
They are not many weeks old. They have no personal experience of migration,
but Nature has endowed them with an inherited impulse to leave the land of their
birth before their parents. Probably they inherit the impulse to migrate without
inheriting any knowledge of where their winter quarters are to be found, and by
what route they are to be sought. They are sometimes, if not always, accom-
panied by one or two adults, it may be barren birds, or birds whose eggs or young
have been destroyed, and who may therefore get over their autumn moult earlier
than usual, or moult slowly as they travel southwards. Of most species the adult
males are the next to leave, to be followed perhaps a week later by the adult
females. One by one the various migratory species disappear until only the few
resident birds are left, and the Arctic forest and tundra resume the silence so con-
spicuous in winter. As the nights get longer the frosts bring down the leaves
from the birch and the larch trees. Summer gently falls asleep, and winter as
gently steals a march upon her, with no wind and no snow, until the frost silently
lays its iron grip upon the river, which, after a few impotent struggles, yields to
its fate. The first and mayhap the second ice is broken up, and when thestarrester
of the village sallies forth to peg out with rows of birch trees the winter road
down the river to the next village for which he is responsible, he has frequently to
deviate widely from the direct course in his efforts to choose the smoothest ice
and find a channel between the hummocks that continually block the way.
The date upon which winter resumes his sway varies greatly in different
localities, and probably the margin between an early and a late season is consider-
able. In 1876 Captain Wiggins was frozen up in winter quarters on the Yenisei,
in latitude 663°, on October 17. In 1878 Captain Palander was frozen up on the
coast 120 miles west of Behring Strait, in latitude 672°, on September 28.
The sudden arrival of summer on the Arctic Circle appears to occur nearly at
the same date in all the great river basins, but the number of recorded observations
is so small that the slight variation may possibly be seasonal and not local. The
ice on the Mackenzie River is stated by one authority to have broken up on May 13
in latitude 62°, and by another on May 9 in latitude 67°. 1f the Mackenzie breaks
up as fast as the Yenisei—that is to say, at the rate of a degree a day-—an assump-
tion which is supported by what little evidence can be found—then the difference
between these two seasons would be nine days. My own experience has been that
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 829
the ice of the Pechora breaks up ten days before that of the Yenisei, but as I
have only witnessed one such event in each valley too much importance must not
be attached to the dates.
According to the ‘Challenger’ tables of isothermal lines the mean temperatures
of January and July on the Arctic Circle in the valleys of the Mackenzie and the
Yenisei scarcely differ, the summer temperature in each case being about 55° F.,
and that of winter —25° F., a difference of 80° F.
On the American side of the Polar Basin summer comes almost as suddenly as
it does on the Asiatic side, but the change appears to be less of the nature of a
catastrophe. The geographical causes which produce this result are the smaller
area of the river basins and the less amount of rainfall. There is only one large
river which empties itself into the Arctic Ocean on the American side, the
Mackenzie, with which may be associated the Saskatchewan, which discharges into
Hudson Bay far away to the south. The basin of the Mackenzie is estimated at
590,000 square miles, whilst that of the Yenisei is supposed to be exactly twice
that area. The comparative dimensions of the two summer floods are still more
diminished by the difference in the quantity of snow.
The snow in the Mackenzie basin is said to be from 2 to 3 feet deep, whilst that
in the Yenisei basin is from 5 to 6 feet deep, so that the spring flood in the latter
river must be about five times as large as that of the former.
Another feature in which the basin of the Mackenzie differs from those of the
rivers in the Arctic regions of the Old World is the number of rapids and lakes
contained in it. The ice in the large lakes attains a thickness at least twice as
great as that of the rapid stream, and consequently breaks up much later. In the
Great Slave Lake the ice attains a depth of 6 to 7 feet, and even in the Athabaska
Lake, in latitude 58°, it reaches 4 feet. The rapids between these two lakes
extend for 15 miles. The ice on the river breaks up a month before that on
the lakes, so that the drainage area of the first summer flood is much restricted.
The arrival of summer in the Arctic regions happens so late that the inex-
perienced traveller may be excused for sometimes doubting whether it really is
going to come at all. When continuous night has become continuous day without
any perceptible approach to spring an alpine traveller naturally asks whether he
has not reached the limit of perpetual snow. It is true that here and there a few
bare patches are to be found on the steepest slopes, where most of the snow has
been blown away by the wind, especially if these slopes face the south, where
even an Arctic sun has more potency than it has elsewhere. It is also true that
small flocks of little birds—at first snow-buntings and mealy redpoles, and later
shore larks and Lapland buntings—may be observed to flit from one of these bare
places to another looking for seeds or some other kind of food, but after all evi-
dently finding most of it in the droppings of the peasants’ horses on the hard
snow-covered roads. The appearance of these little birds does not, however, give
the same confidence in the eventual coming of summer to the Arctic naturalist as
the arrival of the swallow or the cuckoo does to his brethren in sub-Arctic and sub-
tropic climates. The four little birds just mentioned are only gipsy migrants
that are perpetually flitting to and fro on the confines of the frost, continually
being driven south by snowstorms, but ever ready to take advantage of the
slightest thaw to press northwards again to their favourite Arctic home.
They are all circumpolar in their distributions, are as common in Siberia as
in Lapland, and range across Canada to Alaska as well as to Greenland. In sub-
Arctic climates we only see them in winter, so that their appearance does not in the
least degree suggest the arrival of summer to the traveller from the south.
The gradual rise in the level of the river inspires no more confidence in the
final melting away of the snow and the disruption of tbe ice which supports it.
In Siberia the rivers are so enormous that a rise of 5 or 6 feet is scarcely per-
ceptible. The Yenisei is three miles wide at the Arctic Circle, and as fast as it
rises the open water at the margin freezes up again and is soon covered with
the drifting snow. During the summer which I spent in the valley of the Yenisei
we had 6 feet of snow on the ground until the first of June. To all intents
and purposes it was mid-winter, iUluminated for the nonce with what amounted
830 REPORT—18938.
to continuous daylight. The light was a little duller at midnight, but not so much
so as during the occasional snowstorms that swept through the forest and drifted
up the broad river bed. During the month of May there were a few signs of the
possibility of some mitigation of the rigours of winter. Now and then there
was a little rain, but it was always followed by frost. If it thawed one day
it froze the next, and little or no impression was made on the snow. The
most tangible signs of coming summer was an increase in the number of birds,
but they were nearly all forest birds, which could enjoy the sunshine in the
pines and birches, and which were by no means dependent on the melting
away of the snow for their supply of food. Between May 16 and 30 we had
more definite evidence of our being within bird flight of bare grass or open
water. Migratory flocks of wild geese passed over our winter quarters, but if
they were flying north one day they were flying south the next, proving beyond
all doubt that their migration was premature. The geese evidently agreed with
us that it ought to be summer, but it was as clear to the geese as to us that
it really was winter.
We afterwards learnt that during the last ten days of May a tremendous
battle had been raging 600 miles as the crow flies to the southward of our
position on the Arctic Circle. Summer in league with the sun had been fighting
winter and the north wind all along the line, and had been as hopelessly beaten
everywhere as we were witnesses that it had been in our part of the river. At
length, when the final victory of summer looked the most hopeless, a change was
made in the command of the forces. Summer entered into an alliance with the
south wind. The sun retired in dudgeon to his tent behind the clouds, mists
obscured the landscape, a soft south wind played gently on the snow, which melted
under its all-powerful influence like butter upon hot toast, the tide of battle was
suddenly turned, the armies of winter soon vanished into thin water and beat a
hasty retreat towards the pole. The effect on the great river was magical. Its
thick armour of ice cracked with a loud noise like the rattling of thunder, every
twenty-four hours it was lifted up a fathom above its former level, broken up, first
into ice floes and then into pack ice, and marched down stream at least a hundred
miles. Even at this great speed it was more than a fortnight before the last strag-
gline ice-blocks passed our post of observation on the Arctic Circle, but during
that time the river had risen 70 feet above its winter level, although it was three
miles wide, and we were in the middle of a blazing hot summer, picking flowers of
a hundred different kinds, and feasting upon wild ducks’ eggs of various species.
Birds abounded to an incredible extent. Between May 29 and June 18 I identified
sixty-four species which I had rot seen before the break up of the ice. Some of
them stopped to breed and already had eggs, but many of them followed the
retreating ice to the tundra, and we saw them no more until, many weeks after-
wards, we had sailed down the river beyond the limit of forest growth.
The victory of the south wind was absolute, but not entirely uninterrupted.
Occasionally the winter made a desperate stand against the sudden onrush of
summer. The north wind rallied its beaten forces for days together, the clouds
and the rain were driven back, and the half-melted snow frozen on the surface.
But it was too late; there were many large patches of dark ground which rapidly
absorbed the sun’s heat; the snow melted under the frozen crust, and its final
collapse was as rapid as it was complete.
In the basin of the Yenisei the average thickness of the snow at the end of
winter is about 5 feet. The sudden transformation of this immense continent of
snow, which lies as gently on the earth as an eider-down quilt upon a bed, into an
ocean of water rushing madly down to the sea, tearing everything up that comes
into its way, is a gigantic display of power compared with which an earthquake
sinks into insignificance. It 1s difficult to imagine the chaos of water which must
have deluged the country before the river beds were worn wide enough and deep
enough to carry the water away as quickly as is the case now. If we take the
Lower Yenisei as an example it may be possible to form some conception of the
work which has already been done. At Yeniseisk the channel is about a mile
wide; 800 miles lower down (measuring the windings of the river), at the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 831
village of Kureika, it is about 3 miles wide, and, following the mighty stream
for about another 800 miles down to the Brekoffsky Islands, it is nearly
6 miles wide. The depth of the channel varies from 50 to 100 feet above the
winter level of the ice. This ice is about 3 feet thick, covered with 6 feet of snow,
which becomes flooded shortly before the break up and converted into about 3 feet
of ice, white as marble, which lies above the winter blue ice. When the final crash
comes this field of thick ice is shatttered like glass. The irresistible force of
the flood behind tears it up at an average rate of 4 miles an hour, or about a
hundred miles a day, and drives it down to the sea in the form of ice floes and pack
ice. Occasionally a narrow part of the channel or a sharp bend of the river
causes a temporary check; but the pressure from behind is irresistible, the pack ice
is piled into heaps, and the ice floes are doubled up into little mountains, which
rapidly freeze together into icebergs, which float off the banks as the water rises.
Meanwhile, other ice floes come up behind: some are driven into the forests, where
the largest trees are mown down by them like grass, whilst others press on until
the barrier gives way, and the waters, suddenly let loose, rush along at double speed,
carrying the icebergs with them with irresistible force, the pent-up dam which
has accumulated in the rear often covering hundreds of square miles. In very
little more than a week the ice on the 800 miles from Yeniseisk to the
Kureika is completely broken up, and in little more than another week the
second 800 miles from the Kureika to the Brekoffsky Islands is in the same
condition.
During the Glacial epoch the annual fight between winter and the sun nearly
always ended in the victory of the former. Even now the fight is a very desperate
one within the Polar Circle, and is subject to much geographical variation. The sun
alone has little or no chance. ‘The armies of winter are clad in white armour,
absolutely proof against the sun’s darts, which glance harmlessly on six feet of
snow. In these high latitudes the angle of incidence is very small, even at mid-
day in midsummer. The sun’s rays are reflected back into the dry air with as
little effect as a shell which strikes obliquely against an armour plate. But the
sun does not fight his battle alone. He has allies which, like the arrival of the
Prussians on the field of Waterloo, finally determine the issue of the battle in his
favour. The tide of victory turns earliest in Norway, although the Scandinavian
Fjeld forms a magnificent fortress in which the forces of winter entrench themselves
in vain. This fortress looks as impregnable as that on the opposite coast, and
would doubtless prove so were it not for the fact that in this part of the Polar
Basin the sun has a most potent ally in the Gulf Stream, which soon routs the
armies of winter and compels the fortress to capitulate.
The suddenness of the arrival of summer in Siberia is probably largely due to
the geographical features of the country. In consequence of the vastness of the
area which is drained by the great rivers, and the immense volume of water which
they have to carry to the sea, the break up of the ice in their lower valleys precedes,
instead of being caused by, the melting of the snow towards the limit of forest
growth. The ice on the affluents either breaks up after that on the main river, or
is broken up by irresistible currents from it which flow up stream; an anomaly for
which the pioneer voyager is seldom prepared ; and when the captain has escaped
the danger of battling against an attack of pack ice and ice floes from a quarter
whence it was entirely unexpected, he may be suddenly called upon to face a
second army of more formidable ice floes and pack ice from the great river itself,
and if his ship survive the second attack a third danger awaits him in the alternate
rise and fall of the tributary as each successive barrier where the ice gets jammed
in its march down the main stream below the junction of the river accumulates
until the pressure from behind becomes irresistible, when it suddenly gives way.
This alternate advance and retreat of the beaten armies of winter continued for
about ten days during the battle between summer and winter of which I was a
witness in the valley of the Yenisei. On one occasion I calculated that at least
50,000 acres of pack ice and ice floes had been marched up the Kureika, The
marvel is what became of it. To all appearance half of it never came back, Some
of it no doubt melted away during the ten days’ marches and counter-marches,
832 REPORT—1893.
some drifted away from the river on the flooded places, which are often many
square miles in extent, some got lost in the adjoining forests, and was doubtless
stranded amongst the trees when the flood subsided, and some was piled up in
layers one upon the top of the other, which more or less imperfectly froze together
and formed icebergs of various shapes and sizes. Some of the icebergs which we
saw going down the main stream were of great size, and as nearly as we
could estimate stood from 20 to 30 feet above the surface of the water. These
immense blocks appeared to be moving at the rate of from 10 to 20 miles an
hour. The grinding together of the sharp edges of the innumerable masses of ice
as they were driven down stream by the irresistible pressure from behind produced
a shrill rustling sound that could be heard a mile from the river.
The alternate marching of this immense quantity of ice up and down the
Kureika was a most curious phenomenon. To see a strong current up stream for
many hours is so contrary to all previous experience of the behaviour of rivers that
one cannot help feeling continuous astonishment at the novel sight. The monotony
which might otherwise have intervened in a ten-days’ march-past of ice was
continually broken by complete changes\jn the scene. Sometimes the current was
up stream, sometimes it was down, and occasionally there was no current at all.
Frequently the pack ice and ice floes were so closely jammed together that there
was no apparent difficulty in scrambling across them, and occasionally the river
was free from ice for a short time. At otl\er times the river was thinly sprinkled
over with ice blocks and little icebergs, which occasionally ‘ calved’ as they travelled
on, with much commotion and splashing. The phenomenon technically called
‘calving’ is curious, and sometimes quite startling. It takes place when a number
of scattered ice blocks are quietly floating down stream. All at once a loud splash
is heard as a huge lump of ice rises out of the water, evidently from a considerable
depth, like a young whale coming up to breathe, noisily beats back the waves that
the sudden upheaval has caused, and rocks to and fro for some time before it finally
settles down to its floating level. There can be little doubt that what looks like a
comparatively small ice block floating innocently along is really the top of a
formidable iceberg, the greater part of which is a submerged mass of layers of ice
piled one on the top of the other, and in many places very imperfectly frozen
together. By some accident, perhaps by grounding on a hidden sandbank, perhaps
by the water getting between the layers and thawing the few places where they
are frozen together, the bottom layer becomes detached, escapes to the surface, and
loudly asserts its commencement of an independent existence with the commotion
in the water which generally proclaims the fact that an iceberg has calved.
Finally comes the last march-past of the beaten forces of winter, the ragtag and
bobtail of the great Arctic army that comes straggling down the river when the
campaign is all over—worn and weather-beaten little icebergs, dirty ice floes that
look like floating sandbanks, and straggling pack ice in the last stages of consump-
tion that looks strangely out of place under a burning sun between banks gay with
the gayest flowers, amidst the buzz of mosquitoes, the music of song birds, and the
harsh cries of gulls, divers, ducks, and sandpipers of various species.
I have been thus diffuse in describing these scenes, in the first place, because
they are very grand; in the second place, because they have so important a bearing
upon climate, one of the great factors which determine the geographical distribu-
tion of animals and plants; and in the third place, because they have never been
sufficiently emphasised.
The following Papers were read :—
1. A Journey across Australia. By Guy Boorusy.
Leaving Thursday Island, in Torres Straits, the author and one companion
sailed to Townsville. From Townsville they passed by land, through Charters
Towers, the Gilberton, Etheridge, and Croydon goldfields, to Normanton, on the
Norman River, Gulf of Carpentaria. Here saddle and pack-horses were obtained,
stores laid in, and the transcontinental journey to Adelaide commenced. The
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION KE. 833
route followed was almost due south as far as the Cloncurry mineral fields, thence
due east to Hughenden, south-west to Winton, due west to Boulia, only to ba
driven back again by drought as far as the Thomson River. In a futile attempt
to reach the South Australian border at Haddon’s Corner, Windorah was reached,
but at this stage scarcity of water and horse feed compelled the travellers to
abandon their intention, and, after losing two horses from thirst and starvation,
to retrace their steps as far as the Barcoo River. This river was eventually fol-
lowed down, and the Cheviot and Grey ranges crossed to Adavale, where a course
was steered along the Bulloo River, and ultimately along the Paroo. Cunnamulla,
on the Warrego, was reached, and the river followed down across the Queensland
border into New South Wales. Arriving in the town of Bourke, on the Darling
River, the remaining horses were disposed of and a rowing boat purchased, in
which a distance of 800 miles was traversed to the small town of Menindee,
whence a river steamer conveyed them on to Wentworth, whence by the
Murray and by train Adelaide was reached, exactly a year and a month after
Jeaving Normanton.
2. Ov the Islands of Chiloé. By Mrs. Linuy Grove, F.R.G.S.
The Archipelago of Chiloé, lying between 41° and 43° S. lat., is only 25 miles
distant from the mainland at its nearest point. The principal island, Chiloé,
¢an be reached by steamer or by one of the native sailing-vessels, which are well
managed by the hardy and dexterous ‘Chilotes.’ These vessels form the chiof
means of communication, as the postal service is irregular. The island is peaceful
and prosperous, and crime is rare among its gentle and hospitable inhabitants.
Education is improving. Agriculture and wood-cutting are the chief employ-
ments both of men and women. They have few wants; fish and the potato are
their main articles of food. Wages are generally paid in kind, often, unfortunately,
in alcohol. It is interesting to note that the potato (called patata or papas) is
of Chilian origin, and grows in the wildest districts, even at the top of the highest
mountains, A whole region is called after it, and it is sometimes the sole food of
the people. Other interesting native plants are the Latué (similar to belladonna),
an infusion of which produces temporary madness; the Pangue, valuable as an
astringent; the Piiion, rising to a majestic height, with a white resin, also useful
medicinally ; the Canelo, whose branches are recognised as a flag of truce ; and the
Alerce, large forests of which are found near Castro and Ancud, and whose wood
is most valuable for building purposes ; but better means of transport are needed
in order to work these forests economically. Fishing is a very important industry,
doth in Chiloé and the Guaytecas. Telegraphic communication between the last—
named islands and the mainland would be of great service, and the Government of
Chile should make fishing and shooting regulations to prevent the extermination of
the seals, whose skins are prepared near Dalcahué. The chief ports are Ancud
and Castro, the latter of which is very picturesque.
‘3. On Recent Explorations in Katanga. By E. G. RAvEnstern.
A brief account was given of the recent Belgian expeditions to the Katanga
country, including the journeys of Delcommune, Captain Stairs, Bia, and Franqui.
A summary of the physical geography of the region, its resources and people, was
given.
4. Pictures of Japan. By Professor J. Mitye, F.R.S.
This paper took the form of an explanation of an important series of lantern
photographs illustrating the earthquake phenomena of Japan.
1803, 3H
834 REPORT—1893.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 165.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On the Limits between Physical Geography and Geology.
By Cirments R. Marxuay, C.B., F.B.S.
2. On the Relations of Geology to Physical Geography.
By W. Torrey, F.R.S8., Geological Survey of England.
Professor Lapworth in his address to the Geological Section last year at
Edinburgh showed clearly the close relationship of geology to physical geography
as regards the larger features of the earth’s surface—the structure and distribution
of mountain chains, the great folds which traverse the earth’s crust, and the wider
areas of uplift and depression.
I propose to refer mainly to the minor features of the surface, and to show that
the nature and ‘Jie’ of the rocks determine these surface features. From this
point of view geology forms the basis of physical geography, and a geographer
must necessarily be to some extent a geologist.
There is no need to point out that the converse of this is equally true. A
geologist who would understand in what way existing geological conditions have
been brought about—how strata have been deposited, volcanic rocks erupted, and
how denudation has carved the surface into its present shape—must study similar
phenomena now in progress.
A comparison of geological and physical maps of any area at once shows that
different rock-groups and formations present different types of land, the hills and
mountain chains coinciding with the outcrop of certain rocks or strata, whilst other
formations are characterised by plains or by lowlands. It is thus clear that the
geological structure of any district determines its physical geography. This relation
is equally apparent when we compare the structure and surface features in detail.
The older masses of rock frequently form mountainous land ; the newer Paleozoic
and the Secondary rocks occur mainly as a succession of plains and escarpments,
each determined by the outcrops of certain beds.
The history of valleys, plains, and gorges can only be understood by reference
to their geology. We then see why rivers, after for a while running over wide open
plains, suddenly break through hill ranges, cutting the escarpments at right angles, —
the explanation being that the streams began their work when the whole formed —
a comparatively even surface, the existing features being due to long-continued
erosion.
The escarpments, plains, and transverse river valleys of central and southern
England and of eastern France form excellent examples of this structure. Here _
the geology is simple, a fairly continuous dip in one direction and different beds —
cropping out beneath each other in definite order. '
On the flanks of mountain chains this simple structure does not hold good;
there the beds are frequently contorted, inverted, and thrust over each other, so
that a superficial reading of the geology would give erroneous results as to the j
order of succession, But even here the present ‘lie’ of the beds has determined —
the physical geography, the disturbances of the rocks having been produced when }
they were deeply covered by other strata now removed by denudation.
Some igneous rocks weather into conical hills resembling volcanic cones. The
same thing often occurs in the weathering of loose sands, whilst sand is frequently
blown into conical and crater-shaped hills. A hasty glance at the outward shape
of such hills might mislead a traveller. Many conical hills in the south of Scotland
are old volcanic vents, up which molten lava once came; but the volcanic cones
have been long since removed by denudation, and what we now see are only the
Published in the Scot. Geog. Mag., ix. (1893), pp. 633-638.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 835
once deeply-seated necks of the old volcanoes, the softer parts having been worn
away.
Ganticn is necessary in interpreting the apparent dip of strata asa means of
determining geological structure ; besides folding and inversions, already referred
to, we have to guard against being deceived by cleavage, false-bedding, and the
fan-shaped structure of mountain chains.
A Imowledge of the geological structure of certain rocks in any one area may
mislead when applied to distant districts. The soft clays, the limestones, and
sandstones of the Jurassic rocks of England are represented in the south and east
of Europe by thick masses of limestone, forming prominent mountain ranges; whilst
the soft Triassic rocks of England are represented in the Alpine area by huge
masses of limestone and dolomite, with intermediate soft bands and with layers ot
voleanic rock,
Even within so small an area as England we have differences in geological
composition, making differences in physical geography. The high and barren moor-
lands of north-east Yorkshire and the fertile districts of the Cotteswold Hills are
both composed of Lower Oolitic rocks: in the former they are sandstones and
shales, in the latter they are in great part soft limestones and clays.
The nature of the rock determines the character of the soils and vegetation,
the soils being due to the decomposition of the underlying rocks, This is not,
however, the case where the solid rocks are covered by drift deposits: here the
soils are formed by the decomposition of the drifts.
The sites of early settlements and villages are generally determined by geological
surface conditions, water and a dry and fairly fertile soil being required.
The land divisions resulting from these early settlements are in like manner
dependent on the physical features, which, however, are not usually the actual
boundaries of the parishes, townships, &c.
But where the hills are exceptionally high the summit or the local water part-
ing is often the boundary.
[A discussion followed the reading of these papers, and is printed in full in the
* Geographical Journal’ for December 1893, pp. 518-584. ]
3. Report on Scottish Place Names.—See Reports, p. 554.
4 Report of the Karakoram Expedition.—See Reports, p. 564.
5, On the Influence of Land and Water on the Temperature of the Air.
By J. Y. Bucuanay, F.B.S.
6. The Temperature and Density of Sea Water between the Atlantic Ocean
and North Sea.' By H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E.
At the instance of the Fishery Board for Scotland the author spent the greater
part of August 1893, on H.M.S. ‘Jackal,’ in investigating the distribution of tem-
eas and salinity on the northern and western borders of the continental shelf,
Starting from a point fifty-four miles due north of the Shetlands, a line of sound-
ings was run eastwards for about seventy miles in depths of 100 to 200 fathoms,
and this was backed by a return line further south in shallower water. <A line
was next run from the north of the Shetlands to Suderé, Fro Islands, tempera-
tures being observed at depths down to 416 fathoms in the Fxro Shetland Channel.
From Frero a line of soundings was made to latitude 59° 45’ N. , longitude 5° W.,
whence a due easterly course was made to longitude 1°E. The latter part of the
cruise was occupied with a further study of the conditions existing to the east of
? A full report will be published in the Annual Report of the Fishery Board for
Scotland for 1894,
3H 2
836 ‘ REPORT—1893.
the Orkneys and Scotland as far south as Aberdeen. The observations, so far as
they have been discussed, extend the results obtained by Dr. H. R. Mill to the
west of Lewis in 1887 ; a warm layer, temperature 53° to 56° F., varying in thickness
from fifteen to twenty-five fathoms, lies upon the main body of water, the surface of
which is some 3° to 4° colder, while its temperature decreases with the depth. At
400 fathoms in the Fro Channel the temperature recorded was 30°9 F,
7. The Olyde Sea Area: a Study in Physical Geography.
By Hueu Roserr Mitt, D.Se., F.R.S.L.
This paper deals comprehensively with the results of the investigations carried
out by the author for the Scottish Marine Station and the Fishery Board for Scot-
land on the Clyde Sea Area.
The relations of salinity and temperature throughout the mass of the water
are shown to be conditioned almost entirely by the configuration of the various
basins of which the Clyde Sea Area is composed.
The influence of water temperature on the air is also discussed, the effects
of the Gulf Stream plainly visible at the entrance to the Area being entirely
neutralised in its landward reaches.
The complete paper, with numerous illustrations, will be published in the
‘ Transactions’ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
8. Configuration of the Englisk Lakes.
By Houew Rosert Mu, D.Sce., F.R.S.L.
This is a preliminary note describing the soundings taken by the author
and Mr. EK. Heawood during June, July, and September, 1893, on Windermere,
Ullswater, Coniston Water, Wastwater, Derwentwater, and Bassenthwaite.
From the observations made profiles across the lake beds were drawn, and the
contour lines of depth laid down on maps. Specimens of the deposits on the
floors of the lakes were collected, and will be described. This is the only sys-
tematic survey of the lakes made with a view to delineating the configuration of
the basins, and the work will be utilised on the Ordnance Survey maps as soon
as it has been fully discussed.
The complete discussion will be presented to the Royal Geographical Society.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
This Section did not meet.
[Paintings made during a voyage to the Antarctic regions by Mr. W. G. Burn
Murdoch were exhibited in the Section Room from 1] a.m. to 1 P.a.]
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on the Exploration of Ancient Remains
in Abyssinia.—See Reports, p. 557.
2. Report of the Committee on the Climatological and Hydrographical
Conditions of Tropical Africa.—See Reports, p. 572.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 837
3. On Uganda and its People. By Captain Witumums, I.A.
This paper was a study of the people of Uganda with regard to their physique,
industries, customs, and mode of government.
4. On Hausa Pilgrimages from the Western Sudan.'
By Rev. Cuarues H. Rosinson, M.A.
Mr. Robinson began by explaining the sources from which the facts referred to
in his paper were derived. He had just returned from a preliminary journey
along part of the north border of the Sahara, which had been made with a view to
ascertain the possibility of crossing the Great Sahara from Tripoli in order to visit
the Hausa States which lie to the west of Lake Chad, and to the north of the
rivers Niger and Binue. This journey he proposes to attempt during the coming
ear.
z His intercourse with Hausa-speaking natives in North Africa served to reveal
the enormous extent to which the pilgrimage to Mecca is affecting the life and
habits of the people in the far interior. Many thousands of pilgrims find their
way thence to Mecca, some by crossing the Great Sahara, and going by sea
from Tripoli, others by way of Wadai, Darfur, Khartum, and Suakim. He read
an account given by a Hausa pilgrim of the capture of Khartum and the death of
General Gordon,
5. On the Relation of Lake Tanganyika and the Congo.
By J. Howarp Rei.
6. On Environment in relation to the Native Tribes of the Congo Busin.
By HeErpert Ward.
Throughout the vast and densely populated area of the Congo basin the native
tribes are without history and without a written language. The tribal charac-
teristics and the mental condition of the natives differ widely in tribes inhabiting
different localities. It is an accepted fact that the Congo population is allied to
the Great Bantu group, one of the most extensive of the African racial divisions,
and it is but natural to infer that the phenomena of environment represent the
main element of influence to which these variations of character are to be
7. On the Vertical Relief of Africa. By Dr. H. G. Scuticurer.
The author submitted a series of ten sections of the vertical relief of Northern
and Central Africa... These sections were drawn-from east to west at intervals of
4° of latitude northward from 8° 8. The vertical scale is exaggerated eighty
times compared. with the horizontal. These sections are .of value, not only in
showing the relations of vertical relief, but also in indicating by dotted lines the
regions where observations are wanting ; they vividly present the gaps which remain
in our knowledge of the configuration of Africa.
} Published in the Geog. Journ., ii. (1893), pp. 451 -454.
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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 839
By R. W. Fe.sw, M.D., F.R.S.E., §e.
There are not many maps existent which show at a glance the distribution of
disease in any country. An attempt is made in the map shown by the author to
illustrate the grouping of the principal diseases occurring in Africa, so that not
only the existence of the disease may be seen, but its comparative prevalence or
severity appreciated. This is done by using a symbol for each disease dealt with,
which appears at those districts where the disease exists. The symbol is doubled
if-the disease is very prevalent, and in cases where it is exceedingly severe three
symbols are placed together. The climatology of various areas has also been
introduced, and if this map is referred to one showing the altitude, it is compara-
tively easy to see why different diseases should be present or absent in any given
region.
On looking at the map it can at once be noted that there are three distinct
areas in Africa in which the distribution of malaria is widely different. Itis most in
tense at the coastal regions and the long banks of the great rivers, it decreases with
altitude and, as will be noticed, it does not obtain at all after a certain altitude,
over 3,500 feet. It is not found in the Sahara, as will be at once seen, except in
isolated areas; again, in the extreme south of the continent it is at once apparent
how altitude and climatology limit its production.
The distribution of phthisis is also seen at a_glance to be limited in its incidence
by altitude and climatology, and probably also to a certain extent by malaria, for
where malaria is most severe phthisis hardly if ever occurs. Again we notice that
diarrhoea and dysentery are most frequent in those places where malaria is chiefly
met with, showing generally that the climatological factors producing the one
disease markedly influence the incidence of the others.
It is impossible to give briefly further details with regard to the paper in any
other way than in tabular form. In the table, p. 838, where one * appears the
disease is present, where two appear it is very prevalent, and where there are
three it is exceedingly severe.
:
: 8. The Distribution of Disease in Africa.
:
:
9. Middle Egypt from Ptolemaic Maps and Recent Surveys.
By Core Wuirenovse, M.A., F.R.A.S.
The question whether the maps which accompany the text of Cl. Ptolemy,
A.D. 150, were copied from originals extant in the eleventh century, or were
draughted by the copyists of the manuscripts, by plotting the positions given in
the text, is of great importance. If there were original maps, contemporary with
the Alexandrian geographer, or not later than the fifth century, then these copies
furnish independent and trustworthy information as to those facts stated on them
which are not found in Ptolemy’s lists of positions. This view has been maintained
by the author of this paper since 1882.
The map of Middle Egypt, 1892, by the Ministry of Public Works, Cairo, and
the line of levels given by Major Brown, ‘The Fayoum and Lake Meeris’ (1892),
run under his direction by Messrs. Joseph and Pini, furnish a crucial test. The
section of fifty-two miles trom Beni-Suef to the furthest trace of habitation in the
N.W. Fayoum is nowhere above the level of the Nile, except in crossing the
promontory of Dimeh—the island-pyramid in Mceris of Herodotus and Diodorus.
It would be an island if the water in the Fayoum stood at the level of + 6 metres;
high Nile being taken at about+30, and the present Birket el-Kerun at —48
metres. ;
Noting the succegsive changes through which this region passed, as shown by
its physical conditions, history, and archzological remains, it may be established
with certainty that the positions of the places mentioned by Cl. Ptolemy could not
have been plotted on a map of the middle ages, nor on a map of ancient Egypt,
reconstructed from the historical and geographical data of Herodotus (.c. 454),
Diodorus (8.c. 20), or Strabo (B.c. 24), Such attempted reconstructions by Linant
and others were shown; and the differences between them and Ptolemaic maps
840 REPORT— 1893.
from manuscripts in Mount Athos, the Vatican, Milan, and Venice, and of
Chrysanthus and Berlinghieri, and from the printed editions of Cl. Ptolemy, were
pointed out. The maps of Cl. Ptolemy represent his positions plotted upon a region
whose relative areas of land and water only existed, as depicted, after the middle
of the first century, and before the end of the third, of our era. The paper was
further illustrated by views on the line from Beni-Suef to that Temple, north of
Dimeh, whose existence was first pointed out by the author of this paper in 1882.
The conclusion is that some, at least, of the maps accompanying the text of
Cl. Ptolemy in medizyal manuscripts are copies, more or less faithful, of maps
drawn not later than the end of the third century, and that they are probably
contemporaneous with the Alexandrian geographer’s text, A.D. 150.
; TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Notes of an Antarctic Voyage. By Wm. S. Bruce.
After a boisterous passage of over a hundred days on the steam whaler
‘Balena, from Dundee, we met the first iceberg on December 16, 1892, in
59° 40’ S., 51° 17” W. We continued in a more or less southerly course, passing
to the east of Clarence Island. Danger Islets were sighted and passed on Decem-
her 23, and on Christmas Eve we were in the position Ross occupied on New
Year’s Day, 1843. Until the middle of February we remained roughly between
62° 8. and 64° 40’ S. and 52° and 57° W., the western limit being Terre Louis
Philippe and Joinville Island.
All the land seen was entirely snowclad except on the steepest slopes, which
were of black, apparently igneous, rocks. The few specimens of rocks obtained
from the ice and from the stomachs of penguins bear this out; Professor James
Geikie finding olivine, basalt, basalt lava, and possibly gabbro among them. Rock
fragments and earthy matter were seen on some of the bergs and ice. On
January 12 we saw what appeared to be high mountainous land and glaciers stretch-
ing from about 54° 25’S., 59° 10’ W. to about 65° 80’ S., 58° 0’ W., and which
I believe may have been the eastern coast of Graham’s Land, which has not
been seen before.
The whole of this district south of 60° S. is strewn with bergs, and south of
62° S. they become very numerous. No entire day can be recorded when bergs
were not seen; as many as 95, all of great size, to say nothing of smaller ones,
were counted at one time from deck. The longest we met was about 30 miles
long, one was about 10 miles long, and several from 1 to 4 miles in length. The
highest the ‘ Balena’ sighted could not have been over 250 feet high, and many
were not over 70 to 80 feet high. All the bergs were tabular, or weather-worn
varieties of that form. The base of the bergs was coloured brown by marine
organisms.
The pack ice is said not to be heavier than that of the north, and is similar
in nature. It is frequently coloured brown by Corythron criophyllum, a very
abundant diatom. We first met pack ice, on December 19, in 62°20’S., 52° 20’ W. ;
it was dense, and ran east and west. In January we met the pack edge running
east and west in 64° 37’ 8. from about 54° to 56° W.
A few observations for the freezing- and melting-point of ice were made, and
some sea-temperatures recorded. The lead was cast in the vicinity of Danger
Islets and some bottom samples obtained, the depth varying from 7U to over 300
fathoms.
Periods of fine calm weather alternated with very severe gales, usually accom-
panied by fog and snow. The lowest air temperature recorded was 20°8 F. on
February 17, and the highest 37°60 I’. on January 15. December showed an
average of 31°14 F., January 31°10 F., and February 29°65 F. Tho baro-
meter never rose above 29°804 inches.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 841
No whale tesembling Balena mysticetus, t.e., the Bowhead or Greenland black
whale, was seen; but many finbacks, some hunchbacks, bottlenoses, grampuses,
and several kinds of seals, the hunting of which in default of whales was the
object of the voyage,
2. On the Antarctic Bxpedition of 1892-93. By C. W. Donatp, M.B.
Originally proposed as a commercial undertaking, the object of which was to
discover a true whalebone whale living under similar conditions to the black or
Greenland whale of the north, the idea of combining with it some scientific
research originated with the Royal Geographical Society. "We made the ice on
December 18, sighting the South Shetlands on the same day. The bergs differ
greatly from those of the north, being flat-topped and having perpendicular cliffs.
This characteristic shape I believe to be due to the conformation of the land,
which is almost wholly of a volcanic nature. On Christmas Day we lay anchored
to an ice floe in lat. 64° 23’ S., long. 56°14’ W. The scenery was marvellous.
From our position on that day the mountains of Palmer’s Land lay to the west,
culminating in the peak of Mount Haddington (7,050 feet). The ice floe stretched
to the south as far as the eye could reach. To the east lay a long chain of bergs,
their perpendicular faces tinged a bright red by the low sun; to the north, the
loose scattered ice, small bergs, and dark water channels through which we had
just steamed. We discovered a channel running from east to west through
Joinville Island, cutting off its southern portion as a separate island, which our
captain called Dundee Island. Along the shores of this channel were four
penguin rookeries, two of which were visited. Near the southern shore lies a
sunken reef on which we had the misfortune to run aground. Happily we got
off without accident. A number of geological specimens, fossils, and photographs
were obtained. We arrived at Dundee early in June, having been absent a little
over nine months.
3. On the Importance of Antarctic Exploration.
By Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney.
4, Recent Exploration in Tibet. By E. Dewar Morean.
While the general features of Tibet have been known from very early times it
has been reserved for modern explorers to acquaint us more closely with the leading
characteristics of this marvellous region. Especially is this the case with the
northern and central parts of this country, left blank on our maps. The list of
these explorations begins with the Brothers Schlagintweit and ends with Captain
Bower and Dr. Thorold’s and Mr. Rockhill’s recent journeys. Their discoveries
have opened out new fields of research in hitherte inaccessible parts. They have
ascertained the continuity of the Kuen Luen system through twenty degrees of
longitude, and made known the direction and structure of its principal chains.
They have shown the lacustrine character of the central plateaus, and traced
almost to their sources some of the mightiest rivers of Asia. They have thrown
light on the climatic conditions of these lofty deserts, and seen an extraordinary
abundance of animal life on them. Their researches have proved the existence in
former times of a line of flourishing oases along the northern foot of the Kuen
Luen, by which the Chinese silk trade passed in the middle ages, and have brought
to light the rich gold-fields of Northern Tibet. ‘The leading features of this terra
incognita are well described in Captain Bower's diary, and the whole subject of
Tibetan exploration has been treated in the most thorough and admirable manner
by M. Dutreuil de Rhins in his ‘ Asie Centrale.’
5. On the Bengal Duars. By Epwarp Heawoon, M.A., F.R.G.S.
The term ‘Duars’ is applied to a tract of country lying along the foot of the
Himalayas of Bhutan, and including the ‘doors’ or passes into that country.
The first ranges here rise like a wall, wooded to their summits, from an undulating
842 REPORT— 1893.
plain of slight elevation, which embraces a strip of forest-clad ‘Terai’ and a more
open country further south. Over a great part savannahs of gigantic grass
alternate with patches of forest, sil on the higher and lighter soils, and mixed
forest fringing the streams. The grass is burnt down annually, and the trees with
which it is dotted are usually quick growing and shed their leaves annually, and
are thus less affected by the burnings. The tiger, leopard, bear, elephant, rhinoceros,
buffalo, bison (so called), pig, and several kinds of deer inhabit the jungles.
The peacock, jungle-fowl, florikan, parrots, and a handsome pigeon are the most
prominent birds. The rainfall is very great, and the climate unhealthy, though
this improves with clearing. The tract is sparsely inhabited, except in the
southern and newly-settled parts, by Mechs, a tribe of Mongolian affinities who
can thrive in spite of the malaria. They are of wandering habits, cultivating by
burning patches of jungle, and moving on to new spots after a few years. Much
of the land is very fertile, and well suited for both early and late rice crops.
Channels, often of great length, are dug by the Mechs from the numerous streams
for the irrigation of the late rice crops, though the tendency of the rivers to deepen
their beds in the friable soil is a difficulty to more permanent settlers. The
climate and the exposure to raids from Bhutin have kept the country in a
backward state. It became British territory as a result of the war of 1864.
Much land has since then been settled and tea-gardens opened, especially in the
western part; while within the last three years a large tract of jungle has been
provisionally set apart by Government—at the instance of the Rev. A. J. Shields,
€.M.S. missionary to the Santals, warmly supported by Mr. D. Sunder, settlement
officer at Jalpiguri—for settlement by Santals, who in their hill country south of
the Ganges are often unable to obtain sufficient land for cultivation. Forty
families were taken up in 1891, the author assisting in their settlement, and still
larger numbers have followed since. Although the partial failure of the rains in
the first season caused unforeseen difficulties at first, these, itis hoped, are now in a
fair way to be overcome. It should be mentioned that a similar experiment has
been tried with success in Assam by a Norwegian mission.
6. The Use of the Lantern in Geographical Teaching.
Dy B. Bentoam Dickenson, M.A.
There has been for some years past a growing conviction amongst teachers
that they have in the optical lantern a very important auxiliary. In the hope
that. by united action much valuable time might be saved, a meeting of public
schoolmasters was held at Oxford in May of this year, at the invitation of
Mr. H. J. Mackinder.
At this meeting an association for the promotion of geographical teaching
was formed and some of its functions discussed. It was hoped that it might
‘serve as a medium for disseminating ideas and suggestions for improved methods
of teaching geography,’ ‘that it might approach examining bodies with a view to
pointing out how greatly many of the examination papers set lead to keeping the
subject at the “cram ” level,’ that it would naturally take in hand the manage-
ment and preparation of geographical lantern-slides, and in time, perhaps, arrange
for geographical museums.
It was agreed that, for the present, the work of the association should be
limited to the preparation of lantern-slides for such schools as might wish to use
the optical lantern in class teaching.
At a subsequent meeting held in August at University College School, London,
a method of teaching by Jantern-slides was discussed, and the character of the
slides to be prepared determined.
The object of this paper is to bring the newly formed association under the
notice of those interested in the teaching of geography, to give some account of
the work upon which it is now engaged, and to exhibit a few of the slides
prepared under its auspices.
843
Section F..—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor J. SHreLD NicHoxson, M.A.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—
The Reaction in favour of the Classical Political Economy.
Ir may naturally be expected in the address which, as President of this Section, I
have the honour to deliver that some attempt should be made at originality, or at
any rate at novelty. Accordingly, I hope that I shall fall in with the traditions
of my office by defending a series of paradoxes and by running counter to a variety of
popular opinions. I will only premise that however paradoxical I may appear,
and however much I may seem to strain at singularity, I shall speak always to the
best of my ability with the utmost good faith, and I shall endeavour to give only
the results of my most deliberate convictions.
The central paradox which I propose to defend—the root of the whole series—is
that the so-called orthodox, or classical, political economy, so far from being dead,
is in full vigour, and that there is every sign of a marked reaction in favour of its
principles and methods. The singularity of my position may be indicated by a
word and a phrase. The word is Saturn, the phrase ‘ we are all socialists now.’ I
shall try to show that the traditional English political economy has neither been
banished to Saturn nor stifled by socialism, and that in fact it is stronger than ever.
This renewed vigour is no doubt largely due to the attacks made upon it on all
sides in increasing force for the last twenty years. The dogmatic slumber induced
by popular approval has been rudely shattered, and although some of the more
timid followers of the orthodox camp thought they had been killed when they
Show only frightened and awakened, the central positions are more secure than
efore.
Consider, in the first place, the question of scientific method and the closely
allied question of the relation of political economy to allied sciences. The method
practically adopted by Adam Smith and Ricardo, and reduced to scientific form
by Mill and Cairnes, and quite recently and still more effectively by Dr. Keynes,
must still be regarded as fundamental. It has survived and been strengthened by
two distinct attacks. In the first place, the extreme advocates of the historical
method attempted to reduce political economy to a branch of history and statistics.
They were concerned to pile up facts and add up figures, and they seemed to think
that no guiding principles were necessary. But compilations of this kind are, properly
speaking, not even history, still less are they political economy. History does not
consist simply in collecting facts ; the facts must be grouped, arranged, and connected
in an orderly manner. A room-full of ald newspapers is not history, though it may
contain much material for history. There was really nothing new in this extreme
form of the historical method. It was a reversion to a primitive type. The plan
had been adopted by chroniclers time out of mind; they embedded facts, signs,
844 REPORT—1893.
wonders, and traditions, as the mud of a river embeds what happens to fall in it.
The facts are the fossils of the historian, and he has to make a very few go a long
way. In economic literature we have an example of this method in the ‘ Annals
of Commerce’ of Anderson and Macpherson. The simple device is to collect all the
facts and opinions about Commerce all the world over, and arrange them under
the year in which they happened. The basis of classification is time pure and
simple, and at the best we have an imperfect collection of materials which must
be sifted and weighed to be of any service.
Now compare this method of simple accumulation—this attempt to write a
biography of Father Time as a man of business—with the historical method
adopted by Adam Smith; at least two-thirds of the ‘ Wealth of Nations’ is history,
and it is history of the frst rank, and it is so because it is history that is introduced
for the illustration, confirmation, or qualification, as the case may be, of principles. It
does not follow because the principles are fundamental that the facts are warped
and distorted ; it simply means that the facts are made intelligible. Take, for
example, his account of the economic aspects of the feudal system. He brushes
away the technicalities and looks into the inner life as easily as William the Con-
queror at the Council of Salisbury. Or, to take a modern instance, he is like a
naturalist who puts aside the parts of the creature he does not want in order that
he may see what he does want more clearly. This is a very different matter from
suppressing truth and warping facts to suit preconceived opinions. It is needless to
say that Adam Smith made some mistakes, e.g.,in the treatment of the mercantilists ;
it ought to be equally needless to say that he made some remarkable discoveries of
the processes of economic development. Adam Smith also made large use of the
comparative method; he literally ranged from China to Peru in his survey of
mankind. What is the underlying assumption in this procedure? It is simply
that in economic affairs, in matters of buying and selling in the widest sense of the
terms, in satisfying wants by labour, in the accumulation of wealth, there are certain
characteristics of human nature that may be regarded as fundamental. These are
no doubt subject to modifications by other influences, but modification is not total
suppression or eradication. How long would it take the Ethiopian to change his
skin under a different climate? And is it not proverbial that human nature is
more than skin-deep? I think the Ethiopian might become very pale in complexion
long before he would learn to prefer low wages to high wages, and much labour to
little labour. Economists may learn something from the poets. Why do the
creations of the greatest poets live and move? Why do we assent at once to their
reality? Simply because they are like ourselves, and we feel with Goethe that
we ourselves could commit the same crimes in debasement, and achieve the same
glory in exaltation, of spirit. The gods and goddesses, the sylphs and fairies, are
only shadows. Can any man read Shakespeare or Homer—to say nothing of un-
doubted historical records—and deny that a large part of human nature, especially
that part with which economists have to deal, is subject to but little variation ?
Knowledge grows and is handed on from age to age, and the power of man over
nature steadily increases, but the feelings are renewed with every generation. The
children of the nineteenth century may be precocious and priggish, but they are not
nineteen centuries old. Let me remind you, though I am anticipating my argument,
that the latest and most advanced scientific eeconomics—that which the Austrian
economists have evolved out of the conception of utility—in reality lays more
stress than Adam Smith did on the universality of the feelings of mankind. The only
difference is that he knew that he was speaking plain prose, and they sometimes
think they are only speaking subjective philosophy. In consequence, Adam Smith's
men and women are more real and less uniform than the offspring of the new
analysis. But the point of importance is the recognition of certain characteristics
of human nature as fundamental; there is no other justification for the use of the
comparative and historical methods in the broad manner of Adam Smith.
There are, however, still evidences in recent writers of the influence of that
narrow view of history which tries to avoid principles, in order to make an im-
pressionist record of facts. Impressionism may be good art, but it is bad science. Tco
much stress, for example, is laid on the mere enumeration of statutes and preambles,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 845
and too little attention is given to the far more difficult question, How far was the
law operative, and how far was the preamble a just description? But signs are
not wanting that the broader method of Adam Smith is gaining ground. The
work of Mr. Seebohm on the ‘English Village Community’ is a splendid
example, worthy to be placed on a level with the best chapters of the ‘ Wealth of
Nations’; and Dr. Cunningham throughout his excellent history has informed
facts with principles.
But it is time to observe that the traditional method of English political eco-
nomy was more recently attacked, or rather warped, in another direction. The
hypothetical or deductive side was pushed to an extreme by the adoption of
mathematical devices. I have nothing to say against the use of mathematics,
provided always that the essential character of mathematics is borne in mind.
Mathematics is a formal science that must get its materials from other sciences.
It is essentially as formal as formal logic. The mathematician is an architect who
must be provided with stones and wood and labour by the contractor. It is one
thing to draw a plan, another to erect a building. In economics there are cer-
tain relations which are most easily expressed in mathematical form. One of
my greatest obligations to Professor Marshall is that when I began the study of
political economy at Cambridge, some twenty years ago, he advised me to read
Cournot. And before going further I should like to say that I think one of the
greatest signs of power in Professor Marshall’s ‘ Principles’ is that he has trans-
ferred his mathematical researches and illustrations to appendices and foot-notes,
and in his preface also he has admirably stated the limits and functions of mathe-
matics in economic reasoning. I also gladly avail myself of this opportunity of
expressing my concurrence with the views of Professor Edgeworth in his excellent
address on this topic as President of this Section in 1889. But less able mathe-
maticians have had less restraint and less insight; they have mistaken form for
substance, and the expansion of a series of hypotheses for the linking together of a
series of facts. This appears to me to be especially true of the mathematical theory
of utility. I venture to think that a large part of it will have to be abandoned. It
savours too much of the domestic hearth and the desert island. I announced my
intention at the beginning of running counter to some popular opinions. I ask for
your patience and forbearance when I say that in my opinion the value of the work
of Jevons as regards the main body of economic doctrine has been much exag-
gerated. I am ready to admit that much of his work in finance and currency and
in many special problems is excellent. But he was, I think, too deficient in philo-
sophical grasp and intellectual sympathy to give the proper place to a new conrcep-
tion: witness his treatment of Mill and Ricardo. Again, Jevons was not a
mathematician of the first rank; he struggles with the differential calculus as a
good man struggles with adversity. The older economists maintained that price
was the measure, not of utility, but of value, and value could not be reduced
simply to utility. Things, they said, might have ahigh value in use and but little
value in exchange. Jevons, by making the distinction between final and total
utility, thought that he had discovered a method by which utility might be
measured by price. No doubt, if we malie adequate hypotheses, qualifications, and
explanations this may be done; and, in the same way, if we introduce enough cycles
and epicycles we may explain or describe the motions of the stars. But price is
essentially the expression of objective and not of subjective relations—that is the
older view in modern phraseology ; the attempt to make a kind of pre-established
harmony between the two leads to unreality. Price depends upon demand and
supply, and the degree of utility is one element affecting demand. In my view
the distinction between final and total utility is of qualitative importance ; it is
of service in explaining the real advantage of exchange ; although the essential
character of this advantage has been explained by Adam Smith and his successors.
The precision of the new phraseology, especially when translated into curves, gives
definiteness and sharpness to the conceptions. The subject is too intricate for
more detailed consideration in this place. I will only add that in my view Pro-
fessor Marshall’s criticism of Jevons may be carried much further, with a still
further rehabilitation of Ricardo.
846 REPORT— 1893.
There is another direction in which I think the mathematical economists have
wandered far from reality. I allude to the stress laid upon what are called mar-
ginal increments. There is a tendency to magnify the effects of the last portion
of supply or the last expression of demand. I will only say that this doctrine is
very apt to run into the fallacy which may be popularly described as the tail
of the dog fallacy—the idea being that the tail wags the dog and the tip of the tail
wags the tail.
To resume in a sentence: the method of the so-called orthodox English econo
mists has only been modified and supplemented, not revolutionised and supplanted,
by the historical and mathematical methods of recent writers, and this, in my
opinion, is being recognised more and more.
I pass on to consider a closely allied question—the question, namely, of the
limitation of the boundaries of the subject-matter of political economy. In my
view one of the greatest merits of the orthodox economists was the careful dis-
tinction they drew between economic and other social sciences. They refused to
merge it in the misty regions of general sociology, and they excluded from its
borders the rocks and quicksands as well as the green pastures of ethics and reli-
gions. ‘This specialisation, they argued, was necessary if any real advance was to
be made beyond the expression of platitudes and sentiments. They allowed that
in practical social problems there were in general other considerations besides the
purely economic ; but these they left to the jurist, the moralist, or the politician.
For a time, however, especially under German influences, attempts were made to
break down these boundaries, and the economist was elevated to the position of
universal philanthropist and general provider of panaceas. Mill himself was
partly to blame for the excursions which he made into the applications of social
philosophy to practice. It is to these excursions we are indebted for the fantas-
tical notion of the unearned increment, and the curious idea that it is the duty
of people to leave the bulk of their money to the State, or rather the duty of the
State to take it. Fortunately, however, for the progress of economics, this ideal of
breadth without depth has not become dominant, and any force it had is already
spent, The advances made in other social or less vaguely human sciences have
been so great that the economist is obliged to exclude them from his domain.
Still to some extent the view prevails, especially in Germany, that it is the
business of the economist to discover the general conditions of social well-being,
and to show how they may be realised. If such an attempt were seriously made
it could only end in the projection of the personality of the writer into an ideal, and
one ideal would succeed another like a set of dissolving views. Suppose, for example,
that I personally were to attempt to set up an ideal, and, not having imagination
enough to create a new one, I were to turn to ancient Greece. Thereis something
very fascinating about the life of the typical Athenian in the best days of Athens.
Physical beauty and vigour were considered as essential as keenness of intellect,
appreciation of the fine arts, and skill in oratory ; and this intense self-realisation
was tempered by ardent patriotism and a strong sense of the duties of citizenship.
The principal blot, from the modern point of view, was the institution of slavery
and the relegation of most industrial functions to slaves. I might as an economist,
if this breadth of view were justified, take it on myself to show how modern life
might be Hellenised, and by leaving out slavery and introducing a little Christian
charity a very pleasing ideal might be made, and then I might go on to show what
steps Government should take to realise this ideal.
In the meantime, however, my friend Dr. Cunningham might take as his type
one of the equally fascinating religious communities of the Middle Ages, and, by
leaving out some of the superstitions and inserting a few Hegelian contradictions,
he might construct an equally attractive ideal and proceed to direct the statesmen
how it might be carried into practice. But when all the other economists had
worked out similar projects—Professor Sidgwick, for example, on the lines of
Bentham, and Professor Edgeworth, with his love of measurements, on the lines
of Pythagoras—the difficulty would arise, Who was to be the ultimate arbiter?
And to this question no one would accept the answer of the rest.
Perhaps it may seem that my illustration goes beyond the argument; let me,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 847
then, state the position in general terms. According to the traditional English
view it is not the business of the economist to decide all the disputes that may
arise even regarding fundamental questions in ethics, religion, fine art, education,
public law, administration—to decide, in a word, the first duty of man and the
last duty of Governments. His sphere is much more limited, and the limits have
been indicated with tolerable precision by the classical English economists. Even
in England, however, there has been a tendency in recent years to remove the old
landmarks, and I do not mean simply on the part of socialists, but by those who
in the main profess to accept the English traditions.
Just as the German idealists think it is the business of the economist to discover
the way to the perfectibility of the species, the English realists impose upon him
the duty of finding the road to the greatest happiness of the greatest number. In
technical language political economy is the economy of utility. No doubt, at first
sight, this aim seems to be both definite and practical. From the old inquiry,
‘How nations are made wealthy,’ to the new inquiry, ‘How nations are made
happy,’ it seems a natural and easy transition. For the essence of wealth is to
possess utility, to satisfy desires, to create happiness. It is obvious also that the
happiness of a people depends largely on its economic conditions in the narrowest
sense of the term; it depends, that is to say, on the amount and distribution of its
material wealth. Accordingly it seems plausible to maintain that the economist
ought to discover by his calculus of utility those principles of production and
distribution that will lead to most happiness.
Plausible and natural, however, as this transition from wealth to happiness
may seem, it may readily lead to the abandonment of the central position of the
classical economists. The steps are worth tracing. The first deduction made
from the general principle of utility is that it obeys a law of diminishing return.
Every additional portion consumed or acquired of any commodity gives a decreas-
ing satisfaction, and passing through the point of satiety we reach the negative
utility of being a nuisance. Illustrated by the usual curve this law assumes the
character of a mathematical axiom.
The next step is to show that the rich man derives very little utility (or happiness)
from his superfluity, whilst if his abundance were divided amongst the poor a
great amount of happiness would be created. It seems to follow at once that,
assuming an average capacity for happiness, the more equal the distribution of
wealth the greater will be the happiness of the people. Never did any theory
of equality assume such a simple and scientific form; it is like the advent of
primitive Christianity in the guise of a new philosophy.
The practical question remains, ‘ How is this ideal to be carried out?’ Obviously
it is too much to expect that the principle of natural liberty and the policy of
laisser-faire may be left to work out this latter-day salvation. Competition may
be well enough for the strong, but is the destruction of the poor and weak.
Accordingly it seems easy to prove, or at least to presume, that great powers must
be given to the State. It only remains to bring in the principle which Mill
flattered himself was his chief contribution to economic theory, viz., that the
distribution of wealth depends entirely on the opinions of mankind, that these
opinions are indefinitely pliable, and that, therefore, no schemes of distribution can
be called impracticable, and we arrive at the conclusion of the whole matter.
And practically that conclusion is nothing less than State Socialism.
It needs no demonstration, however, that nothing could be more opposed to the
traditional English political economy. What, then, becomes of my contention that
it remains unshaken, and that there are signs of a strong reaction in its favour ?
The truth is that this conclusion has again brought into prominence other portions
of the old doctrine that had been allowed to fall into the background. We are
confronted with the limited power of the State and the infinite variety of
individual enterprise. To the older economists the difference seemed so great that
they considered the presumption against State interference to be established. The
rule, it is true, was never absolute and unqualified. Adam Smith himself indicated
some of the most important of these exceptions, and the list has been extended by
his successors. But these exceptions were all based upon reasoned principles, such
848 REPORT—1893.'
as the incapacity of the persons concerned, e.g., children to make fair contracts,
the lack of individual interest in public works, e.g., the maintenance of roads, and
the importance of the highest security, as in the regulation of the issues of bank-
notes. And in spite of all these exceptions—strengthened and purified by these
exceptions—the presumption remained undisturbed. Recently, however, some
writers, under the influence of the ideal of maximum happiness and impressed by
the power of the State, have sought to extend its interference far beyond these
admitted principles. But I venture to say, so far as this movement had any
theoretical support, the reaction has already begun.
The fundamental importance of freedom of contract has become more apparent
than ever through the application of the comparative and historical methods to
jurisprudence; the proposition that the progress of society has been from status
to contract has almost acquired the force of an axiom. The analysis, too, of
modern industrial systems, in which division of labour has become more and more
intricate and interdependent, has shown the hopelessness of the attempt to transfer
the management and control to the State. Changes in the methods of production,
in the diffusion of knowledge, and in the transport of material commodities have
been so rapid and so great that no executive government could have overtaken
them. In the most advanced communities even that legislation which is neces-
sary for the new conditions lags behind; even those elementary forms which
simply aim at giving an interpretation to contracts in doubtful cases, or which are
necessary for the adjustment of responsibility (as in bankruptcy and partnership),
are behind the times. The growth of joint-stock enterprise has outstripped the
development of the law of compauies, and there is a crop of new frauds without
corresponding penalties.
Turning to the executive and administrative functions of government, the
analysis of existing conditions shows that we have not yet overtaken those excep-
tions admitted by the strongest supporters of daisser-faire. The British Govern-
ment has, it is true, wasted its energies in devising temporary expedients of various
kinds, but it has not yet accomplished the programme of Adam Smith, Not only
are there privileges and restrictions that ought to have been abolished long ago,
but on the positive side the programme is not complete. We have just begun
universal education on the lines laid down by Adam Smith, but his scheme for
Imperial federation is not yet within the range of practical politics. We have
effected great financial reforms, but we still fall far short of the full development
of his principles. Even in matters of currency and banking—in relation to which
the function of the State has always been recognised—we are lamentably in need
of reform.
But if the State cannot overtake those duties which are so necessary and per-
sistent that they were forced on the attention of the strongest supporters of
laisser-faire, how can we possibly justify the assumption of new functions which
rest upon no better principle than the vague idea that the State ought to do
something ?
This leads me to observe that not only theoretically but practically signs of a
reaction in favour of the old position are rapidly increasing. The experiments
already made at playing the rd/e of omnipotence and omniscience, against which
Governments were so emphatically warned by Adam Smith, have begun to bring
forth fruit after their kind; thorns that were carefully nursed by the legislature,
instead of producing grapes, have produced more thorns and worse thorns.
A principle of the widest application in ethics and politics as well as in
economics, which may be described as the principle of formal justice, has
begun to operate in a remarkable manner. A Government which lends its power
and assistance to one set of people must be prepared to act in a similar manner
in all similar cases. If once this principle is abandoned, governmental action
becomes either a matter of chance or depends upon clamour and jobbery. It is
wonderful how quickly the human mind discovers analogies in grievances, and
how soon one cry leads to another. Microbes are not more rapid and relent-
less in their multiplication. A plain man may have his doubts about the simi-
larity of triangles and consent to arbitration on the question, but he has no doubt
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 849
that for the purpose of governmental grants and aids his needs are similar to his
neighbour’s. And the plain man is right. How can we justify the use of State
credit for the purchase of lands in Ireland and fishing boats in Scotland if we are
not prepared to give similar aid to the poor of England who are similarly situated ?
If we grant judicial rents in the country why not in the towns, and if we fix by
law one set of prices why not all prices ?
We must not be content with looking at the immediate effects of legislation ;
we must consider also the secondary and more remote consequences. If a legis-
lator thinks that there are none of importance, let him read a chapter of Adam
Smith—in the original and not in the stale pemmican of popular dogmatism.
And if he still thinks that every law must be considered in isolation on its own
merits, that it is a temporary remedy for a passing emergency, then let him resign
his seat in Parliament; he has mistaken his vocation; in the name of common
sense and the happiness of the greatest number let him cease to be a legislator and
become a policeman.
There is an old fable about the gradual entrance, little by little, of the camel
into the tent of the Arab. The British Government—I speak irrespectively of
parties, for with the frankness of my old masters in political economy I make
bold to say both are equally to blame—the British Government is beginning to
find that the camel is getting too far into the tent. The admission of a single ear
is nothing to the admission of the hump, and the knees, and the rest of the beast.
Now the ear may be interpreted to mean the grant of a few thousand pounds to
Scottish fishers, the hump is universal old-age pensions at a cost of some fifteen
or twenty millions a year, and for the knees you may take the nationalisation of
Jand at a cost of some two thousand millions, and for the whole beast you have
the complete Socialist programme. The conclusion that when the beast was in
the Arab was out needs no interpretation.
Let us leave fables for something the exact opposite, namely taxes. It was a
favourite doctrine of the old economists that taxes are a burden and the visits of
the tax-gatherer are odious. This doctrine also is beginning to reassert itself.
The State can do nothing without money, and it generally does things in the most
expensive manner. Fortunately in this country we have not yet reached the
limits of tolerable taxation, but at the present rate of growth of Imperial and
local expenditure we are rapidly approaching those limits. Now, if there is one
position that has been firmly established in theory and confirmed by the abundant
experience of many nations, it is that excessive taxation is ruinous to a country.
We have to consider not only the net proceeds but the indirect cost in all its
forms, not only the mere cost of collection but the effects on industry and on the
energies of the people.
It may, of course, be replied that those who demand a large increase of ex-
penditure for public purposes do not propose to tax the poor, but only to take the
superfluities of the rich—to take, as is sometimes said, twenty shillings in the
pound from that part of every income which extends above 4007. a year. The
certain effect of this kind of taxation would be that in a very short time nobody
would have more than 400/. a year, and the sources of taxation would dry up just
as people had become used to and dependent on governmental assistance.
The general argument may be summarised in the favourite phraseology of the
day. The utility of every increment of governmental work rapidly diminishes,
and the disutility of every increment of taxation rapidly increases. Both proposi-
tions, I may add, were abundantly proved before the language I have just em-
ployed was invented, and the old language, if less scientific, conveyed a more
emphatic condemnation.
I will conclude by calling your attention to one more position of the classical
economists, and one that is the foundation of their whole system so far as they
deal with the principles of governmental action. They maintain that even if the
State could do something for individuals as cheaply and effectively as they could
do it for themselves, it is in general better to trust to individual effort. The
decisive consideration is the effect on the character and energies of the people.
Self-reliance, independence, liberty—these were the old watchwords—not State
1893. 31
850 REPORT—1893.
reliance, dependence, and obedience. In the matter of pauperism, for example,
they teach us to distinguish between the immediate effects of relief which may
be beneficial, and the effects of reliance on that relief which may be disastrous.
They are bold enough to maintain that the condition of life of the dependent:
pauper should not be made by aids and allowances better than that of the inde-
pendent labourer. They insist on the great historical distinction between the
sturdy rogues and vagabonds—who can work and will not—and the impotent
poor, the poor in very deed, who cannot support themselves. They look upon
the payment of poor rates as they look upon other forms of taxation, namely, as
the lesser of two evils; they do not try to persuade themselves and other people
that it is a duty which is essentially pleasant. And I confess that I never
yet met a man who had the audacity to assert that he enjoyed paying poor rates.
But Ihave known many men who have given of their substance to a far greater extent
with a cheerful spirit. It is the compulsion that sticks in the throat, and there is
no more instructive chapter in economic history than that which describes the
slow, painful processes by which Englishmen gradually adopted compulsory assess-
ment for the relief of the poor. I shall be told that these old economic doctrines
are cold and hard and opposed to the principles of Christian charity. The retort is
easy : If Christian charity realised a tithe of its ideal there would be no need for
relief on the part of theState. If I, too, may quote Scripture for my purpose I
would say: Go to the ant, thou sluggard! It does not take ten ants to relieve
another ant, and in this land of ours there are more than ten professed Christians
to every pauper.
It is time, however, to bring this discourse to an end and not to begin a sermon ;
which, moreover, according to my masters the old economists, is beyond our
domain. Yet I shall be bold enough to end with these words of advice: To the
student I would say: Political economy has a vast literature, and you will not
find all the good concentrated in the last marginal increment; you must master
the old before you can appreciate the new; a portion of truth just rediscovered
for the hundredth time by some amateur is not of such value as a body of
doctrines that have been developed for more than a century by economists of repute.
And to the legislator I would say: Vaster than the literature of political economy
is the economic experience of nations; the lessons to be learned from the multi-
tudinous experiments of the past can never become antiquated, for they have
revealed certain broad features of human character that you can no more disregard
than the vital functions of the human body. Just as Harvey did not invent but
discovered the circulation of the blood, so Adam Smith did not invent but dis-
covered the system of natural liberty. And nothing has been better established
than the position that legislation which neglects to take account of the liberties of
individuals is foredoomed to failure. If they cannot break through the law they
will get behind the law. The first duty of the legislator is to take account of the
natural forces with which he must contend, and the classical economists have made
a survey and estimate of these forces which, based as it is on the facts of human
nature and the experience of nations, it would be wilful folly to overlook.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 566.
2. Report on the Methods of Economic Training adopted in this and other
Countries——See Reports, p. 571.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 851
3. The Improvement of Labourers’ Cottages.
By Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A., F.G.S.
The author discussed the following questions :—
Influence of surroundings on health and character,
Taking stock of present condition of things.
Growing importance attached to health questions.
Additional knowledge of hygienic requirements.
Vastness of area involved.
Magnitude of numbers affected.
Considerations involved in constructing dwelling :
Affecting health. Affecting efficiency.
: Affecting comfort.
Classes appealed to :
: Landlords, farmers, labourers. | Hygienists, reformers.
Act of Parliament :
Additional powers conferred.
4. Index Numbers. By SterpHen Bourne.
:
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers were read :—
The business of farming is so popular that in all ages up to recent times men
were inclined to drift into it, but the uninitiated find out to their cost that it
is not without its full share of troubles and disappointments,
The decline in prices and the market value of agricultural products are
now less than the cost of production, turning farming, which was never very
money-making, into a money-losing process.
The causes of the decline :
The danger that farmers still having some money may come to realise that
capital invested in the pursuit is no longer either profit-giving or safe, and may
consequently withdraw both the money and themselves from the industry,
The alleviations suggested by theorists, and why they fail :
Alleviations which would tend to stay the rapid decline in agriculture, but
although favourable in this direction might be construed by some people as un-
_ favourable to those having no connection with land.
Alleviations which are practicable without doubt, because, although advan-
tageous to agriculture, could not be construed as being correspondingly dis-
advantageous to the non-agricultural classes of this country,
: 1. On Agricultural Depression. By H. H. Scorr.
1
2. The Diminution of the Net Immigration from the rest of the country
into the great towns of England and Wales, 1871-91. By Epwin
Cannan, M.A.
In London, with the remainder of Middlesex and Surrey and the registration
districts of Bromley, Dartford, Gravesend, Romford, and West Ham, the difference
between the actual increase of population and the excess of births over deaths was
271,648 in the decade 1851 to 1860, 271,155 from 1861 to 1870, 304,918 from 1871
to 1880, and only 171,442 from 1881 to 1890. For fifteen other great urban dis-
tricts, with a total population of six millions in 1891, the corresponding figures were
253,492, 215,342, 170,726, and 4,261.
or 2
852 REPORT—1893.
Difference between the Increase of Population and the Excess of
Births over Deaths.
Districts 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-90 Pop. 1891
London : : . | +271,648 | + 271,155 | + 304,918 | +171,442 | 5,935,812
Liverpool + 68,703 | + 56,907 | + 49,017 | — 15,057 899,985
Manchester . + 32,073 | + 31,754 | + 49,913 | + 17,700 892,494
Oldham + 11,444 | + 2,027 | + 22,903 | + 12,297 201,153
Birmingham + 40,242 | + 22,220 | + 21,147 | — 17,935 631,830
Wolverhampton + 16,030 | — 43,493 | — 45,692 — 44,434 540,265
The Potteries + 7,890 |}+ 8,299 | — 12,261 | —-— 9,454 242,646
Leeds . + 11,090 | + 20,734 | + 6,763 | + 15,489 387,044
Bradford — 11,723 | + 32,774 | + 13,712 |— 2,069 341,881
Sheffield + 26,101 | + 26,647|}— 1,868 |}+ 2,170 342,582
Nottingham . 3 + 10,962 | + 1,947 | + 33,845 |+ 2,445 331,458
Newcastle and Gates- + 17,291 | + 15,439 | + 6,612 | + 27,572 328,066
head
Sunderland . + 6,787 |+ 4,816 | + 5,115 |— 5,443 158,793
Hull . + 3,058 | + 13,310 | + 16,839 | + 7,156 213,689
Bristol . + 1,232 | + 17,505 | + 7,034 | — 6,912 326,217
Portsea Island + 12,312 |+ 4,458 |— 2,353 | + 10,736 159,278
Total : . | +525,140 | +486,497 | + 475,644 | +175,703 '11,933,193
The net immigration iato the towns is affected by migration between the
towns and other countries as well as by migration between the towns and
the rest of England and Wales. The immigration from Ireland, Scotland, the
colonies and foreign countries must have been somewhat less from 1881 to 1890
than from 1871 to 1880, as the number of non-natives residing in England and
Wales increased from 1,020,101 to 1,118,617 in the first period, and only from
1,118,617 to 1,119,896 in the second. This decrease of immigration into the country
at large cannot possibly account for the whole of the diminution of net immigration
into the towns. That the remainder can be accounted for by an increase of emigra-
tion from the towns to the colonies and foreign countries is shown to be highly 1 im-
probable by the fact that the difference between the population of the predominantly
urban counties and the number of persons in England and Wales who were born
in those counties has not increased between 1881 and 1891, though it increased
eonsiderably between 1871 and 1881. The difference between the “population of
London with the rest of Middlesex and Surrey, and the natives of that area living -
in England and Wales, was 933,374 in 1871, 1,061,194 in 1881, and 1,056,401 in
1891, Between the population of Lancashire, Cheshire, Yorkshire, and Durham,
and the natives of those counties, the difference was 826,384 in 1871, 1,032,995 in
1881, and 1,031,982 in 1891. In the case of Staffordshire the population outnum-
bered the natives by 38,233 in 1871 and by 3,660 in 1881, while in 1891 the
natives outnumbered the population by 32,100. It seems certain, therefore, that
there has been a diminution of net immigration from the rest of the country into
the great towns.
Whether this means a diminution of ‘the exodus from the country to the
town’ depends chiefly on the meaning given to that somewhat indefinite phrase.
3. On Poor Law and Old Age. By Rev. J. Frome WI.LxKINson.
4. On Statistical Correlation between Social Phenomena.
By Professor F. Y. EpGeworru.
Correlation in statistics denotes such a connection between two (or mutatis
mutandis more) measurable attributes (e.g., height of stature and length of arm)
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 853
that to the mean value of one attribute corresponds, as being most probably (fre-
quently) associated therewith, the mean value of the other attribute ; and to every
deviation from the mean of one attribute corresponds a deviation of the other attri-
bute, equal to the former deviation multiplied by a certain factor which is constant
for all values of the attributes.’
The theory, verified in the case of the animal organism, presumably extends te
social phenomena. For in the latter as well as in the former case there pre-
sumably exists the condition from which the properties of correlation flow, viz., the
agency of a number of independent causes. The theory of correlation is required
to justify the method of ascertaining typical family budgets. The theory may be
extended to cases where the attributes are not numerically measurable, such as
* dulness.’?
5. On the Lessons of the Australian Banking Collapse. By C. GARDNER.
Conditions of deposit-banking in the colonies essentially different from those
at home. Proportion borne by indebtedness to capital greater in the colonies than
at home. Depositors at home not in touch with the management in the colonies.
No means of sustaining confidence when once disturbed. Stipulation for notice
prior to withdrawal of deposits of little avail in a time of discredit. Need for
convertible reserves, and for a market where they can be converted. High rates
of interest on deposits incompatible with maintenance of large reserves. Suggestion
that deposits should be invited for longer periods, or in form of debenture stock
criticised. Statistics relating to suspended banks. Liquidation being impracticable.
Reconstruction inevitable. Necessity for rigid economy in management of re-
constructed companies. Reduction of their number. Suppression of branches.
Difficulties of the banks greatly ageravated by excessive borrowing through other
channels. General inflation and subsequent collapse. Need for suppressing all
extravagance and waste. Work and thrift sole means of surmounting financial
difficulties. "With favourable seasons recuperation may be rapid.
6. On Bishop Hugh Latimer as an Economist.
By the Rev. W. Cunnincuam, D.D.
The ‘Examination of Common Complaints,’ which was issued by ‘ W.S.’ in 1581,
is the most remarkable English Economic tract of the sixteenth century, as is shown
by the frequency with which it has been reprinted. Fresh interest has been given
to it, however, since the discovery by the late Miss Lamond of two MSS. of this
dialogue. She has proved that the text given by ‘ W. S.’ is corrupt, and that the
dialogue was written as early as 1549. She has also furnished good grounds for
believing that Hugh Latimer is the original of the Doctor who takes such a lead-
ing part in the discussion. Her edition, which has just been issued by the Cam-
bridge University Press under its proper title as a Discourse of the Common Weal
of this Realm of England, not only tixes the date, but gives us a text which has
not been tampered with, and which affords a sound basis for critical investigations
as to the authorship and place of writing, as well as to the originals of the persons
represented in the dialogue. The argument by which Latimer is identified is too
detailed to summarise; but the case is a strong one, and if this view comes to be
accepted, it will give a fresh interest to the economic principles which the Doctor
advocates. These principles are remarkable in many ways. The general position
which is taken is completely modern. The system of finance which is assumed is
of a modern type, since taxation forms the ordinary source of revenue. But a more
remarkable departure from the medieval standpoint appears in the treatment of
Self-interest. The Doctor does not merely denounce ‘ private lucre’ as immoral,
he recognises that it is a powerful agent which the statesman may control, so that
it shall not be injurious at all, but shall tend to the advantage of the individual
1 See F. Galton, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1888.
? See Dr. Francis Warner, Journal of the Statistical Society, March 1893.
854 REPORT—1 893.
and of the community also. In matters of economic doctrine the Doctor advo-
cates views both in regard to the effect of the debased currency on prices and to
the importance of the balance of trade which were not current in his time, though
they subsequently won general acceptance. He also anticipates the policy of a
later time by his practical suggestions for agriculture and industry, as well as by
his recommendations for the amendment of the coinage. The Doctor, in the original
form of the dialogue, did not, however, recognise the effect on prices of the influx
of American silver. ‘The remarkable passage in the printed copies which calls
attention to this phenomenon was interpolated by ‘ W. S.,’ and does not appear in
the MSS. Miss Lamond’s edition adds immensely to the value of the dialogue as
historical evidence, while it brings to light elements of personal interest which had
hitherto been obscured. By her work on this Discowrse,even more than by her edi-
tion of ‘ Walter of Henley,’ Miss Lamond has succeeded, despite the difficulties
with which she had to contend, in making additions of permanent value to our
knowledge of English Economic History.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Nottingham Lace and Fashion. By J. B. Fiera.
Nottingham no longer holds a complete monopoly of the lace trade, as she did
thirty years ago, but she still has a monopoly in the manufacture of fine cotton
lace, and it is upon the accident of this being in fashion that her prosperity depends.
The ordinary constant yearly trade in lace is not sufficient to keep one-half of her
lace machines employed; and as, roughly speaking, lace only becomes the pre-
dominant fashion once in ten years, it follows that for the trade to be depressed is
the rule, for it to be prosperous the exception. The history of the trade shows
that the fashion has usually lasted three seasons—one in which it is coming to its
height, another in which it is paramount, and a third in which it gradually dies
away. During these three years the manufacture of lace has been enormously
profitable, and fortunes have been piled up with almost a dangerous ease; and
they have dwindled away with the same ease during the periods of seven years’
depression which have always followed the shorter bursts of prosperity. What is
true of the profits of the master is also true of the wages of the workman; and the
consequence has been that Nottingham has been forced to introduce other and
more constant industries into the town to provide work for the men who are
inevitably thrown out of employment by the bad times of the lace trade. The
conditions of the industry are thus radically unsound, although they cannot be
altered because the control of the fashion-books does not lie in the lace manufac-
turer’s hands. He has to keep up his manufactory as if the normal condition of
the trade were prosperity and not depression, for he never can be certain when the
change will come, and he has to devote himself to precipitating the change by the
beauty of his designs. Lace being a luxury, the taste of the public being capricious,
the lace-making machines being excessively costly, and the processes of its manu-
facture necessitating its passage through so many hands, the result is that the
flush of good trade is only obtained after years of patient loss, in which the manu-
facturers’ energies are devoted to keeping down their losses rather than making
profits; and the influence on the town has been both good and bad: good because
the artistic properties of lace have insensibly improved the taste of all connected
with its manufacture ; bad because the character of the industry, dependent for —
i
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 855
prosperity upon caprice, is directly opposed to thrift. Nor does it seem likely that
the future of the Nottingham lace trade will be more stable than it has been in the
past. Fashion is beginning to change more rapidly than it did, but, on the other
hand, more things become fashionable in a single season, and the choice for the
public is greater. There may be a greater volume of trade done as lace becomes
increasingly popular with the million, but there are more rivals springing up to
share that trade. Prices will never reach the fabulous height that the Nottingham
monopolists used to obtain ; and thus, while there is no diminution in the expensive-
ness of the manufacture, the profits will be seriously lessened.
2. On Agricultural Depression, By W. J. ALLSEBROOK.
3. On Home Work—The Share of the Woman in Family Maintenance.
By Miss Apa Hratuer-Biea.
A little while ago it was generally believed that excessive toil, starvation
wages, and insanitary surroundings were due to the action of sub-contract. Ths
painstaking inquiries of Mr. C. Booth, Mr. David Schloss, and Mrs. 8. Webb soon
showed that sub-contract was not responsible for these evils. It is now asserted
that home work is. The outcry against sub-contract had been swelled by the
antagonism of labour to capital—by the dislike of the man who works for wages
to the man who works for profit.
The outcry against home work is being swelled by the hostility of the working
aman to the woman wage-earner.
Common sense and a fear of alienating public sympathy prevent the working-
class leaders from too openly condemning the employment of women altogether,
but special classes of women-workers are being constantly singled out for attack.
The wage-earning of married women (albeit in their own homes) is particularly
denounced. It is alleged that this makes women joint earners with their husbands,
and tends to substitute the wife for the husband as bread-winner.
As a matter of fact, however, women of the working classes always have been
joint bread-winners with their husbands. At no time in the world’s history has
the man’s labour alone sufliced for the maintenance of his wife and children. So
far from keeping his wife, the true account of the matter is that he and she have
kept themselves and the children.
This truth has long been admitted and acted upon in France. It was affirmed
of England before the Ind. Remun. Conference. ‘ Not more than half the whole
number of working-class families,’ said Miss Simcox, are maintained by the labour
of the father assisted only by the elder children.’
It has been shown to apply even to the United States, where, though the total
family income is higher than in Europe, and the husband's contribution to it is
also larger, there are only a few industries in which, unaided, he can support his
family, Evenin the bar-iron industry one-tenth has to be made up.
In Belgium it is calculated that the husband earns three-fifths and the wife
two-fifths,
Talk about the gradual substitution of the woman for the man as bread-earner
is absurd. The woman’s share in household maintenance is no more than it ever
was. The facts have not altered, but the conditions of modern industry enable us
to see what the facts are.
In short, a revelation is going on, not a substitution.
Formerly, a woman working for a family in her home had to pick up faggots,
“hm Nou bake bread, spin flax and wool, cure, pickle, preserve, churn, wash,
nit, &e.
To-day, at any rate in big cities, the wife’s household work means only mend-
ing, washing, cleaning, cooking, care of children being the same in both cases.
Even amongst working men there are some enlightened enough to see that
the ideal to be aimed at is not that the man should be the sole bread-winner, but
856 : REPORT—1 893.
that bread-winning should go on under circumstances which secure the most com-
fortable life for the men, women, and children of the family, which permit the
fullest development of all powers, and openly substitute economic co-operation on
the part of the wife for economic dependence.
Such people ground their objections to home work on—
(1) Danger to public health.
(2) The low rate of pay in industries where home work prevails.
As to (1), if existing sanitary laws, properly enforced, do not safeguard the
public, then no prohibition of home work would either.
As to (2), the smaller sum earned by a woman in her home may place her in
as good a pecuniary position as the larger sum earned in a factory.
The advantages of home work outweigh all the drawbacks, because it enables
married women to contribute their quota to household maintenance in the way
most congenial to them, and most consistent with home life.
4. On the Progress of the Newspaper Press, and the Need of Reform and
Consolidation of the Laws affecting it. By Professor J. A. STRawan,
M.A., LL.B.
Statistics showing the progress of the newspaper press.—In 1695 the first daily
started in England. In 1712—when the stamp tax on newspapers was first im-
posed—the yearly circulation of newspapers in England was about 2,000,000. In
1755 it was about 7,400,000; in 1801, about 16,000,000; in 1886, about
39,400,000; in 1837—when the stamp tax was reduced from 3id. net to 1d.—
about 54,000,000; in 1854—the last year of the stamp tax—about 122,000,000,
Since 1854 estimates of circulation must be conjectural, but the great increase in
the number of newspapers—from 493 in 1840 to 2,200 in 1893, of persons
connected with journalism, e.g., of ‘reporters,’ from 636 in 1861 to 2,677 ia
1881—shows that newspaper production must have increased enormously.
The yearly circulation of the twenty-nine London daily papers must approach
1,000,000,000, of the 170 provincial dailies must pass that number. Besides
these there are now 2,000 weeklies in the United Kingdom, some of which have a
weekly circulation approaching a million.
Legislation affecting newspapers.—F or the first 150 years after the first daily was
started there was practically no legislation specially affecting newspapers; during
the last fifty years there has been plenty, but most of it has been haphasard and ill-
considered.
Advantages which would result from codifying law.—(a) The law would be
made more intelligible. This is very necessary, as the law has frequently to be
applied by the editor without the opportunity of legal advice. (b) It would be
made less cumbersome. (c¢) It would be made more effective. At present it
frequently fails to carry out the intentions of the legislature. (d) It would be
made more just. At present the journalist has too good grounds of complaint:
(1) his liability to vexatious actions for merely technical libels; (2) his sole
liability for defamation appearing in reports of speeches publicly delivered.
Suggestions for dealing with these.
Suggestions for establishing a legally qualified profession of journalism.—One
probable result of recasting law of the press—an enactment that henceforth no
newspaper should be started without a legally qualified editor to conduct it, such
editor to be liable to expulsion from the profession if shown to be guilty of
unprofessional conduct.
5. On the Census of Foreigners in France. By M. A. pe Litaparn.
6. On Social and Economical Heredity. Dy W. B. Grant.
The evil consequences of folly and wickedness are not exhausted in the sufferings
of the individual, but are transmitted to offspring, and the misery and wretched-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 857
ness found in town slums and elsewhere are largely due to inherited taint; so
that individuals cannot properly be dealt with as if each was solely responsible.
It is quite impossible amongst the living at some particular time to say on whom
the responsibility should fall. Some national effort is therefore required, and
must be directed to the removal of those who have proved themselves incapable of
dealing with the difficulties of life, viz., the criminal and the helpless,
The remedy proposed is to found national compulsory colonies of two kinds,
which might be called relief colonies for the helpless and retreat colonies for
criminals, All the great national colonies have risen on the wealth derived from
the soil; and under good superintendence it might be assumed that agricultural
village colonies established and conducted under strict rule would be successful.
For the relief colonies such discipline would be sufficient as has been ascertained to
produce good results in the parish poorhouses of Scotland. The criminal colonies
would require a firmer control, but both might easily be made more than self-
supporting from the intelligent prosecution of cultivation, planting, pasture, and
tillage appropriate to the particular localities selected.
Colonies might consist of family colonies of 100 persons, each on two square
miles of land; and fifty family colonies would form a grand colony of convenient
size, being ten miles square.
The criminals to be compulsorily emigrated would be least and at first
those sentenced to penal servitude, and they would be astricted to their colonies
for life. Individuals with a criminal taint would in this way have a better
chance of leading useful lives than they could have in open competition ; and the
hereditary taint would gradually be eliminated from society.
The relief colonies would be for the submerged—those worsted in the battle of
life, families and individuals found living without sufficient food, clothing, and
lodging to assure permanent good health. These would not, be astricted to their
colonies for life, but would have an opportunity of working themselves free by
their own self-denial and exertions.
The system would be established gradually. A single colony of each kind in
different and suitable localities would first be settled, and others added as previous
ones became self-supporting, the responsibility and expense to be undertaken by
some existing Government department; and after the system had proved success-
ful a separate Government department could be established.
By these or like means it is thought that the population of our islands could
be gradually purified, strengthened, and elevated; and a new era of prosperity
would thus become possible for the United Kingdom.
TOESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Owrrency Problem. By Prof. H. S. Foxwett, M.A.
2. On the Currency Question practically considered from a Commercial
and Financial Point of View. By W. E. Dorrineton.
Currency is an international question. It is the keystone of the commercial
arch, and, unless we revert to barter, a well-regulated system of currency is the
only means whereby wholesale production can be adjusted to retail consumption.
Gold monometallism is a barrier to the development of free trade, The present
position of the Customs tariffs in foreign countries, necessitated by the various
nations endeavouring to keep their gold, and also induced by the efforts of foreign
Governments to help their manufacturers against constantly falling prices, has
fostered protection.
858 REPORT—1893.
As the standard of value in a portion of the world is in silver, and in the other
part in gold, commerce requires a stable par of exchange between gold and silver
moneys; and, as the exigencies of business necessitate contracts for prolonged
periods, the industrial and commercial world requires a stable standard of value
for the equitable settlement of such contracts.
It is also most important to industrial and commercial Britain that foreign
debtor nations shall not suffer by having to send to their foreign bondholders—
English or otherwise—on account of an alteration in the standard, an unfair and
unexpected increased amount of produce in discharge of external debts, to the
impoverishment of such debtor countries, and their consequent and corresponding
inability to purchase our goods.
Gold alone does not furnish a stable measure of value; silver is much more
stable. Having regard to the existing standards and currencies of the world, a
joint standard of the two metals, as of old, but on a broader international basis,
would aiford the best promise of stability. It is a fallacy to suppose that if prices
of commodities fall producers or manufacturers get an immediate pro ratd reduction
of their costs of production. Many adjustments are only slowly effected; some
elements of cost cannot be adjusted.
The industrial capitalist therefore suffers, and labour must sooner or later share
the loss.
A silver-standard country with products or manufactures competing with those
of gold-standard Britain has an unfair advantage over the producers or manufac-
turers of this country.
The increasing scramble for gold throughout the world must, unless relieved
by a broadening of the monetary metallic base, increase and intensify and prolong
financial tension and panic. Great Britain, being practically the only country
whose monetary laws afford no means of protecting its gold, except the clumsy and
ofttimes slowly efficacious procedure of raising the Bank rate, must experience to
the fullest extent the evils of such financial disturbance. This affects credit,
checks trading facilities and trade and enterprise, and puts a tax upon productive
industry.
The only remedy which it is even suggested would give a stable par of exchange
between the various peoples on earth; which would give a steady and permanent
measure of value between buyers and sellers who make prolonged contracts, and
between debtors and creditors, individual and national; and the only remedy to
relieve the ‘scramble for gold’ and provide a suitable expansion of ‘international
legal tender’ from time to time is international bimetallism. Monetary history
proves that this would provide all these desiderata, and also proves that it is
practicable.
3. On some Objections to Bimetallism viewed in connection with the Report
of the Indian Currency Committee. By L. L. Price.
The publication of the Report of the Indian Currency Committee marks a
stage of great importance in the progress of the monetary crisis, and the report is
not devoid of instruction for the student of monetary affairs. The aim of the
present paper is to examine a few of the points on which such instruction may be
obtained. Bimetallism is frequently charged with being artificial, and the objection is
undeniably plausible. But the student will not dismiss the proposal on that ground
alone, for he is aware of the abuse which often attaches to the distinction between
what is natural and what is artificial, The layman, however, may be prejudicially
influenced by the charge; but the review of foreign systems of currency contained
in the Report of the Indian Currency Committee should suffice to convince him
that, compared with these complicated systems, which are in many cases the con-
Sequence of the abandonment of bimetallism, or of the refusal to return to it, the
bimetallic scheme appears simple and natural. Another consideration raised by the
report is the fact that a currency change has now been sanctioned, which is
distinctly designed to meet evils occasioned by currency changes. The particular
phase of the malady with which the Indian Committee deal is that connected
Ieee oi.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 859
with fluctuations of exchange, and they do not profess to effect a complete cure,
but to check the further inroads of the disease. In England and Europe the more
prominent phase is rather that of an ‘appreciation’ of gold. To deny the
existence of this is now hardly possible, in whatever sense the term ‘appreciation ’
is used, and to ignore the evils which are consequent upon it is no less difficult,
while the Indian analogy renders inapplicable the plausible argument that
Governments should not ‘tamper’ with the currency. And yet this argument,
together with that based on the supposed artificial character of bimetallism, not
improbably supplies a large part of the vis znertie which hinders its progress in
this country, and does so in the minds of candid practical men honestly desirous to
set aside prejudice. Itis to them that the appeal must be made, and they may
fairly be asked at the present juncture to give their careful attention to the
question, for the action of the Indian Government is likely to accentuate the
monetary difficulties of the Western world. Directly and indirectly it can hardly
fail to increase the appreciation of gold. It may indeed so intensify the troubles
as to compel attention to what was unheeded before, and thus out of present evil
future good may possibly issue. But, with a view of shortening the period of
suspense, the candid observer may be asked to contemplate the dilemmas to which
the refusal of bimetallism has brought those who are anxious to relieve by other
means the pressure of monetary difficulties, The Indian proposal illustrates some
of these dilemmas, and is at the best acknowledged to be buta pisaller. It affords a
fresh example of the dangers and difficulties of a policy of drift, and the practical
man may now be asked whether he is really willing that such a policy should
indefinitely continue. Happily there have of late been signs that the crust of
indifference is being broken through, and to this beneficial process the Report of the
Indian Currency Committee promises to render material assistance.
4. On India and the Currency. By F.C, Harrison.
India’s action was dictated by political and financial considerations—political
in that the import trade and the official were suffering, financial in that Govern-
ment found both the variation and the continuous decline in silver intolerable.
As India has always possessed a favourable balance of trade whether gold was
dear as in 1835 or cheap as in 1866, whether silver was dear as in 1870 or cheap
as in 1898, so it will continue to have a favourable balance under altered conditions.
There is, therefore, no reason for supposing that the present experiment will fail
owing to changes in international trade.
On other grounds India’s action is also defensible. Europe is not at present
prepared to adopt bimetallism, and many think that it is possible to manage with
a gold standard and an extended use of silver and silver notes. India, therefore,
by adopting the gold standard and using the least possible quantity of that metal
in its circulation is doing the least injury that is practicable in changing from
silver to gold.
860 REPORT—1893.
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—JzEREMIAn Hwan, Esq., M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address:—
Tus Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science was
founded with the object of making more widely known, and more generally
appreciated, all well-ascertained facts and well-established principles having special
reference to mechanical science.
As President of the Section for the year, it becomes my duty to inaugurate the
proceedings by addressing you upon some portion of the scientific domain to which
I have referred, and in which your presence here indicates that you are all more or
less interested.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
The founders of the British Association no doubt regarded the field of operations
which they awarded to Section G as a not less purely scientific one than those
which they allotted to the other Sections. And, indeed, mechanical science studied,
say, by Watt was as free from suspicion of commercial bias as chemical science
studied, say, by Faraday.
But whatever may have been the original idea, the practice of the Section has
recently been to expend most of its available time in the consideration of more or
less beneficial applications of mechanical science, rather than of the first principles
thereof. Our Section has become more and more one of applied rather than of
pure science. None of the other Sections is free from this fault, if fault it be
(which I do not contend or admit), but Section G seems to me to be beyond all
question, and beyond all others, the Section of applied science.
The charter of the Institution of Civil Engineers commences by reciting that
the object of that society is ‘the general advancement of mechanical science, and
more particularly for promoting the acquisition of that species of knowledge which
constitutes the profession of a civil engineer, being the art of directing the great
sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man,’
It seems that in 1828, when the Institution was incorporated. the term
‘mechanical science’ had a wider meaning than it is now usually understood to
have. For, according to the charter, the art of directing the great sources of
power in nature is only a particular species of knowledge which ‘ mechanical
science’ includes.
In 1886, or eight years later, the founders of our Section adopted the term
without again defining it. Probably they accepted the careful definition of the
Great George Street Institution, Time has shown the wisdom of that decision.
For we civil engineers and other frequenters of Section G in active practice need far
more knowledge than mechanical science can teach us in the ordinary or narrow
sense of the term. Our art in its multifarious branches requires, if success is to be
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 861
attained, the acquisition and application of almost all the other sciences which
belong to the fields of research relegated to the other Sections, For how could the
gigantic engineering structures of modern times be designed without recourse to
mathematics, or steam and other motors without a knowledge of physics, or modern
metallurgical operations be conducted without chemistry, or mining without geology,
or communications by rail, ship, and wire be established and carried on with all
parts of the world without attention to geography, or extensive manufacturing
enterprises be developed if the laws of economics were neglected ?
As to biological studies, they seem at first sight to have but little to do with
mechanical science. It might even be thought that the civil engineer could afford
altogether to neglect this part of the work of the Association. But I trust I shall
be able to show you before I finish that any such view is absolutely untenable.
MECHANISMS IN NATURE.
Indeed, I hope, in the course of this address, to satisfy you that mechanical
science is largely indebted to mechanisms as they exist in nature, if not for its
origin, at all events for much of its progress hitherto, and that nature must still
be our guide.
Mechanical science has been built up entirely upon observation and experiment,
and the natural laws which have been induced therefrom by man. The lower
auimals in their wild condition work with tools or appliances external to their
bodies to but a very slight extent, and man in a primitive or savage state does the
same, But many, if not most, animals can be taught to use mechanisms if care-
fully trained from infancy. Thus, the well-known donkey at Carisbrooke Castle
draws water from a deep well by a treadmill arrangement just as well as a man
could do it. He watches the rope on the barrel till the full pail rises above the
parapet of the well, then slacks back a little to allow it to be rested thereon, and
only then leayes the drum and retreats to his stable. But, according to his
attendant, four years were needed for his education, and unless it had been
commenced early it would have been useless.
I have seen a canary gradually lift from a little well, situated a foot below its
perch, a thimble full of water by pulling up with its beak, bit by bit, a little chain
attached to it, and securing each length lifted with its foot till it could take
another pull. When the thimble reached its perch level the bird took a drink, and
then let it fall back into the well. Numerous other examples will doubtless occur
to you.
But though animals can be taught to make use of mechanical appliances
provided for them—a fact which shows the existence in their brains of a faculty
corresponding in kind, if not in degree, to the mechanical faculty in man—they
rarely, on their own initiative, make use of anything external to their bodies as
tools; and still more rarely, if ever, do they make, alter, or adapt such mechanical
aids. Mr. C. Wood, of Middlesbrough, informs me that certain crows which
frequent oyster-beds on the coast of India wait until the receding tide uncovers the
oysters, which still remain open for a time. A crow will then put a pebble inside
one, and, having thus gagged it and secured his own safety, will proceed to pick it
out and eat it at leisure. A monkey will crack a nut between two stones, and will
hurl missiles at his enemies. But in some countries he is systematically entrapped
by tying to a tree a hollow gourd containing rice, and having a hole large enough
for his hand, but too small for his clenched fist, to pass through. He climbs the
tree and grasps the rice, and remains there till taken, being too greedy, and not
having sufficient sense, to let go the rice and withdraw his hand.
This is on a par with the snuff-taking imbecile, described by Hugh Miller,
whom the boys used to tease by giving him a little snuff at the bottom of a deep
tian box. The imbecile would try to get at it for hours without the idea ever
occurring to him that he might achieve his object by turning the box upside down.
All animals are, however, in their bodily frames, and in the intricate processes
' My Schools and Schoolmasters, by Hugh Miller.
862 REPORT—1 893.
and functions which go on continuously therein, mechanisms of so elaborate a kind
that we can only look and wonder and strive to imitate them a little here and
there. The mechanism of their own bodily frames is that with which the lower
animals have to be content, and whilst they are in the prime of life and health,
and in their natural environment, it is generally sufficient for all their purposes.
Man hasa still more perfect, or rather a still more versatile, bodily mechanism, and
one which in a limited environment would be equally sufficient for his needs. But
he has also an enterprising and powerful mind which impels him to strive after and
enables him to enjoy fields of conquest unknown to, and uncared for by, the
relatively brainless lower animals.
Urged on by these superior mental powers, man must soon have perceived that
by the use of instruments he could more quickly and easily gain his ends, and he
would not be long in discovering that certain other animals, such as the ox and the
horse, were teachable and his willing slaves, provided only he fed and trained
them and treated them kindly.
First, in common with other animals, he would find out that stones and sticks
were of some use as weapons and tools; then he would go further and utilise skins
and thongs for clothing and harness; and by selecting and modifying his stones
and sticks he would form them into rough implements, which would enable him to
cut down trees and to make rude huts and boats. Animalscaught and domesticated
would first be taught to haul light logs along the ground, then to move heavier
ones on rollers; and later, in order to avoid the necessity for continual replacement
of the rollers, the wheel and axle would be gradually developed.
The mechanical nomenclature of all languages is largely derived from the
bodies of men and other animals. From this it is clear that animals have always
been recognised as mechanisms, or as closely related thereto. The names borrowed
from them generally indicate a resemblance in form rather than in function, though
not invariably so.
Thus in our own language we have the ‘head’ of a ship, a river, a lake, a jetty,
a bolt, a nail, a screw, a rivet, a flight of stairs, and a column of water ; the brow
of an incline; the crown of an arch; the toe of a pier; the foot of a wall; the
forefoot, heel, ribs, waist, knees, skin, nose, and dead eyes of a ship; also turtle
backs and whale backs; the jaws of a vice; the claws of a clutch; the teeth of
wheels; necks, shoulders, eyes, nozzles, legs, ears, mouths, lips, cheeks, elbows,
feathers, tongues, throats, and arms; caps, bonnets, collars, sleeves, saddles, gussets,
paddles, fins, wings, horns, crabs, donkeys, monkeys, and dogs ; flywheels, run-
ning nooses, crane necks, grasshopper engines, &c.
Not only has our mechanical nomenclature been largely taken from animals,
but many of our principal mechanical devices have pre-existed in them. Thus,
examples of levers of all three orders are to be found in the bodies of animals.
The human foot contains instances of the first and second, and the forearm of the
third order of lever. The patella, or knee-cap, is practically a part of a pulley.
There are several hinges and some ball-and-socket joints, with perfect lubricating
arrangements, Lungs are bellows, and the vocal organs comprise every requisite
of a perfect musical instrument. The heart is a combination of four force-pumps
acting harmoniously together. The wrist, ankle, and spinal vertebre form uni-
versal joints. The eyes may be regarded as double-lens cameras, with power to
adjust focal length, and able, by their stereoscopic action, to gauge size, solidity,
and distance. ‘The nerves form a complete telegraph system with separate up and
down lines and a central exchange. The circulation of the blood is a double-line
system of canals, in which the canal liquid and canal boats move together, making
the complete circuit twice a minute, distributing supplies to wherever required, and
taking up return loads wherever ready without stopping. It is also a heat-
distributing apparatus, carrying heat from wherever it 1s generated or in excess to
wherever it is deficient, and establishing a general average, just as engineers en-
deayour, but with less success, to do in houses and public buildings. The respiratory
system may be looked upon as that whereby the internal ventilation of the bodily
structure is maintained. For by it oxygen is separated from the air and imparted
to the blood for conveyance and use where needed, whilst at the same time the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 863
products of combustion are extracted therefrom and discharged into the atmo-
sphere.
" Mastication, which is the first process in the alimentary system, is, or rather
should be, a perfect: system of cutting up and grinding, and to assist and save
animal, and especially human, mastication is the chief aim and object of all the
gigantic milling establishments of modern times. The later alimentary processes
are rather chemical than mechanical, but still the successive muscular contractions,
whereby the contents of the canal are forced through their intricate course, are
distinctly mechanical, and may have suggested the action of various mechanisms
which are used in the arts to operate on plastic materials, and cause them to flow
into new forms and directions.
The superiority of man to the lower animals can only have become conspicuous
and decided when he began to use his inventive faculties and to fashion weapons
and implements of a more efficient kind than the sticks and stones which they also
occasionally use.
But human races and individuals were never equally endowed by nature. Some
individuals would have greater inventive powers than others, and these and their
posterity would gradually become dominant races. Large masses of mankind are
still more or less in the position of primeval man, which, if we accept the conclu-
sions of Darwin, Lubbock, and other modern scientists, we must regard as one of
barbarism. For they are still without tools, appliances, and clothes, except of the
most elementary kinds, and mechanical science might almost be non-existent, so
far as they are concerned.
It would obviously be impossible for me to treat of or call attention even to an
infinitesimal extent to the results of mechanical science which surround us now so
profusely, and which make our life so different from that of primeval man; and,
even if it were possible, it would be quite unnecessary, We have all grown up
in a mechanical age. We are so familiarised with artificial aids that we have come
to regard them as part of our natural environment, and their occasional absence
impresses us far more than their habitual presence,
I propose, with your leave, to proceed to the consideration of how far man is,
in his natural condition, and has become by aid of mechanical science, able to
compete successfully with other and specially endowed animals, each in its own
sphere of action.
BODILY POWERS OF MAN AND OTHER ANIMALS.
The bodily frame of man is adapted for life and movement only on or near to
the surface of the earth. Without mechanical aids he can walk for several hours,
at a speed which is ordinarily from 3 to 4 miles per hour. Under exceptional cir-
cumstances he has accomplished over 8 miles* in one hour, and an average of 22
miles per hour for 141 hours.$ In running he has covered about 114 miles in
an hour. In water he has proved himself capable of swimming 100 yards at the
rate of 3 miles per hour, and 22 miles at rather over 1 mile per hour. He can
easily climb the most rugged mountain path and descend the same. He can swarm
up @ bare pole or a rope, and when of suitable physique and trained from infancy
can perform those wonderful feats of strength and agility which we are accustomed
to expect from acrobats. He has shown himself able to jump as high as 6 feet
2% inches from the ground, and over a horizontal distance of 23 feet 3 inches, and
has thrown a cricket-ball as far as 3824 feet before it struck the ground.*
The attitude and action of a man in throwing a stone or a cricket-ball, where
he exerts a considerable force at several feet from the ground, to which the re-
action has to be transmitted and to which he is in no way fastened, are unequalled
in any artificial machine. The similar but contrary action of pulling a rope
horizontally, as in ‘tug of war’ competitions, is equally remarkable.
1 Mr. H. L. Lapage, M.Inst.C.E., who has just returned from Western Australia,
states that he found the natives of both sexes and all ages absolutely nude.
2 Whitaker's Almanack, 1893, p. 395.
* Recent pedestrian race from Berlin to Vienna.
* Chambers’s Encyclopedia, ‘ Athletic Sports.’
864 REPORT —1893.
So also the power of the living human mechanism to withstand widely diverse
and excessive strains is altogether unapproachable in artificial constructions. Thus,
although fitted for an external atmospheric pressure of about 15 Ib. per square inch,
he has been able, as exemplified by Messrs. Glaisher and Coxwell in 1862, to ascend
to a height of 7 miles, and breathe air at a pressure of only 3} lb. per square inch,
and still live. And, on the other hand, divers have been down into water 80 feet
deep, entailing an extra pressure of about 86 Ib. per square inch, and have
returned safely. One has even been to a depth of 150 feet, but the resulting
pressure of 67 lb. per square inch cost him his life."
Recent fasting performances (if the published records are to be trusted) are not
less remarkable when we are comparing the human body as a piece of mechanism
with those of artificial construction. For what artificial motor could continue its
functions forty days and nights without fuel, or, if the material of which it was
constructed were gradually consumed to maintain the flow of energy, could after-
wards build itself up again to its original substance ?
These and other performances are, when considered individually and separately,
often largely exceeded by other animals specially adapted to their own limited
spheres of activity. The marvel is not, therefore, that the human bodily
mechanism is capable of any one kind of action, but that, in its various develop-
ments, it can do all or any of them, and also carry a mind endowed with far
wider powers than any other animal.
Animals other than man are also adapted for life and movement on or about
the surface of the earth. This includes a certain distance below the ground, as in
the case of earthworms; under the water, as in the case of fish; on the water, as
in the case of swimming birds; and in the air, as with flying birds.
As far as I know, no animal burrows downwards into the earth to a greater
depth than 8 feet,” and then only in dry ground. Man is naturally very ill-adapted
for boring into the earth as the earthworm does. Indeed, without mechanical
aids he would be helpless in excavating or in dealing with the accumulations of
water which are commonly met with underground. But by aid of the steam-
engine for pumping, for air-compressiag, ventilating, hauling, rock-boring, electric
lighting, and so forth, and by the utilisation of explosives, he has obtained a com-
plete mastery over the crust of the earth and its mineral contents, down to the
depth where, owing to the increase of temperature, the conditions of existence
become difficult to maintain.
I have said that on land man, unaided by mechanism, has been able to cover
about 114 miles in one hour. Two miles he has been able to run at the rate of
nearly 18 miles per hour, and 100 yards at the rate of over 20 miles per hour.®
But the horse, though he cannot walk faster than man, nor exceed him in jump-
ing heights or distances, can certainly beat him altogether when galloping or
trotting. A mile has been galloped in 103 seconds, equal to 35 miles per hour,
and has been trotted in 124 seconds, equal to 29 miles per hour.*
There are many other animals, such as ostriches, greyhounds, antelopes, and
‘wolves, which run at great speeds, but reliable records are difficult to obtain, and
are scarcely necessary for our present purpose.
MECHANICAL AID WITHOUT EXTRANEOUS MOTIVE-POWER.
Let us now consider how man’s position as a competitor with other animals in
speed is affected by his use of mechanical aids, but without any extraneous motive-
power.
Locomotion on Land.—Where there is a stretch of good ice, and he is able to
bind skates on his feet, he can thereby largely augment his running speed. This
‘was exemplified by the winner of the match for amateurs at Haarlem last winter,
who accomplished the distance of 3:1 miles at the rate of about 21 miles per hour.
1 Pall Mall Gazette, July 5, 1893, p. 8.
2 Vegetable Mould and Earthworms, by Charles Darwin, p. 111.
3 Chambers's Encyclopedia, ‘ Athletic Sports.’
* Tbid., ‘ Horse.’
———
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 865
But the most wonderful increase to the locomotive power of man on land is
obtained by the use of the modern cycle. Cycling is easily performed only where
roads, wind, and weather are favourable. But similar conditions must also be
present to secure the best speed of horses, with which we have been making com-
arison. One mile has been cycled at the rate of 27:1 miles per hour,' 50 at 20,”
00 at 16°6,? 388 at 12°5,> and 900 at 12°43! miles per hour.
The recent race between German and Austrian cavalry officers on the high
road between Vienna and Berlin has afforded an excellent opportunity to judge
of the speed and endurance of horses as compared with men over long distances.
Count Starhemberg, the winner, performed the distance, about 388 miles, in 71:33
hours, equal to 5-45 miles per hour. He rested only one hour in twelve, His
horse, though successful, has since died.*
Lawrence Fletcher cycled, also along the high roads, from Land’s End to
John o’ Groat’s house, 900 miles, in 72:4 hours, equal to 12°43 miles per hour,
or more than double the distance that the Count rode, and at above double the
speed. To the best of my knowledge he still lives, and is no worse for his effort.
The horse in this case would have to carry extra weight equal to one-sixth of his
own, and the cyclist equal to a quarter of his own. But the horse carried him-
self and his rider on his own legs, while the cyclist made his machine bear the
weight of itself and rider. Herein was probably the secret of his easy victory.
With the very remarkable exception of long-distance cycling, which is of
limited application, man, relying on his own bodily strength, cannot successfully
compete with other animals which, like the horse, are specially fitted for rapid
jand locomotion. His only alternatives are either to utilise the horse and ride
or drive him, and so get the benetit of his superior strength and speed, or to use
his own inventive faculty and construct appliances altogether apart from animal
mechanisms. In either case he virtually gives up the contest as a self-moving
animal, and to a great extent abandons himself to be carried by others or by
inanimate machinery.
Nearly seventy years ago mankind came to this conclusion, and the modern
railway system is the result. The locomotive will go at least double the speed of
the racehorse. It will carry not only itself but three or four times its own
weight in addition, and will go not 2 or 3, but 100 miles or more without
stopping, if only the road ahead be clear. And the iron horse is fed and controlled
without even so much exertion as that put forth by a man on a horse of flesh and
bone.
Locomotion in Water.—Let us now consider the powers of man relatively to
other animals in moving upon and through the great waters with which three-
fourths of the earth’s surface is covered. Here he is in competition with fishes,
aquatic mammals, and swimming birds.
I have already stated that, unaided by mechanism, he has shown himself able
to swim for short distances at the rate of 3, and long distances (22 miles) at the
rate of 1 mile per hour. He has also given instances of being able to remain
under water for 44 minutes.
Credible eye-witnesses inform me that porpoises easily overtake and keep pace
with a steamer going 12} knots, or, say, over 14 miles per hour, for an indefinite
length of time. This is five and fifteen times the maximum swimming speed of a
man for short and long distances respectively. No doubt the form and surface of
a fish whose main business is swimming offer less resistance, and his muscular
power is more concentrated and better applied towards propulsion in water than
is the case with man, whose body is also adapted for so many other purposes.
I am further informed by Mr. Nelson, of Redcar, a naturalist who has made
the experiment, that it is impossible for an ordinary sea-boat, rowed by two men
and going at 5 miles per hour, to overtake the aquatic bird called the Great
Northern Diver when endeavouring to make his escape by alternately swimming
1 Whitaker's Almanack, 1893. 2 Chambers’s Encyclopedia, ‘ Cycling.’
3 Times, Sept. 26 to Oct. 7, 1892. 4 Vienna-Berlin Race, June 1893.
5 Whitaker's Almanack, 1893.
1893. 3K
866 REPORT—1893.
on the surface and diving below. His speed is therefore nearly double the short
and five times the long distance speed of unaided man in water. As regards rer
maining under water, fishes properly so called have unlimited powers, and even
aquatic mammals, such as whales, can remain under for 13 hour,
Using only his own strength, but assisting himself with mechanical devices,
man has been able to increase considerably his speed as a swimming animal. Mr,
John McCall, of Walthamstow, informs me that in 1868 he constructed and re-
peatedly used an apparatus which acted like the tail of a fish. It consisted of a
piece of whalebone, having a broad yet thin and elastic blade, tapering into a
shank like the end of an oar. The blade was 15 inches wide and 4 feet long,
including the shank. To the end of the latter a horizontal cross-bar 13 inches
long was fitted, and leather pockets were provided at the ends for the feet. By
swimming on his back and striking out alternately with his legs, he was able, with
the assistance of this apparatus, to keep up with a sea-boat pulled by two men
at about 4 miles per hour.
By means of boats, which he propels by oars or sculls, and notwithstanding
the increased weight, and therefore displacement, involved by them, man has been
able to increase his speed on the surface of the water to a maximum of about.
12 miles per hour for about 4 miles distance, under favourable circumstances.
So, by supplementing his bodily powers by means of mechanical aids, such as the
diving-bell and the diving-helmet, dress, and air-pump, or by the portable self-
acting apparatus used with such good effect in the construction of the Severn
Tunnel, man has been able to approach very nearly to the natural diving powers of,
at all events, aquatic mammals, except that he cannot move about in subaqueous
regions with anything approaching their ease and celerity.
Invariably on water, as almost invariably on land, man is quite unable to
compete in power of locomotion with other specially adapted animals, whether or
not he avails himself of mechanical aids, so long as his own bodily strength is the
only motive-power he employs. He has gradually come to recognise this fact, and
to see that he must use his inventive faculties and find new and powerful motors.
external to himself if he would really claim to dominate the great waters of the
earth.
The fastest mechanism of any size, animal or man-made, which, as far as I
know, has ever cut its way through the waters for any considerable distance is the
torpedo-boat ‘ Ariete,’ made by Messrs. Thornycroft & Son, of London, in 1887.
It has a displacement or total weight of about 110 tons, and machinery capable of
exerting 1,290 effective horse-power, or 11:7 horse-power per ton of weight or dis-
placement ; or, to put it in another form, an effective horse-power is by it obtained
from a weight of 191 Ib., which includes vessel, machinery, fuel, stores, and atten-
dants. The speed accomplished at the trials of this little craft, being the average
of six one-mile tests, was 26:18 knots, or 30:16 miles per hour.1 As might be
expected, it resembles a fish, in that its interior is almost exclusively devoted to the
machinery and accessories necessary for propulsion. During the trials the water,
fuel, stores, and other ponderable substances carried amounted to 17°35 tons. Two
similar boats were able to make the voyage to South America by themselves,
though at much slower speed and replenishing their fuel on the way. No fish or
swimming bird can match this performance. And inasmuch as 191 Ib. of dead
weight produced 1 horse-power, as compared with from 150 to 250 Ib. in certain
flying birds, it would seem that with suitable adaptations the ‘ Ariete’ might even
have been made to navigate the air instead of the water.’ But I will revert to
this subject later on.
Where safety in any weather, and passenger- and cargo-carrying powers are
aimed at, as well as, or prior to, the utmost attainable speed—and these must ever
1 Engineering, July 15, 1887.
2 M. Normand, of Havre, is building for the French Government two torpedo-
boats, each having a displacement of 125 tons and 2,717 effective horse-power, or
21-7 horse-power per ton of displacement. This is equivalent to 1 herse-power per
103 lb., and is still within the limits of weight permissible for aérial flight (see
Times, Sune 19, 1893).
4
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 867
be the leading features of ocean-transit steamers if they are to attain commercial
success—there I must refer you to those magnificent examples of naval archi-
tecture which are more or less familiar to you all, and of which we, as a maritime
nation, are so justly proud. If, for example, we turn our attention for a moment
to the new Cunard liners, the ‘Campania’ and ‘ Lucania,’ having each a weight or
displacement of 18,000 tons and 24,000 effective horse-power, or 1:33 horse-power
per ton of displacement, we shall find that, with the commercial advantages alluded
to, they obtain a maximum speed of 22°5 knots, or about 26 miles per hour.
If, instead of 1:33 effective horse-power per ton of displacement, they were
provided with eight times that amount, or 10°64 horse-power per ton, thereby
sacrificing passenger and cargo accommodation, and making them nearly as full of
propelling machinery as the ‘ Ariete’ torpedo-boat, and if it were then found
ossible to apply this enormous power effectively, then there is every reason to
lieve they would accomplish for short distances double the speed, or, say, 45 knots,
or about 52 statute miles, per hour.
By inventing and utilising mechanical contrivances entirely independent of his
own bodily strength, man can now pass over the surface of the waters at the rate
of over 500 knots per day, and at the same time retain the comforts and con-
veniences of life as though he were on shore. He has in this way beaten the
natural and specially fitted denizens of the deep in their own element, as regards
speed and continuity of effort. But he is still behind them as to safety. We do
not find that fishes or aquatic mammals often perish in numbers, as man does, by
collisions in fogs, or by being cast on lee shores and rocks by stress of weather.
Shall we ever arrive at the point of making ocean travelling absolutely safe? The
Cunard Company is able to boast that from its commencement, fifty-three years
ago, it has never lost a passenger’s life or a letter; a statement which gives ground
for hope that almost absolute safety is attainable. But, on the other hand, other
owners of almost equal repute (not excluding the British Admiralty) are ever and
anon losing magnificent vessels on rocks, in collisions, by fire, and even by stress of
weather, in a way which makes us doubt whether it is possible for Britannia or
any one else really to ‘rule the waves.’
In one way the chances of serious disaster have been of late largely diminished,
and here, again, Nature has been our teacher. The bodies of all animals except
the very lowest are symmetrically formed on either side of a central longitudinal
plane. Each important limb is in duplicate, and if one side is wounded the other
can still act. We have at last found out the enormous advantage and increased
safety of having the whole of our ship-propelling machinery in duplicate, and
our ships made almost unsinkable by one longitudinal and numerous transverse
bulkheads.
Locomotion in Air.—I now come to consider what is the position of man as
regards locomotion in and through the great atmospheric envelope which surrounds
the earth, in comparison with animals specially fitted by Nature for such work.
Nature seems never to bestow all her gifts on one individual or class of
animals, and she never leaves any entirely destitute. For instance, the serpent,
having no limbs whatever, would seem at first sight to be terribly handicapped ;
yet, in the language of the late Professor Owen, ‘it can outclimb the monkey,
outswim the fish, outleap the jerboa, and, suddenly loosing the close coils of its
crouching spiral, it can spring into the air and seize the bird on the wing.’’ Here
we have the spiral spring in nature before it was devised by man.
Flying animals seem to conform remarkably to this law. Thus we have birds,
like the penguin, which dive and swim, but cannot fly; others, like the gannet,
which dive, swim, fly, and walk; others, like the ostrich, which run, but can
neither fly nor swim; and numberless kinds which can fly well, but have only
slight pedestrian powers.
_ Man, unaided by mechanisms, can, as we have seen, walk, run, swim, dive, and
jump, and perform many remarkable feats ; but for flying in the air he is absolutely
unfitted. All his attempts (and there have been many) have up to the present
been unsuccessful, whether or not he has availed himself of mechanical aids to his
1 Pettigrew on Animal Locomotion.
3K 2
868 REPORT— 1893.
own bodily powers. It is said that a certain man fitted himself with apparatus in
the time of James VI. of Scotland, and actually precipitated himself from the cliff
below Stirling Castle, in sight of the king and his courtiers; but the apparatus
collapsed, and he broke his leg, and that: was the end of the experiment. ;
But why should not man fly? It is not that he does not desire to do so. For
every denizen of our precarious British climate, when he has noticed the ease with
which swallows and other migratory birds fly off on the approach of winter,
hundreds and even thousands of miles to the sunny south, must have wished he
could do the same. One reason why we cannot fly, even with artificial aids, such
as wings, is that, as in the case of the penguin or the ostrich, our bodily mechanism
is specialised and our muscular power diffused in other directions, so that we
could not actuate wings of sufficient area to carry us even if we had them.
M. de Lucy, a French naturalist, has shown that the wing-area of flying
animals varies from about 49 square feet per lb. of weight in the gnat, and 5 square
feet in the swallow, to half a square foot per lb. of weight in the Australian crane,
which weighs 21 lb. and yet flies well. If he were to adopt the last or smallest
proportion, a man weighing 12 stone would require a pair of wings each of them
14 feet long by 3 feet broad, or double the area of an ordinary room door, to carry
him, without taking into account the weight of the wings themselves.
In flying birds there is a strong tripod arrangement to secure firm points of
attachment for the wings, and a deep keel in the breast-bone, to which the large
pectoral muscles are secured. Think of the wings I have described and the
absence of pivots, keel, and muscles in man, and it will be tolerably obvious why
he cannot fly, even with artificial wings.
But it might be contended that a man’s strength is in his legs rather than in
his arms, and that it is conceivable that a successful flying-apparatus might be
made if adapted for the most, instead of the least, favourable application of his
bodily strength.
According to D. K. Clark,! a labourer working all day exerts on an average
‘13 horse-power. The maximum power of a very strong man for a very short time
is ‘46 horse-power.
According to Dr. Haughton,” the oarsmen in a boat-race of 1 mile, rowed in
7 minutes, exerted each ‘26 horse-power.
Suppose we take the rowing case as the maximum maintainable for, say,
7 minutes by a man weighing 168 lb. Then in flight he would have to sustain
a weight of
168 _ 646 Ib.
26
per horse-power exerted, besides the weight of the apparatus.
Now, we shall find later (see p. 871) that no birds support even half that
weight per horse-power which they have the power to exert, and that recent aéro-
plane experiments prove its impossibility. On the ground, therefore, that he is
too heavy in proportion to his strength, it is clear that man is unfitted for flight,
as well as because his limbs are not adapted for it.
It does not follow, however, that by aid of mechanisms apart from his own body,
and worked by power independent of his own strength, man may not imitate, com-
pete with, and even outdo the fowls of the air.
Let us consider a few facts showing what birds can do. <A gannet hovers in
the air above the sea. Suddenly he nearly closes his wings, swoops down, and
with a splash disappears below the surface. Shortly after he reappears with a
fish in his mouth, which he swallows in a few gulps ; then, after swimming on the
surface a little, he reascends into the air to repeat the operation.
The swallow rises into the air with a few rapid movements of the wings, then
slides down as though on an aérial switchback, and then up again till he nearly
reaches his original height, or he circles round by raising one wing, like a runner
rounding a curve.
1 Rules, Tables, and Data, pp. 719 and 720, by D. K. Clark.
2 Animal Mechanics, by Dr. Haughton.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 8639
The condor vulture, which measures sometimes 15 feet across the wings, will
fly upwards till quite out of sight.
A flock of cranes have been seen migrating at a height of three miles, and pro-
. ceeding apparently without any movement of the wings.
The peregrine falcon will swoop down upon a partridge, and, missing it by a
doubling movement of the latter, will slide upwards, thus converting his kinetic
into new potential energy. He will then turn and descend again, this time securing
his prey.
ie . E. Harting, one of the principal British ornithological authorities, has,
after careful investigation, arrived at the conclusion that the speed of falcons in
full flight is about 60 miles per hour.!
Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, another well-known authority, gives” the results of a
number of experiments on the speed of homing pigeons, made under the auspices
of the United Counties Flying Club in 1883, The average speed of the winner in
eighteen races was 36 miles, and the maximum 55 miles per hour. The greatest
distance flown was 309 miles.
The albatross, the largest web-footed bird, measuring sometimes 17 feet from
tip to tip of wing, and weighing up to 20 Ib., frequently accompanies ocean steamers
from the Cape to Melbourne, a distance of 5,500 knots, without being seen to rest
on the way.
An American naturalist, Mr. J. Lancaster, who spent no less than five years on
the west coast of Florida,® in order to study the habits of aquatic and other birds
which frequent these shores, arrived at the following conclusions, viz.—
Though all birds move their wings sometimes, many can remain indefinitely in
the air, with wings extended and motionless, and either with or without forward
movement. This he calls ‘ soaring.’
The wing-area of soaring birds varies from 1 to above 2 square feet per lb. of
weight.
The larger the wings per lb. of weight, the greater the power to soar.
The heavier the bird, the steadier his movements.
Soaring birds always face the wind, which, if they do not move forward or
downward, must not blow at a less speed than 2 to 5 miles per hour.
Mr. Lancaster specially watched a flock of buzzards about 30 feet above his
head, waiting for him to leave the body of a dead porpoise. Their wings were
about 8 feet from tip to tip, and their average weight about61lb. During three
hours at mid-day, when the wind which they faced was very strong, they flapped
their wings about twenty times each. Later, during two hours, when the wind
had subsided, they never moved them at all.
Mr. Lancaster timed frigate birds, and found them able to go at the rate of 100
miles per hour, and that on fixed wings; he is of opinion that at all events up to
that speed they can fly just as fast as they please. He says, further, that the
same birds can live in the air a week at a time, night and day, without touching
a roost, and that buzzards, cranes, and gannets can do the same for several hours
at a time.
The observed facts relating to the phenomena of flight are still but very imper-
fectly understood. That a bird should be able to maintain a downward pressure
on the air sufficient to counteract the effect of its own weight, and a backward
pressure sufficient to force itself forward at such speeds as I have named, seems
wonderful enough when it is known that it continuously operates its wings. But
that it should be able to do the same without any muscular movement at all is
almost incomprehensible, It seems to be an instance of the suspension of the laws
of gravity and of the existence of cause without effect, and of effect without cause. It
is not a case of flotation, like a balloon, for any bird falls to the earth like a stone
when shot. Mr. Lancaster suggests that the bird’s own weight is the force which
enables him to counteract the effect thereof, but this explanation is, I confess,
beyond my comprehension.
1 Field, December 5, 1891, p. 856. ? Thid., January 22, 1887, p. 114.
* «Problem of the Soaring Bird,’ American Naturalist, 1885, pp. 1055-1162.
870 REPORT—1893
It seems to me that for every pound of his weight pressing downwards there must
be an equivalent force pressing upwards. This can be produced only by his giving
downward motion to the air previously at rest, or by his arresting previous motion
of air in an upward direction. The latter alternative involves the supposition that
the air-currents which soaring birds face are not,as Mr. Lancaster believes, always
horizontal, but must have, to some extent, an upward direction. If a parachute
were falling in a current of air, which was moving upwards at the same rate as
the parachute fell, it would obviously retain its level, yet gravity would be acting.
So, if a bird with extended wings were sliding down a stream of air which was
tending upwards at the same angle and same velocity, the phenomenon of soaring
would be produced.
Weight of Birds in Relation to their Bulk.—lt is generally believed that birds
are lighter, bulk for bulk, than other animals, and that to this lightness they owe,
in some degree, their power of flight and of floating on water. To account for
this it is said that their bone-cavities are filled with air, and that some, though
not even all, flying birds have small air-sacs under the skin. It is clear, however,
that displacement of external air by air-filled cavities can only assist aérial
flotation to an infinitesimal extent, unless highly heated. Such cavities would,
however, help aquatic birds to swim, if situated under the immersed portion of
their bodies, which is not always the case.
Some aquatic birds, such-as swans, swim with head, neck, wings, tail,
and half their bodies out of the water. The specific gravity of fishes and land
animals is clearly about the same as water. For, when swimming, they can keep
only a small portion of their heads above the surface, and that by continued exer-
tion. Are, then, birds, in the substance of their bodies, less dense than other
animals, although also composed of flesh, blood, and bone, and these components
in similar proportions and of similar character and texture? If they are, then
land animals might have been made lighter in proportion to their bulk or smaller
in proportion to their weight than they have been. If they are not, how is it
that some of them can swim and float high out of the water ?
Having an opportunity recently of inspecting a large wild, or whooper, swan,
I ascertained its weight to be 14 lb. I noticed that the whole of the under-part
of the body, which would be immersed when swimming, was covered with feathers
and underlined with down to an average depth of not less than 14 inch, or, when
closely pressed, say, 14 inch. The immersed surface I estimated at 14 square
foot. The weight of water displaced by this feather and down jacket, and the
consequent extra buoyancy produced thereby, was no less than 9°78 Ib. This
would account for two-thirds of the bird’s body being out of water when swimming,
even if the body were of the same specific gravity as water.
I next procured a freshly-shot wild duck, which weighed 24 lb., and placed it
in a tank of sea-water. It floated. I found the area of its immersed surface to
be 54 square inches, and the average depth of its under-feathers and down to be
inch. The water displaced by this envelope would weigh 1:5 lb., and would
support three-fifths of its entire weight. I then had it denuded of all its feathers
and down, and again placed in the tank. It then slowly sank to the bottom.
These experiments, so far as they go, seem to prove conclusively that birds
are not lighter, bulk for bulk, than other animals, but, on the other hand, about
the same specific gravity, and that their floating power lies entirely in the thick
jacket or life-belt with which nature has furnished those, and those only, which
are intended to swim.
Inasmuch, therefore, as the specific gravity of the actual bodies of all animals
appears to be about the same, there is no reason to believe that any could have
been constructed of lighter material or to lighter design.
Weight in Relation to thei Energy.—But notwithstanding this uniformity of
specific gravity, there remains the curious fact that flying birds can exert continu-
ously about three times the horse-power per lb. of weight that man can—and,
indeed, about three times what is possible for the horse.!_ This marvellous flow of
energy in proportion to weight is probably due to rapidity of limb-action rather
1 See pp. 868 and 871.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 871
than to increase of muscular stress. I have timed sea-gulls and found them to flap
their wings two hundred times per minute when flying at about 24 knots per
hour, and have estimated eider-ducks, making about 36 knots per hour, to be
flapping their wings five hundred times in a minute, I say ‘ estimated,’ for their
movements are too rapid for precise counting. This outpouring of energy, which
seems to me to be unequalled in terrestrial animals, is nevertheless maintained by
birds for indefinitely long periods of time.
A proportionately increased rate of combustion and renovation of tissue as well
as of food-consumption are necessary consequences. The higher temperature of
the bodies of birds, as compared with other animals,’ and the well-known voracity
of those which, like sea-birds, are almost continuously on the wing, are circum-
stances which seem to point to the same conclusion. It is confirmed by what we
know of steam and other motors. For instance, if a steamship were so built and
proportioned that a ton of coal per hour consumed in the boilers would maintain the
pressure at 100 lb. per square inch and produce 1,000 horse-power at the propeller ;
and then if, without other alteration, firing was slackened until the steam fell to
50 lb. per square inch, and there maintained, it is clear that the horse-power pro-
duced would be greatly lessened, and so would the temperature of the steam in
the boilers, steam-pipes, and cylinders. Thus, other things being equal, the tem-
perature of the steam would rise and fall with the energy given forth by the
mechanism.
The suggestion is that the higher temperature of birds, as compared with other
animals, is similarly connected with their superior power of producing and main-
taining energetic etfort.
AERIAL NAVIGATION,
Let us now consider what man has done, and may be able to do, in aérial
navigation by aid of contrivances which, as in the case of railway locomotives and
ocean steamers, are propelled by a power other than that of his own body.
The scientific world is greatly indebted to Mr. Hiram 8S. Maxim, of London, for
recording in a clear and readable form the present position of aéronautic mechanisms.”
So far, the only contrivances which have been fairly successful are balloons, which,
unlike birds, depend on atmospheric displacement for their power of sustaining
weight or rising or falling.
In balloon experiments our French neighbours have led the way, from the
first attempt of the Montgolfier brothers in 1783. During the last twenty years
they haye made numerous experiments and substantial improvements. Captain
Renard and other officers of the French Army have constructed a fish-shaped
apparatus, and inflated it with hydrogen. It is driven by an electric motor of
84 horse-power, and has sufficient buoyancy to carry two aéronauts and all neces-
sary accessories. In fair weather Captain Renard has succeeded in travelling at
the rate of 124 miles per hour, in steering in any direction, and even in returning
to his point of departure. The balloon, it is said, always keeps level, and so far
there have not been any accidents; but no expedition has been attempted in wet
or windy weather.
Except that a more powerful motor, going at a higher speed, might be fitted
to such an apparatus, Mr. Maxim thinks that it is as near perfection as is ever likely
to be reached by a machine depending on aérial flotation. He proceeds to give an
account of some experiments made by Professor S. P. Langley, of the Smithsonian
Institute, Washington, and of others by himself, to ascertain how much power is
required to produce artificial flight by means of aéro-planes, after the manner of
birds, and whether such power can be obtained without exceeding the weight which
it would itself sustain.
1 Chambers's Encyclopedia, ‘Bird’ and ‘ Animal Heat’; Lehrbuch der Zoologie, by
Professor Hertwig, p. 538.
2 «Progress in Aérial Navigation,’ by Hiram S. Maxim, Fortnightly Review,
October, 1892.
872 REPORT—1893.
He says that heavy birds, with relatively small wings, carry about 150 lb. per
horse-power exerted, and birds such as the albatross and vulture probably about
250 Ib. Professor Langley, with small slanting planes, was able to carry 250 lb.
per horse-power exerted; and Mr. Maxim, using heavier weights in proportion to
plane-area, 133 lb. per horse-power, and using lighter ones, nearly the same as
Professor Langley.
Mr. Maxim has lately devoted his energies to constructing a motor which
should meet the requirements of the case, and has succeeded, he says, in producing
one—a steam-engine burning naphtha and with atmospheric condenser, within a
total weight of 8 lb. per horse-power. He thinks, however,! that by using light
naphtha and its vapour in the boiler instead of water, as well as in the furnace as
fuel, a weight as low as 6 lb. per horse-power may be reached,
Meanwhile Professor Langley’s ideas have been embodied in an experimental
flying-machine, a drawing and description of which will be found in the ‘ Daily
Graphic’ for July 1, 1893. The body, which resembles that of a bird and is 15
feet long, contains the propelling machinery in duplicate. The wings, which
are 40 feet across, are of China silk spread on a tubular framework, stiffened with.
wire trusses. The boilers use liquid fuel and contain a highly volatile fluid. The,
capabilities of the machine have not yet been practically tested.
Promising as are the results hitherto obtained, they are as yet far from placing
us on a level with birds in power to utilise the atmosphere asa navigating medium.
The absolutely necessary power of delicate guiding, in rising, falling, and turning,
whatever the direction or force of the wind, has yet to be considered and worked
out. What would happen in case of a temporary breakdown of the aéro-plane
machinery we shudder to think of.
An important step has been effected by the discovery that parachutes with
tubular orifices at the top are comparatively safe appliances for descending to the
earth from indefinitely high altitudes. Perhaps it may be arranged that each
aéronaut should be able, at a moment’s warning, to gird himself with one of these
as with a life-belt on board ship, and so descend in safety, or one or more auto-
matically opening in case of disaster might be fitted to the aéro-plane as a whole.
EVENTUAL EXHAUSTION OF FUEL-SUPPLY.
Ihave still to refer to one other question, the consideration of which must
always give rise to very serious thoughts. We have seen that the decisive vic-
tories which, in modern times, man has gained over matter and over other animals
have been due to his use of power derived from other than animal sources. That
power has invariably proceeded from the combustion and the destruction of fuel,
the accumulations of which in the earth are necessarily limited.
Mechanical appliances, involving the consumption of fuel, have, for a century
at least, been multiplying with alarming rapidity. Our minds have been set
mainly on enlarging the uses and conveniences of man, and scarcely at all on
economising the great sources of power in nature, which are now for the most part
its fuels. Terrible waste of these valuable stores is daily going on in almost every
department of use. Once exhausted they can never be replaced. They have been
drawn upon to some extent for 1,000 years, and extensively for more than 100.
Authorities say that another 1,000 years will exhaust all the more accessible
supplies. But suppose they last 5,000 years—what then? Why, then, as far as
we can at present see, our only motive-powers will be wind and water and animals,
and our only mode of transit, sailing and rowing, driving, cycling, riding, and
walking.
Sir Robert Ball has estimated that in not less than 5,000,000 and not more
than 10,000,000 years the sun will have become too cold to support life of any
kind on this planet. Between the 5,000 years when fuel will certainly be ex-
hausted and the 5,000,000 years when all life may be extinguished, there will still
be 4,995,000 years when, according to present appearances, man will have to give
up his hardly-earned victories over matter and other animals, and the latter will
again surpass him, each in its own element, because he has no fuel.
1 Engineer, January 13, 1893, p. 28.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 873
CONCLUSION,
Leaving to our posterity these more remote troubles, we may, I think, justly
draw from the entire discussion the conclusion that we have still a great deal to
learn from mechanisms as they exist in nature. Great as have been the achieve-
ments of man since he first began to study mechanical science, with a view to
directing the great sources of power in nature for his own use and convenience,
the entire field of research is by no means yet fully exhausted. We must continue
to study the same science with undiminished ardour. In so doing we shall do well
to bear in mind that success can be achieved only by the patient, accurate, and
conscientious observation of the great facts of nature, which are equally open to
us all and waiting for our attention; and by drawing correct inferences therefrom,
and by applying such inferences correctly to the fulfilment of the future needs and
destiny of our race.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Automatic Balance of Reciprocating Mechanisin.
By W. Worsy Beaumont, M.Inst.C.H.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso among the Reports.
See p. 665. ]
2. On Lace Machinery. By HE. Dovucury.
The commencement of the machine for making lace may be dated about 1764,
when the old-fashioned stocking machine had been in existence about 200 years,
about which time certain discoveries and improvements were made which enabled
it to produce a net, at that time considered to be a great achievement, thus
making the stocking machine virtually the first lace machine. In the course of
the next few years various other improvements by skilful mechanics were made,
which ultimately ended in producing a very useful net for embroidering purposes,
finding employment for a large number of machines, as well as women and girls.
Very slow progress was made in the development of invention; but this is,
perhaps, not much to be surprised at, considering that the ordinary mechanical
tools in use were of the simplest description: there were no labour-saving self-act-
ing tools with a steam engine for motive power to be found in any workshop then,
and every tool, except files, had to be made by the workman himself, who also
had to make every screw, bolt, and nut that he required.
The absolute necessity to supply himself with nearly every one of his require-
ments made the mechanic of that time a man of great resources, and contributed
very much to his inventive faculties. At that time nearly every part of the
machine was constructed of wrought iron, except the large framework, which was
made of wood, cast iron being almost unknown then in machine making.
Further developments of the stocking machine led to the making of the warp
machine, which had many details in common with its original, though very
different in some respects. At one time great numbers of warp machines were
employed in making a very useful cloth with which our sailors were clothed for
years. Similar cloth has come into use again the last ten years under the name
of Stockinette, being very elastic.
But a net was wanted, like that made by hand on the Continent, called
Brussels net. After many trials by inventors Heathcote succeeded in making
the exact net itself, and resulted in making his fortune, though it ruined hundreds
of machine-owners who made net that had previously been used for the same
‘purpose. Heathcote’s machine was protected by patents, which many tried to
evade by making the net on other machines. One man named Leavers originated
a different machine, which after many alterations has come down to our time as
the most useful lace machine we have.
874 REPORT—1893.
Another machine was developed out of the plain net machine for making lace
curtains.
A number of small details of machines were exhibited showing the relative
differences of the old and the new.
3. On Knitting Machinery. By Cuas. R. Woopwarp.
The paper opens with historical references to the early forms of machinery for
Initting, and shows what enormous strides have been made in improving their
mechanical design and construction, what great progress in loop-forming capacity—
advancing from 500 to 500,000 loops per minute—and how large and varied is the
present scope of the trade, embracing, as it does, not only all forms of knitted
underwear, but also stockinette cloth, astrachans, Cardigan jackets, Tam-o’-
Shanter caps, down to bags in which to import foreign mutton. The new era in
the making of stockings is next specially dwelt on and the main reasons given for
the return to domestic machinery, among which are its cheapness, the low rate of
wages for which country people will work, the fact that the goods require so little
finishing that manufacturers have no factory expenses, and that much more com-
fortable socks and stockings are produced on these machines than on earlier types.
The attempts recently made to successfully compete with the domestic machinery
are next mentioned, the cosmopolitan spirit of Nottingham machinists shown in
their introducing American machines into England, chief among which machines
are the ‘Shaw,’ ‘ Scott & Williams,’ and ‘Aiken’ machines, on which one girl will
knit from fifty to eighty dozen pairs of half-hose per week, but which, unlike their
rivals, are confined to the making of plain, z.e., not ribbed fabrics. The probable
lines of future development, though somewhat difficult to forecast, are indicated,
and may be summarised thus:—Machinery which will work either by foot-pedals
or steam power, and in which the narrowing, widening, changing of ribs, and
forming of heels, toes, &c., will be manipulated by hand in a similar manner to
that in which a typewriter is worked.
4. On Lace and Hosiery Machinery. By Professor W. Rosinson.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Third Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical
Science. By Professor H. 8. Heute Suaw, M.Inst.C.H.—See Reports,
p. 573.
2. Report on Determining the Dryness of Steam in Boiler Trials.
See Reports, p. 572.
3. On Thermal Storage by Utilisation of Town Refuse. By C. C. Kuer.
4. On the Disposal of Refuse. By Wiit1am Warner, A.M.1.0.H.
The treatment of refuse upon scientific principles was commenced by Mr. Alfred
Fryer eighteen years ago.
Dry house refuse, mixed refuse, excrementitious matter, and sewage refuse
treatment had been in the experimental stage for some time, but no one had shown
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 875
that it was possible to deal with these objectionable matters without creating a
nuisance. The appliances then introduced were only used at a very heavy cost to
ratepayers.
Although most of Mr. Fryer’s inventions dealt with refuse in a divided form, as
resulting from the introduction of the pail system, he also provided for the treat-
ment of refuse from middens.
The pail system was then believed to be the right thing by most sanitarians,
and Mr. Fryer’s attention was turned to the pure excrementitious matter collected
from pail closets.
The author referred to the crude and unsatisfactory methods in use. The mid-
dens were built above the ground level, and had only capacity to allow of small
accumulation of refuse. It was found by experiments that excrementitious matter,
when kept entirely separated, would produce a very valuable manure, which is
worth at the present time 6/. per ton, and those towns treating it in the best
apparatus had gained a fair revenue. Towns situated in agricultural districts are
able to dispose of their sewage sludge, after pressing it, at a price which covers the
cost of treatment; but many towns find it difficult to dispose of it. Experiments
indicate that sewage sludge might be used successfully in the manufacture of bricks
with specially designed machinery and kilns.
Road refuse is now much reduced by the good condition of the roads. Road
sweepings when collected are not valuable as a fertiliser, and therefore are of little
value to land, and will not burn even in destructors unless mixed with a large
proportion of house refuse. Most authorities tip up the road sweepings upon waste
land at considerable expense, and at the risk of creating a nuisance. There is,
however, some value for this refuse, as the author has proved from a series of experi-
ments conducted by him for a special committee of the Kensington Vestry. As
to the disposal of house refuse for a town the size of Nottingham, producing
approximately 400 tons per day, if the greater portion of the refuse were sent to
farmers, and a small portion to a destructor, figures show that it is not possible to
look forward to a large amount of power for electric lighting; it is even question-
able whether the power thus generated could be applied usefully for that purpose.
Supposing its refuse to have the average steam-producing qualities, about 300
horse-power will be obtained for an expenditure in labour of nearly 17/. per day,
equal to over 5,000/. per annum.
With coal the cost of labour would be only 1507. per annum, and the cost of
coal for fuel would be under 1,500/.; therefore, taking the refuse to cost nothing
for delivery at a destructor works conveniently situated for producing electricity,
the actual loss would amount to no less than 3,350/. per annum over coal fuel, and
if they took into consideration the cost for repairs and interest on capital, this loss
would be greatly increased.
Looking these facts into the face electric light produced by burning refuse could
only show economical results in very exceptional cases, and authorities should
consider the matter carefully before launching into a scheme of this kind. wauaast
The author has estimated the cost of burning at 10d. per ton, but if the treat-
ment would cost 1s., the increased loss would be 1,245/. per annum, making a total
loss of 4,590/. per annum. ;
Taking the comparison of burning refuse in different kinds of destructors, these
figures should be taken carefully into consideration, as 1d. per ton more in the cost
of burning means over 600/. per annum in a town the size of Nottingham.
5. On Warming and Ventilation. By Frank Asuwett, M.I.M.E.
The subject of warming and ventilation has been chosen by the author, as he is
of opinion it is not yet so fully and generally studied as its importance demands,
and he trusts the remarks which he will have to offer, supported as they are by
very considerable practical experience, may prove of some interest. The principle
of mens sana in corpore sano is as true to-day as ever, and with improved condi-
tions of life the mind will have more chance to develop itself. The author contends
876 REPORT—1893.,
that a great advance has been made in the last year or two in the ventilation of
large public and private buildings, to which class of buildings he will more
particularly confine himself, and that if only a sufficient—by no means extrava-
gant—amount of money is provided for it, some really definite results can be
guaranteed.
It will not be necessary here to give an elaborate statement why it is necessary
to provide for a proper supply of heat and pure air to our schools and public
buildings; this has to some extent been done in the paper itself, which has been
printed for circulation, and which may be referred to; but the author would like
to point out at once that, in his opinion, no scheme of ventilation is complete
which does not provide at the same time for the warming of the incoming air.
The various methods of ventilation may be grouped under two heads, viz.,
ventilation by natural means and ventilation by artificial or mechanical means.
Not much need be said here about natural ventilation, as it is now almost
generally admitted that it is not suited for the ventilation of large public or private
buildings, and in the future remarks attention will only be paid to mechanical
ventilation, which will be subdivided again into mechanical ventilation by extrac-
tion (Vacuum system) and mechanical ventilation by impulsion (Plenum system).
The author's firm has had the good fortune to carry out a large number of
ventilation schemes in various parts of the country, in which either the one or the
other system or combinations of the two have been employed, some of which have
been described in the paper at considerable length with the aid of eight diagrams;
and he hascome to the conclusion that, where the Plenum system can be employed,
it is the best and most reliable of all the schemes of ventilation. It is assumed
here that the scheme is well designed, well carried out, and well superintended,
as no scheme whatsoever has a fair chance if these conditions have not been
complied with.
One of the chief drawbacks of the Vacuum system is the uncertainty as to the
purity of the incoming air, which will be drawn from that place that offers
the least resistance to the passage of the air, and if badly constructed drains and
sewers are near it may come from these.
Various objections have been raised against the Plenum system, and it is said
to have been a failure in several cases. Of course the author cannot attempt to
deal with installations put up by other gentlemen, but he would most emphatically
say that his experience, which he has given in the paper, does not bear out those
contentions, which not unfrequently haye proceeded from quarters interested in
ventilation by natural means.
All the objections cannot be considered here, but one or two of the more
prominent ones will be dealt with shortly in the following remarks :—
1. As to breakdowns of the machinery.
It has been stated that if the engine breaks down no fresh air can be supplied
till it is repaired.
In this respect the system stands on the same basis as all other so-called
natural or mechanical schemes of ventilation, with this advantage, perhaps, that
an accident to the machinery is at once noticed, and can be remedied without
delay, whereas a breakdown in a patent cowl or some such appliance may not be
noticed for a considerable time, as nobody attends to it.
It would, however, not be true to say that during a breakdown no fresh air at
all will be supplied: this would only be the case during the warm weather, and
then the openings of the windows will soon remedy it. During a breakdown in
winter the hot air will still, to some extent, ventilate the rooms till the repairs are
complete. This would be the condition of things in cases where no duplicate
power is provided ; but where this has been done, either by an extraction-tower, as
at Nottingham, or a fan in the roof driven by an electric motor or by a duplicate
engine at the air inlet, then no inconvenience at all will be felt during repairs ;
and though this course will prove somewhat more expensive at first, yet in the long
run it will be the cheapest, and should be adopted in all cases where a temporarily
reduced supply of fresh air entails hardship or danger to life. If this is done, then
it may safely be asserted that the Plenum system is the most reliable system of
ventilation.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 877
2. As to scheme being too complicated.
It is quite true that any scheme of mechanical ventilation is more complicated
than schemes of natural or so-called automatic ventilation; but Plenum schemes
are by no means too complicated for successful working, as is proved by the
experience gained in all parts of the globe.
To say that a natural scheme of ventilation is uninterruptedly at work all the
year round is, to say the least, very misleading. It may be true that the atmo-
sphere isalways in motion ; but then this motion may be so infinitesimally small at
times as to cause no movement of air at all in our buildings—a state of affairs
well known to all those who have to rely on this kind of ventilation. =
The addition of the machinery is a safeguard for the regular supply of air in
the proper quantities, and it is far better and wiser in all matters concerning so
immediately the health of countless thousands as ventilation does to have a special
man constantly attending to it, rather than leave it to itself, and all sorts of
mishaps.
3. As to cost of scheme.
It is undoubtedly a most important matter to consider very carefully the cost
of any ventilation scheme; but when comparing the expenses in connection with
two different modes of ventilation for one building, great care must be taken to
place the two schemes exactly, as far as this is possible, on the same basis as to the
purity of air supplied, the quantity, the regularity, the convenience of working
them, &c. If this is not done the results obtained will be utterly useless and mis-
leading ; but whenever this is done, and all the circumstances of the case considered,
the author is confident that the expenses in connection with the Plenum system
will not be found excessive. He has not prepared any figures, as he is of opinion
general figures are frequently totally misleading, and for this reason he would
recommend the consideration of the question of cost afresh for each particular case.
Concerning the value of other methods of ventilation, one of which it may be
necessary to adopt where the Plenum system cannot be installed, the author wishes
it to be understood that he by no means'condemns them; that, on the contrary,
each has its special advantages under certain conditions. In each individual case
the ventilating engineer will have to investigate first its special circumstances and
requirements, no two cases being alike, and then he will have to select his scheme
accordingly.
In concluding his remarks on warming and ventilation the author desires to
make it clear that his aim throughout has been to state his case fairly and fully,
and he trusts he has succeeded in this; if, at the same time, he has been able to
increase the interest in this question of vital importance, then all his efforts will be
well repaid.
6. On Modern Watchmaking. By T. P. Hewirr.
7. On Patent Percussive Tool for Calking, Chipping, Mining.
By J. MacEwan Ross.
The tool which the author now brings under notice is composed of few parts,
and those are of the most substantial character.
The piston is a solid steel forging, truly turned and ground into the cylinder, so
as to work or float quite freely, and this is the only moving part in the tool. It is
about 3 in. long, slightly reduced at the centre where the actuating fluid is intro-
duced into the cylinder.
The handle of the outer casing is cast hollow. One side is truly bored out and
fitted with a brass piston valve covering the outlet of exhaust.
This valve is fitted with a trigger which when drawn back by the finger sets
the tool in motion by allowing the exhaust to escape.
One man, by the use of this tool, can do as much work in a given time as five
to ten men can do when calking by hand.
The principle upon which the tool works is as follows. The piston is turned
878 REPORT—1893.
as before stated, reduced at the centre, leaving a collar on each end. The inside
edges of these collars form the cut-off edges for pressure, while the outside edges
govern the exhaust ports. When the piston is in its central position in the cylinder,
there is a dead point for pressure and exhaust. But when the piston rests on the
end of the chisel, and the tool is pressed up to its work, the inlet port is opened on
the front side, and the exhaust port at the back end of the cylinder. Therefore, when
the exhaust trigger valve is opened,a load of about seventy times the piston’s mass
acts on the end of the piston, and sends it at an enormous velocity, which carries
it over the dead point until it is cushioned at the back end of the cylinder, and
similarly on its return stroke until it hits the chisel head.
The tool also works equally well with steam, special provision being made to
prevent the heat of the steam from inconveniencing the workman. The tool is
now largely used for calking, and it has been applied with success to the operations
of chipping and dressing plates and castings.
It is also capable of boring a 1-in. hole through sandstone at the rate of about
12 in. per minute, and through whinstone at about 4} in. per minute.
It is largely used by many of the leading railway companies, engineers, and
shipbuilders throughout the country.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Relative Cost of Conductors with Different Systems of Electric
Power Transmission. By GisBert Kapp.
Owing to difficulties of insulation and flashing at the commutator, long-distance
transmission of power by continuous current is not so practicable as by alternating
currents, where the generating and receiving apparatus can easily be insulated to
any desired degree. The working pressure is thus limited, not by the apparatus at
either end, but by the difficulties of insulating the line, and in comparing various
systems of power transmission it is necessary to place all on an equal footing as
regards stress on the insulation of the line. Taking a transmission plant with
continuous currents as the standard of comparison, and assuming in all cases the
same distance, total power, efficiency, and safety against breakdown of the insula-
tion, the author finds that the single-phase two-wire system of transmission by
alternating currents requires double the weight of copper as compared with con-
tinuous currents. The same ratio applies to the double-phase alternating current
sent over four wires, but if the system is worked with a common return (7.e., em-
ploying only three wires), the weight of copper is increased to 2-9 times that of
the equivalent continuous current system. ‘This increase is due to the fact that by
tying two of the conductors together the absolute potential between the other two
and between either and earth is increased, and to get back to the original condition
of stress on the insulation the working pressure has to be lowered. With the three-
phase three-wire system the weight of copper is only 1°5 time that of the equi-
valent continuous current system, showing that as regards economy of copper the
three-phase system has an appreciable advantage over the single and the two-phase
systems,
2. On the Utilisation of Waste Water-power for Generating Electricity.
By Aupion T. SNELL.
On the Continent water-power is extensively used for driving electric plants,
but in Great Britain, for a similar purpose, power is usually derived from the
combustion of coal.
This difference in practice is partly the result, no doubt, of the relative supply
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 879
of water-power in the neighbourhood of places where electric plants would prove
commercially profitable ; but itis also largely due to the relative cost of fuel. We
do not possess abundant natural sources of water-power in or near our large manu-
facturing districts, and even if we did it is not probable that with coal at the
average price of the last ten years water-power would prove much cheaper when
the capital invested, interest, and cost of maintenance of the electric plant were
taken into consideration. But we may with reason pause to ask two questions:
Will coal at such a price be always obtainable? And do we make the most of
such water-power as we have and can profitably use? Let us look at the second
question first. Liverpool is supplied with water from Lake Vyrnwy, in North
Wales, the total difference of head being about 500 feet. There must be a consider-
able quantity of power in the conduit. Is any of it utilised? And if not, does the
reason lie in the fact that fuel at present is so cheap? Could the Manchester
Waterworks, which form a mignon’ series of artificial lakes, be utilised to
drive turbines and give electric energy for lighting the various towns in their
vicinity? Again, the watershed behind Greenock has a fall of many hundred
feet, and the water is only partly utilised to drive mills. These are only a few in-
stances in which water-power might perhaps be advantageously used for driving
turbine dynamos. There are, of course, numerous mountain streams which could
be dammed, and thus converted into reservoirs for feeding turbines.
There is still much misconception on the part of the responsible advisers of
manufacturers and mineral owners as to the possibilities of electricity for the
transmission of power. But the experience gained during the last decade is
gradually making itself felt, and the most conservative must admit it has given us
the means of utilising natural water-power in a far more efficient manner than was
formerly possible.
Various plants, typical of Continental practice, were then referred to by the
writer. They differ widely, both as regards size, method, and details; but they
are all designed on the broad lines of utilising waste water-power, and transmitting
its energy electrically to towns where it can be usefully expended.
The writer says that alternate currents appear to be generally selected, perhaps,
because they offer more advantages than direct currents for high pressures, and
are generally more easily managed; and in several cases it has been deemed
advisable to use a direct-current distribution with an alternate-current transmission,
as at Cassel.
The Lauffen-Heilbronn plant is at present the only important instance of a
rotary-current system, and there considerable difficulty is found in balancing the
load on the two circuits.
In England there are only a few installations which derive their power from
water, such as the small central station for lighting Lynmouth and Lynton, and a
few private installations. A scheme, on fa large scale, for electrically lighting
Worcester by means of power derived from the river Severn is in hand, and will,
no doubt, lead to similar plants.
One of the most important instances of the application of water-power for
electric power transmission in Great Britain is that at the Greenside Silver Lead
Mines in Cumberland, which was designed by the writer about three years ago,
On the east slopes of Hellvelyn lies a small natural lake called the Red Tarn,
and on the north-east the impounded water of Keppel Cove. Between the
two waters rises the hill of Catstycam, at the base of which the two overflows
join, and near to which the Greenside Silver Lead Mining and Smelting Company
have erected their turbine-dynamo station. The water is led from an elevation of
1,750 feet above sea-level, and flows through an open watercourse 1} mile in
length to a large reservoir, from which it is conveyed down the hill-side for a dis-
tance of 360 yards in 15-inch cast-iron pipes. The fall at the station is equivalent
to a vertical head of 400 feet, and the etfective horse-power is about 200.
The generating station contains one of Gilkes & Co.’s vortex turbines of
100 horse-power, driving a four-pole compound dynamo.
The electric current is conveyed by two bare copper conductors on poles for
six furlongs, and then enters the mine at an elevation of 1,850 feet above the
880 REPORT—1893.
sea-level. The conductors from this point are insulated and covered with lead.
About three-quarters of a mile in the mine, or 1} mile from the dynamo,
a 9-horse-power series motor is employed to wind ore from a set of sinkers.
Further into the mine another quarter of a mile, and down 120 yards at the bottom
level, is fixed another 9-horse-power motor, working a three-throw pump, forcing
the water 360 feet in height.
About midway between these motors there is fixed a dynamotor, which reduces
the pressure from 600 to 250 volts for working an electro-locomotive in the lowest
day level of the mine, through which runs the water pumped from the 120-yards
level and the whole of the water used by two hydraulic winding engines. Four
horses formerly worked this level. The locomotive runs with twelve waggons, the
total weight when loaded being eighteen tons, and does the work of the four
horses with the greatest ease. The conductors in the level are phosphor bronze
wire, and the current is fed to the locomotive by four contact pulleys.
The chief difficulty attending the use of water-power is the irregular and some-
times intermittent character of the supply, and hence it is necessary to exercise
great care in judging the suitability of water for given work. Thiscan be obviated
to a large extent by building reservoirs and regulating the output according to the
power required; but when lighting forms an important part of the scheme,
secondary batteries may be used most advantageously. Accumulators act not only
as reservoirs, but also as regulators, storing up excess of power, and giving it out
when the prime power is insufficient or the turbines are stopped. They are there-
fore especially useful on installations for combined power and light when the
water-power varies intermittently. And they may be made a source of economy
when power is not required both by day and by night, and owing to the want of a
suitable reservoir the water runs to waste during the idle period; then accumula-
tors may be used to store the major part of this energy for electric lighting,
metallurgical, or even power purposes.
It will be gathered that the writer is fully aware the small water-power of
Great Britain can never show results equivalent to those obtained on the Continent ;
yet there is undoubtedly much water-power wasted here that is capable of being
profitably utilised. His object is simply to call attention to the improved means
of utilising water-power by the turbine dynamos, and to suggest that prompt
measures be taken to conserve as much power as possible by a proper.attention to
the building of dams and reservoirs wherever this may be feasible ; and that such
power should be used if convenient, to the exclusion of coal, and, if not so, as an
auxiliary power, the steam plant being used as a stand-by as much as possible.
This proposal, if properly carried out, would decrease the total consumption of coal
to a greater extent than is generally supposed, and would make a number of manu-
facturers less dependent upon it than they are to-day, even if it did not appreciably
cheapen the cost of power. But in a number of favoured cases there can be no
doubt that water-power properly applied would considerably decrease the cost of
working, allowing a proportionate gain to both producer and consumer.
3. On a new Form of Variable Power-gear for Electric Raihvays and
Tramways. By W. Worsy Beaumont, M.Inst.C.L.
It is a matter of great importance on electrical railways and tramways that the
maximum steam-engine power at work in the generating station should be as little
above the mean load as possible.
It is found on electrical railways now at work that there is a great waste of
power, and therefore of fuel, in consequence of the large consumption of current in
getting the trains into motion by motors attached directly to the axles. On the
South London Railway it is found that the power employed electrically in over-
coming the inertia of the train is from 25 to 50 and 60 per cent. greater than that
required to keep the train going.
Mr. J. H. Greathead, M.I.C.E., the engineer of this railway, has shown that
if this could be avoided from 20 to 30 per cent, of the engine power which must
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 881
under present conditions be kept running might be shut down. The author shows
this by diagrams representing the variation in the consumption of power in the
working of this railway, as given by Mr. Greathead.
For several reasons the employment of geared locomotives is undesirable on
railways, although single-reduction gearing is most generally adopted for tram-
ways, and probably will remain best for that purpose. The noise made by high-
speed gearing and the wear are both objectionable, otherwise a geared locomotive
offers the means of overcoming, to some extent, the losses referred to.
In the paper the author shows how an intermediate course can be adopted
which will entirely remove the loss of power at the generating station. The
electric motor is placed directly on the driving-axle, but is reduced in size and
power to more nearly that of the mean horse-power required on the road. This,
for the greater part of the journey of a train from station to station, drives the axle
upon which it is placed, at its own speed, just as those do which are now upon the
South London Railway. The motor is, however, on a hollow spindle, which drives
the axle, when starting a train, through the medium of a compact double clutch
containing one pair of epicycloidal reducing wheels. The clutches are operated by
electro-magnets or by fluid pressure.
The train or locomotive may by this means be started at from one-fourth to
one-seventh of the speed of the motor. After a few seconds, the inertia of the
train haying been overcome, the motor, the clutch-gear, and the driving-axle are
solidly coupled, and all move as one piece, the gearing only working during the
starting of the train.
The motor may thus run idle upon the axle, or may drive the latter at one-
seventh of its speed, or at its own speed. A breakdown leaves the locomotive in
the condition of a gearless engine.
For tramears similar apparatus is described in the paper, which will drive the
car by a direct motor with starting ratio of gear of about six to one, or by single
reduction gearing will drive the car either at the usual gear ratio of about four te
one, or, for starting, at a ratio of about twenty-four to one.
A, On Self-exciting Armatures and Compensators for Loss of Pressure.
By W. B. Sayers.
5. On a Mechanical System of Electrical Conductors. By E. Payne.
These conductors have been designed with the object of providing a system of
mechanical conductors, constructed without the use of vegetable substances, which
shall not be open to the objection sometimes urged against the wood-casing and
covered wires usually employed for interior wiring, viz., that they are not composed
of fireproof and imperishable materials like gaspipes, waterpipes, and other fixtures
and fittings.
The author began to work out the details of the system in the autumn of 1890,
in company with his partner, Mr. Carrington Smythe, and Mr. David Cook, whe
" now the engineer and general manager of the City of London Electric Lighting
ompany.
The conductors consist of tubes, strips, rods, or wires of copper separated from
one another by insulators fixed at intervals, and usually made of glazed earthen-
ware. It was our object to construct the conductors so that they could be made
up in lengths in the workshop and sent out ready for erection.
The first experiments were made with tubes arranged on the concentric prin-
ciple, and consisted of a copper rod or a tube filled with bare wires placed inside
another tube ; when this was not used as an earthed return these were placed inside
a third tube which was used merely as a mechanical protection.
The chief mechanical difficulties that had to be got over were (1) the fixing of
the insulators to the conductors, whether tubes, rods, or wives, so that they might be
sent out in lengths or in coils ready insulated ; and (2) the designing of suitable
junctions and junction-supports for the outside tubes.
1893. 3 L
882 REPORT—1893.
By using tubular strips of thin copper, not soldered or brazed along the edges,
the author was able to fix the ring-shaped separators in position by having them
made to fit tightly and forcing them over the tube, so that they were held by the
outward spring of the metal.
He improved upon this method by making the inside or inner insulators to fit
lightly inside the tube, so that the insulators were held in position by their mutual
inward and outward pressure.
He next subdivided the outer tube into two or more separate strips, kept apart
by projections on the insulators, so as to be able to run two or more circuits in one
tube, using the central wire as a common return. For fixing the insulators to
wires and strips two wires were passed through separate holes in insulators at
intervals, the wires being afterwards twisted to hold the insulators in position.
By employing a conductor or combination of conductors of non-circular section
and passing them through non-circular holesof suitable size made in the insulators,
and afterwards twisting the conductors, the insulators are fixed firmly in position.
In all cases other wires may be drawn through other holes to form leads or returns
for other circuits. Several circuits can thus be run in one tube, and a great deal
of jointing is thus done away with. For jointing the tubes L- and T-shaped
castings or stampings are used, which can be fixed over or round the ends of the
tubes where they meet.
The author and his coadjutors have also designed and used a large number of
junction-boxes made in parts and all interchangeable, so that they can be adapted
to work with the fittings—ceiling-roses, switches, &c.—in daily use. Rows of
lamps fixed on a tube and arranged on one or more circuits are convenient for
lighting shop windows and showrooms, and for the footlights on the stage.
The tubes can be erected round the walls of a room like picture rods.
As the temperature of the interiors of buildings is usually higher than that of
the air outside we do not meet with the fall in the insulation owing to condensa-
tion in the tubes, which is sometimes said to occur in underground conduits where
bare conductors are run on insulators.
These conductors can be erected in hot places and in hot countries, where they
are exposed to the heat of the sun without any fear of damage to the insulation.
They are proof against the attacks of rats and mice when laid under floors, and if a
conduit becomes red-hot there is nothing that will catch fire.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Flashing Lights for Lighthouses. By O. T. OLsEn.
In the interest of the nautical world the author proposes a system for the im-
provement in the distinguishing characters of coast-lights and light-vessels through-
out the world. Admiral Colomb introduced a system of flashing numerals for
signalling over thirty years ago, which still remains open for the mercantile
marine to adopt; Lord Kelvin investigated the lights of the coast some years ago,
with a view to making them known by flashing the International Code letters:
this has not been adopted, as the Morse code, which it would be necessary for
every mariner to learn and remember, is too complicated. The author proposes
that the numerals only should be used, and not the alphabet.
(1) All the principal lighthouses and light-vessels throughout the world should
be arranged in numerical order, beginning with, say, the oldest or British lights.
Allot to each light a number, beginning with 1,000, so that no less than four
figures may be flashed, these numbers to be inserted in the Admiralty list of
lights, and copied into all charts, sailing directions, almanacs, &e.
(2) Make each light flash its allotted number, and no other, by means of an
automatic apparatus or clockwork as in use at present. The shortest and easiest
a
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 883
flashing system is that introduced by Admiral Colomb, which consists of ten
figures, represented by short and long flashes, thus :—
Alles, en Seca) meme eet Ge cies de cia \OUdereL ce ie te
6— 7 .— 8 —— . 9... — 0 —
The present flashing, occulting, intermittent, and revolving lights are capable
of performing the services required by a slight alteration in the clockwork to give
the necessary division of time, thus :—
A short flash, 1 second; an interval between two figures, 4 seconds; and an
eclipse of nine seconds after each complete signal, followed by a steady light for the
remainder of the 60 seconds. p
Example—to flash a light the number of which is 3,724 would occupy
39 seconds, and leave a bright light 21 seconds, the whole to occupy one minute,
thus :—
Seconds
Eclipse : : : : A : ‘ . aera
Fig. 3 . e : > > : : ‘ c nD
Kclipse : : - Pati
Fig. i e . . . . . . . . 5
Kclipse - < : : . : . : . 3
Fig. 2 . : ; F 3 ‘ ‘ c = oS
Eclipse : : : : A : 5 sis
Fig. 4 . 4
Eclipse 9
Bright light 21
60
Seconds
No. 1111 would be the shortest, occupying only . + 28
Bright light. ° ' : ¢ : ‘ ° . 37
260),
Seconds
No. 5555 would take the longest time to flash, viz, . 55
leaving——
Bright light . . > : : . : 3 hip
60
This is the extreme range, and the whole can thus be performed in one minute,
and the light to repeat this revolution every minute during the night.
In fog the author proposes that the numbers be given by a siren every minute,
such siren to be confined strictly to lighthouses and light-vessels, and prohibited
in the mercantile marine.
In adopting this system the mariner will become acquainted with the flashing
system, and thus lay the foundation of an international flashing signal system for
the mercantile marine, so much needed. The author believes that 999 sentences
selected from the Commercial Code Book would be ample for all practical
purposes,
2. On an Automatic Gem-separator.
By Wiuram §S. Loccuartr, W.L.0.H., MLL.
The separator described was devised for the purpose of selecting precious stones
from the worthless gravel with which they are associated without the intervention
of hand-picking as now practised, thus avoiding the danger of loss by theft and
other disadvantages. In South Africa, Burma, Siam, Ceylon, and other parts of
the world the systems of washing vary to some extent. The earlier stages of
these processes would take too long to describe, but all systems resolve themselves
finally into the picking over of a concentrated deposit of clean washed gravel for
the gems it may contain, and it is at this point that the separator comes in to
perform what has hitherto been done by hand. When it is realised that the
38L2
- 884 REPORT—1893.
-proportion of gems to worthless pieces of mineral is not a percentage merely, but
of one to many thousands, the utility of such a machine is obvious.
The,concentrated gravel when washed is most carefully classified into sizes,
beginning, for diamonds, at one-sixteenth of an inch, and increasing by sixteenths
_ up to five-eighths of an inch, or still further if desired. Lach size of gravel is fed
into a separator adapted to suit it. The separator has no moving parts—and takes
advantage, by means of a stream of water running through it, of the slight varia-
tion in specific gravity between the gems (3° to 4) and the worthless minerals
(2'5 to 3). It is possible to separate such substances by immersing them in a pre-
pared solution of high specific gravity, just as pebbles and chips may be separated
in water; but there are practical difficulties about such a process, and the gem-
separator described substitutes a moving current of water for the heavier solution,
with the advantage that the process is continuous, the separated materials being
deposited in their proper receptacles, those for the gems being guarded by locks.
The details of the machine are described, and a machine shown at work.
The operations of the machine are not confined to gems. The separation cf
any minerals from their gangue, provided always there is a slight difference in
specific gravity, may be effected, and the machine will work on broken materiak
in a dry or merely wetted, state or on slimes run in with a stream of water.
3. On some Experiments with Ventilating Fons or Air-propellers.
By Wiiu1am Georce Watker, M.Inst.M.E.
These experiments have reference to those ventilating fans or air-propellers of
the screw-propeller type used for low-pressure ventilators.
The primary cbject of the experiments was to test the efficiency of fans or air-
propellers, differing only from each other in the cross-section of their blades, which
section chiefly referred tothe rearward or non-propelling face of the blades or
vanes,
The first series of experiments were made with air-propellers 14 in, diameter
and 21 in. pitch, and of two, three, and six blades respectively. Each propeller
was tried at progressive revolutions, varying from 600 up to 2,000 per minute.
The blades were composed of sheet brass ;1, in. thick.
The second series were made with the same propellers, but having a curved
convex protuberance fixed to the back surface of the blades, forming a section
which is a hollow piano-convex form, the convex surface constituting the non-
propelling surface, or backs of the blades.
In all cases the efficiency of the blades was increased by the addition of the
convex surface ; in some cases the number of cubic feet per revolution was nearly
doubled, the power being the same in each case.
Some further comparative experiments were made with fans of 2 feet in dia-
meter, and with blades of different sectional form, viz., (1) flat blades, (2) curved
blades, (3) helical blades, (4) flat blades with round protuberance fixed at back,
(5) curved blade with round protuberance fixed on, also other sections.
The angle of the blades and the area were the same in each case.. The experi-
ments most distinctly showed that a very great gain was obtained by the use of
the convex surface, and that the best results were obtained with a section of
concavo-conyex form,
The reason of the results may perhaps be explained from the ‘Stream Line”
principle. It seems that the convex surface at the back tends to fill up or destroy
the partial vacuum which exists at the back of each revolving blade. The existence
of an eddy in the wake of each blade must increase the rotary motion of the
air, caused by air passing through the propeller clinging or tending to rush into
the partial vacuum.
4. On the Testing Machine and Experimental Steam Engine in the
Lingineering Laboratories of University College, Nottingham.
By Prof. W. Roptnson.
885
Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—R. Munro, M.A., M.D.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The President delivered the following Address :—
Tue science of Anthropology, in its widest sense, embraces all the materials
bearing on the origin and history of mankind. These materials are so compre-
hensive and diversified, both in their character and methods of study, that they
become necessarily grouped into a number of subordinate departments. From a
bird’s-eye point of view, however, one marked line of demarcation separates them
into two great divisions, according as they relate to the structure and functions
of man’s body, or to the works he has produced—a classification well defined by
the words anthropology and archeology. The former, in its limited acceptation,
deals more particularly with the development of man—his physical peculiarities,
racial distinctions, linguistic manifestations, mental endowments, and, in short,
every morphological or mental modification he has undergone amidst the ever-
changing phenomena of hisenvironments. The latter, on the other hand, takes
cognisance of man merely as a handicraftsman. During his long journey in
past time he has left behind him, scattered on the highways and byways of
primeval life, numerous traces of his ways, his works, his culture, and his civilisa-
tion, all of which fall to be collected, sorted, and interpreted by the skilled
archeologist. In their general aspects and relationship to each other most of the
leading subjects in both these branches of the science have already been ex-
pounded, in the presidential addresses of my predecessors, by men so distinguished
in their respective departments that they have left little to be said by anyone
who attempts to follow in their footsteps. There is, however, one phase in the
progressive career of man which has not hitherto been so fully illustrated as
the subject appears to me to merit. I refer to the direct and collateral advan-
tages which the erect position has corferred on him; and to this I will now
briefly direct your attention, concentrating my observations successively on the
following propositions :—
(1) The mechanicai and physical advantages of the erect position.
(2) The differentiation of the limbs into hands and feet.
(3) The relation between the more perfect condition of these organs and the
development of the brain.
In the process of organic evolution it would almost appear as if nature acted
on teleological principles, because many of her products exhibit structures which
combine the most perfect adaptation of means to ends along with the greatest
economy of materials. This is well exemplified in some of the structural details
ot the organs of locomotion in which many of the so-called mechanical powers may
be seen in actual use. The primary object of locomotion was to enable the organ-
ism to seek its food over a larger area than was attainable by a fixed position.
The acquisition of this power was manifestly so advantageous to animal life that,
886 REPORT—1893.
the principles by which it could be effected became important factors in natural
selection. I need not here dwell on the various methods by which this has been
accomplished in the lower forms of life, but proceed at once to point out that in
the higher vertebrates the problem resolved itself into the well-known mechanism
of four movable limbs, capable of supporting and transporting the animal. As
these quadrupedal animals became more highly differentiated, in virtue of the
necessities of the struggle for life and the different and ever-varying conditions of
their surroundings, it followed that the limbs became also modified so as to make
them suitable, not only for locomotion in various circumstances, but also useful
to the animal economy in other ways. Hence they were subjected to an endless
variety of secondary influences, which finally adapted them for such diverse pur-
poses as swimming, flying, climbing, grasping, &c. The anterior limbs, owing to
their proximity to the head, were more frequently selected for such transformations
as may be seen, for instance, in the wings of a bird. But whatever modifications
the fore limbs may have undergone, no animal, with the exception of man, has
ever succeeded in divesting them altogether of their primary function. This
exceptional result was due to the erect position, which necessitated a complete:
division of labour as regards the functions of the limbs—the two anterior being
entirely restricted to manipulative and prehensile purposes, and the two posterior:
exclusively devoted to locomotion. Coincident with this notable specialisation of
their function a new field for advancement was opened up to man, in which intel-
ligence and mechanical skill became the leading factors in his further development.
Man is thus distinguished from all other animals by the fact that, in the
normal position of walking or running, he carries his body upright, z.¢., with
the axis of the vertebral column perpendicular, instead of horizontal or oblique.
In this position all its parts are so arranged as to require a minimum amount of
exertion in the performance of their functions. If any of the other higher ver-
tebvates should ever assume an erect attitude it can only be maintained tempo-
rarily, and its maintenance involves an additional expenditure of force. In a
certain sense a bird may be looked upon as a biped, but there is this distinction
to be drawn between it and man, viz., that the former has not only its body
balanced obliquely on its two legs, but also its fore limbs converted into special’
organs for motion in the air. The anthropoid apes hold an intermediate posi-
tion, and so carry their body in a semi-erect attitude. But this shortcoming in
reaching the perfectly upright position, however slight it may be in some of these
animals, represents a wide gap which can only be fully appreciated by a careful
study of the physiological and psychological phenomena manifested in their respec-
tive life-functions.
Everyone acquainted with the ordinary operations of daily life Inows how
much labour can be saved by attention to the mere mechanical principles in-
volved in their execution. In carrying a heavy load the great object is to adjust
it so that its centre of gravity comes as nearly as possible to the vertical axis of
the body, as otherwise force is uselessly expended in the effort to keep the entire:
moving mass in stable equilibrium—a principle well exemplified by the Italian
peasant girl when she poises her basket of oranges on her head. Once upon a
time a powerful waterman, accustomed to use buckets double the size of those
of his fellow-watermen, had the misfortune to have one of them broken. As he
could not, then and there, get another bucket to match the remaining one, and
wishing to make the best possible use of the appliances at hand, he replaced
the broken vessel by one half its size. He then filled both with water and
attempted to carry them, as formerly, attached to a yoke, one on each side of him.
But to his astonishment this arrangement would not work. The yoke became un-
even, and the effort to keep it balanced on his shoulders was so troublesome that:
he could not proceed. This emergency led to serious reflection, but, after some-
experimental trials, he ascertained that, by merely making the arm of the yoke
on which the small bucket was suspended double the length of the other, he could:
carry both buckets without inconvenience.
But let me take one other illustration. Suppose that two burglars have con-
cocted a plan to rob a richly-stored mansion by getting access to its rooms through
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 887
the windows of an upper story. In order to carry out this design they secure a
ladder, easily transported by the two together though too heavy for one. So,
bearing the ladder between them one at each end, they come to the house. After
a considerable amount of exertion they succeed in placing the ladder in an upright
osition-against the wall, and then one of the men mounts its steps and enters the
ouse. The man left outside soon realised that, once the ladder was balanced per-
pendicularly, he himself could then easily control it. Moreover, he made the dis-
covery that by resting its weight on each leg alternately, he could gradually shift
its position from one window to another. Thus there was no interruption or
limit to the extent of their depredations. Experience quickened their perceptions,
and ultimately they became adepts in their respective departments—the one in the
art of moving the ladder, and the other in the science of the nimble-fingered
gentry. The division of labour thus practised by these two men accurately repre-
sents what the attainment of the erect attitude has accomplished for man by setting
free his upper limbs from any further participation in the locomotion of his body.
The continued maintenance of this unique position necessitated great changes
in the general structure of the body. The solution of the problem involved the
turning of the ordinary quadruped a quarter of a circle in the vertical plane, thus
placing the axis of the spine perpendicular, and consequently in line with the
direction of the posterior limbs; and to effect this the osseous walls of the pelvis
underwent certain modifications, so as to bear the additional strain put upon them.
Stability was given to the trunk in its new position by the development of special
groups of muscles, whose powerful and combined actions render to the movements
of the human body their characteristic freedom and gracefulness. The lower limbs
were placed as widely apart as possible at their juncture with the pelvis, and the
thigh- and leg-bones were lengthened and strengthened so as to be capable of
supporting the entire weight of the body and of transporting it with due efficiency
when required. The spinal column assumed its well-known curves, and the skull,
which formerly had to be supported by a powerful muscle attached to the spinous
processes of the cervical vertebrae (ligamentum nuche), moved backwards until it
became nearly equipoised on the top of the vertebral column. The upper limbs,
instead of taking part in their original function of locomotion, were now them-
selves carried as flail-like appendages, in order to give them as much freedom and
range of action as possible. The shoulder-blades receded to the posterior aspect of
the trunk, having their axes at right angles to that of the spine. Further, like the
haunch-bones, they underwent certain modifications, so as to afford points of
attachment to the muscles required in the complex movements of the arms. In
the pendulous position each arm has its axis at right angles to that of the shoulder,
but by a common muscular effort the two axes can be readily brought into line.
The elbow-joint became capable of performing the movements of complete exten-
sion, flexion, pronation, and supination—in which respects the upper limb of man is
differentiated from that of all other vertebrates.
But it is in the distal extremities of the limbs that the most remarkable
anatomical changes have to be noted. The foot is virtually a tripod, the heel and
the ball of the great toe being the terminal ends of an arch, while the four outer
digital columns group themselves together to form the third, or steadying, point.
The outer toes thus play but a subordinate part in locomotion, and, as their pre-
hensile function is no longer of use, they may be said to be fast approaching to the
condition of rudimentary organs. The three osseous prominences which form this
tripod are each covered with a soft elastic pad, which both facilitates progression
and acts as a buffer for deadening any possible shock which might arise in the
course of running or leaping. The chief movement in the act of progression is
performed by an enormously developed group of muscles known as the calf of the
leg, so characteristic of man. The walker is thereby enabled to use the heel and the
ball of the great toe as successive fulcrums from which the forward spring is made,
the action being greatly facilitated by that of the trunk muscles in simultaneously
bending the body forwards. The human foot is thus admirably adapted to be both
a pillar for supporting the weight of the body and a lever for mechanically im-
pelling it forwards. Hence the amount of energy expended in progression is
888 REPORT—1893.
reduced to a minimum, and when estimated proportionally to the size of the body
itis believed to be considerably less than that requisite for the corresponding act
in quadrupeds.
The anatomical changes effected in the extremity of the upper limb are
equally radical, but of a totally different character and scope. Here we have to
eontemplate the transformation of the same homologous parts into an apparatus
for performing a series of prehensile actions of the most intricate character, but
among which neither locomotion nor support of the body forms any part whatever.
This apparatus is the human hand, the most complete and perfect mechanical
organ nature has yet produced. The fingers have become highly developed, and
can be opposed singly or in groups to the thumb, so as to form a hook, a clasp, or
a pair of pincers; and the palm can be made into a cup-shaped hollow, capable of
grasping a sphere, Nor is there any limit to the direction in which many of these
manipulations can be performed without any movement of the rest of the body.
For example, a pencil held by the thumb and the two forefingers, as in the act of
writing, can be placed in all the directions of space by a mere act of volition.
The position of such a perfect piece of mechanism, at the extremity of a
movable arm attached to the upper part of the trunk, gives to man a superiority
in attack and defence over all other animals, on the same principle as a soldier
finds it advantageous to fight from higher ground, Moreover, he possesses the
power to perform a variety of quick movements, and to assume attitudes and posi-
tions eminently adapted for the exercise of that manipulative skill with which he
counteracts the superior brute force of many of his antagonists. He can readily
balance his body on one or both legs, can turn on his heels as if they were pivots,
and can prostrate himself comfortably in the prone or supine positions. As the
centre of gravity of the whole body is nearly in line with the spinal axis, stable
equilibrium is easily maintained by the lumbar muscles, Altogether we have in
his physical constitution a combination of structures and functions sufficiently
unique in its towt-ensemble to place man in a category by himself. But at the
same time we must not forget that all his morphological peculiarities have been
brought about without the destruction of any of the primary and typical homo-
logies common to all the higher vertebrates.
Turning now to the brain, the undoubted organ of the mind, we find, in its
intellectual and psychical manifestations, a class of phenomena which gives to man’s
life-functions their most remarkable character. However difficult it may be for our
limited understanding to comprehend the nature of conscious sensation, we are
forced to the conclusion that the act invariably takes place through the instrument-
ality of a few nerve-cells, whose functional] activity requires to be renovated in
precisely the same manner as the muscular force expended in walking. The aggre-
gation of such cells into ganglia and nerves, by means of which reflex action,
consciousness, and a variety of psychical phenomena take place, is found to per-
meate, in a greater or less degree, the whole of the organic world. In the higher
vertebrates the seat of these manifestations is almost exclusively confined to an
enormous collection of brain substance placed at the upper end of the vertebral
column, and encased in a complete osseous covering called the skull. We learn
from numerous experimental researches, carried out by physiologists in recent years,
that the brain is a dual organ, consisting of a double series of distinct ganglia and
connected to some extent by a complex system of nervous tissues, not only with
each other, but with the central seat of consciousness and volition. But the diffi-
culty of determining the nature of its functions, and the modus operandi of its
psychological manifestations, is so great that I must pass over this part of the sub-
ject very lightly indeed. The conditions of ordinary reflex action require that a
group of muscles, by means of which a particular bodily movement is effected,
shall be connected with its co-ordinating ganglion by an afferent and an efferent
system of nerves. Impressions from without are conveyed by the former, or sen-
sory nerves, to the central ganglion, from which an impulse is retransmitted by the
motor nerves, and sets in operation the muscular force for producing the required
movement. But this efferent message is, in many cases, absolutely controlled by
volition ; and not only can it prevent the muscular action from taking place, but it
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 889
can effect a similar movement de novo without the direct intervention of external
impressions at all. Now it has been proved experimentally that the volitional
stimulus, which regulates the various movements of the body, starts from definite
portions of the brain according to the different results to be produced. This locali-
sation of brain functions, though still far from being thoroughly understood, comes
very appropriately into use in this inquiry. J*rom it we learn that the homology
which characterises the structural elements of the bodies of animals extends also
to the component parts of their respective brains. The law which differentiates
animals according to the greater specialisation of the functions of their various
organs has therefore its counterpart in the brain, and we naturally expect an
increase of brain substance in every case in which the functional activity of a
specific organ is extended. Thus the act of stitching with a needle and thread,
an act beyond the mental and physical capacity of any animal but man, would
entail a certain increase of brain substance, simply in obedience to the great com-
plexity of the movements involved in its execution, over and above that which
may be supposed to be due to the intellectual and reasoning faculties which
invented it.
That man’s brain and his intelligence are correlated to each other is a fact too
axiomatic to require any demonstration; nor can it be doubted that the relation-
ship between them is of the nature of cause and effect. But to maintain that the
amount of the latter is directly proportional to the size of the former is rather
straining the laws of legitimate inference. In drawing any general conclusion of
this nature from the bulk of brain substance, there are some modifying influences
which cannot be disregarded, such, for example, as the amount of cranial circula-
tion and the quality of the brain cells. But the determination of this point is not
the exact problem with which the evolutionist is primarily concerned. To him the
real crux in the inquiry is to account for the evolution of man’s comparatively
large brain under the intluence of existing cosmic forces. After duly considering
this problem, and casting about for a possible explanation, I have come to the con-
clusion that not only is it the result of natural laws, but that one of the main
factors in its production was the conversion of the upper limbs into true hands.
From the first moment that man recognised the advantage of using a club or a
stone in attacking his prey or defending himself from his enemies, the direct incen-
tives to a higher brain development came into existence. He would soon learn by
experience that a particular form of club or stone was more suitable for his pur-
poses ; and if the desiderated object were not to be found among the natural
materials around him, he would proceed to manufacture it. Certain kinds of stones
would be readily recognised as better adapted for cutting purposes than others,
and he would select his materials accordingly. If these were to be found
only in a special locality, he would visit that locality whenever the prized
material was needed. Nor would it be an unwarrantable stretch of imagina-
tion to suppose that the circumstances would lead him to lay up a store for future
use. These simple acts of intelligence assume little more than may be seen in
the actions of many of the lower animals. Consciousness of his power to make
and to wield a weapon was a new departure in the career of man, and every repe-
tition of such acts became an effective and ever-accumulating training force. What
a memorable event in the history of humanity was the manufacture of the first
sharp stone implement! Our sapient ancestor, who first used a spear tipped with
a sharp flint, became possessed of an irresistible power over his fellow men. The
invention of the bow and arrow may be parallelled with the discovery of gunpowder
and the use of cannon, both of which revolutionised the principles of warfare in
their respective ages. The art of making fire had a greater influence on human
civilisation than the modern discovery of electricity. The first boat was in all
probability a log—an idea which might have been suggested by the sight of an
animal clinging to a floating piece of wood carried away bya flood. To scoop this
log into a hollow boat was an afterthought. The successive increments of know-
ledge by which a single-tree canoe has been transformed into a first-class Atlantic
liner are scattered through the unwritten and written annals of many ages. In his
expeditions for hunting, fishing, fruit-gathering, &c., primitive man’s acquaintance
890 REPORT— 1893.
with the mechanical powers of nature would be gradually extended, and part
passu with the increasing range of his knowledge there would be a corresponding
development in his reasoning faculties. Natural phenomena suggested reflections
as to their causes and effects, and so by degrees they were brought into the cate-
gory of law and order. Particular sounds would be used to represent specific
objects, and these would become the first rudiments of language. Thus each
generalisation when added to his previous little stock of knowledge widened the
basis of his intellectual powers, and as the process progressed man would acquire
some notion of the abstract ideas of space, time, motion, force, number, &c.; and
continuous thought and reasoning would ultimately become habitual to him. All
these mental operations could only take place through the medium of additional
nerve cells, and hence the brain gradually became more bulky and more complex
in its structure. Thus the functions of the hand and of the brain have been corre-
lated in'a most remarkable manner. Whether the mechanical skill of the hand
preceded the greater intelligence of the brain, or vice versa, I will not pretend to
say. But between the two there must have been a constant interchange of gifts.
According to Sir C. Bell, ‘the hand supplies all instruments, and by its corre-
spondence with the intellect gives him universal dominion.’?
That mind, in its higher psychical manifestations, has sometimes been looked
upon as a spiritual essence which can exist separately from its material basis need
not be wondered at when we consider how the pleasing abstractions of the poet, or
the fascinating creations of the novelist, roll out, as it were, from a hidden cavern
without the slightest symptom of physical action. It is this marvellous power of
gathering and combining ideas, previously derived through the ordinary senses,
which gives a prima facie appearance of having here to deal with a force exterior
to the brain itself. But indeed it is questionable if such psychological phenomena
are really represented by special organic equivalents. May they not be due rather
to the power of volitional reflection which summons them from the materials
stored up by the various localised portions into which the brain is divided? From
this point of view there may be many phases of pure cerebration which, though
not the result of direct natural selection, have nevertheless as natural and physical
an origin as conscious sensation. Hence imagination, conception, idealisation, the
moral faculties, &c., may be compared to parasites which live at the expense of
their neighbours. After all the ;greatest mystery of life lies in the simple acts
of conscious sensation, and not in the higher mental combinations into which
they enter. The highest products of intellectuality are nothing more than the trans-
formation of previously existing energy, and it is the power to utilise it that
alone finds its special organic equivalent in the brain.
But this brings us on controversial ground of the highest importance. Pro-
fessor Huxley thus expresses his views on the phase of the argument now at
issue :-—
‘T have endeavoured to show that no absolute structural line of demarcation,
wider than that between the animals which immediately succeed us in the scale, can
be drawn between the animal world and ourselves; and I may add the expression
of my belief that the attempt to draw a psychical distinction is equally futile, and
that even the highest faculties of feeling and of intellect begin to germinate in
lower forms of life.’
On the other hand, Mr. Alfred R. Wallace, who holds such a distinguished
position in this special field of research, has promulgated a most remarkable theory.
This careful investigator, an original discoverer of the laws of natural selection,
and a powerful advocate of their adequacy to bring about the evolution of the
entire organic world, even including man up to a certain stage, believes that the
cosmic forces are insufficient to account for the development of man in his civilised
capacity. ‘Natural selection, he writes, ‘could only have endowed savage man
with a brain a few degrees superior to that of an ape, whereas he actually possesses
one very little inferior to that of a philosopher.’ This deficiency in the organic
1 The Hand, $c. Bridgewater Treatise, p. 38.
2 Evidences asto Man’s Place in Nature, p. 109.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 891
forces of nature he essays to supply by calling in the guiding influence of a
‘superior intelligence.’ In defending this hypothesis from hostile criticism he ex~-
plains that by ‘ superior intelligence’ he means some intelligence higher than the
‘modern cultivated mind,’ something intermediate between it and Deity. But as
this is a pure supposition, unsupported by any evidence, and merely a matter of
personal belief, it is unnecessary to discuss it further. I would just, en passant, ask
Mr. Wallace why he dispenses with this ‘ higher intelligence’ in the early stages of
man’s evolution, and finds its assistance only requisite to give the final touches to
humanity.
In dealing with the detailed objections raised by Mr. Wallace against the theory
of natural selection as applied to man, we are, however, strictly within the sphere
of legitimate argument; and evolutionists are fairly called upon to meet them. As
his own theory is founded on the supposed failure of natural selection to explain
certain specified peculiarities in the life of man, it is clear that if these difficulties
can be removed, cadit questio. It is only one of his objections, however, that comes
within the scope of my present inquiry, viz., that which is founded on the
supposed ‘surplusage’ of brain power in savage and prehistoric races.
In comparing the brains of the anthropoid apes and man Mr. Wallace adopts.
the following numbers to represent their proportional average capacities, viz.,
anthropoid apes 10, savages 26, and civilised man 32—numbers to which there can
be no objection, as they are based on data sufficiently accurate for the requirements
of this discussion. In commenting on the mental ability displayed in actual life
by the recipients of these various brains he states that savage man has ‘in an vn-
developed state faculties which he never requires to use,’ and that his brain is much
beyond his actual requirements in daily life. He concludes his argument thus :—
‘We see, then, that whether we compare the savage with the higher developments
of man, or with the brutes around him, we are alike driven to the conclusion that
in his large and well-developed brain he possesses an organ quite disproportionate
to his actual requirements—an organ that seems prepared in advance, only to be
fully utilised as he progresses in civilisation. A brain one half larger than that of
the gorilla would, according to the evidence before us, fully have sufficed for the
limited mental development of the savage; and we must therefore admit that the
large brain he actually possesses could never have been solely developed by any of
those laws of evolution whose essence is that they lead to a degree of organisation
exactly proportionate to the wants of each species, never beyond those wants ;
that no preparation can be made for the future development of the race; that one
part of the hail can never increase in size or complexity, except in strict co-ordina-
tion to the pressing wants of the whole. The brain of prehistoric and of savage
man seems to me to prove the existence of some power distinct from that which
ae guided the development of the lower animals through their ever-varying forms
of being.’?
With regard to the closing sentence of the above quotation, let me observe
that the cosmic forces, under which the lower animals have been produced by
means of natural selection, do not disclose, either in their individual or collective
capacity, any guiding power in the sense of a sentient influence, and I believe
that the ‘distinct power’ which the author summons to his aid, apparently from
the ‘vasty deep,’ to account for the higher development of humanity is nothing
more than the gradually acquired product of the reasoning faculties themselves.
Not that, for this reason, it is to be reckoned less genuine and less powerful in its.
operations than if it had emanated from an outside source. The reasoning power
_ displayed by man is virtually a higher intelligence, and, ever since its appearance
on the field of organic life, it has, to a certain extent, superseded the laws of
natural selection. Physical science has made us acquainted with the fact that two
or three simple bodies will sometimes combine chemically so as to produce a new
substance, having properties totally different from those of either constituents in a
state of disunion. Something analogous tc this has taken place in the development
of man’s capacity for reasoning by induction. Its primary elements, which are
1 Natural Selection, Jc., 1891, p. 193.
892 REPORT—1893.
also those of natural selection, are conscious sensation, heredity, and a few other
properties of organic matter ; elements which are common, in a more or less degree,
to all living things. As soon as the sequence of natural phenomena attracted the
attention of man, and his intelligence reached the stage of consecutive reasoning on
the invariableness of certain effects from given causes, this new power came into
existence; and its operations are, apparently, so different from those of its com-
ponent elements that they can hardly be recognised as the offspring of natural
forces at all. Its application to the adjustment of his physical environments has
ever since been one of the most powerful factors, not only in the development of
humanity, but in altering the conditions and life-functions of many members of
the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
I have already pointed out that the brain can no longer be regarded as a single
organ, but rather as a series of organs connected by bonds of union—like so many
departments in a Government cttice in telephonic communication—all, however,
performing special and separate functions. When, therefore, we attempt to com-
pare the brain capacity of one animal with that of another, with the view of
ascertaining the quality of their respective mental manifestations, we must first
determine what are the exact homologous parts that are comparable. To draw
any such inference from a comparison of two brains, by simply weighing or
measuring the whole mass of each, would be manifestly of no scientitic value.
For example, in the brain of a savage the portion representing highly skilled
. motor energies might be very much larger, while the portion representing logical
power might be smaller, than the corresponding parts in the brain of a philosopher.
But should these inequalities of development be such as to balance each other, the
weight of the two organs would be equal. In this case what could be the value of
any inference as to the character of their mental endowments? Equal-sized
brains do not display equivalent, nor indeed analogous, results. To postulate such
a doctrine would be as irrational as to maintain that the walking capacities of
different persons are directly proportional to the weight of their bodies. Similar
remarks are equally applicable to the skulls of prehistoric races, as it would appear
that evolution had done the major part of its work in brain development long
before the days of neolithic civilisation. Huxley’s well-known description of the
Engis skull—‘a fair average skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher,
or mizht have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage ’—goes far to settle
the question from its anatomical point of view. Until localisation of brain func-
tions makes greater progress it is, therefore, futile to speculate to any great extent
on the relative sizes of the skulls of different races either in present or prehistoric
times.
But there is another aspect of the question which militates against Mr.
Wallace's hypothesis, viz., the probability that many of the present tribes of
savages are, 1n point of civilisation, in a more degenerate condition than their fore-
fathers who acquired originally higher mental qualities under natural selection.
There must surely be some foundation of truth in the widely-spread tradition of
the fall of man. And, if such be the case, we naturally expect to find some stray
races with inherited brains of greater capacity than their needs, in more degenerate
circumstances, may require. An exact equivalent to this may be seen in the
feeble intellectuality of many of the peasants and lower classes among the civilised
nations of modern times. Yet a youth born of such parents, if educated, often
becomes a distinguished philosopher. It is well known that if an organ ceases to
perform its functional work it has a tendency to deteriorate, and ultimately to dis-
appear altogether. But from experience we know that it takes a long time for the
effects of disuse to become manifest. It is this persistency that accounts for a
number of rudimentary organs, still to be met with in the human body, whose
functional activity could only have been exercised ages before man became
differentiated from the lower animals. Such facts give some support to the
suggestion, previously made, that philosophy, as such, has no specially localised
portion in the brain. Its function is merely to direct the current of mental forces
already existing.
But, again, Mr, Wallace’s argumert involves the assumption that the un-
TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION H. 893
- necessarily large brain of the savage had been constructed on teleological principles
for the sole purpose of philosophising. My opinion is that the greater portion of
this so-called surplusage is the organic representative of the energy expended in
the exercise of the enormous complexity of human actions, as displayed in the
movements of his body and in the skilful manipulations necessary to the manu-
facture of implements, weapons, clothing, &c. All such actions have to be repre-
sented by a larger bulk of brain matter than is required for the most profound
philosophical speculations. The kind of intelligence evinced by savages, however
low their position in the scale of civilisation may be, is different from, and incom-
parably greater than, that manifested by the most advanced of the lower animals.
To me it is much more rational to suppose that the development of the large brain
of man corresponded, pari passz, with that of his characteristic physical attributes,
more especially those consequent on the attainment of the upright position. That
these attributes were acquired exclusively through the instrumentality of the
cosmic forces was, as the following quotation will show, the opinion of Mr.
Darwin :—‘ We must remember that nearly al] the other and more important
differences between man and quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature,
and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure of his
hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the position of his head.’ ?
Mr. Wallace, however, considers the feet and hands of man ‘as difficulties on
the theory of natural selection” ‘How,’ he exclaims, ‘can we conceive that early
man, as an animal, gained anything by purely erect locomotion? Again, the
hand of man contains latent capacities and powers which are unused by savages,
and must have been even less used by paleolithic man and his still ruder
predecessors, It has all the appearance of an organ prepared for the use of
civilised man, and one which was required to render civilisation possible.’?
But here, again, this acute observer diverges into his favourite by-path, and
introduces a ‘higher intelligence’ to bridge over his difficulties.
We have now reached a stage in this inquiry when a number of questions of
a more or Jess speculative character fall to be considered. On the supposition that,
at the start, the evolution of the hand of man was synchronous with the higher
development of his reasoning faculties, it is but natural to ask where, when, and in
what precise circumstances this remarkable coalition took place. I would not,
however, be justified in taking up your time now in discussing these questions in
detail; not because I think the materials for their solution are unattainable, but
because, in the present state of our knowledge, they are too conjectural to be of
scientific value. In the dim retrospective vista which veils these materials from
our cognisance I can only see a few faint landmarks. All the osseous remains of
man which have hitherto been collected and examined point to the fact that,
during the larger portion of the Quaternary period, if not, indeed, from its very
commencement, he had already acquired his human characteristics. This generalisa-
tion at once throws us back to the Tertiary period in our search for man’s early appear-
ance in Europe. Another fact—disclosed by an analysis of his present corporeal
structure—is that, during a certain phase of his previous existence, he passed
through a stage when his limbs, like those of the present anthropoid apes, were
adapted for an arboreal life. We have therefore to look for the causes which
brought about the separation of man from his. quadrumanous congeners, and
entailed on him such a transformation in his form and habits, in the physical condi-
tions that would supervene on a change from a warm to acold climate. In the
gradual lowering of the temperature of the subtropical climate which prevailed in
Central Europe and the corresponding parts of Asia during the Miocene and
Pliocene periods, and which culminated in the great Ice age, together with the
concurrent changes in the distribution of land, seas, and mountains, we have the
most probable explanation of these causes. Whether man forsook his arboreal
habits and took to the plains from overcrowding of his own species in search of
different kinds of food, before this cold period subjected him to its intensely adverse
circumstances, it would be idle for me to offer an opinion. LEquully conjectural
1 Descent of Man, p. 149. 2 Natural Sciection, p. 198.
894 REPORT—1893.
would it be to inquire into the exact circumstances which led him to depend ex-
clusively on his posterior limbs for locomotion.
During this early and transitional period in man’s career there was no room for
ethics. Might was right, whether it emanated from the strength of the arm, the skill
of the hand, or the cunning of the brain. Life and death combats would decide the
fate of many competing races. The weak would succumb to the strong, and ulti-
mately there would survive only such as could hold their own by flight, strength,
agility, or skill, just as we find among the races of man at the present day.
In summing up these somewhat discursive observations, let me just emphasise
the main points of the argument. With the attainment of the erect position, and
the consequent specialisation of his limbs into hands and feet, man entered ona
new phase of existence. With the advantage of manipulative organs and a pro-
gressive brain he became Homo sapiens, and gradually developed a capacity to
understand and utilise the forces of nature. As a handicraftsman he fashioned
tools and weapons, with the skilful use of which he got the mastery over all other
animals, With a knowledge of the uses of fire, the art of cooking his food, and
the power of fabricating materials for clothing his body, he accommodated himself
to the vicissitudes of climate, and so greatly extended his habitable area on the
globe. As ages rolled on he accumulated more and more of the secrets of nature,
and every such addition widened the basis for further discoveries, Thus com-
menced the grandest revolution the organic world has ever undergzone—a revolu-
tion which culminated in the transformation of a brute into civilised man. During
this long transitional period mankind encountered many difficulties, perhaps the
most formidable being due to the internecine struggles of inimical members of
their own species. In these circumstances the cosmic processes, formerly all-
powerful so long as they acted only through the constitution of the individual,
were of less potency than the acquired ingenuity and aptitude of man himself.
Hence local combinations for the protection of common interests became necessary,
and with the rise of social organisations the safety of the individual became merged
in that of the community. The recognition of the principle of the division of
labour laid the foundations of subsequent nationalities, arts, and sciences. Coin-
cident with the rise of such institutions sprang up the germs of order, law, and
ethics. The progress of humanity on these novel lines was slow, but in the main
steadily upwards. No doubt the advanced centres of the various civilisations
would oscillate, as they still do, from one region to another, according as some new
discovery gave a preponderance of skill to one race over its opponents. Thus the
civilised world of modern times came to be fashioned, the outcome of which has been
the creation ofa special code of social and moral laws for the protection and guidance
of humanity. Obedience to its behests is virtue, and this, to use the recent words of
a profound thinker, ‘involves a course of conduct which, in all respects, is opposed
to that which leads to success in the cosmic struggle for existence. In place of
ruthless self-assertion it demands self-restraint; in place of thrusting aside or
treading down all competitors, it requires that the individual shall not merely
respect but shall help his fellows; its influence is directed, not so much to the
survival of the fittest, as to the fitting of as many as possible to survive. It repu-
diates the gladiatorial theory of existence. It demands that each man who enters
into the enjoyment of the advantages of a polity shall be mindful of his debt to
those who have laboriously constructed it; and shall take heed that no act of his
weakens the fabric in which he has been permitted to live. Laws and moral
precepts are directed to the end of curbing the cosmic process and reminding the
individual of his duty to the community, to the protection and influence of which
he owes, if not existence itself, at least the life of something better than a brutal
savage.’ }
These humble remarks will convey to your minds some idea of the scientific
interest and profound human sympathies evoked by the far-reaching problems
which fall to be discussed in this Section. Contrasting the present state of anthro-
pological science with its position some thirty or forty years ago, we can only marvel
1 Huxley, on Evolution and Ethics, p. 33.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 895
at the thoroughness of the change that has taken place in favour of its doctrines,
Now man’s immense antiquity is accepted by a vast majority of the most thoughtful
men, and his place in nature, as a derivative animal at the head of the great; chain
of life, appeals for elucidation to all sciences and to all legitimate methods of
research. But among the joyful pzeans of this triumphal march we still hear some
discordant notes—notes, however, which seem to me to die with their echoes, and
to have as little effect on scientific progress as the whistling of an idle wind. For
my own part I cannot believe that a science which seelis in the spirit of truth to
trace the mysteries of human life and civilisation to their primary rootlets, a science
which aims at purging our beliefs of superstitious figments generated in days when
scientific methods were too feeble to expose the errors on which they were founded,
a science which reminds us in a thousand ways that success in life depends ona
correct knowledge of the cosmic forces around us, can be opposed to the highest
and most durable interests of humanity.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. On the Ethnographic Aspect of Dancing.
By Mrs. Litty Grovn, £.2.G.S.
Dancing corresponds to a universal primitive instinct in man. The value of a
scientific study of dancing as illustrating some aspects of ethnology is very great.
At all periods there were three kinds of dances:—1. The imaginative or poetic.
2. The descriptive. 3. The religious. This last is most important, and may be
called the fountain of the other kinds. Dancing is connected with every ancient
myth. Among the savages the idea of magic always accompanies it. Religious
dances can be divided in (a) dances directly in honour of the Deity; (b) dances
on various occasions intended to propitiate the Deity. A strange feature is the fact
that.so many dances are performed in a circle. Swn-dances are numerous. War-
dances are of two orders, either as a preparation for war or as a rejoicing after
triumph. The Corrobberree illustrates the former aspect. Excellence in dancing
among savages is obtained by very simple means; anyone who makes a mistake in
the dance is killed.
Women take a larger share in the dance than men. This is accounted for by
Herbert Spencer.
Marriage-dances are found in every tribe. So are devil-dances, used as
exorcisms or as a medicine cure. The dance of the Veddahs of Ceylon, the Baile
de Pifano of Chili, the skeleton-dance of Australia, belong to this class. Dancing
in the cathedrals of Spain and Mexico is traced back to a Hebrew custom, and to
King David’s act of adoration. Dancing may be the outcome of pain and sorrow
as well as the expression of joy. Funeral dances are common in Nubia and Central
America, and were much in favour with the ancient Egyptians. In conclusion, the
universality and the naturalness of dancing make it an important factor in the
history of man.
2. Report on the Anthropometric Laboratory.—See Reports, p. 654.
3. Report on the Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Elementary and other Schools.—See Reports, p. 614.
4. On Anthropometric Work in Large Schools.
By Bertram C. A. Winpte, D.Sc., M.D., M.A.
This paper gives the results obtained in answer to a circular sent to the head
masters of one hundred of the largest schools in England, Scotland, and Ireland
inquiring whether any, and if so what, anthropometric investigations were carried
on in their institutions, and the methods adopted in taking the various measure-
896 REPORT—1893.
ments. The replies show that some form of measurement is, or has been, carried
on in twenty-tive schools, details of which will be found in the table below
(Table 1). They also show that the methods adopted differ considerably
(Table 2), a fact which somewhat detracts from the value of the observations
for comparative purposes.
The advantages of systematic measurements of boys from the scholastic and
the scientific points of view are alluded to, and it is suggested that an endeavour
should be made to encourage and systematise such work in large schools,
TaBLeE 1.—Measurements Taken (Number of Schools, 25).
Height . ; 5 . 25| Length of arm . . 3|Sight . c 3 5
Weight. : : . 21 | Girth + ; . 10°; Colour-blindness . I
Chest-girth . ; . 23 | Length of forearm 3 | Hearing _ : 1
Size of head . ; . O| Girth 5 5 . 10 | Lift, or Archer’s pull 2
Taste 2.—Methods of Taking Measurements.
HEIGHT. WEIGHT. CHEST GIRTH.
In boots 5 7 1 | In ordinary clothes . 2 In ordinary clothes 27
In gymnastic shoes 3 | In gymnastic ,, . 15 | In gymnastic _,, eats
In socks F ; . 15 | Naked ‘ : . O|} Naked . : ; . 12
In bare feet . 1 | Not mentioned . . 4]Not mentioned . . 4
Not mentioned 5
5. Notes on Anthropometric Weighing.
By W. Witeerrorce Smitu, M.D., M.R.C.P.
Some 25,000 separate weighings, made by the author in the course of years,
afford some results interesting to the Section, notwithstanding that others, forming
the greater part of his observations, are outside its scope. Thus, in June 1892,
twelve men of the Horse Guards were tested. Apart from the bodyweight,
together with height, breathing capacity, &c., of these fine fellows, it is suggestive
to notice the immense weight of the accoutrements which they wear as ordinarily
seen in public. The charts shown also illustrated the following points, viz., the
relation of weight to chest-girth, the regular growth of girls, and the remarkable
increase which occurs at the time of emergence into womanhood, rapid loss of
nutrition associated with departure from home routine, weight in corpulency, and
the effect of alcohol and of its cessation.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 165.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom.
See Reports, p. 621.
2. On Anglo-Saxon Remains and Coeval Relics from Scandinavia.
By Professor Hans HILDEBRAND.
3. On the Origin and Development of Eurly Christian Art in Great Britain
and Ireland. By J. Rominty Auien, F.S8.A.Scot.
The object of this paper is to trace the various decorative elements found in
early Christian art in Great Britain to their source, and to show in what way the
native styles of art existing in this country at the time of the introduction of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 897
Christianity (circa a.D. 450) were influenced, first by the Italo-Byzantine art, which
came in with the importation of the illuminated MSS. used in the service of the
Church, and subsequently by the coming in contact of the Anglo-Saxon, and
Scandinavian conquering races with the Celtic and other populations already
inhabiting the British Isles. Early Christian art in this country is essentially
decorative, and to a lesser extent symbolic. The conventional grouping and
general treatment of the figure-subjects show that they are obviously barbarous
copies of Byzantine originals, If any definite conclusions are to be arrived at with
regard to the evolution of early Christian art in Great Britain, it must be by a
eareful examination and comparison of the minute details of the ornament. The
ornament consists of the following elements :—
(1) Interlaced work
2) Key patterns :
Step patterns \ Geometrical.
Spirals J
(5) Zosmorphie designs \ Suggested by animal, human, and
(6) Anthropomorphic designs vegetable forms,
(7) Phyllomorphic designs
The possible sources whence each of these different patterns was derived are next
to be considered. These are divided into the native or imported styles of deco-
rative art existing in Great Britain previous to the introduction of Christianity—
namely, the art of the ages of stone, bronze, and iron, and Romano-British art; and
the external sources, made accessible after a.D, 450—namely, the Italo-Byzantine,
Anglo-Saxon, and Scandinavian styles. The spirals are to be traced to a ‘late
Celtic’ source in the late iron age, the interlaced work and phyllomorphic designs
to an Italo-Byzantine source, the step patterns possibly to a Saxon source, the
zodmorphic designs perhaps to a Scandinavian source, and the key patterns to the
classical fret adapted to suit the diagonal setting-out lines usually employed in
drawing early Christian ornament in Great Britain.
4. On an Implement of Hafted Bone, with a Hippopotamus Tooth inserted,
from Calf Hole, near Grassington. By Rev. E. Jones.
6. The Prehistoric Evolution of Theories of Punishment, Revenge, and
Atonement. By Rev. G. Hartweuu Jones.
Even the brilliant civilisation of Kulturvélker retains traces of a primitive bar-
barism. While the investigations of Waitz, Tylor, Lubbock, &c., into the life of
Naturvélker are instructive in showing the growth of thought, the origin of institu-
tions must be looked for among ‘ Aryans.’ Wherever they come from, or, more
correctly speaking, whenever the phase of civilisation associated with the name
Aryan came into existence, their high capacity for development was evoked or
stimulated by contact with Semitic or Hamitic races.
A further attempt is made here, by the aid of (i.) philology, (ii.) archeology
in its widest sense, to bridge the gulf between the rude notions of the Urvolk and
distinct developments in Southern Europe.
The features considered here are found, not only among Kwlturvélker, but also
among unprogressive races from the Antipodes to Archangel. Yet, not only are
there differences between ‘Aryan’ and Semitic conceptions, but even deviations
among branches of the same family of races.
Though it has been maintained, on the high authority of Ottfried Miiller and
Philippi, that the Greek legal systems originated independently, Leist, no doubt
rightly, traces them to a common inheritance.
The richness of the sources varies with the mental endowments, the intellectual
activity, and the literary monuments of the several races.
The question of punishment, &c., had its (1) religious, (2) secular aspect.
As among many rude races in modern times there is no system of publie
1893. 3M
898 REPORT—1893.
punishment, so there the act of retaliation devolved upon the individual injured.
Still, it is not entirely a private matter, for itis part of the system of centralisation :
in the first degree under the head of the family, in the second under the sacerdotal
classes, the chieftain, prince, or king, or both together.
Though the phases overlap we may distinguish (I.) punishment by the individual ;
(I1.) punishment by the community or its representative.
ie
Punishment by the individual_—The custom is widespread and far older than
‘ Aryans,’ and the reason for it is evident—because the organisation of society is
too loose.
The first points considered were, Who took the initiative, and was the act
intentional ?
Offences calling for retribution—The Greek conception of dBpis and dpxew
xetpav adikor.
(i.) Injury, including such offences as adultery and incest, which were visited
with the severest penalties.
(ii.) Theft: its recognition attested by the antiquity of such words as clepere
= khéros.
(iii.) Assault, not confined to the plaintiff's person.
Murder : its far-reaching consequences. Murder by (i.) weapon; (ii.) burning ;
(iii.) poison. Murder (a) culpable; (8) pardonable; (y) justifiable; (8) pre-
meditated.
These offences might be manifest, in which case they were avenged on the spot ;
or non-manifest, in which case examination was necessary.
Methods of procedure.—The superstition of pacyadifev ; the imprecation; the
avenging fiend. (A) Punishment by the spirit of the murdered.
(B) Punishment by relatives. First phase: passion for revenge; linguistic
evidence.
Second phase: execution ; guilt falls upon the head; the vendetta; talio ;
asyla ; banishment.
Third phase: reparation by fine ; linguistic evidence. (a) Fines paid to person
or relatives acrording to the member maimed or the rank of the injured. Anglo-
Saxon, wergeld ; Old Welsh, galanas; mown; pena. (8) Restitution to the com-
munity ; éemBodn; Lat. muita ; and Old Welsh, sarhaad.
Parricide: its heinous and unnatural character; the sack punishment ;
imperilled family succession and worship; at first unpardonable, later expiable.
The ideas of purification, &c., elaborated in the Indian Prayageitta.
II.
Punishment by the community or representatives hardly falls within the scope of
this inquiry, being of later growth.
Though found in rudimentary forms at an early period, society did not directly
interfere, except to regulate punishment. The authorities by whom it was exercised =
(i.) the head of the family, patria potestas; the priest; the king; Sanskrit
danda ; (ii.) tribunals: Areopagus ; Ephete ; Curia.
Punishment in the neat world.—The growth of these ideas, of revenge, punish-
ment, and atonement, mirrored in Homer, where poems, as, e.g., ‘ Iliad,’ xviii.
497-508, if microscopically examined, reveal the successive stages of growth.
7. ‘Four’ as a Sacred Number. By Miss A. W. Buck ann.
Miss Buckland, in following out the subject of a former paper read before the
Anthropological Section, entitled ‘Points of Contact between Old-world Myths
and Customs and the Navajo Myth entitled ‘The Mountain Chant,”’ finds so
many allusions to ‘four’ as a sacred number, and its connection with the cardinal
points, and to the cross as a symbol of these points, or of the winds blowing from
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 899
them, that she has thought it desirable to place on record the numerous cases in
which this symbolism is in accord with the ancient Central American sculptures
and the Mexican picture-writings; also to trace the same symbolism in the Old
World, believing that through it may be found a key to many migrations, and to
much of the intercourse between the Old World and the New in prehistoric
times.
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On Ancient Metal Implements from Egypt and Lachish.
By Dr. J. H. Guapstonz.—See p. 715.
2. Notes on Flint Saws and Sickles. By Rosert Munro, M.D.
The announcement a few years ago of the discovery, by Dr. Flinders Petrie,
of corn sickles made of wooden casings, having as teeth a number of serrated flint
flakes inserted along a groove in the concave edge of the implement, and the almost
simultaneous publication by Dr. Munro of the discovery of double-handed saws
similarly constructed in the Polada lake-dwelling in Italy, have led to a speculative
discussion? as to whether or not the so-called flint saws, so abundantly found
among the prehistoric remains of all countries in Europe, might not have been the
eliminated teeth of such saws or sickles. The author of this paper sees in this
discussion an occasion for reviewing the materials in Western Europe bearing on
the problem thus raised. In the abundance of flint saws during the Stone Age in
Europe, contrasted with the rarity of this implement when made of bronze in the
succeeding age, he recognised a primd facie argument in favour of the existence of
such compound sickles, The result of his investigation into the matter is thus
stated : ‘In conclusion, we must not forget that our primary basis of facts rests on
the productions of two widely distant archeological areas, which must therefore be
treated separately and independently of each other. The discovery of these very
interesting Egyptian sickles can, at best, be only used as a hypothetical suggestion
of the existence of analogous implements elsewhere. In support of the theory that
such sickles were in use among the prehistoric people of Western Europe, the author
finds in this rapid review of existing materials little or no evidence. On the other
hand, the compound Polada saws are equally suggestive of a wider application,
and we may, with greater probability of success, look out for the remains of similar
implements among the débris of prehistoric civilisations beyond that of the lake-
dwellings of Europe.’
3. On Prehistoric Remains in Crete. By Joun L. Myres.
The objects described were obtained from a cave in the valley above Kamfrais,
on the south side of the mountain mass of Psilariti (Mount Ida) in Crete. They
consist wholly of fragments of pottery, of shapes which resemble somewhat those
of the pre-Mykenzan pottery from Santorin, Syra, and Amorgdés, but decorated
with fine black glaze, and, above this, with geometrical and floral patterns in
white, yellow, and two shades of red. On one fragment part of a human figure
is represented, in a style which recalls that of some Mykenzan examples. Some
points of likeness have been noticed between these specimens and those found by
Professor Flinders Petrie at Kahun, and attributed by him to the period of the
twelfth Egyptian dynasty. But until a further examination has been made of the
Kamarais cave it is impossible to date the new find with any certainty.
1 Archeological Journal, vol, xlix. pp. 53, 164.
3M 2
900 REPORT—1893.
4. Funeral Rites and Ceremonies among the Tshinyai, or Tshinyanqwe.
By Lionet DECLE.
5. The Arungo and Marombo Ceremonies among the Tshinyangwe.
By Lionen DEcte.
6. The Ma-Goa. By Lionen Dects.
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Exploration of Ancient Remains in Abyssinia.
See Reports, p. 557.
2. On the External Characters of the Abyssinians examined by Mr. Bent.
By J. G. Garson, M.D.—See Reports, p. 563.
3. Ethnographical Notes relating to the Congo Tribes.
By Hursert Warp, F.R.G.S.
The subjects that are treated at greatest length in this paper relate to super-
stition and general customs. In the description of the ‘N’Kimba’ ceremony of
the Lower Congo natives we learn, for the first time, the motive for this remark-
able ‘secret society,’ Native eloquence is a subject containing interesting in-
formation ; but the most important subjects are those which bear briefly upon
women, their condition and circumstances. ‘The method of cicatrisation, which
is a universal practice among the tribes of the Upper Congo, is described ; and
much concise information is given concerning the adornment and decoration of the
Congo natives in that portion of the paper devoted to costume.
4. On the Mad Head. By Crocxiey Crapnam, M.D.
The author stated that the older phrenology of Gall had been superseded by
Ferrier’s cerebral localisation. He then gave some results of his examination of
nearly 4,000 insane heads. For statistics and particulars he referred to papers by
him (‘Brain Weights and Head Measurements of Insane’) in Hack-Tuke’s ‘ Psy-
chological Dictionary.’ His observations were drawn from eight asylums in the
north of England and south of Scotland, and these compared with a number of
sane heads.
Insane heads he found to show a larger average size than sane ones, though
insane brains were smaller. His standard of comparison was by a cranial index,
which he obtains by adding together the measurements of the whole circumference
and the antero-posterior and transverse arches of the head. Of these measure-
ments that of the transverse arch was the only one smaller in the insane, and was
in fact the weak point in the insane. The cranial index he found further useful,
as when expressed in inches it indicated nearly the weight of the normal contained
brain in ounces.
Female heads were smaller and more symmetrical than male.
Heads increased in size with increased body height and weight; heads of
those over forty years of age larger than those under forty; larger in dark-
than in fair-complexioned individuals; larger in insane professional men than in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 901
other classes of insane, and also larger than in sane professional men. Gardeners
had the smallest heads. Bricklayers’ heads were larger than cabinetmakers’.
A table was shown illustrating the fact that heads enlarged as you went north, but
not regularly, as the smallest heads were from Perthshire.
The frontal segment of head circumference bore a darger proportion to whole
circumference in insane, which, with the fact of frontal lobes weighing more in
proportion to whole encephalon in idiots and imbeciles than in total insane class,
and the fact that the typical insane head was cuneiform with the greatest
transverse diameter anterior to central point of head, seemed to discredit the
‘noble forehead,’ and point out the occipital lobes as the seat of intelligence. This
was supported by facts of brain development and comparative cerebral anatomy,
as well as by the flat occiput of idiots and the cerebellum of the Bushmen
projecting beyond the occipital lobes.
5. On the Dards and Siah-Posh Kafirs.
By J. Beppo, M:D., P.R.S., and Dr. Leitner.
6. Pin-wells and Rag-bushes. By HE, Sipyey Hartuann, F.S.A.
Professor Rhys has lately brought together a number of instances, in Wales
and the Isle of Man, in which persons frequenting sacred wells for the cure of
disease and other purposes have been in the habit of throwing pins into the water,
stuffing rags under stones, or tying rags upon adjacent trees; and he has discussed
the reasons for these practices, suggesting that the pins are offerings and the rags
are vehicles for the transfer of the disease. The object of the present paper is to
consider these and other suggestions. A few of the most characteristic observances
at wells now or formerly held sacred in Wales are first brought together. They
are compared with ancient and modern observances on the continent of Europe
and elsewhere at sacred wells, crosses, trees, temples, and other objects of super-
stition. Professor Rhys’ suggestions, and the theory recently put forward by
M. Monseur in the ‘Bulletin de Folklore’ as to the observances at sacred crosses
and trees, are then discussed. M. Gaidoz, ten years ago, in the ‘Revue de
lHistoire des Religions,’ dealing with the same class of cases as M. Monseur, ex-
pressed the opinion that pins and nails were merely substantial reminders for the
deity whose aid was invoked. None of these solutions, however, fulfils all the
conditions. A satisfactory solution must apply equally to the crosses and shrines
as to the wells and trees, to the driving of nails as to the dropping of pins and the
tying of rags. It is therefore suggested that the object of the usages was union
with the divinity, to be achieved by the perpetual contact with the god of some
article identified with the worshipper. It cannot, of course, be denied that the
ideas of offerings and of transfer of disease have attached to some of the rites in
later times; but it is submitted that the original intention was different, and that
these explanations only arose after the real motive was forgotten.
7. On the Primitive Americans. By Miss J. M. WEtcu.
8. On the Indians of the Mackenzie and Yukon Rivers, Canada.
By the Right Rev. Dr. Bompas, Bishop of Selkirk.
These Indians are of Mongolian race, and appear to have migrated from Asia.
They are distinct from the Esquimaux and other circumpolar races. Their languages
are agglutinative, and in some cases almost monosyllabic. They dress in skins,
inhabit houses of skins stretched over wooden frames, and occupy themselves
mainly with hunting. Their arrows are pointed with bone, flint, and more recently
with iron, and hammer-headed arrows are used for striking small birds. In summer
they live largely on the great rivers in canoes of pine trunks or birch bark; heavy
902 REPORT—1893.
loads of meat are transported in large boats of moose-skin. They practise ivory
and wood carving, produce fire by means of a drill, cook their food in water-tight
wicker baskets, and formerly tattooed their persons with characteristic marks.
The dead are exposed on platforms, out of reach of the wild beasts. European
culture is fast obliterating the national peculiarities.
9. On the Australian Natives. By Miss J. A. Fowuer.
10. On a Modification of the Australian Aboriginal Weapon termed the
Leonile, Langeel, Bendi, or Buccan. By R. EtHeriper, Jun.
11. On an Unusual Form of Rush-basket from the Northern Territory of
South Australia. By R. Erweripes, Jun.
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 19.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Recent Introduction into the Indian Army of the Method of Finger Prints
for the Identification of Recruits. By Francis Gauron, F.R.S.
Mr. Galton read copies of official letters just received by him from Surgeon
Lieut.-Colonel Hendley, of Jeypore, who had memorialised the authorities in India
in fayour of affixing to the nominal roll of recruits an impression in ink of the fore,
middle, and ring fingers of each recruit, offering at the same time to do so in respect
to those whom he himself examined for fitness to serve. In reply the Commander-
in-Chief ‘approved of the proposal to employ prints of finger-tips as marks for
identification, as they are so extremely easy to make, and so useful in guarding
against personation.’
Surgeon Lieut.-Colonel Hendley has had considerable experience in taking such
imprints, having already sent to Mr. Galton those of the ten digits of nearly 1,000
persons, most of whom were prisoners in the gaol of Jeypore.
2. On the Excavation of the Stone Circle of Lag-ny-Boiragh on the Meayll
Hill at Port Erin, Isle of Man. By P.M. C. Kermops, F.S.A.Scot.,
and Professor W. A. Herpman, F.R.S.
This was found on excavation to be a circle of eighteen graves arranged in six
sets of three. In each set two graves are tangentially placed, and the third is
radial, projecting outwards from the circle. For such a triradiate arrangement the
term ‘tritaph’ is proposed. The sides and ends of the tangential graves are
usually formed of single large stones (up to ten feet in length), while the radial
graves (?) have two pairs of smaller upright stones at their sides, and no end stones.
Possibly they may have been built as passages, but remains of cinerary urns were
found in them, as well as in the tangential graves. About two feet from the
surface was the floor of the grave, composed of flat slabs of various sizes, and under
these slabs we found the broken urns, charcoal, fragments of charred bone, black
oily earth, several flint arrow-heads, scrapers, knives, &c. Near the floor of the
grave was also found in every case a number of rounded white quartz stones,
evidently brought up from the sea-shore.
A full account of the excavation will be published shortly in the ‘Trans. Biol.
Soc. Liverpool,’ vol. viii.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 903
3. On the Structure of Lake Dwellings. By Rosert Munro, M.D.
In this communication Dr. Munro described the various methods adopted by
the lake-dwellers in the construction of the under-structures and platforms on
which their huts had been placed :—
(1) Pfahibauten, or pile-structures proper.
(2) Solid basements of wood, or islands made of mixed materials, crannogs,
fascine structures, &c.
(8) Cellular basements of beams arranged like a log-house.
After noticing the fragmentary indications of huts collected from time to time
on the sites of lake-dwellings, the author went on to describe the ruins of a cottage
exposed a few years ago by peat-cutters at the Schussenried, Wiirtemberg. It was
of a rectangular shape, measuring thirty-three feet long by twenty-three feet broad,
and its walls were constructed of wooden beams plastered over with clay. Its
interior was divided into two compartments, one of which contained a hearth.
Dr. Munro then gave a description of an equally important discovery recently made
in Argyllshire. This was a crannog showing foundations of a circular house
thirty-two feet in diameter, and also divided into two compartments, one of which
contained a hearth and the remains of a doorway.
4, A British Village of Marsh Dwellings at Glastonbury.
By Artaur Buuwer, F.S8.A.
This village, discovered by Mr. Arthur Bulleid in March 1892, is situated a
little more than a mile north of the town of Glastonbury, in the upper part of one of
the moorland levels of Central Somerset found to the south of the Mendip Hills. The
site is fourteen miles from the coast of the Bristol Channel, but only about 15
feet above high-water level. Aslate as 1540 the neighbouring lands were occupied
either by areas of water or swamp, one mere being five miles round. The village
is bounded on its east side by a natural watercourse,
There is little on the surface to indicate the site of a village, but on careful in-
spection between sixty and seventy low circular mounds may be seen, varying from
15 to 35 feet in diameter, and from 6 inches to 2 ft. 6 in. highat the centre. These
form the foundations or floors of separate dwellings, which are constructed in the
following way :—On the surface of the peat is a layer or platform of timber and
brushwood kept in place by numerous small piles at the margin. On this a layer
of clay is placed, slightly raised at the centre, where the remains of a hearth are
generally found. The dwelling itself was composed of timber filled in with wattle
and daub. Not only have the wall-pcsts been found in situ, but also the entrance
threshold and doorstep.
The extent of the ground covered by the sixty or seventy mounds measures
more than 400 feet north and south, by 300 feet east and west. The east border
of the settlement has been met with, and is well defined by a thick line of piles
and timber. This side of the village was undoubtedly, to begin with, protected by
water, which in course of time was replaced by an accumulation of a peaty nature.
It is in and on this formation outside the settlement that many interesting struc-
tures entering into the construction of the village have been unearthed, such as
banks of clay and stone, morticed timber and hurdlework. Among other things
that have been discovered is a boat 17 feet long, quantities of wheel and hand-
made pottery, sling stones, and bones of animals, and a great number of objects of
bronze and iron, horn, bone, and stone, such as fibule and rings, knives, saws and
weapons, combs, needles, pottery stamps, and querns.
5. On the Place of the Lake Dwellings at Glastonbury in British Archeeologye
By Professor W. Boyp Daweinxs, £.R.8,
904 REPORT—1893.
6. On Early Uses of Flint in Polishing. By H. Stores.
The author exhibited and described a quantity of flints that had attained a
highly polished or grooved surface from having been used for polishing. Several
of these had been elaborately shaped for use, and presented two or more smoothed
or polished facets. They were ordinary nodules, tabular flint, echini, shells or
shell-casts filled with flint and broken or worn to a fine surface, &c. Many
of them have been polished neolithic axes, and have served as hammer stones and
other purposes as well as polishers. A great number are small spear-heads and
arrow-heads. In many cases they have been worn to a considerable degree. They
come from numerous places, but chiefly the Thames Valley, Keut.
7. On Paleolithic Anchors, Anvils, Hammers, and Drills. By H. Sropes.
The author pointed out the great importance of ascertaining the history of the
development of tools, as the increase of mental power was greatly secured by
improved skill in the manufacture and use of tools. The action was (and is) reflex.
The author defined tools as objects made and used intelligently for a specific
purpose, not missiles or other things used naturally, although it is not yet possible
to distinguish many of these objects. Many specimens of flint and other stones
were exhibited that bore traces of having been made and used as anchors, net weights, _
sinkers, &c., that were trimmed, round holes occurring naturally in the stone. The
use and fabrication of these, and also the wood and bone doubtless worked at the
same time, led to the use of anvils, hammers, and drills, many of which were
shown. Especial attention was drawn to one form of drill that, with a point and
cutting edges, strongly resembles modern steel augurs or centre-bits. All these
tools have been found at Northfleet, Kent, at the Milton Street pit, 1U0 feet above
0.D., excepting a few older ones from the higher plateau of Kent. These possess the
characteristic deep-red ferruginous tint, and are weil worked and waterworn.
8. Report on Uniformity in the Spelling of Barbaric and Savage Languages
and Race-names.—See Reports, p. 662.
9. Interim Report on the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
See Reports, p. 653.
INDEX.
References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Nenspaper
ahere the paper is published in extenso.
BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXV.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers, from commencement, xxxv.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, xlv.
List of evening lectures, 1xiii.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixvi.
Officers of Sections present at Notting-
ham, Ixvii.
Officers and Council for 1893-94, lxix.
Treasurer’s account, lxx.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, 1xxii.
Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Nottingham, lxxiv.
Committees appointed by the General
Committeeat Nottingham: 1. receiving
grants of money, lxxviii; 2. not receiv-
ing grants of money, ]xxxii; other re-
solutions adopted, ]xxxvii; resolutions,
referred to the Council for considera-
tion, and action if desirable, id.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, lxxxviii.
Places of meeting in 1894 and 1895,
Ixxxix.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, xc.
General meetings, civ.
Address by the President, J. S. Burdon
Sanderson, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physio-
logy in the University of Oxford, 3.
ABBOTT (P. W.) and P. F, RENDALL on
some shell-middens in North Wales,
776.
ABEL (Sir F.) on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 437.
ABERCROMBY (Hon. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 280.
Aberdeenshire, north-east, some shelly
clay and gravel in, Dugald Bell on, 778.
ABNEY (Capt. W. de W.) on the best
methods of recording the direct inten-
sity of solar radiation, 144.
on the action of light upon dyed
colours, 373.
—— on the action of light on the
hydracids of the halogens in presence
of oxygen, 381.
on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 387.
Abyssinia, the exploration of ancient
remains in, report on, 557 ;
Appendiz.—On the morphological
characters of the Abyssinians, by
Dr. J. G. Garson, 563.
Actinometer, Bunsen and Roscoe’s pen-
dulum, Dr. A. Richardson and J. Quick
on a modified form of, 719.
ADAMS (Prof. W. G.) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 120.
on magnetic work at the Falmouth
Observatory, 121.
on practical electrical standards,
127.
—— on the earthquake and voleanie
phenomena of Japan, 214.
Africa, the distribution of disease in, Dr.
R. W. Felkin on, 839.
——, the vertical relief of, Dr. H. G.
Schlichter on, 837.
—,, Central East, geological sketch of,
by Walcot Gibson, 758.
—,, tropical, the climatological and hy-
drographical conditions of, second report
on, 572.
Agricultural depression, H. H. Scott on,
851.
*___, W. J. Allsebrook on, 855.
906
*Air, the temperature of, the influence of
land and water on, J. Y. Buchanan on,
835.
Air-propellers or ventilating fans, W. G.
Walker on some experiments with,
884.
*Air-pump, a new form of, Prof. J. J.
Thomson on, 705.
Alga, marine, the action of coloured light
on assimilation in, Cecil C. Duncan on,
537.
ALLEN (Edgar J.), the larve of decapod
crustacea, 547.
(J. Romilly) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 621.
on the origin and development of
Early Christian Art in Great Britain
and Ireland, 896.
*ALLSEBROOK (W. J.) on agricultural
depression, 855.
*Americans, the primitive, Miss J. M.
Welch on, 901.
Amphibolite, the transformation of an,
into quartz-mica-diorite, Prof. W. J.
Sollas on, 765.
Analysis of iron and steel, fifth report
on the best method of establishing an
international standard for the, 437.
Analysis, qualitative, the application of
electrolysis to, Dr. C. A. Kohn on,
726.
Ancient remains in Abyssinia, the ew-
ploration of, report on, 557 ;
Appendix.—On the morphological
characters of the Abyssinians, by
Dr. J. G. Garson, 563.
ANDERSON (Dr. Joseph) on an ethnogra-
phical survey of the United Kingdom,
621,
(Dr. Tempest) on the collection,
preservation, and systematic registra-
tion of photographs of geological in-
terest in the United Kingdom, 473.
*Anglo-Saxon remains and coeval relics
from Scandinavia, Prof. Hans Hilde-
brand on, 896.
Antarctic expedition of 1892-93, C. W.
Donald on the, 841.
*_____ exploration, Admiral Sir E. Om-
manney on the importance of, 841.
Ocean, seals and whales seen during
the voyage to the, W.S. Bruce on, 807.
——, the penguins of the, C. W. Donald
on, 808.
—— voyage, W. 5. Bruce on an, 840.
Anthropology, Address by Dr. R. Munro
to the Section of, 885.
Anthropometric laboratory at the Edin-
burgh meeting, report on the work of
the, 654.
weighing, Dr. W. Wilberforce Smith
on, 896.
work in large schools, B.C. A. Windle
on, 895.
INDEX.
Archeopteryx, the wings of, and of other
birds, C. H. Hurst on, 810.
ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on the investi-
gation of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 381.
on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 566.
ARNOLD-BEMROSE (H.) on the Derbyshire
toadstone, 780.
Art, early Christian, in Great Britain and
Ireland, the origin and development
of, J. Romilly Allen on, 896.
ASHWELL (Frank) on warming and venti-
lation, 875.
Asia, the glaciation of, Prince Kropotkin
on, 77t.
Asphyxia, the physiological action of the
inhalation of oxygen in, more especially
im coal mines, report on, 551.
Augen structure in relation to the origin
of eruptive rocks and gneiss, J. G.
Goodchild on, 761.
Australia, a journey across, by Guy
Boothby, 832.
*. , South, an unusual form of rush-
basket from the northern territory of,
R. Etheridge, jun., on, 902.
*Australian aboriginal weapon termed
the leonile, langeel, bendi, or buccan,
R. Etheridge, jun., on, 902.
—— banking collapse, the lessons of the,
C. Gairdner on, 853.
*____ natives, Miss J. A. Fowler on the,
902.
Automatic balance of reciprocating me-
chanism, W. Worby Beawmont on the,
665.
AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on the establish-
ment of a national physical laboratory,
120.
on practical electrical standards,
127.
*Bacteria, the chemistry of, R. Waring-
ton on, 723.
*Bacteriology, the present position of,
more especially in its relation to che-
mical science, discussion on, 723.
Bacteriology in its relations to chemical
science, Prof. Percy Frankland on, 441.
BALL (Dr. V.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 473.
—-— on bones and antlers of Cervus
giganteus incised and marked by
mutual attrition while buried in bogs
or marl, 756.
Banking collapse, the lessons of the Aus-
tralian, C. Gairdner on, 853.
Barbarie and savage languages and race
names, uniformity in the spelling of,
report on, 662.
BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
INDEX.
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 524.
Barton (E. H.), electrical interference
phenomena somewhat analogous to
Newton’s rings, but exhibited by waves
in wires, 692.
Basset (A. B.) on the publication of
scientific papers, 704.
BAUERMAN (H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 471.
BEAUMONT (W. Worby), on the automatic
balance of reciprocating mechanism,
665.
on a new form of variable power-
. gear for electric railways and tram-
ways, 880.
*BrDDOE (Dr. J.) and Dr. LEITNER
on the Dards and Siah-Posh Kafirs,
901.
BEDFORD (J. E.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 473.
*BEDSON (Prof. P. P.) on the gases
enclosed in coal dust, 729.
BELL (Dugald) on the character of the
high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Clava, Chapelhall, and other localities,
483.
— on some shelly clay and gravel in
North-East Aberdeenshire, 778.
on the distribution of granite
boulders in the Clyde Valley, 780.
Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
report on, 280.
Bengal duars, E. Heawood on the, 841.
BENT (J. T.) on the exploration of ancient
remains in Abyssinia, 557.
Berthelot’s principle applied to magmatic
concentration (in igneous rocks), Alfred
Harker on, 765.
Bessels functions tables of, report on,
227.
BEVAN (Rev. J. O.) on the improvement
of labourers’ cottages, 851.
Bibliography of solution, seventh (interim)
report on the, 372.
of spectroscopy, (interim) report on
the, 227.
Bimetallism :
*On the currency problem, by Prof.
H. 8. Foxwell, 857.
On the currency question practically
considered from a commercial and
financial point of view, by W. E.
Dorrington, 857.
On some objections to bimetallism,
viewed in connection with the report
of the Indian Currency Committee,
by L. L. Price, 858.
On India and the currency, by F.C.
Harrison, 859.
Biological Association at Plymouth, the
907
Marine, report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 546.
I. On the turbellaria of Plymouth
Sound, by F. W. Gamble, 546.
II. On the larve of decapod crus-
tacea, by Edgar J. Allen, 547.
ITI. Notes on hon fish find food, by
Gregg Wilson, 548.
Biological Section, Address by Rev. H. B.
Tristram to the, 784.
Birds’ eggs, wild, the legislative protection
of, report on, 552.
BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the present
state of our knowledge of the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 523.
BLOXAM (G. W.) on the exploration of
ancient remains in Abyssinia, 557.
—— on the physical deviations from the
normal among children in elementary
and other schools, 614.
—— onthe North-Western tribes of the
Dominion of Canada, 653.
— on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Edinburgh meeting,
654.
on uniformity in the spelling of
barbaric and savage languages and
race names, 662.
*BouR (Dr. Christian) on the effect of
the stimulation of the vagus nerve on
the disengagement of gases in the
swimming-bladder of fishes, 798.
Boiler trials, the dryness of steam in,
(interim) report on, 572.
BOLTON (Herbert) on the Skiddaw slates
of the North of the Isle cf Man, 770.
BomPaAs (Bishop) on the Indians of the
Mackenzie and Yukon rivers, Canada,
901.
*Bone implement with a hippopotamus
tooth inserted, from Calf Hole, near
Grassington, Rev. E. Jones on, 897.
Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 35.
on the collection, preservation, and
registration of photographs of geological
interest in the United Kingdom, 473.
—— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 514.
on the exploration of the glacial
region of the Karakoram Mountains,
564.
on some assumptions in glacial
geology, 775.
Bootusy (Guy), a journey across Aus-
tralia, 832.
*Botanical laboratory at Peradeniya,
Ceylon, (interim) report on, 804.
Botany and zoology of the West India
Islands, fifth report on the present
state of our knowledge of the, 524.
BoTTOMLEY (Dr. J. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 127.
—— on the earthquake and volcanic
908
phenomena of Japan, 214; on the
physiological action of the inhalation
of oxygen in asphyxia, more especially
in coal mines, 551.
Boutt (A. J.) and Dr. 8. RIDEAL on the
application of sodium peroxide to
water analysis, 725.
BouRNE (Stephen) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 566.
*____ on index numbers, 851.
BRABROOK (E. W.) on the exploration of
Ancient Remains in Abyssinia, 557.
—— on the physical deviations from the
normal among children in elementary
and other schools, 614.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 621.
BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on earth tremors,
287.
on the dryness of steam in boiler
trials, 572.
British fossils, the registration of the type
specimens of, fourth report on, 482.
BROGGER (Prof. W. C.) on the genetic
relations of the basic eruptive rocks of
Gran (Kristiania region), 762.
Bromine vapour, the expansion of, under
the influence of light, Dr. A. Richard-
son on, 719.
Brook (G.) on the marine zoology of the
Trish Sea, 526.
on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 553.
Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 280.
*Brown (G. E.) and Dr. W. W. J.
NICOL on the action of potassium per-
manganate on sodium thiosulphate
and sulphate, 725.
Brown (Horace T.) on the starch of the
chlorophyll-granule, and the chemical
processes involved in its dissolution
and translocation, 811.
Brown (M. Walton) on earth tremors,
287.
BROWNE (Montague) on some vertebrate
remains not hitherto recorded from the
Rhetic beds of Britain, 748.
Bruce (W. 8.) on seals and whales seen
during the voyage to the Antarctic
Ocean, 1892-93, 807.
—— on an Antarctic voyage, 840.
BRYAN (G. H.), the moon’s atmosphere
and the kinetic theory of gases, 682.
on electro-magnetic trails of images
in plane, spherical, and cylindrical cur-
rent sheets, 706.
*Bubbles, oil, a peculiar motion assumed
by, in ascending tubes containing
caustic solutions, F. T. Trouton on,
705.
BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 280.
*BUCHANAN (J. Y.) on the influence of
INDEX.
land and water on the temperature of
the air, 835.
BUCKLAND (Miss A. W.) on ‘four’ asa
sacred number, 898.
BULLEID (Arthur) on a British village of
Marsh (Lake) Dwellings at Glaston-
bury, 903.
Bunsen and Roscoe’s pendulum actino-
meter, Dr. A. Richardson and J. Quick
on a modified form of, 719.
BuRGEsS (Dr. J.) on Scottish place-names,
554.
Calorimetry by surface thermometry and
hygrometry, Dr. A. D. Waller on, 799.
Cambrian in Wales, the base of the, Dr.
H. Hicks on, 750.
CAMERON (A. C. G.) on a transported
mass uf chalk in the Boulder Clay at
Catworth, in Huntingdonshire, 760.
Canada, North-Western tribes of the Do-
minion of, (interim) report on the physi-
cal characters, languages, and industrial
and social condition of the, 653
CANNAN (Edwin) on the diminution of
the net immigration from the rest of
the country into the great towns of
England and Wales, 1871-91, 851.
Caria, the geology of the coastland of,
J. L. Myres on, 746.
CARPMAEL (C. H.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 120.
CARRUTHERS (W.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West Lndia Islands, and on taking
steps to investigate ascertained deficien-
cies in the fauna and flora, 524,
CATTLE (Dr. C. H.) and Dr. James
MILLAR on certain gregarinide, and
the possible connection of allied forms
with tissue changes in man, 809.
Catworth in Huntingdonshire, a trans-
ported mass of chalk. in the Boulder
Clay at, A.C. G. Cameron on, 760. ,
Caustic curves, a familiar type of, J.
Larmor on, 695.
CAYLEY (Prof. A.) on carrying on the
tables connected with the Pellian equa~
tion, 73.
— on calculating tables of certain
mathematical functions, 227.
Cephalaspis, the discovery of, in the
Caithness flags, Dr. R. H. Traquair, on,
747.
Cephalopoda, the luminous organs of, W.
E. Hoyle on, 802.
Cervus giganteus, bones and antlers of,
incised and marked by mutual attri-
tion while buried in bogs or marl, V.
Ball on, 756.
Chalk, a transported mass of, in the
Boulder Clay at Catworth in Hunting-
donshire, A. C. G. Cameron on, 760.
INDEX.
‘Chemical Section, address by Prof. J.
Emerson Reynolds to the, 708.
* Chemistry, the history of, (interim) report
on, 722.
Cheshire and Lancashire, the pre-glacial
form of the ground in, C. E. De Rance
on, 779.
Children in elementary and other schools,
the physical deviations from the normal
among, report on, 614.
Chiloé, the islands of, Mrs. Lilly Grove
on, 833.
Chlorine gas, the expansion of, under the
influence of light, Dr. A. Richardson
on, 719.
Chlorophyll-granule, the starch of the,
and the chemical processes involved in
its dissolution and translocation, H. T.
Brown on, 811.
CHRISTIE (W. H. M.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic obser-
vations, 120.
CHRYSTAL (Prof. G.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 120.
——on practical electrical standards,
127.
Cinder Hill, Nottingham, a fault at, G.
Fowler on, 749.
Citrazinic acid, W. J. Sell and T. H.
Easterfield on, 731.
CLAPHAM (Dr. Crockley) on the mad
head, 900.
OLARK (Dr. J.) on lime salts in relation
to some physiological processes in the
plant, 818.
CLARKE (W. E.) on making a digest of
the observations on the migration of
birds, 524.
CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
| photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 140.
CLELAND (Prof. J.) on the development
of the molar teeth of the elephant,
with remarks on dental series, 808.
CLIFTON (Prof. R. B.) on the establish-
ment of a national physical laboratory,
120.
Climatological and hydrographical con-
ditions of tropical Africa, second report
on the, 572. ;
Cuiowes (Prof. Frank) on the application
of the hydrogen flame in an ordinary
miner’s ‘safety lamp to accurate and
delicate gas-testing, 728.
on a Nottingham sandstone con-
taining barium sulphate as a cement-
ing material, 732, *745.
Clyde sea area, the: a study in physical
geography, by Dr. H. R. Mill, 836.
Clyde Valley, the distribution of granite
boulders in the, Dugald Bell on, 780.
*Coal, the proximate constituents of, in-
terim report on, 727.
909
*Coal dust, the gases enclosed in, Prof.
P. P. Bedson on, 729.
*Coal mines, explosions in, discussion
on, with special reference to the dust
theory, 728.
Cockroach (Periplaneta orientalis), the
development of the ovipositor in the,
Prof. A. Denny on, 818.
Coxe (Prof. G. A. J.) on geology in
secondary education, 772.
COLLINGE (W. E.) on the sensory canal
system of fishes, 810.
Colour, organic, the origin of, F. T. Mott
on, 803.
*Congo, the, and Lake Tanganyika, the
relation of, J. H. Reid on, 837.
— basin, the native tribes of the, en-
vironment in relation to, H. Ward on,
837.
tribes, ethnographical notes relating
to the, by Herbert Ward, 900.
Conway (W. M.), exploration of the
glacial region of the Karakoram Moun-
tains by, report on the, 564.
COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 280.
*Coral reefs, Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 768, 807.
*____ fossil and recent, discussion on,
768, 807.
CORDEAUX (J.) on making a digest of the
observations on the migration of birds,
524,
Cornwall, the radiolarian cherts of,
Howard Fox on, 771.
Corresponding Societies Committee, report
of the, 35.
Cortex of Tmesipteris tannensis, Bernh.,
R. J. Harvey Gibson on the, 817.
Crandall Basin, Wyoming, the dissected
volcano of, Prof. J. P. Iddings on, 753.
——, the petrological features of, Prof.
J. P. Iddings on, 763.
CREAK (Capt.) on the best means of com-
paring and reducing magnetic observa-
tions, 120.
Crete, prehistoric remains in, John L.
Myres on, 899.
Crort (W. B.) simple apparatus for ob-
serving and photographing interfer-
ence and diffraction phenomena, 685.
—— on physics teaching in schools, 700.
CrossKEY (Dr. H. W.) on the circulation
of underground waters, 463.
on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 514.
—— on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 566.
Crustacea, decapod, the larve of, Edgar
J. Allen on, 547.
CUNDALL (J. T.) on the influence of the
silent discharge of electricity on oxygen
and other gases, 439.
—— and W. A. SHENSTONE, ozone from
pure oxygen: its action on mercury,
910
mith a note on the silent discharge of
electricity, 439.
CUNNINGHAM (Lieut.-Col.
agreeable numbers, 699.
—— (Prof. D. J.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 621.
—— (Prof. W.) on the methods of economic
training adopted in this and other
countries, 571.
on Bishop Hugh Latimer as an
economist, 853.
Currency, the, and India, L. L. Price on,
858; F. C. Harrison on, 859.
2 problem, Prof. H. 8. Foxwell on
the, 857.
—-- question, the, practically con-
sidered from a commercial and finan-
cial point of view, W. E. Dorrington
on, 857.
Allan) on
Dancing, the ethnographic aspect of,
Mrs. Lilly Grove on, 895.
*Dards and Siah-Posh Kafirs, Dr. J.
Beddoe and Dr. Leitner on, 901.
DARWIN (Prof. G. H.) on the best means
of comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 120.
on earth tremors, 287.
—— (Horace) on earth tremors, 287.
—— bifilar pendulum designed by, 291.
Davis (J. W.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 473.
DAVISON (C.) on earth tremors, 287.
DAwkKins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the collec-
tion, preservation, and systematic regis-
tration of photographs of geological
interest in the United Kingdom, 473.
—— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 514.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 621.
* ___ on the place of the Lake Dwellings
at Glastonbury in British archeology,
903.
Dawson (Dr.G.M.)on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 653.
*DECLE (Lionel) on funeral rites and
ceremonies among the Tshinyai, or
Tshinyangwe, 900; * on the Arungo
and Marombo ceremonies among the
Tshinyangwe, 7b.; * on the Ma-Goa, 2d.
*Deep-sea tow-net, (interim) report on a,
803.
Denny (Prof. A.) on the development of
the ovipositor in the cockroach (Peri-
planeta orientalis), 818.
DE RANCE (C. E.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 463.
——. on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Treland, 514.
—— on the pre-glacial form of the ground
in Lancashire and Cheshire, 779.
INDEX.
Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire, the
gypsum deposits of, A. T. Metcalfe on
the, 760.
DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 387.
DICKENSON (B. B.) on the use of the
lantern in geographical teaching, 842.
DICKSON (H. N.) on the temperature and
density of sea water between the
Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea,
835.
Diffraction and interference phenomena,
simple apparatus for observing and
photographing, W. B. Croft on, 685.
Digestive ferments of a large protozoon,
M. Hartog and A. E. Dixon on the,
801,
* Diprotodon remains in Australia, Prof.
W. Stirling on the discovery of, 784.
Discussions :
*On teaching physical science in
schools, 700.
Apparatus for elementary prac-
tical physics, Prof. G. C. Foster
on, 700.
Teaching physics in _ schools,
W. B. Croft on, 700; A. E.
Hawkins on, 701.
*On the present position of bacte-
riology, more especially in its relation
to chemical science, 723.
Bacteriology in its relation to
chemical science, Prof. P. ¥.
rankland on, 441.
*Chemistry of bacteria, R. Waring-
ton on the, 723.
*On explosions in coal mines, with
special reference to the dust theory,
728.
Onthe limits of geology and geography,
*753, T835.
tThe limits between physical geo-
graphy and geology, Clements
R. Markham on, 834.
The relations of geology to
physical geography, W. Topley
on, 834.
*Coral reefs, fossil and recent, opened
by Prof. W. J. Sollas, 768, 807.
*On geological education, 772.
Geology in secondary education,
Prof, G. A. J. Cole on, 772.
Geology in professional education,
Prof. G. A, Lebour on, 773.
Disease in Africa, the distribution of,
Dr. R. W. Felkin on, 839.
Dispersion, anomalous, a mechanical
analogue of, R. T. Glazebrook on, 688.
DIxon (A. E.) and Marcus HARTOG on
the digestive ferments of a large proto-
zoon, 801.
DONALD (C. W.) on the penguins of the
Antarctic Ocean, 808.
INDEX.
DONALD (C. W.) on the Antarctic expedi-
tion of 1892-93, 841.
DORRINGTON (Ww. E.) on the currency
question practically considered from a
commercial and financial point of view,
857.
Dovueuty (E.) on lace machinery, 873.
Dryness of steam in boiler trials, (interim)
report on the, 572.
DUNCAN (Cecil C.) on the action of
coloured light on assimilation in marine
alge, 538.
Dyed colours, the action of light upon,
report on, 373.
Earth tremors, report on, 287; nadirane
of C. Wolf, ib.; tromometer of P. T.
Bertelli, 289; tremor-recorder of J.
Milne, ib.; seismic oscillations of the
ground-nater surface, 290; new bifilar
pendulum designed by Horace pee
291; horizontal pendulum of Dr. EL.
von Rebewr-Paschwitz, 303; list of
» memoirs on this pendulum by Dr. von
Rebeur-Paschwitz, 308 ; appendix, ac-
count of observations made with the
horizontal pendulum by Dr. E. von
Rebeur-Paschivitz, 309.
Earthquake and volcanic phenomena
of Japan, thirteenth report on the,
214.
EASTERFIELD (T. H.)and W. J. SELL on
the salts of a new platinum-sulphurea
base, 731.
— on citrazinic acid, 731.
EBERT’s (Prof.) estimate of the radiating
’ power of an atom, note on by Prof. G.
F. FitzGerald, 689.
Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to the Section of, by Prof. J. Shield
Nicholson, 843.
—— training, the methods of, adopted
im this and other countries, report on,
571.
EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on the methods
of economic training adopted in this
and other countries, 571.
on statistical correlation between
social phenomena, 852.
£gqs of wild birds, the legislative protec-
tion of, report on, 552.
Egypt and Palestine, tools and orna-
ments of copper and other metals
from, Dr. J. H. Gladstone on, 715.
Egypt, Middle, from Ptolemaic maps
and recent surveys, Cope Whitehouse
on, 839.
*EINTHOVEN (Prof. W.) on a method of
recording the heart sounds, 801.
Electric (Hertzian) oscillator, equations
for calculating the effect of an, on
points in its neighbourhood, Prof. G.
F. FitzGerald on the, 698, ©
911
Electric pile, a piezo-, Lord Kelvin on,
691.
+—— property of quartz, the piezo-, Lord
Kelvin on, 691.
—— power transmission, the relative
cost of conductors with different
systems of, Gisbert Kapp on, 878.
railways and tramways, a new
form of variable power-gear for, W.
Worby Beaumont on, 880
*Electrical armatures, self-exciting, and
compensators for loss of pressure, W.
B. Sayers on, 881.
—— conductors, a mechanical system,
EH. Payne on, 881.
disturbances upon the earth, the
period of vibration of, Prof. G. F.
FitzGerald on, 682.
interference phenomena somewhat
analogous to Newton’s rings, but
exhibited by waves in wires, E. H.
Barton on, 692.
Electrical measurements, experiments for
improving the construction of practical
standards for, report on, 127;
Appenidiz :
I. Supplementary report of the Elec-
trical Standards Committee of the
Board of Trade, 129.
Il. Laperiments on the effects of the
heating produced on the coils by the
currents used in testing, by R. T.
Glazebrook, 136.
Ill. On standards of low electrical
resistance, by Prof. J. Viriamu
Jones, 137.
Electrical resistance, low, standards of,
Professor J. Viriamu Jones on,
137. ;
Electrical Standards Committee of the
Board of Trade, ee lone ckl | report
of the, 129.
Electricity, discharge of, the influenes of
the silent, on oxygen and other gases,
report on, 439 ;
I, The preparation and storage of
oxygen, 439.
II. Ozone from pure oxygen: its action
on mercury, mith a note on the
silent discharge of electricity, by
W. A. Shenstone and J. T. Gundall,
439.
Ill. Studies on the formation of ozone
From oxygen, by W. A. Shenstone
and M. Priest, 440.
Electricity, the utilisation of waste
water-power for generating, Albion T.
Snell on, 878.
Electro-chemical properties of aqueous
solutions, table of, compiled by T. C.
Fitzpatrick, 146.
Electrolysis, the application of, to quali-
tative analysis, Dr. C. A. Kohn on,
726.
912
Electrolysis and electro-chemistry, report
on the present state of our knonledge
of, 146.
Electro-magnetic trails of images in
plane, spherical,and cylindrical current
sheets, G. H. Bryan on, 706.
Electro-optics, (interim) report on, 121.
Elephant, the development of the molar
teeth of the, Prof. J. Cleland on, with
remarks on dental series, 808.
ELLis (W.) on the best means of com-
paring and reducing magnetic observa-
tions, 120.
*Engineering laboratories of University
College, Nottingham, Prof. W. Robin-
son on the testing machine and
experimental steam engine in the,
884.
English lakes, the configuration of the,
Dr. H. R. Mill on, 836.
Environment in relation to the native
tribes of the Congo basin, H. Ward on,
837.
Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Treland, twenty-first report on the,
514.
Eruptive rocks of Gran (Kristiania
region), genetic relations of the basic,
Prof. W. C. Brégger on the, 762.
rocks and gneiss, augen struc-
ture in relation to the origin of, J. G.
Goodchild on, 761.
Esker systems of Ireland, a map of the,
Prof. J. W. Sollas on, 777.
Ether and matter, the connection be-
tween, Dr. Oliver J. Lodge on, 688;
supplementary note on, 704.
*____ reasons why, eludes our senses, E.
Major on, 707.
*HTHERIDGE (B., jun.) on a modification
of the Australian weapon termed the
leonile, langeel, bendi, or buccan,
902.
#____ on an unusual form of rush-basket
from the northern territory of South
Australia, 902.
Ethnographical survey of the United
Kingdom, first report on an, 621.
Ethyl butanetetracarboxylic acid, and its
derivatives, Bevan Lean on, 729.
Eurypterid-bearing deposits of the Pent-
land Hills, report on the, 470.
Evans (Sir J.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
35.
on earth tremors, 287.
Evaporation of bodies, the rate of, in
atmospheres of different densities, Dr.
R. D. Phookan on, 721.
Everett (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 127.
Ewart (Prof. J. C.) on the occupation of
a table at the zovlogical station at
Napies, 537.
INDEX.
EwinG (Prof. J. A.) on earth tremors,
287.
*Explosions in coal mines, discussion on,
with special reference to the dust
theory, 728.
Falmouth Observatory, magnetic work at
the, report on, 121.
FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on some new
features in nuclear division in Ziliwm
martagon, 806.
Fault at Cinder Hill, Nottingham, GQ.
Fowler on a, 749.
FELKIN (Dr. R. W.) on the distribution
of disease in Africa, 839.
Fermentation in the leather industry, J.
T. Wood on, 723.
Ferments derived from diseased pears,
Dr. G. Tate, on some, 724.
Ferro-manganese, the occurrence of cy-
ano-nitride of titanium in, T. W. Hogg,
on, 721.
Finger-prints for the identification of
recruits, the recent introduction into
the Indian army, Francis Galton on,
902.
FirtH (J. B.) on Nottingham lace and
fashion, 854.
Fish, how they find food, by Gregg Wilson,
548.
Fishes, the sensory canal system of, W. E.
Collinge on, 810.
FitzGERALD (Prof. G. F.) on the esta-
blishment of a national physical labora-
tory, 120.
—— on practical electrical standurds,
127.
on the period of vibration of elec-
trical disturbances upon the earth,
682.
—on Prof. Ebert’s estimate of the
radiating power of an atom, with re-
marks on vibrating systems giving
special series of overtones like those
given out by some molecules, 689.
on the equations for calculating
the shielding of a long iron tube on an
internal magnetic pole, 698.
—— on the equations for calculating
the effect of a Hertzian oscillator on
points in its neighbourhood, 698.
FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 127.
— on the present state of our knon-
ledge of electrolysis and electro-chemis-
try, 146; table of electro-chemical pro-
perties of aqueous solutions, ib.
FLEeMine (Dr. J. A.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 127.
Flint, early uses of, for polishing, H.
Stopes on, 904.
saws and sickles, Dr. R. Munro on,
899.
FLOWER (Sir W. H.) on the compilation
a
INDEX.
of an index generum et specierum ani-
malium, 553.
*Fluorine, the preparation and properties
of, by Moissan’s method, demonstra-
tion of, by Dr. M. Meslans, 717.
ForBES (G.) on practical electrical
standards, 127.
*Foreigners in France, A. de Liégeard on
the census of, 856.
Forsyth (Dr. A. R.) on carrying on the
tables connected with the Pellian equa-
tion, 73.
FOSTER (Prof G. C.) on the establishment
of a national physical laboratory, 120.
— on practical electrical standards,
127.
—— on apparatus for class work in ele-
mentary practical physics, 700.
—— (Prof. M.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
537.
on investigations made at the labora-
tory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion at Plymouth, 546.
‘Four’ as a sacred number, Miss A. W.
Buckland on, 898.
FOWLER (G.) ona fault at Cinder Hill,
749.
Fow Ler (G. J.) on nitride of iron, 716.
*FOWLER (Miss J. A.) on the Australian
natives, 902.
Fox (Howard) on magnetic work at the
Falmouth Observatory, 121.
— on the radiolarian cherts of Corn-
wall, 771.
FOXWELL (Prof. H. 8.) on the methods of
economic training adopted in this and
other countries, 571.
*____ on the currency problem, 857.
FRANKLAND (Prof. Percy) on bacteriology
in its relations to chemical science,
441,
FRASER (James) ov the character of the
high-level shell-bearing deposits at Clava,
Chapethall, and other localities, 483.
Fungi, karyokinesis in the, Harold Wager
on, 816.
GAIRDNER (C.) on the lessons of the
Australian banking collapse, 853.
Galls, some vegetal, and their inhabitants,
the etiology and life history of, G. B.
Rothera on, 805.
GALTON (Sir Douglas) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
35.
—— on the cireulation of underground
waters, 463.
on the physical deviations from the
normal among children in elementary
and other schools, 614.
—— (Francis) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 35.
1893.
913
GALTON (Francis), on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 621.
on uniformity in the spelling of bar-
baric and savage languages and race
names, 662.
—— on the recent introduction into the
Indian army of the method of tinger-
prints for the identification of recruits,
902.
Galvanometer suited to physiological
use, note on a, by Dr. O. J. Lodge and
F. H. Nalder, 703.
GAMBLE (F. W.) on the turbellaria of
Plymouth Sound, 546.
GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 35.
—— on the exploration of ancient re-
mains in Abyssinia, 557.
—— on the morphological character of the
Abyssinians, 563.
onthe physical deviations from the
normal among children in elementary
‘and other schools, 614.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 621.
on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Edinburgh Meeting,
654.
GARWOOD (E. J.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 473.
Gas testing, accurate and delicate, the
application of the hydrogen flame in
an ordinary miner’s safety lamp to,
Prof. F. Clowes on, 728.
Gases dissolved in water, apparatus for
extraction for analysis of, Dr. EH. B.
Truman on, 727.
*____ in the swimming-bladder of fishes,
the effect of the stimulation of the
vagus nerve on the Gisergagement of,
Dr. Christiazx Bouw_ on, 798.
*_____ the temperature and luminosity of,
Prof. A. Smithells on the, 729.
GEIKIE (Sir A.) on structures in eruptive
bosses which resemble those of ancient
gneisses, 754.
GEIKIE (Prof. J.) on the collection, pre-
servation, and systematic registration
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 473.
Gem-separator, an automatic,
Lockhart on, 883.
Geographical Section, Address by H.
Seebohm to the, 819.
teaching, the use of the lantern in,
B. B. Dickenson on, 842.
Geography and geology, the limits of,
discussion on, *753, 835.
+—— physical, and geology, the limits
between, by C. R. Markham, 834.
—, physical, the relations of geology to,
W. Topley on, 834.
3.N
W. S.
914
*Geological education, discussion on,
772.
—— map of India, R. D. Oldham on a,
756.
—— Section, Address by J. J. H. Teall
to the, 733.
Geology of the coastland of Caria, J. L.
Myres on the, 746.
__—and geography, the limits of, discus-
sion on, *753, T834.
+—— and physical geography, the limits
between, Clements R. Markham on, 834.
——,, the relations of, to physical geo-
graphy, W. Topley on, 834.
———in professional education, Prof.
G. A. Lebour on, 773.
-_— in secondary education,
G. A. J. Cole on, 772.
Gissps (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 387.
Gipson (R. J. Harvey) on the cortex of
Tmesipteris tannensis, Bernh., 817.
—— (Walcot), geological sketch of
Central East Africa, 758.
GiLtcuRIst (J. D. F.) on the function
and correlation of the pallial organs of
the Opisthobranchiata, 540.
GILSON (Prof. G.), on cytological differ-
ences in homologous organs, 813.
Glacial geology, some assumptions in,
Prof, T. G. Bonney on, 775.
period, the, its origin and effects,
and the possibility of its recurrence,
C. A. Lendvall on, 776.
Glaciation of Asia, Prince Kropotkin on,
the, 774.
GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 566.
—— (Dr. J. H.) onthe teaching of science
in elementary schools, 566.
—— on tools and ornaments of copper
and other metals from Egypt and
Palestine, 715, *899.
QLAISHER (J.) on earth tremors, 287.
-__— on the circulation of underground
maters, 463.
(J. W. L.) on caleulating tables
of certain mathematical functions, 227.
Glastonbury, a British village of Marsh
Dwellings at, Arthur Bulleid on, 903 ;
*on their place in British archeology,
W. Boyd Dawkins on, 70.
GLAZEBROOK (R. T.) on the establishment
of a national physical laboratory, 120.
—— on electro-optics, 121.
—— on practical electrical standards,
127; experiments on the effects of the
heating produced in the coils by the
currents used in testing, 136.
__ Address to the Mathematical and
Physical Section by, 671.
——— ona mechanical analogue of anoma-
lous dispersion, 688.
Prof.
INDEX.
Gneiss and eruptive rocks, augen struc-
ture in relation to the origin of, J. G.
Goodchild on, 761.
Gneisses, structures in eruptive bosses
which resemble those of ancient, Sir
A. Geikie on, 754.
GopMAN (F. Du C.) on. the present state
of owr knonledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on taking steps to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora,
524.
GODWIN-AUSTEN (Col.) on the explora-
tion of the glacial region of the Kara-
horam Mountains, 564.
GONNER (Prof. E. C. K.) on the methods
of economic training adopted in this
and other countries, 571.
*Gotch (F.) on nerve stimulation,
801.
GOODCHILD (J. G.) on augen structure
in relation to the origin of eruptive
rocks and gneiss, 761.
Granite boulders in the Clyde Valley,
Dugald Bell on the distribution of,
780.
GRANT (W. B.), onsocial and economical
heredity, 856.
Graphic methods in mechanical science,
the development of, report by Prof.
H, 8S. Hele Shaw on, 573.
Gray (J. W.) and P. F. KENDALL on the
junction of Permian and Triassic rocks
at Stockport, 769.
—— (Thomas) on earth tremors, 287.
-—— (W.) on the collection, preservation,
and systematic registration of photo-
graphs of geological interest im the
United Kingdom, 473.
GREEN (Prof. A. H.) on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan,
214,
GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on calculating
tables af certain mathematical func-
tions (Bessel’s), 227.
Gregarinide, certain, and the possible
connection of allied forms with tissue
changes in man, Drs. C. H. Cattle and
J. Millar on, 809.
*Grinding and polishing, Lord Rayleigh
on, 685.
GROVE (Mrs. Lilly) on the islands of
Chiloé, 833.
—— on the ethnographic aspect of
dancing, 895.
GUNTHER (Dr. A. C. L. G.) on the present
state of our knowledge of the zoology
and botany of the West India Islands,
and on taking steps to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the fauna and
Jlora, 524.
Gypsum deposits of Nottinghamshire and
Derbyshire, A. ‘IT. Metcalfe on the,
760.
INDEX.
HADDON (Prof. A. C.) on the marine
zoology of the Irish Sea, 526.
—— on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 621.
—— on the work of the anthropometric
laboratory at the Edinburgh meeting,
654.
on uniformity in the spelling of
barbaric and savage languages and
race names, 662.
*HALDANE (J. 8.) on the physico-
chemical and vitalistic theories of life,
798.
HALE (H.), on the North-Western tribes
of the Dominion of Canada, 653.
HALIBURTON (R. G.) on the North-
Western tribes of the Dominion of
Canada, 653.
* Haloids, the formation of, (interim) re-
port on, 717.
HARKER (Alfred), Berthelot’s principle
applied to magmatic concentration,
765.
HARMER (8. F.) on investigations made
at the laboratory of the Marine Bio-
logical Association at Plymouth, 546.
*HARRIS (H.) and T. TURNER on native
iron manufacture in Bengal, 716.
HARRISON (F. C.) on India and the
currency, 859.
HARTLAND (E. Sidney) on pin-wells and
rag-bushes, 901.
HARTLEY, (Prof. W. N.) on the action of
light on the hydracids of the halogens
in presence of oxygen, 381.
on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 387.
HARTOG (Marcus) and A. E. Dixon on
the digestive ferments of a large proto-
zoon, 801.
HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 524.
Hausa pilgrimages from the Western
Sudan, Rev. C. H. Robinson on, 837.
HAWEINS (A. E.) notes on science teach-
ing in public schools, 701.
HEAD (Jeremiah) on the dryness of steam
in boiler trials, 572.
——., Address to the Section of Mechani-
cal Science, 860. .
*Heart sounds, a method of recording,
Prof. W. Einthoven on, 801.
HEATHER-B1GG (Miss A.) on home-work
—the share of the woman in family
maintenance, 855.
Heating produced in the coils by the
currents used in testing experiments
on, the effects of the, R. T. Glazelrook
on, 136.
HEAWOOD (E.) on the Bengal Duars, 841.
HELE SHaAw (Prof. H. S.) on the develop-
ment of graphic methods in mechanical
science, 673.
915
HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the marine
zoology of the Irish Sea, 526.
4 on a mass of cemented shells
dredged from the sea bed, 756.
—— and P. M. C. KERMODE on the
excavation of the stone circle of Lag-
ny-Boiragh on the Meayll Hill at Port
Erin, Isle of Man, 902.
Heredity, social and economical, W. B.
Grant on, 856.
Hertzian oscillator, the effect of a, on
points in its neighbourhood, Prof. G. F.
FitzGerald on the equations for calcu-
lating, 698.
*Hewitt (T. P.) on modern watch-
making, 877.
HEYWoop (James) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 566.
Hicks (Dr. H.) on the base of the
Cambrian in Wales, 750.
—— (Prof. W. M.) on calculating tables
of certain mathematical Junctions
(Bessel's), 227.
Hickson (Dr. 8. J.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandnich Islands, 523.
Hiee@s (H.) on the methods of economic
training adopted in this and other
countries, 571.
High-level shell-bearing deposits at Clava,
Chapelhall, and other lncalities, the
character of, report on, 483; report on
organic remains, by David Robertson,
502; note by a minority of the Com-
mittee, 512.
*HILDEBRAND (Prof. Hans) on Anglo-
Saxon remains and coeval relics from
Scandinavia, 896.
HILu (Prof. M. J. M.) on a spherical
vortex, 696.
‘Himlack’ stone near Nottingham, Prof.
E. Hull on the, 769.
Hoee (T. W.) on the occurrence of
cyano-nitride of titanium in ferro-
mangancse, 721.
Houmss (T. V.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 35.
Home-work—the share of the woman in
family maintenance, Miss A. Heather-
Bigg on, 855.
Homologous organs, cytological differ-
ences in, Prof. G. Gilson on, 813.
HopxkINson (Dr. J.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 127.
(J.) on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 35.
on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 140.
*Horizon, a new artificial, W. P. Shadbolt
on, 706.
Hornblende pikrite from greystones, co.
Wicklow, W. W. Watts on a, 767.
HORNE (J.) on the character of the high-
3N 2
916
level shell-bearing deposits at Clava,
Chapelhall, and other localities, 483.
Howarp (F. T.) and E. W. SMALL on
some igneous rocks of South Pembroke-
shire, and on the rocks of the Isle of
Grassholme, 766.
How.tett (Rev. F.) on Wilson’s theory
respecting the asserted foreshortening
of the inner side of the penumbrz of
the solar spots when near the sun’s
limb, and of the probable thickness of
the photospheric and also penumbral
strata of the solar envelopes, 686.
Hoye (W. E.) on the marine zoology of
the Trish Sea, 526.
—— on the luminous organs of cephalo-
poda, 802.
HuGHEs (Prof. T. McK.) on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
514.
Hutt (Prof. E.) on earth tremors, 287 ;
on the circulation of underground
waters, 463; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 514.
on the water-bearing capacity of
the New Red Sandstone of Notting-
ham, 743.
on the discovery of a concealed ridge
of pre-Carboniferous rocks under the
Trias of Netherseal, Leicestershire, 745.
on the ‘Himlack’ stone near
Nottingham, 769.
Hume. (Prof. J. J.) on the action of
light of upon dyed colours, 373.
Hurst (C. H.) on the wings of arche-
opteryx and of other birds, 810.
Hydracids of the halogens, the action of
light on the, im presence of oxygen,
report on, 381.
Hydrographical and climatological condi-
tions of tropical Africa, second report
on the, 572.
Ippi1nes (Prof. J. P.) on the dissected
volcano of Crandall Basin, Wyoming,
753.
—— on the petrological features of the
dissected voleano of Crandall Basin,
Wyoming, 763.
Igneous rocks, Berthelot’s principle ap-
plied to magnetic concentration in,
Alfred Harker on, 765
intermediate varieties of, the origin
of, by intrusion and admixture, as
observed at Barnavayve, Carlingford,
Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 765.
—— of South Pembrokeshire, F. T.
Howard and E. W. Small on some, and
on the rocks of the Isle of Grassholme,
766.
Immigration, the net, from the rest of
the country into the great towns of
England and Wales, 1871-91, Edwin
Cannan on the diminution of, 851.
INDEX.
Index generum et specierum animalium,
report on the compilation of an, 553.
*Index numbers, 8. Bourne on, 851.
India, a geological map of, R. D. Oldham
on, 756.
—— and the currency, L. L. Price on,
858; F.C. Harrison on, 859.
Indians of the Mackenzie and Yukon
rivers, Canada, Bishop Bompas on the,
901.
Interference and diffraction phenomena,
simple apparatus for observing and
photographing, W. B. Croft on, 685.
arrangement, a simple, Lord Ray-
leigh on, 703.
phenomena, electrical, somewhat
analogous to Newton’s rings, but exhi-
bited by waves in wires, E. H. Barton
on, 692.
—— phenomena exhibited by the passage
of electric waves through layers of
electrolyte, G. Udny Yule on, 694.
International standard for the analysis of
iron and steel, fifth report on the best
method of establishing an, 437.
Iodine value of sunlight in the High
Alps, Dr. 8. Rideal on the, 718.
Ireland, the Esker system of, a map of,
Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 777.
Trish Sea, the marine zoology of the, report
on, 526.
Tron and Steel, the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of, fifth report on, 437.
*____ manufacture in Bengal, native, H.
Harris and T. Turner on, 716.
Tron, nitride of, G. J. Fowler on, 716.
IRVING (Rev. A.) twenty years’ work on
the younger red rocks (Permian and
Trias), 768.
Isle of Man, the Skiddaw slates of the
North of the, H. Bolton on, 770.
Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, seventh
report on the investigation of, 381.
JAMIESON (T. F.) on the character of
the high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Clava, Chapethall, and other localities,
483.
Japan, the earthquake and volcanic phe-
nomena of, thirteenth report on, 214.
*____, pictures of, Prof. J. Milne on, 833.
*. , the volcanic phenomena of, Prof.
J. Milne on the, 771.
JEFFS (O. W.) on the collection, preser-
vation, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 473.
JOHNSTON-LAVis (Prof. H. J.) on the
volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, 471.
— on quartz enclosures in lavas of
Stromboli and Strombolicchio, and
INDEX.
. their effect on the composition of the
rock, 759.
*JoneESs (Rev. E.) on an implement of
hafted bone, with a hippopotamus tooth
inserted, from Calf Hole, near Grass-
ington, 897.
(Rev. G. Hartwell) on the prehistoric
evolution of theories of punishment,
revenge, and atonement, 897.
(Prof. J. Viriamu) on the establish-
ment of a national physical laboratory,
120.
on practical electrical standards,
127; on standards of low electrical
resistance, 137.
(Prof. T. Rupert) on the fossil phyl-
lopoda of the Paleozoic rocks, 465.
on the eurypterid- bearing deposits of
the Pentland Hills, 470.
Jupp (Prof. J. W.) on earth tremors, 287.
Kapp (Gisbert) on the relative cost of
conductors with different systems of
electric power transmission, 878.
Karakoram Mountains, the exploration
of the glacial region of the, report on,
564.
Karyokinesis in the fungi, Harold Wager
on, 816.
Katanga, recent explorations in, E. G.
Ravenstein on, 833.
"KEEP (C. C.) on thermal storage by
utilisation of town refuse, 874.
KELVIN (Lord) on the establishment of a
national physical laboratory, 120.
on the best means of comparing and
reducing magnetic observations, 120.
—— on electro-optics, 121.
— on practical electrical standards,
127.
on the earthquake and volcanic phe-
nomena of Japan, 214.
on calculating tables of certain ma-
thematical functions (Bessel’s), 227.
+——- on the piezo-electric property of
quartz, 691.
—— on a piezo-electric pile, 691.
KENDALL (P. F.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 463.
—— on the character of the high-level
shell-bearing deposiis at Clava, Chapel-
hall, and other localities, 483.
on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 514.
and P. W. ABBOTT on some shell-
middens in North Wales, 776.
-—— and J. W. GRAY on the junction of
Permian and Triassic rocks at Stock-
port, 769.
Kennepy (Prof. A. B. W.) on the dry-
ness of steam in boiler trials, 572.
KERMODE (P. M. C.) and Prof. W. A.
HEEDMAN on the excavation of the
Stone Circle of Lag-ny-Boiragh on the
917
Meayll Hill at Port Erin, Isle of Man,
902.
KERR (Dr. J.) on electro-optic», 121.
Keuper, the English, molluscan remains
lately discovered in, R. B. Newton on
some, 770.
Keynes (Dr. J. N.) on the methods of
economic training adopted in this and
other countries, 571.
KipsTon (R.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 473.
on the registration of the type speci-
mens of British fossils, 482.
Kinetic theory of gases, and the moon’s
atmosphere, G. H. Bryan on the, 682.
Knitting machinery, C. R. Woodward on,
874.
Kwnotr (Prof. C. G.) on the earthquake
and volcanic phenomena of Japan, 214.
on earth tremors, 287.
KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 524.
Koun (Dr. C. A.) on the cause of the
red colouration of phenol, 720.
on the application of electrolysis to
qualitative analysis, 726.
KR0POTKIN (Prince) on the glaciation
of Asia, 774.
Laboratory, a national physical, interim
report on the establishment of, 120.
Labourers’ cottages, Rev. J. O. Bevan on
the improvement of, 851.
Lace, Nottingham, and fashion, J. B.
Firth on, 854.
and hosiery machinery, Prof. W.
Robinson on, 874.
—— machinery, E. Doughty on, 873.
Lake dwellings, the structure of, Dr.
Robert Munro on, $03.
—— at Glastonbury, a British village of,
A. Bulleid on, 903; *Professor Boyd
Dawkins on, ib.
Lakes, configuration of the English, Dr.
H. R. Mill on the, 836.
Lancashire and Cheshire, the pre-glacial
form of the ground in, C. E. De Rance
on, 779.
LANGLEY (Prof. J. W.) on the best method
of establishing aninternational standard
Jor the analysis of iron and steel, 437.
Languages and race names, uniformity in
the spelling of barbaric and savage, re-
port on, 662.
LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the oceupa-
tion of a table at the zoological station
at Naples, 537.
on investigations made at the Marine
Biological laboratory at Plymouth, 546.
Lantern, the use of the, in geographical
teaching, B. B, Dickenson on, 842.
918
*LAPWORTH (Prof. C.) on the Trias of
the Midlands, 768.
LARMOR (Dr. J.), the action of magnetism
on light, with a critical correlation of
the various theories of light-propaga-
tion, 335.
on a familiar type of caustic curves,
695.
LATHAM (Baldwin) on the climatological
and hydrographical conditions of tropi-
cal Africa, 572.
Latimer, Bishop Hugh, as an economist,
Rev. W. Cunningham on, 853.
LAURIE (Malcolm) on the ewrypterid-
bearing deposits of the Pentland Hills,
470.
LAYARD (Miss N. F.) on the roots of the
lemna and the reversing of the fronds
in Lemna trisulca, 803.
LHAN (Bevan) on ethyl butanetetra-
carboxylic acid, and its derivatives,
729.
Leather industry, fermentation in the,
J. T. Wood on, 723.
LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on earth tremors,
287.
on the circulation of underground
waters, 463.
—— on geology in professional educa-
tion, 773.
LEIPNeER (Prof. A.) on the legislative pro-
tection of wild birds’ «gqs, 552.
*LEITNER (Dr.) and Dr. J. BEDDOE
on the Dards and Siah-Posh Kafirs,
901.
Lemna, the roots of, and the reversing
of the fronds in Lemna trisulca, Miss
N. F. Layard on, 803
*LIBGEARD (A. de) on the census of
foreigners in France, 856.
*Life, the physico-chemical and vitalistic
theories of, J. S. Haldane on, 798
Light, the action of, upon dyed colours,
report on, 373.
, ——, on the hydracids of the halogens
in presence of oxygen, report on, 381.
, the action of magnetism on, with a
critical correlation of the various
theories of lUight-propagation, Dr. J.
Larmor on, 335.
, coloured, the action of, on assimila-
tion in marinealge@, C.C. Duncanon, 588.
, the expansion of chlorine gas under
the influence of, Dr. A. Richardson on,
719
or sound, the reflection of, from a
corrugated surface, Lord Rayleigh on,
690.
Lighthouses, flashing lights for, O. T.
Olsen on, 882.
Lilium martagon, some new features in
nuclear division in, Prof. J. B. Farmer
on, 806.
Lime salts in relation to some physio-
INDEX.
logical processes in the plant, Dr. J.
Clark on, 818.
LINDVALL (C. A.) on the glacial period,
its origin and effects, and the possi-
bility of its recurrence, 776.
*Liquid, transplacement of a, by a
moving body, HE. Major on the laws of -
the, 707.
Livyine (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and..
compounds, 387.
LockHART (W. 8.) on an automatic
gem-separator, 883. :
LockyER (J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 387. ;
LopGeE (Prof. A.) on carrying on the
tables connected with the Pellian equa-
tion, 73.
on caleulating tables of certain
mathematical functions (Bessel’s), 227.
(Dr. O. J.) on the establishment of
a national physical laboratory, 120.
on practical electrical. standards,
127.
on the connection between ether
and matter, 688.
supplementary note on the connec-
tion between ether and matter, 704.
and F. H. NALDER, note on a
galvanometer suited to physiological
use, 703
LupBock (Sir J.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 566.
*Luminosity and temperature of gases,
Prof. A. Smithells on the, 729.
Luminous organs of Cephalopoda, W. E.
Hoyle on the, 802.
McKewnprick (Prof. J. G.) on the physio-
logical action of the inhalation of
oxygen in asphyxia, more especially in
coal mines, 551.
McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 280.
McLeEop (Prof. H.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiatwn, 144.
on the bibliography of spectroscopy,
227.
on the bibliography of sulution, 372.
—— on the influence of the silent dis-
charge of electricity on oxygen and other
gases, 439.
*MACMAHON (Major A. P.) on a special
class of generating functions in the
theory of numbers, 699.
Mad head, Dr. Crockley Clapham on the,
900.
MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 227.
Malformation from pre-natal influence
on the mother, A. R. Wallace on, 798.
Magmatic concentration (in igneous
INDEX.
rocks), Berthelot’s principle applied
to, Alfred Harker on, 765.
Magnesian limestone of Bulwell, near
Nottingham, the occurrence of fossils
in the, Baron A. von Reinach and
W. A. E. Ussher on, 768.
Magnetic observations, the best means of
comparing and reducing, (interim)
report on, 120.
—— pole, shielding of a long iron tube
on an internal, Prof. G. F. FitzGerald
on the equations for calculating the,
698.
— shielding of two concentric spherical
shells, Prof. A. W. Riicker on the, 698.
mork at the Falmouth observatory,
report on, 121.
Magnetism, the action of, on light, with
a critical correlation of the various
theories of light-propagation, Dr. J.
Larmor on, 335.
MaGuvs (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
an elementary schools, 566.
*Ma-Goa, Lionel Decle on the, 900.
*MAJOR (E.) on the laws which would
regulate the transplacement of a liquid
by a moving body, and reasons why
ether eludes our senses, 707.
}MARKHAM (Clements R.) on the limits
between physical geography and geo-
logy, 834.
MARR (J. E.) on the registration of the
type specimens of British fossils, 482.
MARSHALL (Prof. A. M.) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 537.
MARTEN (EH. B.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 463.
MASKELYNE (Prof. N. Story) on the
teaching of science in elementary schools,
566.
Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by R. T. Glazebrook to the, 671.
Mathematical functions, second report
on the calculation of tables of certain
(Bessel’s), 227.
tables: report of the committee for
carrying on the tables connected with
the Pellian equation, from the point
where the work mas left by Degen in
1817, 73. ,
— tables of certain functions (Besse’s),
second report on the calculation of,
227.
Matter and ether, the connection be-
tween, Prof. O. J. Lodge on, 688,
704.
Mechanical analogue of anomalous dis-
persion, R, T. Glazebrook on a, 688.
Science, Address by Jeremiah Head
to the Section of, 860.
Mechanism, reciprocating, the automatic
balance of, by W. Worby Beaumont,
665.
919
MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
35.
on the application of photography to
the elucidation of meteorological phe-
nomena, 140.
—— on earth tremors, 287.
on the action of light upon dyed
colours, 373.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 621.
*MESLANS (Dr. M.), demonstration of
the preparation and properties of
fluorine by Moissan’s method, 717.
METCALFE (A. T.) on the gypsum deposits
of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire,
760.
Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
report on, 280.
— phenomena, the application of photo-
graphy to the elucidation of, third re-
‘port on, 140.
MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on the erratic blocks.
of England, Wales, and Treland, 514.
Migration of birds, report of the Com-
mittee for making a digest of the ob-
servations on the, 524.
Miu (Dr. H. BR.) on the climatological
and hydrographical conditions of
tropical Africa, 572.
on thermal relations between air
and water, 706.
—— the Clyde sea area: a study in
physical geography, 836; the con-
figuration of the English lakes, id.
MILLAR (Dr. James) and Dr. C. H.
CATTLE on certain gregarinide, and
the possible connection of allied forms
with tissue changes in man, 809.
MILNE (Prof. J.) on the earthquake and
volcanic phenomena of Japan, 214.
*___ on the volcanic phenomena of
Japan, 771.
*____ on pictures of Japan, 833.
Miner’s safety lamp, the application of
the hydrogen flame in an ordinary, to
accurate and delicate gas-testing, Prof.
F. Clowes on, 728.
*Moissan’s method of preparing fluorine,
and the properties thereof, demonstra-
tion of, by Dr. M. Meslans, 717.
Molluscan remains lately discovered in
the English Keuper, R. B. Newton on
some, 770.
Monograptus priodon, the minute struc-
ture of the skeleton of, Prof. W. J.
Sollas on, 781.
Moon’s atmosphere, and the kinetic
theory of gases, G. H. Bryan on the,
682.
Morgan (E. Delmar) on recent explora-
tion in Tibet, 841.
Morphological characters of the Abys-
siniars, Dr. J. G. Garson on the, 563,
920
Morton (G. H.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 463.
Morr (Ff. T.) on the origin of organic
colour, 803.
MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 127.
Monko (Dr. R.), Address to the Section
of Anthropology, 885.
— on flint saws and sickles, 899.
—— on the structure of lake dwellings,
903.
Murray (G.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology and botany of
the West India Islands, and on taking
‘ steps to investigate ascertained de-
Jiciencies in the fauna and flora, 524.
(Dr. John) on meteorological obser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 280.
Myres (John L.) on the geology of the
coastland of Caria, 746.
——- on prehistoric remains in Crete, 899.
Nadirane of C. Wolf for observing earth
tremors, description of the, 288.
NAGEL (Dr. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 227.
NALDER (FI. H.), an apparatus for com-
paring nearly equal resistances, 702.
——. and Dr. O. J. Lop@s, note on a gal-
vanometer suited to physiological use,
703.
Naphthalene derivatives, seventh report
on the investigation of isomeric, 381.
National physical laboratory, interim
report on the establishment of a, 120.
*Nerve stimulation, F. Gotch on, 801.
New Red Sandstone of Nottingham, the
water-bearing capacity of the, Prof.
E. Hull on, 743.
Newspaper press, the progress of the, and
the need of reform and consolidation
of the laws affecting it, Prof. J. A.
Strahan on, 856.
NEWTON (Prof. A.) on our hnowledge of
the zoology of the Sandwich Islands, 523.
— on making a digest of the observa-
tions on the migration of birds, 524.
on our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, and
on the steps taken to investigate ascer-
tained deficiencies in the fauna and
jlora, 524.
on the legislative protection of wild
birds’ eggs, 552.
(E. T.) on the Reptilia of the
British Trias, 752.
(R. B.) on some Molluscan remains
lately discovered in the English Keu-
per, 770.
Nicou (Dr. W. W. J.) on the bibliooraphy
of solution, 372 ; on solution, 438.
‘< and G. EH. Brown on the action of
* potassium permanganate on sodium
thiosulphate and sulphate, 725.
INDEX.
NICHOLSON (Prof. J. Shield), Address to
the Section of Economic Science and
Statistics (The reaction in favour of
the classical political economy), 843.
North-Western Tribes of the Dominion
of Canada, (interim) report on. the
Physical Characters, Languages, and
Industrial and Social Condition of the,
653.
Nottingham, the water-bearing capacity
of the New Red Sandstone of, Prof.
E. Hull on, 743.
lace and fashion, J. B. Firth on, 854.
sandstone containing barium sul-
phate as a cementing material, Prof.
F. Clowes on a, 732, *745. ;
Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire, the
gypsum deposits of, A. T. Metcalfe on,
760.
Numbers, agreeable, Lt.-Col. Allan Cun-
ningham on, 699.
*Old age and poor law, Rev. J. F. Wilkin-
son on, 852.
OLDHAM (R. D.) on a geological map of
India, 756.
OuspN (O. T.) on flashing lights for
lighthouses, 882.
*OMMANNEY (Admiral Sir E.) on the im-
portance of Antarctic exploration, 841.
Oolitic iron-ore, a bed of, in the Lias of
Raasay, H. B. Woodward on, 760.
Opisthobranchiata, the function and cor-
relation uf the pallial organs of the,
J. D. F. Gilchrist on, 540.
Ovipositor in the cockroach (Periplaneta
orientalis), the development of the,
Prof. A. Denny on, 818.
Optical theories, general, correlation of,
by Dr. J. Larmor, 360.
Orthography. Report on uniformity in
the spelling of barbaric and savage lan-
guages and race names, 662.
Oxygen, the physiological action of the
inhalation of, in asphyxia, more espe-
cially in coal mines, report on, 551.
Ozone from oxygen, studies on the forma-
tion of, by W. A. Shenstone and M.
Priest, 440.
Srom pure oxygen: its action on
mercury, nith a note on the silent dis-
charge of electricity, by W. A. Shen-
stone and J. T. Cundali, 439.
Pallial organs of the Opisthobranchiata,
the function and correlation of the,
J. D. F. Gilchrist on, 540.
PARKER (Prof. Newton) on the legisla-
tive protection of wild binds’ eggs, 552.
PAYNE (H.) on a mechanical system of
electrical conductors, 881.
PEEK (Cuthbert E.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
35. ‘
INDEX.
Pex (Cuthbert E.) on uniformity in the
spelling of barbaric and savage lan-
guages aud race names, 662.
Pellian equation, the tables connected
_ with the, report of the Committee for
carrying on, from the point where the
work was left by Degen in 1817, 73.
Pendulum, the new bifilar, for observing
earth tremors, designed by Horace
Darwin, 291.
——, the horizontal, for observing earth
tremors, of Dr. H. von Rebeur-Pasch-
mitz, description of, 303; list of
memoirs on, 308; account of observa-
tions made with, by Dr. von Rebewr-
Paschwitz, 309.
PENGHLLY (W.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 463.
Penguins of the Antarctic Ocean, C. W.
Donald on the, 808.
Pentland ills, the eurypterid-bearing
deposits of the, report on, 470.
* Peradeniya, Ceylon, the botanical labora-
tory at, interim report on, 804.
PERKIN (Dr. W. H.) on the action of light
apon dyed colours, 373.
Perlitic quartz grains in rhyolite, W. W.
Watts on the, 781.
Permian and Trias, Rev. A. Irving on, 768.
—— and Triassic rocks, the junction of,
at Stockport, J. W. Gray and P. F,
Kendall on, 769.
PreRRY (Prof. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 127.
Petrological features of the dissected
volcano of Crandall Basin, Wyoming,
Prof. J. P. Iddings on the, 763.
Phenol, the cause of the red colouration
of, Dr. C. A. Kohn on, 720.
PHOOKAN (Dr. R. D.) on the rate of
evaporation of bodies in atmospheres
of different densities, 721.
Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, fourth report on the
collection, preservation, and systematic
registration of, 473.
Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, third report on, 140.
Phyllopoda, the fossil of the Paleozoic
rocks, tenth report on, 465.
Physical and Mathematical Section,
Address by R. T. Glazebrook to the,
671.
Physical deviations from the normal
among children in elementary and
other schools, report on the, 614.
Physics in schools, the teaching of,
*Discussion, 700.
Apparatus for elementary practical
physics, Prof. G. C. Foster on, 700.
Teaching physics in schools, W. B.
Croft on, 700; A. E. Hawkins on,
701
921
PICKERING (S. W.) on the bibliography
of solution, 372.
Piezo-electric pile, Lord Kelvin on a, 691.
t+ —— property of quartz, Lord Kelvin
on the, 691.
Pin-wells and rag-bushes, E. Sidney
Hartland on, 901.
Pittings in pebbles from the Trias, Prof.
W. J. Sollas on the, 755.
PITT-RIVERS (Gen.) on an ethnographical
survey of the United Kingdom, 621.
Place-names, Scottish, report on, 554.
Platinum-sulphurea base, saits of a new,
W. J. Sell and T. H. Easterfield on the,
731.
Polishing, early uses of flint for, H.
Stopes on, 904.
*__ and grinding, Lord Rayleigh on,
685.
*Poor law and old age, Rev. J. F. Wilkin-
son on, 852.
*Potassium permanganate, the action of,
on sodium thio-sulphate and sulphate,
G. E. Brown and Dr. W. W. J. Nicol
on, 725.
PouLTON (Prof. E. B.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
35.
PoynTING (Prof. J. H.).on earth tremors,
287.
Pre-Carboniferous rocks, discovery of a
concealed ridge of, under the Trias of
Netherseal, Leicestershire, Prof. H.
Hull on, 745.
PREECE (W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 127.
Pre-glacial form of the ground in Lanca-
shire and Cheshire, C. E. De Rance on
the, 779.
Pre-natal influence on the mother, mal-
formation from, A. R. Wallace on, 798.
PRESTWICH (Prof. J.) on earth tremors,
287 ; on the circulation of underground
waters, 463; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 514.:
PRICE (Prof. B.) on calculating tables of
mathematical functions (Bessel’s), 227.
—— (L. L.) on some objections to bime-
tallism viewed in connection with the
report of the Indian Currency Com-
mittee, 858.
PRIEST (M.) and W. A. SHENSTONE,
studies on the formation of ozone from
oxygen, 440.
Publication of scientific papers, A. B.
Basset on the, 704.
Punishment, revenge, and atonement,
the prehistoric evolution of theories of,
Rev. G. Hartwell Jones on, 897.
Quartz enclosures in lavas of Stromboli
and Strombolicchio, and their effect
on the composition of the rock, Prof.
H. J. Johnston Lavis on, 759.
922.
QUICK (J.) and Dr. A. RICHARDSON on a
modified form of Bunsen and Roscoe’s
pendulum actinometer, 719.
Raasay, a bed of Oolitic iron-ore in the
Lias of, H. B. Woodward on, 760.
Radiating power of an atom, Prof. Ebert’s
estimate of the, note on, by Prof.G.F.
FitzGerald, 689.
Radiolarian cherts of Cornwall, Howard
Fox on the, 771.
Rag-bushes and pin-wells, E. Sidney
Hartland on, 901.
Railways and tramways, electric, a new
form of variable power-gear for, W.
Worby Beaumont on, 880.
RAMSAY (Prof. W.) on the bibliography
of solution, 372.
—— on the action of light on the hy-
dracids of the halogens in presence of
oxygen, 381.
on solution, 438.
— on the influence of the silent dis-
charge of electricity on oxygen and
other gases, 439.
RAVENSTEIN (KE. G.) on the climatological
and hydrographical conditions of tropi-
cal Africa, 572.
on an ethnographical survey of the
United Kingdom, 621.
—— on recent explorations in Katanga,
833.
RAWSON (Sir R.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 35.
RAYLEIGH (Lord) on the establishment
of a national physical laboratory, 120.
— on practical electrical standards,
127,
— on calculating tables of certain
mathematical functions (Bessel’s), 227.
*___ on grinding and polishing, 685.
on the reflection of sound or light
from a corrugated surface, 690.
—— on a simple interference arrange-
ment, 703.
REBEUR-PASCHWITZ (Dr. E. von), de-
scription of the horizontal pendulum
of, 303; list of memoirs on the hori-
zontal pendulum, 308; account of ob-
servations made therenith, 309.
Red rocks, the younger, (Permian and
Trias), Rev. A. Irving on, 768.
Reflection of sound or light from a corru-
gated surface, Lord Rayleigh on the,
690.
Refuse, the disposal of, W. Warner on,
874.
*____, thermal storage by utilisation of
town, C. C. Keep on, 874.
REID (A. 8.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 473.
INDEX. -
*REID (J. H.) on the relation of Lake.
Tanganyika and the Congo, 837.
REINACH (Baron A. von) and W. A. E.
UssHER on the occurrence of fossils
in the Magnesian limestone of Bulwell,
near Nottingham, 768.
Relief, vertical, of Africa, Dr. H. G.
Schlichter on the, 837.
Reptilia of the British Trias, E. T.
Newton on the, 752,
Resistances, nearly equal, an apparatus
for comparing, by F. H. Nalder, 702.
REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson), Address
to the Chemical Section by, 708.
— (Prof. Osborne) on the dryness of
steam in boiler trials, 572.
Rheetic beds of Britain, some vertebrate
remains not hitherto recorded from
the, M. Brown on, 748.
RICHARDSON (Dr. A.) on the action of
light on the hydracids of the halogens
in presence of oxygen, 381.
on the expansion of chlorine gas
and bromine vapour under the in-
fluence of light, 719.
— and J. QUICK on a modified form
of Bunsen and Roscoe’s pendulum
actinometer, 719.
RIDEAL (Dr. 8.) on the iodine value of
sunlight in the High Alps, 718
and A.J. BOULT on the application
of sodium peroxide to water analysis,
725.
RILEY (Prof. C. V.) on the present state
of owr knonledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 523.
—— (E.) on the best method of establishing
an international standard for the
analysis of iron and steel, 437.
ROBERTS (Dr. I.) on earth tremors, 287.
on the circulation of underground
maters, 463.
ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Prof. W. C.) on the
bibliography of spectroscopy, 227.
on the best method of establishing an
international standard for the analysis
of tron and steel, 437.
ROBERTSON (David) on the character of
the high-level shell-bearing deposits at
Clava, Chapethall, and other localities,
483; on the organic remains, 502.
ROBINSON (Rev. C. H.) on Hausa pilgrim-
ages from the Western Sudan, 837.
*_____ (Prof. W.) on lace and hosiery
machinery, 874.
*_____ on the testing machine and experi-
mental steam-engine in the engineer-
ing laboratories of University College,
Nottingham, 884.
Roscou (Sir H. EH.) on the establishment
of a national physical laboratory,
120.
on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 144 ;
INDEX.
on wave-length tables of the spectra of
the elements and compounds, 387.
Roscon (Sir H. E.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 566.
Ross (J. MacEwan) on a percussive tool
for calking, chipping, mining, 877.
RoTH (Ling) on uniformity in the spelling
of barbaric and savage languages and
race names, 662.
RoTHERA (G. B.) on the etiology and
life-history of some vegetal galls and
their inhabitants, 805.
RUCKER (Prof. A. W.) on the establishment
of a national physical laboratory, 120.
—— on comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 120.
on electro-optics, 121.
—— on magnetic work at the Falmouth
Observatory, 121.
—— on the magnetic shielding of two
concentric spherical shells, 698.
RUDLER (F. W.) on the volcanic phe-
nomena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 471.
on the exploration of ancient re-
mains in Abyssinia, 557.
RUMLEY (Mair) on the dryness of steam
in boiler trials, 572.
RussELL (Dr. W. J.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 373.
——aon the action of light on the hydracids
of the halogens in presence of oxygen, 381.
Sacred number, ‘ Four’ as a, Miss A. W.
Buckland on, 898.
SALVIN (0.) on the zoology of the Sand-
nich Islands, 523.
Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the, third
report on the present state of our know-
ledge of, 523.
» ——, D. Sharp on, 783.
*SAYERS (W. B.) on self-exciting arma-
tures and compensators for loss of
pressure, 881.
*Scandinavia, Anglo-Saxon remains and
coeval relics from, Prof. Hans Hilde-
brand on, 896.
SCHLICHTER (Dr. H. G.) on the vertical
relief of Africa, 837.
Schools, anthropometric work in large,
B. C, A. Windle on, 895.
Scott (H. H.) on agricultural depression,
851.
SCHUSTER (Prof. A.) on the establishment
of a national physical laboratory, 120.
on comparing and reducing magnetic
observations, 120.
— on practical electrical standards, 127.
on the best methods of recording the
direct intensity of solar radiation, 144.
— on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 387.
Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, report on, 566.
923
Science teaching in schools,
* Discussion on, 700.
Apparatus for elementary practical
physics, Prof. G. C. Foster on, 700.
Teaching physics in schools, W. B.
Croft on,700; A. E. Hawkins on, 701.
Scientific papers, the publication of, A.
B. Basset on, 704.
SCLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the present state
of our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 623.
on our knowledge of the zoology and
botany of the West India Islands, 524.
on the occupation of a table at the
zoological station at Naples, 637.
on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 553.
Scort (Dr. D. H.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Islands, 524.
Scottish place-names, report on, 554
Sea water between the Atlantic Ocean
and the North Sea, the temperature
and density of, H. N. Dickson on, 835.
Seals and whales seen during the voyage
to the Antarctic Ocean, 1892-93, W.S.
Bruce on, 807.
SEDGWICK (A.) on the occupation of atable
at the zoological station at Naples, 537.
SEEBOHM (H.), Address to the Geo-
graphical Section by, 819.
SELL (W. J.) and T. H. HASTERFIELD on ,
the salts of a new platinum-sulphurea
base, 731.
—— on citrazinic acid, 731.
Sensory canal system of fishes, W. E.
Collinge on the, 810.
*SHADBOLT (W. P.) on a new artificial
horizon, 706.
{SHAFARIK (Dr. A.) on the construction
of specula for reflecting telescopes
upon new principles, 704.
SHARP (D.) on the present state of our
Rnowledge of the zoology of the Sand-
mich Islands, and on the steps taken to
investigate ascertained deficiencies in
the fauna, 523; on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology and botany
of the West India Jslands, and on
taking steps to investigate ascertained
deficiencies in the fauna and flora, 524.
on the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 783.
SHAaw (W. N.) on practical electrical
standards, 127.
on the present state of our knon-
ledge of electrolysis and electro-
chemistry, 146.
Shell-bearing deposits, the high-level, at
Clava, Chapelhall, and other localities,
the character of, report on, 483 ; report
on organie remains, by David Robert-
son, 502; note by minority of the Com-
mittee, 512.
924
Shell-middens in North Wales, P. W.
Abbott and P. F. Kendall.on some,
776.
*Shells, a mass of cemented, dredged
from the sea bed, Prof. W. A. Herd-
man on, 766
Shelly clay and gravel in North-East
Aberdeenshire, Dugald Bell on some,
778.
SHENSTONE (W. A.) on the influence of
the silent discharge of electricity on
oxygen and other gases, 439.
— and J. T. CUNDALL, ozone from pure
oxygen: its action on mercury, with a
note on the silent discharge of electricity,
439.
and M. PRIEST, studies on the forma-
‘tion of ozone from oxygen, 440.
Skiddaw slates of the north of the Isle of
Man, H. Bolton on the, 770.
SLADEN (P.) on the occupation of a table
at the zoological station at Naples, 537.
SMALL (HE. W.) and F. T. HowarpD on
some igneous rocks of South Pem-
brokeshire and on the rocks of the
Isle of Grassholme, 766.
SMITH (HE. A.) on the present state of our
knowledge of the zoology of the Sandwich
Islands, 523.
—— (Dr. Wilberforce) on the work of
the anthropometric laboratory at the
Edinburgh meeting, 654.
on anthropometric weighing, 896.
*SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on the tempera-
ture and luminosity of gases, 729.
SNELL (Albion T.) on the utilisation of
waste water-power for generating
electricity, 878.
SneELus (G. J.) on the best method of
establishing an international standard
for the analysis of iron and steel, 437.
Social phenomena, statistical correlation
between, Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth on,
852.
Sodium peroxide, the application of, to
water analysis, Dr. 8, Rideal and A. J.
Boult on, 725.
Solar radiation, ninth report on the best
methods of recording the direct inten-
sity of, 144.
spots and solar envelopes, Rev. F.
Howlett on, 686.
SOLuAs (Prof. W. J.) on the pittings in
pebbles from the Trias, 755.
on the origin of intermediate
varieties of igneous rocks by intrusion
and admixture, as observed at Barna-
vave, Carlingford, 765.
on the transformation of an amphi-
bolite into quartz-mica-diorite, 765.
— on coral reefs, fossil and recent,
768, 807.
on a map of the Esker systems of
Ireland, 777.
INDEX.
*SOLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the minute
structure of the skeleton of Mono-
graptus priodon, 781.
s on coral reefs, 807.
Solution, (interim) report on, 438.
the bibliography of, seventh (interim)
report on, 372
Solutions, aqueous, electro-chemical pro-
perties of, T. C. Fitzpatrick on the, 146.
Sound or light, the reflection of, from a
corrugated surface, Lord Rayleigh on,
690.
Spectra of the elements and compounds,
wave-length tables of the, report on, 387.
Spectroscopy, the bibliography of, fifth
(interim) report on, 227.
tSpecula for reflecting telescopes, the
construction of, upon new principles,
Dr. A. Shafarik on, 704.
Spelling of barbaric and savage languages
and race names, uniformity in the,
report on, 662.
SPILLER (J.) on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 437
Statistical correlation between social
phenomena, Prof. F, Y. Edgeworth on,
852.
Statistics and Economic Science, Address
to the Section of, by Prof. J. Shield
Nicholson, 843.
Steam, dryness of, in boiler trials,
(interim) report on, 572.
Steel and iron, the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of, fifth report on, 437.
*STIRNLING (Prof. W.) on the discovery
of Diprotodonremains in Australia, 784.
STOKES (Sir G. G.) on the best methods
of recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 144. ;
Stone circle of Lag-ny-Boiragh on the
Meayll Hill at Port Erin, Isle of Man,
P. M. C. Kermode and Prof. W. A.
Herdman on the excavation of the, 902.
STooKE (T. §.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 463.
Stonny (G. J.) on the best methods of
recording the direct intensity of solar
radiation, 144.
Stopes (H.) on early uses of flint in
polishing, 904.
— on Paleolithic anchors, anvils, ham-
mers, and drills, 904.
STRAHAN (Prof. J. A.) on the progress
of the newspaper press, and the need of
reform and consolidation of the laws
affecting it, 856.
Stromboli and Strombolicchio, quartz
enclosures in lavas of, and their effect
on the composition of the rock, Prof.
H. J. Johnston Lavis on, 759.
STROUD (Prof. W.) on the action of light
upon dyed colours, 373.
INDEX,
Sudan, the Western, Hausa pilgrimages
from, Rev. C. H. Robinson on, 837.
Sunlight in the High Alps, the iodine
value of, Dr. 8. Rideal on, 718.
SYLVESTER (Prof. J. J.) on carrying on
the tables connected with the Pellian
equation, 73.
SyMons (G. J.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 35.
on the application of photography
to the elucidation of meteorological
phenomena, 140.
on recording the direct intensity of
solar radiation, 144.
—— on earth tremors, 287.
on the circulation of underground
waters, 463.
on the climatological and hydro-
graphical conditions of tropical Africa,
572.
*Tanganyika, Lake, and the Congo, the
relation of, J. H. Reid on, 837.
TANNER (Col. H.C. B.) on the eaplora-
tion of the glacial region of the Kara-
horam Mountains, 564.
TATE (Dr. G.) on some ferments derived
from diseased pears, 724.
TAYLOR (H.) on practical electrical stan-
dards, 127. :
TEALL (J. J. H.) on the volcanic pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbour-
hood, 471.
—— Address to the Geological Section
by, 733.
Teeth of the elephant, the development
of the molar, Prof. J. Cleland on, with
remarks on dental series, 808.
Temperature and density of sea water
between the Atlantic Ocean and the
North Sea, H. N. Dickson on the, 835.
TEMPLE (Sir R.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 566.
*Theory of numbers, a special class of
generating functions in the, Major
A. P. MacMahon on, 699.
Thermal relations between air and water,
Dr. H. R. Mill on, 706.
THOMAS (T. H.) on the legislative protec-
tion of wild birds’ eggs, 552.
THOMPSON (I. C.) on the marine zoology
of the Irish Sea, 526.
(Prof. Silvanus P.) on practical
electrical standards, 127.
—— on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 566.
THOMSON (Prof. J. J.) on the establish-
ment of a national physical laboratory,
120.
on practical electrical standards,
127.
*__ on anew form of air-pump, 705.
(Dr. W. Ernest F.) on the physio-
logical action of the inhalation of
925
oxygen mM asphyxia, more especially in
coal mines, 551.
THORPE (Prof. T. E.) on the action of
light upon dyed colours, 373.
Tibet, recent exploration in, E. Delmar
Morgan on, 841.
TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the collection,
preservation, and systematic registra-
tion of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 473.
— on the erratic blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, 514.
TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on the bibliography
of solution, 372; on the investigation of
tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, 381.
— on establishing an international
standard for the analysis of iron and
steel, 437.
— on solution, 438.
Titanium, cyano-nitride, the occurrence
of, in ferro-manganese, T. W. Hogg on,
721.
Tmesipteris tannensis, Bernh., the cortex
of, R. J. H. Gibson on, 817.
Toadstone, the Derbyshire, H. Arnold-
Bemrose on, 780.
Tool for calking, chipping, mining, J.
MacEwan Ross on a percussive, 877,
Tools (anchors, anvils, hammers, and
drills) Palzolithic, H. Stopes on,
—— and ornaments of copper and other
metals from Egypt and Palestine, Dr.
J. H. Gladstone on, 715.
TOPLEY (W.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee, 35.
on the circulation of underground
waters, 463.
on the relations of geology to phy-
sical geography, 834.
*Tow-net, a deep-sea, (interim) repert on,
803.
TRAQUAIR (Dr. R. H.) on the eurypterid-
bearing deposits of the Pentland Hills,
470
—— on the discovery of Cephalaspis in
the Caithness flags, 747.
Tremor-recorder of Prof. J. Milne, descrip-
tion of the, 289.
Trias, the pittings in pebbles from the,
Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 755.
*___ of the Midlands, Prof. C, Lapworth
on the, 768.
——, the British, the Reptilia of, E. T
Newton on, 752.
—— and Permian rocks, Rev. A. Irving
on the, 768.
Triassic and Permian rocks, the junction
of, at Stockport, J. W. Gray and P, F.
Kendall on, 769. 4
Trifolium pratense ard its varieties, and
T. medium, variatiin of fecundity in,
W. Wilson on, 817.
TRISTRAM (Rev. Canon) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 35.
926
TRISTRAM (Rev. Canon) on the legislative
protection of wild birds’ eggs, 552.
, Address to the Biological Section
by, 784.
Tromometer of P. T. Bertelli, description
of the, 289.
TROTTER (Coutts) on Scottish place-
names, 554.
*TRoUTON (F. T.) a peculiar motion
assumed by oil bubbles in ascending
tubes containing caustic solutions,
705.
TRUMAN (Dr. E. B.), apparatus for ex-
traction for analysis of gases dissolved
in water, 727.
*Tshinyai, or Tshinyangwe, funeral rites
and ceremonies among the, Lionel
Decle on, 900.
*____ the Arungo and Marombo cere-
monies among the, Lionel Decle on,
900.
Turbellaria of Plymouth Sound, F. W.
Gamble on the, 546.
TURNER (T.) on the best method of esta-
blishing an international standard for
the analysis of iron and steel, 437.
*__ and H. Hargis on native iron
manufacture in Bengal, 716.
TYLDEN-WRIGHT (C.) on the circulation
of underground waters, £63.
TYLOR (Dr. E. B.) on the North- Western
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 653.
on uniformity in the spelling of bar-
baric and savage languages and race
names, 662.
Type specimens of British fossils, the regis-
tration of, fourth report on, 482.
UGANDA and its people, Captain Williams
on, 837.
Underground waters in the permeable
formations of England and Wales, the
circulation of, and the quantity and
character of the water supplied to vari-
ous tonns and districts from these for-
mations, nineteenth report on, 463.
Unwin (Prof. W. C.) on the dryness of
steam in boiler trials, 572.
UssHEer (W. A. E.) and Baron A. von
REINACH on the occurrence of fossils
in the Magnesian Limestone of Bulwell,
near Nottingham, 768.
VACHELL (Dr. ©. T.) on the legislative
protection of wild birds’ eggs, 552.
Ventilating fans or air-propellers, W. G.
Walker on some experiments with,
884.
Ventilation and warming, Frank Ashwell
on, 875.
Vertebrate remains not hitherto recorded
from the Rhetic beds of Britain, Mon-
tague Browne on some, 748.
INDEX.
Vesuvius and its neighbourhood, the vol-
canic phenomena of, report on, 471.
Vibrating systems giving special series of
overtones like those given out by some
molecules, remarks on, by Prof, G. F.
FitzGerald, 689.
VinES (Prof. S. H.) on investigations
made at the Marine Biological Asso-
ciation laboratory at Plymouth, 546.
Voleanic and earthquake phenomena of
Japan, thirteenth report on the, 214.
* phenomena of Japan, Prof. J.
Milne on the, 771.
phenomena of Vesuvius and its
neighbourhood, report on the, 471.
Volcano, the dissected, of Crandall Basin,
Wyoming, Prof. J. P. Iddings on, 753.
—— Prof. J. P. Iddings on its petro-
logical features, 763.
Vortex, spherical, Prof. M. J. M. Hill on
a, 696.
WaGesR (Harold) on karyokinesis in the
fungi, 816.
WALKER (A. O.) on the marine zoology of
the Irish Sea, 526.
(W. G.) on some experiments with
ventilating fans or air-propellers, 884.
WALLACE (A. R.) on malformation from
pre-natal influence on the mother, 798.
WALLER (Dr. A. D.) on calorimetry by
surface thermometry and hygrometry,
799.
Warp (Herbert) on environment in rela-
tion to the native tribes of the Congo
Basin, 837.
——, ethnographical notes relating to the
Congo tribes, 900.
*WARINGTON (R.) on the chemistry of
bacteria, 723.
Warming and ventilation, Frank Ashwell
on, 875.
WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
deviations from the normal among
children in elementary and other
schools, 614.
—— (Wm.) on the disposal of refuse,
874.
*Watchmaking, modern, T. P, Hewitt
on, 877.
Water, gases dissolved in, Dr. E. B.
Truman on the extraction for analysis
of, 727.
—— analysis, the application of sodium
peroxide to, Dr. S. Rideal and A. J.
Boult on, 725.
WATTS (Dr. M.) on wave-length tables of
the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 387.
(W. W.) on the collection, preserva-
tion, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 473.
INDEX.
Watts (W. W.) on a hornblende pikrite
from grey-stones, co. Wicklow, 767.
—— on the perlitic quartz grains in
rhyolite,’ 781.
Wawve-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, report on,
387.
*WELCH (Miss J. M.) on the primitive
Americans, 901.
West India Islands, sixth report on the
present state of our knowledge of the
zoology and botany of the, and on taking
steps to investigate ascertained defi-
ciencies in the fauna and flora, 524.
WHETHERED (E.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 463.
Whales and seals seen during the voyage
to the Antarctic Ocean, 1892-93, W.S.
Bruce on, 807.
WHIDBORNE (Rev. G. F.) on the registra-
tion of the type specimens of British
Fossils, 482.
WHIPPLE (G. M.) on the best means of
comparing and reducing magnetic ob-
servations, 120.
WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 35.
-—— on the circulation of underground
naters, 463.
WHITEHOUSE (Cope), Middle Egypt from
Ptolemaic maps and recent surveys,
839.
WILLIAMS (Capt.) on Uganda and its
people, 837.
*WILKINSON (Rev. J. F.) on poor law
and old age, 852.
WILSON (Sir C. W.) on Scottish place-
names, 554.
WILSON (Gregg), notes on how fish find
Food, 548.
WILson (William) on variation of
fecundity in Trifolium pratense and
its varieties, and in Trifolium medium,
817.
Wilson’s theory respecting the asserted
foreshortening of the inner side of the
penumbre of the solar spots when
near the sun’s limb, and of the pro-
bable thickness of the photospheric
and also penumbral strata of the solar
envelopes, Rev. F. Howlett on, 686.
WILTSHIRE (Prof. T.) on the fossil
phyllopoda of the Paleozoic rocks,
465.
WINDLE (B. C. A.) on anthropometric
work in large schools, 895.
927
Wings, the, of Archaopterya and of other
birds, C. H. Hurst on, 810.
Woop (J. T.) on fermentation in the
leather industry, 723.
WoopDALL (J. W.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 514.
WooDWARD (A. §.) on the registration of
the type specimens of British fossils
482
—— (C. R.) on knitting machinery,
874
(Dr. H.) on the fossil phyllopoda of
the Paleozoic rocks, 465.
~— on the registration of the type speci-
mens of British fossils, 482.
—— on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 551.
——- (H. B.) on the collection, preser-
vation, and systematic registration of
photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 473.
on a bed of Oolitic iron-ore in the
Lias of Raasay, 760.
YounG (Prof. Sydney) on the biblio-
graphy of solution, 372.
YULE (G. Udny) on interference phe-
nomena exhibited by the passage of
electric waves through layers of elec-
trolyte, 694.
Zoological Station at Naples, report on
the occupation of a table at the, 537.
I. On the action of coloured light on
assimilation in marine alge, by
Cecil C. Duncan, 538.
II. On the function and correlation
of the paliial organs of the Opis-
thobranchiata, by John D. F. Gil-
christ, 540.
Til. List of naturalists who have
norked at the station from June
1892 to June 1893, 542.
IV. List of papers published in 1892
by naturalists who have ocewpicd
tables at the station, 643.
Zoology of the Irish Sea, report on the
marine, 526.
of the Sandwich Islands, third report
on the present state of our knowledge of
the, 523.
—— of the Sandwich Islands, D. Sharp
on the, 783.
and botany of the West India
Islands, sixth report on the present
state of our hknonledge of the, 524.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
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of the Publication Price.
- REPORT or tue FIFTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Bath, September
1888, Published at £1 4s.
CoNTENTS :—Third Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada ;—Report of the Committee for considering the desirability of introducing
a Uniform Nomenclature for the Fundamental Units of Mechanics, and of co-
operating with other bodies engaged in similar work;—Fourth Report on the best
means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations ;—Fourth Report on
Standards of Light ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—
Second Report on the Bibliography of Solution;—Report of the Committee for
constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—
Second Report on the Influence of Silicon on the properties of Steel ;—Third Report
of the Committee for inviting designs for a good Differential Gravity Meter in super-
session of the pendulum ;—Report on the present methods of teaching Chemistry ;—
Report on the action of Light on the Hydracids of Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—
Second Report on the Nature of Solution ;—Report of the Committee for making
arrangements for assisting the Marine Biological Association Laboratory at Plymouth ;
—Third Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—Third Report on the Pre-
historic Race in the Greek Islands ;—Report on the effects of different occupations and
employments on the Physical Development of the Human Body ;—Sixteenth Report
1893. 3 0
930
on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Report of the Committee
for preparing a further Report upon the Provincial Museums of the United Kingdom ;
—Second Report on the ‘ Manure’ Gravels of Wexford ;—Report of the Committee
for continuing the Researches on Food-Fishes at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory ;
—Fourteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable
Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water
supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—Report on the
Migration of Birds ;—Report on the Flora of the Carboniferous Rocks of Lancashire
and West Yorkshire ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station
at Naples ;—Report on the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ;—Sixth Report
on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ;—Second Report on the best method
of ascertaining and measuring Variations in the Value of the Monetary Standard ;—
Report as to the Statistical Data available for determining the amount of the Precious
Metals in use as Money in the principal Countries, the chief forms in which the
Money is employed, and the amount annually used in the Arts;—Fourth Report on
the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada ;—Report of the Corresponding
Societies Committee ;—Second Report on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British
Islands ;—Third Report of the Committee for drawing attention to the desirability
of prosecuting further research in the Antarctic Regions ;—Report of the Committee
for aiding in the maintenance of the establishment of a Marine Biological Station at
Granton, Scotland ;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neigh-
bourhood ;—Report of the Committee to arrange an investigation of the Seasonal
Variations of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the
United Kingdom, in co-operation with the local societies represented on the Associa-
tion ;—Report on an ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington Quay ;—Report on the
Development of the Oviduct and connected structures in certain fresh-water
Teleostei;—Third Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;—
Report on the Flora of the Bahamas;—Second Report on the Physiology of the
Lymphatic System ;—Report on the Microscopic Structure of the Older Rocks of
Anglesey ;—Report on our present knowledge of the Flora of China ;—Second Report
of the Committee for taking steps for the establishment of a Botanical Station at
Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—-Highth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan ;—Report on the present state of our knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of
the West India Islands, and the steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies
in the Fauna and Flora;—Second Report on our Experimental Knowledge of the
Properties of Matter with respect to Volume, Pressure, Temperature, and Specific
Heat ;—Report on the advisability and possibility'‘of establishing in other parts of
the country observations upon the prevalence of Earth Tremors similar to those now
being made in Durham;—The Relations between Sliding Scales and Economic
Theory ;—Index-numbers as illustrating the Progressive Exports of British Produce
and Manufactures;—The Friction of Metal Coils;—Sur l’application de l'analyse
spectrale 4 la mécanique moléculaire et sur les spectres de l’oxygéne ;—A List of
‘Works referring to British Mineral and Thermal Waters ;—Report on the Rate of
Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influence of the Artificial
Abstraction of Shingle or other material in that Action.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir F. J. Bramwell’s Address, and
Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
REPORT or tHe FIFTY-NINTH MEETING, at Newcastle-upon-
Tyne, September 1889, Published at £1 As. °
ConTENTs :—Fifth Report of the Committee for promoting Tidal Observations in
Canada ;—Report on the Molecular Phenomena connected with the Magnetisation
of Iron ;—Report on the Collection and Identification of Meteoric Dust ;—Kighteenth
Report on Underground Temperature ;— Fifth Report on the best methods of record-
ing the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation;—Report of the Committee for con-
structing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—
Second Report of the Committee to arrange an investigation of the Seasonal Varia-
tions of Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United
Kingdom, in co-operation with the local Societies represented on the Association ;—
‘Report on the proposals of M. Tondini de Quarenghi relative to the Unification
of Time, and the adoption of a Universal Prime Meridian ;—Fifth Report on
931
the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations ;—Report
on the best method of establishing International Standards for the Analysis of
Iron and Steel;—Third Report on the Investigation of the Properties of Solutions;
—Third Report on the Bibliography of Solution ;—Report (Provisional) on the
Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ; Report
of the Committee appointed to confer with the Committee of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science with a view of forming a Uniform System of
recording the results of Water Analysis ;—Report on the Action of Light on the
Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—Seventh Report on the Fossil
Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks;—Report on the Flora of the Carboniferous
Rocks of Iancashire and West Yorkshire ;—Report on an Ancient Sea-beach near
Bridlington Quay ;—Fifteenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in
the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character
of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—
Report on the Higher Eocene Beds of the Isle of Wight;—Third Report on the
« Manure’ Gravels of Wexford ;—Second Report on the present state of our Know-
ledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and the steps taken to
investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora ;—Second Report on the
development of the Oviduct and connected structures in certain freshwater Teleostei ;
-~—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report
of the Committee for improving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net, for
opening and closing under water ;—Third Report on our present Knowledge of the
Flora of China ;—Report on the steps taken for the investigation of the Natural
History of the Friendly Islands, or other groups in the Pacific, visited by H.M.S.
* Egeria’ ;—Report of the Committee for making a digest of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds;—Report of the Committee for taking steps for the establish-
ment of a Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Seventeenth Report on the
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Third Report on the Physiology of
the Lymphatic System ;—Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ;—
Third Report on the best methods of ascertaining and measuring Variations in the
Value of the Monetary Standard ;—Report as to the Statistical Data available for
determining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the principal
Countries, the chief forms in which the Money is employed, and the amount annually
used in the Arts;—Report on the Geography and Geology of the Atlas Ranges in
the Empire of Morocco;—Fourth Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—
Report on the Habits and Customs and Physical Characteristics of the Nomad Tribes
of Asia Minor, and on the excavation of Sites of ancient occupation ;—Report on
the effects of different Occupations and Employments on the Physical Development
of the Human Body ;—Report of the Committee for editing a new Edition of
“Anthropological Notes and Queries ’;—Report of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee ;—Fourth Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;—
Report on the Absorption Spectra of Pure Compounds;—Second Report on the
present methods of teaching Chemistry ;—Third Report on the Influence of Silicon
on the properties of Steel;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and
its neighbourhood ;—Ninth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of
Japan ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological
Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—Third Report on the
Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British Islands;—Report on the Development of
Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science ;—Report on the investigation of the Action
of Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of Work-
ing Models ;—Report of the Committee for continuing the Bibliography of Spectro-
scopy ;—Report of the Committee for calculating the Anthropological Measurements
taken at Bath ;—Second Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants from their
Local Habitats ;—The Incidence and Effects of Import and Export Duties ;—Experi-
ments upon the Transmission of Power by Compressed Air in Paris (Popp’s System) ;
—The Comtist Criticism of Economic Science ;—On the Advisability of assigning
Marks for Bodily Efficiency in the Examination of Candidates for the Public
Services ;—On the Principle and Methods of assigning Marks for Bodily Efficiency ;—
Experiments at Eton College on the Degree of Concordance between different
Examiners in assigning Marks for Physical Qualifications;—Fifth Report on the
North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor W. H. Flower’s Address
and Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
932
REPORT or tar SIXTIETH MEETING, at Leeds, August 1890,
Published at £1 4s. :
CONTENTS :—Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Third Report
of the Committee to arrange an Investigation of the Seasonal Variations of Tempera-
ture in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United Kingdom, in co-
operation with the Local Societies represented on the Association ;—Report of the
Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements ;—Fifth Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;.
—Sixth Report on the best methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radia-
tion ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with Dr. Kerr in his Researches on
Electro-optics ;—Report on Molecular Phenomena associated with the Magnetisation
of Iron ;—Tenth Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan ;—
Sixth Report on the best means of comparing and reducing Magnetic Observations ;
—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society
in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis;—Sixth Report of the Com-
mittee for promoting Tidal Observations in Canada ;—Report on the present state of
our Knowledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry ;— Report on the Preparation of
a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds ;.
—Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ;—Fourth Report on the Influence of
Silicon on the Properties of Iron and Steel;—Second Report on the best method of
establishing an International Standard for the Analysis of Iron and Steel ;-—Report.
on the Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—
Third Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry ;—Fourth Report on
the Properties of Solutions;—Fourth Report on the Bibliography of Solution ;—
Discussion on the Theory of Solution ;—Provisional Report on the Influence of the
Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ;—Report on the Absorp-
tion Spectra of Pure Compounds ;—Report on the best methods for the Registration
of all Type Specimens of Fossils in the British Isles;—Highteenth Report on the
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Sixteenth Report on the Circulation
of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and
the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts.
from these Formations ;—Final Report on an Ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington
Quay ;—Report on the Cretaceous Polyzoa;—Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of
Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ;—Fourth and final Report on the ‘ Manure’ Gravels.
of Wexford ;—EHighth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleeozoic Rocks ;—
Report on the collection, preservation, and systematic registration of Photographs of
Geological Interest in the United Kingdom ;—Report on the occupation of a Table
at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth ;—Third Report
on the present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India
Islands, and on the steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna.
and Flora ;—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples;.
—Report of the Committee for making a Digest of the Observations on the Migration
of Birds;—Third Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants from their Local
Habitats ;—Fourth Report of the Committee for taking steps for the establishment
of a Botanical Station at Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Report of the Committee for im-
proving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net for opening and closing under
water ;—The provable Effects on Wages of a general Reduction in the Hours of
Labour ;—Fovurth Report on the best methods of ascertaining and measuring Varia-
tions in the Value of the Monetary Standard ;—Report on the teaching of Science in
Elementary Schools ;—Fourth Report as to the Statistical Data available for deter-.
mining the amount of the Precious Metals in use as Money in the principal Countries,
the chief Forms in which the Money is employed, and the Amount annually used in
the Arts;—On some new Telemeters or Range-finders;—Second Report on the
Investigation of the Action of Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of
Estuaries by means of Working Models ;—Report on the Geography and the Habits,
Customs, and Physical Characters of the Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor and Northern
Persia, and on the excavation of Sites of Ancient Occupation ;—Report on the
Habits, Customs, Physical Characters,and Religions of the Natives of India ;—Report
of the Committee for editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’;
—Fourth Report on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British Islands ;—Report on
933
the Calculation of the Anthropological Measurements taken at Newcastle ;—Sixth
Report on the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir F. A. Abel’s Address, and
Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
REPORT or tus SIXTY-FIRST MEETING, at Cardiff, August
1891, Published at £1 4s.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Report on the
present state of our knowledge of Thermodynamics, specially with regard to the
Second Law ;—Sixth Report on Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical Bearings ;
—Eleventh Report on the Earthquake and Volcanic Phenomena of Japan ;—Second
Report of the Committee for calculating Tables of certain Mathematical Functions,
and, if necessary, taking steps to carry out the Calculations, and publishing the
results in an accessible form ;—Fifth Report on the application of Photography to
the Elucidation of Meteorological Phenomena ;—Report on the Discharge of Elec-
tricity from Points;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Scottish
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—
Third (interim) Report on the various Phenomena connected with the Recalescent
Points in Iron and other Metals;—Second (interim) Report of the Committee for
co-operating with Dr. Kerr in his Researches on Electro-optics ;—Report of the
Committee for co-operating with Dr. C. Piazzi Smyth in his Researches on the Ultra-
violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum ;—Report on the best means of Comparing and
Reducing Magnetic Observations ;—Report of the Committee for constructing and
issuing Practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Interim Report of
the Committee for carrying on the Tables connected with the Pellian Equation from
the Point where the work was left by Degen in 1817 ;—Seventh Report on the best
methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation ;—Report on the
Preparation of a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements.
and Compounds;—Interim Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours ;—
Report (provisional) on the Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen
and other Gases ;—Third Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ;—Fifth Report
on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—Fifth Report on the Bibliography of Solu-
tion ;—Third Report on the best method of establishing an International Standard
for the Analysis of Iron and Steel ;—Provisional Report on the direct formation of
Haloid Compounds from pure materials ;—Report (provisional) on the Absorption
Spectra of Pure Compounds ;—Nineteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland ;—Second Report on the Registration of all the Type Specimens
of British Fossils ;—Seventeenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters.
inthe Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character
of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—
Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ;—Second
‘Report on the collection, preservation, and systematic registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom ;—Report on the advisability and
possibility of establishing in other parts of the country Observations upon the
Prevalence of Earth Tremors similar to those now being made in Durham in connec-
tion with coal-mine explosions ;—Report of the Committee for working the very
Fossiliferous Transition Bed between the Middle and Upper Lias in Northampton-
shire, in order to obtain a more clear idea of its fauna, and to fix the position of
certain species of Fossil Fish, and more fully investigate the horizon on which they.
occur ;—Report of the Committee to complete the investigation of the Cave at
Elbolton, near Skipton, in order to ascertain whether Remains of Paleolithic Man
occur in the Lower Cave Earth ;—Report of the Committee for carrying on excava-
tions at Oldbury Hill, near Ightham, in order to ascertain the existence or otherwise
of Rock-shelters at this spot ;—Fourth Report on the present state of our knowledge
of the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands, and on the steps taken to
investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora;—Draft Report on the
present state of our knowledge of the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, and on the
steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna ;—Fifth Report of
the Committee for taking steps for the establishment of a Botanical Laboratory at
Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Fourth Report on the Disappearance of Native Plants from their
Local Habitats ;—Report of the Committee for making a digest of the observations
on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels, which have been carried
934
on by the Migration Committee of the British Association ;—Report on the occupa-
tion of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth ;
—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report
of the Committee for improving and experimenting with a Deep-sea Tow-net for
opening and closing under water ;—Report on the teaching of Science in Elementary
Schools ;—Third Report on the investigation of the Action of Waves and Currents
on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of Working Models ;— Report of
the Committee for editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ ;—
Seventh Report on the North-western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada ;—Fifth
Report on the Prehistoric Inhabitants of the British Islands ;—Fourth and Final
Report of the Committee to arrange an Investigation of the Seasonal Variations of
‘Temperature in Lakes, Rivers, and Estuaries in various parts of the United Kingdom
in co-operation with the local societies represented on the Association ;—On the
Capture of Comets by Planets, especially their Capture by Jupiter ;—The Recent
Progress of Agriculture in India.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Huggins’s Address, and Reso-
Intions of the General Committee of the Association.
REPORT or tus SIXTY-SECOND MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1892, Published at £1 As.
CONTENTS :—-Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee ;—Report on
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;—Seventh Report on Electrolysis in its
Physical and Chemical Bearings ;—Report on the Phenomena accompanying the
Discharge of Electricity from Points;—Second Report on the Ultra-violet Rays of
the Solar Spectrum ;—Second Report on the Application of Photography to the Elu-
cidation of Meteorological Phenomena ;—Twelfth Report on the Earthquake and
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan ;—Nineteenth Report on the Rate of Increase of
Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under
Water ;—Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards
for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Report on Electro-optics ;—Highth Report on the
best methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation ;—Report on Con-
stants and Units ;—On the Application of Interference Methods to Spectroscopic
Measurements ;—Fourth Report on establishing an International Standard for the
Analysis of Iron and Steel ;—Sixth Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—
Fourth Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy ;—Report on the Action of Light
on the Hydracids of the Halogens in presence of Oxygen ;—Report on Wave-length
Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds ;—Sixth Report on the Biblio-
graphy of Solution ;—Sixth Report on the Nature of Solution ;—Report (provisional)
on the Formation of Haloids from pure Materials ;—Report (provisional) on the
Influence of the Silent Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other Gases ;—Report
(provisional) on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours ;—Report on the Proximate
Constituents of the various kinds of Coal ;—Highteenth Report on the Circulation of
the Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England, and the Quality
and Quantity of the Waters supplied to various Towns and Districts from these For-
mations ;—Report on the Investigation of the Cave at Elbolton ;—Twentieth Report on
Erratic Blocks ;—Third Report on the Registration of the Type Specimens of British
Fossils ;—Third Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological Interest ;—Ninth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the
Palzeozoic Rocks ;—Report on the Cretaceous Polyzoa ;—Report on the Volcanic Pheno-
mena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ;— Report on the advisability and possibility of
establishing in other parts of the country observations upon the prevalence of Earth
Tremors similar to those now being made in Durham in connection with coal-mine
explosions ;—Report on work done at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Fifth Report
on the present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany of the West India
Islands, and the steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the Fauna and
Flora ;—Second Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, and the steps taken to investigate ascertained deficiencies in the
Fauna ;—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Laboratory of the Marine Biolo-
gical Association at Plymouth ;—Sixth Report on the establishment of a Botanical
Laboratory at Peradeniya, Ceylon ;—Report of the Committee for making a Digest
935
of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels ;—
Report on a Deep-sea Tow-net for opening and closing under Water ;—Report on
proposals for the Legislative Protection of Wild Birds’ Eggs; Report on the Clima-
tological and Hydrographical Conditions of Tropical Africa ;—Report on the Teaching
of Science in Elementary Schools ;—Second Report on the Development of Graphic
Methods of Mechanical Science ;—Shield Tunnelling in Loose Ground under Water
Pressure, with special reference to the Vyrnwy Aqueduct Tunnel under the Mersey ;—
Report of the Committee for editing a new Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and
Queries ’;—Report on the Ruins of Mashonaland and the Habits and Customs of the
inhabitants ;—Report on the Prehistoric and Ancient Remains of Glamorganshire ;—
Eighth Report on the Physical Characters, Languages, and Industrial and Social Con-
dition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada;—Report on the
Habits, Customs, Physical Characteristics, and Religions of the Natives of India ;—
Report on the work done in the Anthropometric Laboratory.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Archibald Geikie’s Address,
and Resolutions of the General Committee of the Association.
The following Publications are also on sale at the Office of the
Association :—
Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included).
Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage 43d.)
Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.
Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s.
On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—
Spinning, 2s.; Weaving, 1s.
Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 6d.
Second Report on the present Methods of Teaching Chemistry, 6d.
Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
in Electrical Measurements, 6d.
Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science, 1s.
we iP tes sit
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BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
Eis
OF
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO JANUARY 31, 1894.
Office of the Association:
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.
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EG) 18 VUADRZE DE oceans
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1893-94.
PRESIDENT.
Dr. J. S. BURDON SANDERSON, M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in the University of Oxford.
VICE-PRESIDENTS,
His Grace the Duxt or St. ALBANS, Lord Lieu-
tenant of Nottinghamshire.
His Grace the DUKE or Devonsuire, K.G., LL.D.,
Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
His Grace the DuKE OF PorRTLAND, Lord Lieu-
tenant of Caithness,
His Grace the DUKE OF NEWCASTLE.
The Right Hon. Lonp BeLrEr, LL.M.
The Right Worshipful the Mayor or Nortine-
HAM.
The Right Hon. Sir W. R. Grove, M.A., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.
Sir Joun TurRNEY, J.P.
Professor MICHAEL FosTrer, M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
Sec.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S.
W. H. Ransom, Esq., M.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
THE Most Hon. THE MARQUIS OF SALISBURY, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., Chancellor of the
University of Oxford.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the EArt or Jersry, G.C.M.G.,
Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Oxford.
The Right Hon. Lorp WANTAGE,K.C.B.,V.O., Lord-
Lieutenant of Berkshire.
The Right Hon. the EARL OF ROSEBERY, K.G.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Right Rey. the Lorp BisHoPp OF OxFoRD, D.D.
The Right Hon. Lorp Rorusc#ILp.
The Vick-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
_ OXFORD.
The Right Hon. Lorp KEtvyIn, D.C.L., Pres.R.S.
Sir W. R. Anson, D.C.L., Warden of All Souls
College.
Sir BFRNHARD SAMUELSON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
Sir Henry Dyke AcLanD, Bart., M.D., F.RB.S.,
Regius Professor of Medicine. ~
The Rev. the MasTerR OF PRMBROKE COLLEGE,
Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy.
Dr. J. J. SYLVESTER, F.R.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. Sir DouaLas Gatton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W.
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., M.A., D.U.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., College Road, Harrow, Middlesex,
GENERAL TREASURER,
Professor ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., ’.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT OXFORD.
GILBERT C. Bourne, Esq., M.A. |
G. C. Druc#, Esq., M.A. |
D. H. Nagel, M.A.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT OXFORD.
F. M. Davis, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ANDERSON, Dr. W.. F.R.S.
AYRTON, Professor W. E., F.R.S.
BAKER, Sir B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
BALL, Sir R.S., F.R.3.
Boys, Professor C. V#RNON, F.R.S.
EpGRWonRTH, Professor F. Y., M.A.
EVANS, Sir J., K.C.B.. F.R.S.
GLAZEBROOK, R. T., Esq., F.R.S.
GREEN, Professor A. H., F.R.S.
Honrstey, Professor Victor, F.R.S.
LIVEING, Professor G. D., F.R.S.
LopG&, Professor OLIVER J., F.R.S.
MaRKHaM, CLEMENTS R., Esq., O.B., F.R.S.
MELDOLA, Professor R., F.R.S.
PREECE, W. H., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
RAMSAY, Professor W., F.R.S.
REINOLD, Professor A. W., F.R.S.
POLES, Professor J. EMERSON, M.D.,
-R.S.
SIDGWIcK, Professor H., M.A.
Symons, G. J., Esq., F.R.S.
THOMSON, Professor J. J., M.A., F.R.S.
Unwin, Professor W. C., F.R.S.
WARD, Professor MARSHALL, F.R.S.
WHITAKER, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Woopwakp, Dr. H., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former yeurs,
the Secretary, the Generai Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Sir Jonn Lussock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S8.
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S.
The Right Hon. Lord PLayrair, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS,
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. | Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. Sir F, J. Bramwell, Bart., F.K.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. Sir W. H. Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir F. A. Abel, Bart., K.C.B., F.ki s.
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L.. Sec.R.S. | Dr. Wm. Huggins, D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Rt. Hon. Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. | Lord Playtair, K.C.B., F.R.S. SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D.,F.1.s.
Lord Kelvin, LL.D., Pres.&.S. Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. Prof. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S.
Y. L. Sclater, Esq.. Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
AUDITORS.
| Prof. W. Cunningham, D.Sc,
a2
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T.
Lord Armstrong, C.B., F.R.S.
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S.
F, Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
Prof. Michael Foster, Sec.R.S.
J. B. Martin, Esq., M.A., F.S.S. | Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.
LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
18953.
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to ihe Annual Report.
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary
Year of
Election.
1887. *Abbe, Professor Cleveland. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.
1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.
1887. tAbbott,T.C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1863. *AsEL, Sir Freprrick Aveustus, Bart.. K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
London, 8. W.
1886. {ABERcRoMBy, The Hon. Ratpu, F.R.Met.Soc. 21 Chapel-street,
Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.
1891. §ABERDARE, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Duf-
fryn, Mountain Ash, South Wales.
1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D. 87 Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. 37 Grosvenor-square, London, W.
1885. tAbernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.
1863, *ABERNETHY, JAMES, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 4 Delabay-street, West-
minster, S. W
6
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1885.
1873.
1886.
1877.
1884.
1873.
1882.
1869.
1877.
1878.
1873.
1877,
1860.
1887.
1892.
1884.
1876.
1871.
1879.
1877.
1869,
1879.
1890.
1890.
1865.
1883.
1884.
1887.
1884.
1864,
1871.
1871.
1891.
1871.
1884.
1886.
1862.
1891.
1883.
1888.
1873.
tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.
*ABNEY, Captain W. bE W., R.E., C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
F.C.S. Willeslie House, Wetherby-road, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
tAbraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.
tAce, Rey. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, near Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.
tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.
tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.
*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 388 Pont-street, Chelsea, London, 8. W.
tAcland, Charles T. D. Sprydoncote, Exeter.
*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.
*Acland, Rev. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.
*AcLAND, Sir Henry W. D., Bart., K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of
Medicine in the University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford.
*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, London, W.
tActanD, Sir Toomas Dyxg, Bart., M.A., D.C.L. Killerton, Exeter ;
and Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.
tApami, J. G., B.A. New Museums, Cambridge.
tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.
tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
tAdams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
§Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*ApAMs, Rey. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Principal of Bishop’s College,
Lennoxville, Canada.
tAdams, William. 38 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.
*Apams, WILLIAM Gryts, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Notting Hill-square, London, W.
tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Aberdeen.
tAddyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.
tApengy, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsford-
terrace, Dublin.
*Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.
tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.
tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A,
tAgnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.
tAikins, Dr. W. T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.
*Ainsworth, David, M.P. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
*Ainsworth, John Stirling, Harecroft, Cumberland.
tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.
§Aitken, John, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
Akroyd, Edward. Bankfield, Halifax.
*Alabaster, H. Hazeldene, Wood-vale, Honor Oak, London, 8.E.
*Albright, G@.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tAxcocr, Sir RurwerrorpD, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe-
neeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
tAlexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.
tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.
*Alexander, Patrick Y. Experimental Works, Bath.
tAleconder, Reginald, M.D. 138 Hallfield-road, Bradford, York-
shire,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 7
Year of
Election.
1858.
1891.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1867.
1885.
1871.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1891.
1887.
1878.
1861.
1887.
1891.
1889.
1863.
1889.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1873.
1891.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1850.
1883.
1885.
1874.
1892.
1888.
1887.
1889,
1880.
1886.
1880.
1883.
1891.
1880.
1886.
SALEXANDER, WrttraM, M.D. Halifax.
*Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. Coolivin, Hawkwood-road, Boscombe,
Hants.
tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
tAloer, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.
tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.
fAlison, George L. ©. Dundee.
tAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.
tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.F. 10 Austin Friars, London, E.C.
tAtcen, Atrrep H., F.C.S. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
*Allen, Arthur Ackland. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. Melrose, Grange-road, Cambridge.
*Allen, Charles Peter. Overbrook, Kersal, Manchester.
§Allen, F. J. Mason College, Birmingham.
tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham.
tAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
§Allen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, via Preston.
tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W
fAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
*Allen, Russell. 2 Parkwood, Victoria Park, Manchester.
fAllen, W.H. 24 Glenroy-street, Roath, Cardiff.
tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.
tAllhusen, C. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Allhusen, Frank. Low Fell, Gateshead.
*ALLMAN, GrorcE J., M.D.,LL.D.,F.R.S.,F.R.S.E.,M.R.1.A., F.LS.,
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset.
*Allnutt, J. W. F., M.A. 12 Chapel-row, Portsea, Hants.
tAllport, Samuel. 50 Whittall-street, Birmingham.
{Alward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire,
tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tAmbrose, D. R. 4 Richmond-terrace, Cardiff.
§Amery, John Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
§Amecy, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon.
fAmi, Henry. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.
Anderson, Charles Clinton. 4 Knaresborough-place, Cromwell-
road, London, S.W.
{ Anderson, Charles William. Belvedere, Harrogate.
tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.
*Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Frognal Park, Hampstead, London, N.W.
fAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
*Anderson, R. Bruce. 35a Great George-street, London, 8.W.
{Anderson, Professor R. J..M.D. Queen’s College, Galway.
tAnderson, Robert Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
*ANDERSON, TEMPEST, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York.
*AnDERSON, WILLIAM, J).C.L., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Director-General
of Ordnance Factories, Lesney House, Erith, Kent.
tAndrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.
tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.
tAndrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea,
§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883.
187
1886.
1886.
1878.
1890.
1886,
1870.
1874.
1884.
1851.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1887.
1861.
1867.
1857
1879
1886,
1875.
1876.
1889.
1884.
1889,
1893.
1870.
1853.
1886,
1870.
1874.
1889,
1878.
1887.
13866,
tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.
7. §Awnextt, Joun, F.C.S. 5 Beacons-field, Derby-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.
tAnsell, Joseph. 388 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean 's-yard, Westminster, 8. W.
Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greenfield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.
{Arblaster, Edmund, M.A. The Grammar School, Carlisle.
fArcher, Francis. 14 Cook-street, Liverpool.
qArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.LA. 11 South Frederick-street,
Dublin.
*Archibald, E. Douglas. Care of Mr. F. Tate, 28 Market-street,
Melbourne.
tARGYLL, His Grace the Duke of, K.G.,K.T., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.G.S. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, Lond on, W my and Inverary,
Argyllshire.
§Arlidge, John Thomas, M.D., B.A. The High Grove, Stoke-upon-
Trent.
§Armistead, Richard. 83 Chambres-road, Southport.
*Armistead, William, 15 Rupert-street, Compton-road, Wolver-
hampton.
tArmitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.
tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester.
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.
. *Armstrone, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Jesmond Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne..
. “Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Albany, London, W.
tArmsrRonc, GEorcE Frepericx, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Regius
Professor of Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. The
University, Edinkurgh.
tArmsrrone, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 55 Granville
Park, Lewisham, 8.E.
tArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
tArmstrong, John A. 32 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.
yArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
§Arnold-Bemrose, H., M.A., F.G.S. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.
tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London,
N.W
*Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, S.W.
tAscough, Jesse. Patent Borax Company, Newmarket-street, Bir-
mingham.
*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
§Ashley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.
f Ashton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
Asuton, Toomas, J.P. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshton, "Thomas Gair, M.A. 36 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Woodthorpe, Nottingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
Year of
Election.
1887.
1888.
1890.
1887.
1887.
1875.
1861.
1861.
1887.
1865.
1884.
1863.
1861.
1881.
1881.
1863.
1884,
1886.
1860.
1865.
1881.
1888.
1877.
1884.
1863.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1877.
1883.
1892.
1883.
1893.
1870,
1887.
1865.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
tAshworth, Mrs. Harriet. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near Stock-
ort.
eheorh: Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
*Ashworth, J.J. 39 Spring-gardens, Manchester.
tAshworth, J. Reginald. 20 King-street, Rochdale.
tAshworth, John Wallwork. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, near
Stockport.
tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Birchwood-grove, Burgess Hill, Sussex.
§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
§Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, M.A. Fairfield House, Ashton-on-
Mersey.
*Arxinson, Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.
tAtkinson, pened, Ph.D., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
* Atkinson, G. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tAtkinson, Rev. J. A. Vicarage, Bolton.
tAtkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.
tArKrInson, Ropert WILLIAM, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
*ATTFIELD, Professor J.,M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
tAulton, A. D., M.D. Walsall.
*Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William KE. C., M.A. 11 Christ Church-road,
Winchester.
*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tAxon, W. E. A. Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tAyre, Rev. J. W., M.A. 30 Green-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
*Ayrron, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, London, 8. W.
*Baprneton, CHARLES CaRpALeE, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.
{Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
tBackhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington.
*Bacon, Thomas Walter. 4 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London,
N.W.
{tBaddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
{Baden-Powell, Sir George S., K.C.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.A.S.,
F.S.8. 8 St. George’s-place, Hyde Park, London, S.W.
{Badock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
tBaildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
§Baildon, H. Bellyer. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.
*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.
§Bailey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.8., F.R.G.S. Edinburgh.
TBailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.
*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.
tBailey, Samuel, F.G.S, Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
10
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1855.
1887.
1866.
1878.
1885.
1873.
1885.
1882.
1886.
1891.
1861.
1881.
1865.
1875.
1881.
1884,
1871.
1875.
1883.
1878.
1866.
{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver-
hampton.
tBailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.
{Baillon, Andrew. British Consulate, Brest.
{Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W.
{Barn, ALExanDER, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.
{Bain, Sir James, M.P. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow.
{Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
*Baxer, Sir Bensamin, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.
{t Baker, Harry. 262 Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
{Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.
*Baker, John. The Gables, Buxton.
{Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.
{Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.
{Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.
{Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
{Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.
tBalfour,G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.
{Baxroor, Isaac Barter, M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.RS.,F.R.S.E.,F.LS.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.
{Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.
*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.
*Batt, Sir Rogert SraweEtt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,
Cambridge.
. {Batt, Vatentine, C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of
the Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
. *Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity Colieze, Cambridge.
. }Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.
. [Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.
. §Bamford, Harry, B.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.
. [Bance, Major Edward. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton.
. [Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.
. {Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
. [Barber, Rev. S. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.
. *Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.
. *Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester,
. Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
. tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
. *Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, H.C.
. “Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts,
. *Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glascow.
. *Barclay, Robert. Springfield, Kersal, Manchester.
. {Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham,
. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.
. {Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.
. [Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.
. {Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross,
London, 8.E.
. *Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
1879.
1882.
Nottingham.
{Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.
*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham,
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS, 11
Election.
1879. *Barker, Rev. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Boroughbridge Vicarage,
1865,
1870.
1889.
1886.
1873.
1889.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1885.
1878.
1861.
1881,
1889,
1868.
1884.
1886.
1881.
1890.
1859.
1891.
1883.
1883.
1860.
1872.
1883.
1287.
1874.
1874.
1885.
1881.
1866.
1893.
1886.
1886.
1886,
1886,
1858.
1862.
1883.
1875.
Bridgwater.
tBarker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Barxty, Sir Heyry, G.O.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
gardens, South Kensington, London, 8.W.
{Barkus, Dr. B. 3 Jesmond-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tBarlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace-yard, West-
minster, 8S. W.
§Barlow, H. W. L. Holly Bank, Croftstank-road, Urmston, near
Manchester.
tBarlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.
{Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.
{Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
tBarlow, William, F.G.S. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N.
{Bartow, Wrii1am Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace-
yard, Westminster, S. W.
*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham.
{Barnard, William, LL.B. Harlow, Essex.
tBarnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.
§Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.
{Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.
{ Barnsley, Charles H. 32 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Barr, ArcHrBaLD, D.Sc., M-Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.
{Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.
{Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
§Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.
}Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
{Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.
TBarrett, T. B. 20 Victoria-terrace, Welshpool, Montgomery.
*Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
{Barrett, William Scott. Winten Lodge, Crosby, near Liverpool.
{Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
*Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.
*Barrington- Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.
*Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
erove, Shortlands, Kent.
§Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport.
tBarron, William, Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
§Barrow, George, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.
{Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.
}Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.
tBarrows, Joseph. The Popiars, Yardley, near Birmingham.
}Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
tBarry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.
*BarrRy, CHARLES. 1 Victoria-street, London, 8.W.
tBarry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
tBarry, John Wolfe, M.Inst.C.E, 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S. W.
12
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
1884, *Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York.
1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, ‘Weston-super- Mare.
1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
1858. *Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1892. §Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
1858.
1884.
1873.
1892.
1893.
1884,
1852.
1892.
1887.
1882.
1876,
1876.
1888.
1891.
1866.
1889.
1869.
1871.
1889.
1888.
1873.
1868.
1889.
1884.
1851.
1881.
1836,
1867.
1863.
1867.
1892.
1875.
1876,
1887.
1887.
1883.
Edinburgh.
*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road,
Headingley, Leeds.
{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
tBartley, George C. T., M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
{Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
§ Barton, Edwin H., B.Se. Colwick Vale, Nottingham.
{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
TBarton, James. Farndreg, Dundalk.
{Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
{Bartrum, John 8S. 18 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
*Basine, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S. 74 ‘St. George’s-square,
London, 8S. W.
tBassano, Alexander, 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
tBassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
*Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Chapel Place Mansions, 322 Oxford-
street, London, W.
{Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.
{BastastE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 6 Trevelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.
tBastard, S$. 8. Summerland-place, Pxeter.
TBastran, H. Cuartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London, 8A Manchester-square, London, W.
{Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Bateman, A. E., C.M.G. Board of Trade, London, 8.W.
*Bateman, Daniel. Wissahickon, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Bateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Home House,
Worthing.
{Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
{Bateson, William, B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
tBarH and WELLS, The Right Rev. Lord Arravur Hervey, Lord
Bishop of, D.D. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.
*Bather, Francis Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. 207 Harrow-road, London, W.
{Batten, Edmund Chisholm. Thorn Falcon, near Taunton, Somerset.
*Batrerspa, The Right Hon. Lorp, F.L.8. Travellers’ Club, Pall
Mall, London, S.W.
§BavErMAN, H., F.G.S. 9 Hazlebourne-gardens, Cavendish-road,
Balham, London, S.W.
tBaxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
§Bayly, F. W. Royal Mint, London, E.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford,
{Baynton, Alfred. 28 Gilda Brook Park, Eccles, Manchester.
*Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire,
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 13
Election.
1886.
1886.
1860,
1882.
1884,
1872.
1883.
1889.
1887.
1842,
1888.
1889.
1855.
1886.
1861.
1887.
1885,
1871.
1887.
1885.
1870.
1858.
1890,
1891,
1878.
1884.
1873.
1874.
1891,
1892.
1873.
1871.
1884.
1860.
1862.
1875,
1891,
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle,
Fairford, Gloucestershire.
tBeale, C. Calle Progress No, 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
{Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Bratg, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of the Principles and
Practice of Medicine in King’s College, London. 61 Grosvenor-
street, London, W.
§Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, Lon-
don, S.W.
{Beamish, G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.
{Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.
tBeard, Mrs. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
§Beare, Professor T. Hudson, F.R.S.E. University College, London,
W.C
{Beaton, John, M.A, 219 Upper Brook-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock,
Manchester.
*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.
tBeatson, W. B., M.D. 11 Cavendish-place, Bath.
{Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picca-
dilly, London, W.
tBeaugrand,M.H. Montreal. .
“Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.
“Beaumont, W. J. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
§BEaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Melford, Palace-road,
Tulse Hill, London, 8. W.
“Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, London,
S.W.
*Brcxerr, Joun Hamppen. Corbar Hill House, Buxton, Derbyshire.
§Bepparp, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London. Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
§Beppor, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.
§Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.
{Bedford, James E., F.G.S.__ Clifton-villas, Cardigan-road, Leeds.
§Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.
tBepson, P. Puitxres, D.Se., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Beers, W. G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hull-terrace, Montreal, Canada.
{Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.
tBelcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
"Belinfante, L. L., B.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Geological Society,
Burlington House, London, W.
TRell, A Beatson. 143 Princes-street, Edinburgh.
TBell, Asahel P. 32 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester.
{Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
{Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
{Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
“BELL, Sir Isaac Lowrutan, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
Rounton Grange, Northallerton.
tBell, James, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.0.S, The Laboratory,
Somerset House, London, W.C.
{Bell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff,
14
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
Election.
1871. *Bert, J. Carrer, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
1888
1864
1876
1867
1888
1842.
1882
1893
Manchester.
. *Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield.
. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
. {Bell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.K. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
. {Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
. *Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
. {Bellingham, William. 15 Killieser-avenue, Telford Park, Streat-
ham Hill, London, S.W.
. §Brtrrr, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.
1884. {Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada,
1886
1885.
1891.
1870.
1836.
1887.
1881.
1883.
1881.
1870.
1887.
1889.
1848.
1887.
1863.
1885.
1884.
1876.
1865.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1862.
1865,
1882.
1890,
1885.
1880.
1884.
1885.
1890.
1863.
1870.
1888.
. §Benger, Frederick Baden, F.LC., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
{Bennam, Wirt1am Braxtann, D.Sc. University College, Lon-
don, W.C.
§Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 22 St. Alban’s-road, Harlesden, London,
N.W
{Bennert, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tBennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
t Bennett, James M. St. Mungo Chemical Company, Ruckhill,
Glasgow.
tBennett, John R. 16 West Park, Clifton, Bristol.
*Bennett, Laurence Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
tBennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.
*Bennett, William. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool.
{Bennion, James A., M.A. 1 St. James’-square, Manchester.
tBenson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon Tyne.
{Benson, Starling. Gloucester-place, Swansea.
*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape
Town.
tBenson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Bent, J. Toeopore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W.
{Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
tBergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
tBernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.
§Berry, William. Parklands, Bowdon, Cheshire.
{Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
{Besant, William Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.
*BrssemErR, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, 8.E.
*Bessemer, Henry, jun. Town Hill Park, West End, Southampton.
{Best, William Woodham. 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.
t Bettany, Mrs. 33 Oakhurst-grove, East Dulwich-road, Londin,
SE.
*Bevan, Rev. James Oliver, M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Vow-
church, Hereford.
*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
tReveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.
§Bevington, Miss Mary E. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks, Kent.
tBewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney
Hill, London, E.C.
tBickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
*Bidder, George Parker. The Zoological Station, Naples.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 15
Year of
Election.
1885. *Bipwett, Suerrorp, M.A., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8.W.
1882. §Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, London,
S.E.
1891. {Billups, J. E. 29 The Parade, Cardiff.
1886. {Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, London, N.W.
1887. *Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.
1884, *Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. Electric Works, Sheffield.
1881. {Binnie, Alexander R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. London County Council,
Spring-gardens, London, S.W.
1873. {Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire,
1880. {Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport.
1888. *Birley, Miss Caroline. Seedley-terrace, Pendleton, Manchester.
1887. *Birley, H. K. 13 Hyde-road, Ardwick, Manchester,
1871. *Biscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C,
1892. {Bishop, Arthur W., Ph.D. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh,
1883. {Bishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1885. [Bissett, J.P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.
1886, *Bixby, Captain W. H. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.
1889. {Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1889. §Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead,
1881. ¢Black, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.
1869. {Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
1834. Blackburn, Bewicke. Calverley Park, Tunbridge Wells.
1876. {Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.
1884. {Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.
Blackburne, Rev. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
penham.
1877. {Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1859. Blackie, John S., M.A., Emeritus Professor of Greek in the Uni-
sity of Edinburgh. 9 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.
1876. {Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.
1855. *Brackrg, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 17 Stanhope-street, Glascow,
1884, {Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Fawille-street, Montreal, Canada.
18838. {Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.
1888. {Blaine, R.S., J.P. Summerhill Park, Bath.
1883. tBlair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.
1892. {Blair, Alexander. 35 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1892. {Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.
1863. {Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. 28 Townshend-road, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
1886. tBlake, Dr. James. San Francisco, California.
1849. *Braxr, Henry Wo ttaston, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.
1883. *Buaxg, Rev. J. F., M.A., F.GS. 40 Loudoun-road, London, N.W.
1846. *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
1891. {Blakesley, Thomas H., M.A., M.Inst.0.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, London, 8.FE.
1878, {Blakeney Rev. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield,
1886. {Biakie, John. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1861. §Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. Free Hills, Bursledon, Hants.
1887. {Blamires, George. Cleckheaton.
1881. §Blamires, Thomas H, Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.
1884. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 F riar-street, Reading.
1869. {Bianrorp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-
gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
16 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1887. *Bles, A. J.S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.
1887. *Bles, Edward J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.
1887. {Bles, Marcus S. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.
1884, *Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
1880. §Bloxam, G. W., M.A. Englefield Green, Surrey.
1888. §Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 73 Clarendon-road,
Crumpsall, Manchester.
1883. { Blumberg, Dr. 65 Hoghton-street, Southport.
1870. {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
1859. Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
1885. {Buyra, Jamus, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.
Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
1883. {Blyth, Miss Pheebe. 3 South Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.
1867. *Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
1887. tBlythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1870. {Boardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.
1887. *Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.
1889. {Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 80 Walbrook, London, E.C.
1884. {Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.
1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.
1881. {Bojanowski, Dr. Victor de. 27 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C,
1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
1883. §Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
1883. §Bonney, Miss S. 28 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1871. *Bonnny, Rev. THomas Gurorer, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A,,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London.
23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1866. {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
1888. {Boon, William. Coventry.
1890. *Booth, Charles, F.S.S. 2 Talbot-court, Gracechurch-street, London,
E.C
1883. §Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.
1893. §Booth, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.
1883. {Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
1876. {Booth, Rev. William H. St. Germain’s-place, Blackheath, London,
S.E.
1883. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Rawlinson-road, Southport.
1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
1876. *Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. New Univer-
sity Club, St. James’s-street, London, S.W.
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield. Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
1881. §BorHamiry, Cuartes H., F.LC., F.C.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Fernleigh,
Haines Hill, Taunton, Somerset.
1867. {Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.F.
1887, tBott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.
1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
1887. {Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 17
Election.
1871.
1884,
1892.
1876,
1890.
1883.
1883,
1898.
1889.
1866,
1890.
1884.
1888.
1870,
1881.
1856.
1886.
1884.
1880.
1887.
1865.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1871.
1865.
1884,
1892.
1872.
1869.
1893.
1892.
1857.
1863.
1880.
1864.
1870.
1888,
1879.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1861.
*BorromiEy, James Tomson, M.A., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.C.S. 18
University-gardens, Glasgow.
*Bottomley, Mrs. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.
tBottomley, W. B. Fernclitfe, Morecambe.
{Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
§Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.
{Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, London, 8.W.
{Bovrng, A. G., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Presidency
College, Madras.
§Bourne, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. New College, Oxford.
{Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick.
§ Bourne, STEPHEN, F.S.8. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey.
{Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.
tBovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal. Ontario-
avenue, Montreal, Canada.
{Bowden, Rev. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.
tBower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
*Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of Botany in
the University of Glasgow.
*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
{Bowlby, Rey. Canon. 101 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
tBowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent.
{tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
{tBowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.
§Bowman, F. H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Ash Leigh, Ashley Heath,
Bowdon, Cheshire.
§Box, Alfred M. 68 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
*Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.
{tBoyd, Robert. Manor House, Didsbury, Manchester.
TBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
}Boyrz, The Very Rey. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury, The
Deanery, Salisbury.
*Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55
Parliament-street, London, S.W.
§Boys, Cuartes VERNON, F.R.S., Assistant Professor of Physics in
the Royal College of Science, London, S.W.
*Brasproor, EK. W., F.S.A. 28 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.
§Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
§Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
{Brapy, Gror@z S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.
*Brady, Rey. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, Romford,
Essex.
tBrawam, Purp, F.C.S. 6 George-street, Bath.
{Braidwood, Dr. 385 Park-road South, Birkenhead.
§Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.
{Bramley, Herbert. 6 Paradise-square, Sheffield.
§BRAMWELL, Sir Freprerick J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, London, 8. W.
{tBramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton.
tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
*Brandreth, Rey. Henry. 1 Cintra-terrace, Hill’s-road, Cambridge.
B
18
LIST OF MEMBERS
Year of
Election.
1885.
1890.
1868.
1877.
1882.
1881.
1866.
1875.
1886.
1870.
1887.
1870.
1886.
1879.
1870.
1889.
1890.
1870.
1898.
1868.
1893.
1884.
1879.
1879.
1878.
1884.
1859.
1883.
1865.
1884.
1883.
1881.
1855.
1864,
1855.
1888.
1887.
1865.
1887.
1887.
1833.
18386.
1885.
1863.
*Bratby, William, J.P. Oakfield Hale, Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.
{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
{Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
*Bretherton, ©. E. 1 Garden-court, Temple, London, H.C.
*Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford.
{tBrettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.
{Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.
§Bridge, T. W., M.A., Professor of Zoology in the Mason Science
College, Birmingham.
*Bridson, Joseph R. Sawrey, Windermere.
{Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
{Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
{Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
*Briac, JoHN. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
tBrigy, T. H. The Grange, Weston, near Otley, Yorkshire.
{Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
tBright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.
§Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.
{Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall,
London, 8.W.
§Briscoe, Albert E., A.R.C.Sc., B.Sc. University College, Not-
tingham.
{Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada,
{Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.
*Brirrain, W. H., J.P. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.
{Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, 8.W.
*Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill,
Blackheath, London, S.E.
*Bropuurst, BERNARD Epwarp, F.R.C.S. 20 Grosvenor-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.
*Brodie, David, M.D. 12 Patten-road, Wandsworth Common,
S.W.
{Broprs, Rev. Perpr Beririerr, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
{Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
A.
*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. The Gore, Eastbourne.
§Brook, Robert G. Rowen-street, St. Helens, Lancashire.
tBrooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
*Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.
tBrooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
FREOORS, pee Canon R. E., M.A. 14 Marlborough-buildings,
ath.
§Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Manchester.
{Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
{Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
*Bros, W. Law. Sidcup, Kent.
§Brotherton, E. A. Fern Cliffe, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
§Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.
*Browett, Alfred. 14 Dean-street, Birmingham.
*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.8.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
eraye-crescent, Hdinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 19
Election.
1892. {Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.
1893. §Brown, Arthur, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Vickers-street, Nottingham.
1867.
1855.
1871.
1863.
1883.
1881.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1870.
1876.
1881.
1882.
1859.
1882.
1886,
1863.
1871.
1868.
1891.
1865.
1885.
1884,
18638.
1892.
1879,
1891.
1862.
1872.
1865.
1887.
1865.
1883.
1855.
1892.
1898.
1863.
1863.
1875.
1868.
1891.
1878.
tBrown, Charles Gage, M.D., O.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, London,
S.W
{Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
{Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.
*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
{Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
{Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.
{Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
{Brown, Gerald Culmer. Lachute, Quebec, Canada.
{Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. 26 Ferryhill-place, Aberdeen.
{Brown, Harry. University College, London, W.C.
{Brown, Mrs. Helen. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh.
§Brown, Horace T., F.R.S., F.C.S. 47 High-street, Burton-on-Trent.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh,
“Brown, Professor J. CAMPBELL, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.
§Brown, John. Edenderry House, Newtownbreda, Belfast.
*Brown, John, M.D. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
*Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
{Brown, Rey. John Crombie, LL.D. Haddington, N.B.
*Brown, Mrs. Mary. 68 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire.
§Brown R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth,
{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Brown, Rosert, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Fersley, Rydal-
road, Streatham, London, S.W. i
{Brown, Samuel, M.Inst.C.E., Government Engineer. Nicosia, Cyprus,
§Brown, T. Forstmr, M.Inst.C.E. Guildhall Chambers, Cardiff.
{Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
tBrown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen,
{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co., Virginia, U.S.A.
tBrowne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
eastle-upon-Tyne.
{Browne, Harold Crichton, Crindon, Dumfries.
TBrowne, Sir J. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
street-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
§Browne, Montagu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.
*Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Sandbrook, Tullow, Co. Carlow,
Treland.
{Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent,
*Browne, William, M.D. Heath Wood, Leighton Buzzard.
{Brownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
{Browning, John, F.R.A.S, 63 Strand, London, W.C.
{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
{Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
§Bruce, William S. University Hall, Edinburgh.
*Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Brunel, J. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W,
{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Brunron, T. Lavprr, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, London, W.
{Bruton, Edward Henry. 181 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.
B 2
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886.
1884.
1890.
1871.
1867.
1885.
1881.
1871.
1884.
1883.
1886.
1864.
1865.
1886,
1884.
1880.
1869.
1851.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1895.
1871.
1881.
1883.
1865.
1886.
1842.
1875.
1869.
1881.
1891.
1884.
1888.
1883.
1876.
1885.
1877.
1884.
1883.
1887.
1881.
1883.
1860.
1891.
1888.
*Bryan, G. H. Thornlea, Trumpington-road, Cambridge.
tBryce, Rev. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada.
§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.
§Bucnan, ALExanpER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
*Buchan, William Paton. Fairylnowe, Cambuslang, N.B.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C. 12 Barnard-road, Birkenhead, Cheshire.
*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.
t{Bucuanan, Jonn Youne, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.S.
10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
t{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.
{Buckland, Miss A. W. 108 Portsdown-road, London, W.
*Buckle, Edmund W. 28 Bedford-row, London, W.C.
{Bucxre, Rev. Groner, M.A. Wells, Somerset.
*Buckley, Henry. 8 St. Mary’s-road, Leamington.
§Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver-park, Didsbury.
*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, London, W.
{Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. 53 Gower-street, London, W.C.
tBucknill, J.C., M.D., F.R.S. East Cliff House, Bournemouth.
*Buckxron, GrorcE Bowpter, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.
tBudenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.
{Budgett, Samuel. Kirton, Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.
{Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.
§Bulleid, Arthur. Glastonbury.
{Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
tBulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York.
tBulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.
tBunce, John Thackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham.
ane H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C.
*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.
{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol.
{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
tBurdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly,
London, W.
t{Burge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.
*Burland, Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
*Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W.
tBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
tBurns, David. Alston, Carlisle.
{Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.
{Burr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, E.C.
{Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.
§Burroughs, 8. M. Snow Hill-buildings, London, E.C.
*Burrows, Abraham. Greenhall, Atherton, near Manchester.
tBurrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
{Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.
{Burt, John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 21
Year of
Election.
1888.
1866.
1889.
1892.
1887.
1878.
1884,
1884,
1888.
1884,
1872.
1883.
1887.
1868.
1881.
1883.
1872.
1854,
1885.
1852,
1883.
1875.
1889.
1892.
1863.
1863.
1876.
1861.
1875.
1886.
1868.
1857.
1887.
1892.
1884,
1876.
1857.
1884.
1870.
1884,
1883.
1876.
1862.
1882.
1890,
1888.
{Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, London, W.
*Burton, Freperick M., ¥.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.
{Burton, Rey. KR. Lingen. Little Aston Sutton, Coldfield.
{Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St.
George’s Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{tBurcner, J.G., M.A. 22 Coilingham-place, London, 8.W.
*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor.
TButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
{Buttanshaw, Rey. John. 22 St. James’s-square, Bath.
*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester.
tBuxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
{Buxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Buxton, J. H. Poste Restante, Melbourne, Australia.
Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
{Buxton, Sydney. 15 Haton-place, London, S.W.
{Buxton, Rey. Thomas, M.A. 19 Westclitie-road, Birkdale, South-
ort.
Peabo, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., F.R.G.S. Wazrlies, Waltham
Abbey, Essex.
{ByzErzey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth-park, Liverpool.
{Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.
{Byrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
{Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.
TByrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 31 Kine-street, Wigan.
tCackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.
tCail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.
tCaird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
{Card, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
*Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee,
{Caldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Rectory, Shipston-on-Stour.
*Caldwell, William Hay. Birnam, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.
tCaley, A. J. Norwich.
tCallan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.
{Cattaway CuarweEs, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Sandon, Wellington,
Shropshire.
§Calvert, A. F., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Oseney-crescent, Camden-road,
London, N.
{Cameron, Auneas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
haat Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens,
lasgow.
{Oameron, Sir Coartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.
tCameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{tCampbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.
{tCampbell, H. J. 81 Kirkstall-road, Talfourd Park, Streatham Hiil,
London, S. W.
{Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.
*Campron, Rey. Wiit1aAM M., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.
tCannan, Edwin, M.A., F.S.S. 24 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
}Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.I1.E, 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.
22
Year of
Election
1880.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1877.
1867.
1867.
1876.
1884.
1884.
1854.
1884.
1889.
18953.
1889,
1867.
1886.
1883.
1861.
1868.
1866.
1855,
1870.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1870,
1862.
1884.
1884,
1883.
1887.
1866.
1871.
1873.
1888.
1874,
1859.
1886.
1886.
1860.
1871.
1860.
1883.
1859,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
{Capper, Robert. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
{tCapper, Mrs. R. 18 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.
*Carsurt, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, London, W.
{Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
{ Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.
{Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.
{Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.
ey Oy Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A
tCarpenter, Rey. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
*Carpmael, Charles. Toronto, Canada.
tCarr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
§Carr, J. Wesley. 128 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.
{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.
tCaRRurners, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. British Museum,
London, S. W.
{CarsLake, J. BarHAaM. 380 Westfield-road, Birmingham.
{Carson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast.
*Carson, ok Joseph, D.D., M.R.I.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place,
Dublin.
tCarteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
{tCarter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tCarter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.B. i Courtfield-gardens, London,
S.W
§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury,
Lancashire.
tCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.
*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.8. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, London, 8.W.
tCarver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, 8.W.
{Carver, James. Garfield House, Elm-avenue, Nottingham.
{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.
{Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. The Lawns, Highgate, London, N.
{Cash, Joseph. Bird-crove, Coventry.
*Cash, William, F.G.S. 88 Elmfield-terrace, Savile Park, Halifax.
{Cater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.
{Caton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
Medical School. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.
{Catto, Robert. 44 Kino-street, Aberdeen.
*Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella. Repton Lodge, Harborne, Birmingham.
tCay, Albert. Ashleigh, Westbowrne-road, Birmingham.
§Cayiey, Artuur, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S.,
Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Garden House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
*Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
tCuapwick, Davip. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, S.E.
{Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tChadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 23
Election.
1883.
1859.
1888,
1884.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1881.
1865.
1865.
1886.
1865.
1888.
1861.
1889.
1884,
1877.
1874,
1866.
1886,
1883.
1884,
1886.
1867.
1884.
1883,
1864.
1887.
1887.
1874,
1884.
1879.
1865.
1883.
1884,
1889.
1842.
1863.
1882.
1887.
1893.
1861.
1884.
1875,
{Chalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
t{Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, South-
port.
t{Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.
{CuampBers, CHartEs, F.R.S. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
{Chambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay.
tChambers, Charles, jun., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Colaba Observatory,
Bombay.
t{Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
*Champney, John EK. Woodlands, Halifax,
tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Chance, James T. 51 Prince’s-gate, London, S. W.
*Chance, John Horner. 40 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tChance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{tChandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.
*Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram, Man-
chester.
{¢Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tChapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.
tChapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Firbank, Hereford.
tCharley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmuwrry, Ireland.
{CuHarnock, RicHarp SrepHen, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 30 Mil-
man-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
tChate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
{Chater, Rey. John. Part-street, Southport.
*Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
don, 8.W.
§Chattock, A.P. University College, Bristol.
*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.
{CHAvVEAU, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.
tChawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
{tCunaptz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum-
berland-gate, London, 8. W.
{Cheetham, F. W. Limefield House, Hyde.
tCheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.
*Chermside, Lieut.-Colonel H. C., R.E., C.B. Care of Messrs. Cox &
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W.
tCherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.
*Chesterman, W. Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.
CuicyEsteR, The Right Rey. RrcHarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Chichester.
*Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford.
{Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.
{Chipman, W. W. L. 6 Place d’Armes, Ontario, Canada.
tChirney, J. W. Morpeth.
*Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester,
tCholmeley, Rev. C. H. The Rectory, Beaconsfield R.S.O., Bucks.
{Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.
tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.
*Chree, Charles. Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.
tChristie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
*Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.
*Christopher, George, F.C.S. 6 Barrow-road, Streatham Common,
London, 8.W.
24
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1876.
1870.
1860.
1857.
1857.
1876.
1890.
1877.
1876.
1892.
1892.
1876.
1881.
1861.
1855.
1883.
1887.
1875.
1886.
1886.
1872.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1883.
1884.
1889.
1866.
1890.
1850.
1859.
1875.
1861.
1886,
1861.
1893.
1878.
1873.
1892.
1883.
1863,
*CHRYSTAL, GrorGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belgrave-crescent,
Edinburgh.
§Cuurcu, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry to the
Royal Academy of Arts, London. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road,
Kew, Surrey.
ae William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,
E.C.
tChurchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Oo, Tyrone.
tClarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,
Dublin.
tClark, David R.,M.A. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.
{Clark, E. K. 81 Caledonian-road, Leeds.
*Clark, F. J. Street, Somerset.
Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.
tClark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glascow.
§Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
tClark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.
{Clark, Dr. John. 188 Bath-street, Glasgow.
{Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Se., F.G.S. 12 Feversham-terrace, York.
fClark, Latimer, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Victoria-street, London,
S.W ;
tClark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
tClarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport.
§Clarke, C. Goddard. Ingleside, Elm-grove, Peckham, 8.E.
tClarke, Charles 8. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
{Clarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.
§Clarke, Rey, H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.
*CLARKE, Hype. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8.W.
{CuarKe, Joun Hunry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
*Clarke, John Hope. 62 Nelson-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Man-
chester.
tClarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire.
{Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.
{Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Ciayprn, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. Jobn’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.
tClayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
*Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.
{CiecHorN, Hueu, M.D., F.L.S. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scot-
land.
tCleghorn, John. Wick.
tClegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.
§CLELAND, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.
{Clifford, Arthur. Beechceroft, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Crirron, R. Bertamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.
§Clofford, William. 36 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
§Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
{Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Clouston, T.S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.
*CLowrs, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Univer-
sity College, Nottingham. 99 Waterloo-crescent, Nottingham.
*Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 25
Year of
Election.
1881.
1885.
1868,
1891.
1884,
1889,
1889.
1892.
1888.
1861.
1881.
1865.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1853.
1868,
1893.
1879.
1893.
1878.
1854.
1892.
1892.
1887.
1887.
1869,
1898.
1854.
1861.
1865.
1876,
1876.
1892.
1868.
1882.
1884,
1893.
1888.
1884,
1891.
1892.
1884.
1852.
1890.
1871.
1881.
*Olutton, William James. The Mount, York.
{Clyne James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.
t{Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
*Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.
Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes.
§Cobb, John. Summerhill, Apperley Bridge, Leeds.
{Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
{Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.
tCockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Fairfield, Heaton, Bolton.
*Corrin, WatTerR Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
*Cohen, B. L., M.P. 80 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
tCohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
{Cohen, Sigismund. 111 Portland-street, Manchester.
tColchester, William, F.G.S. Burwell, Cambridge.
{ Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
§Cole, Grenville, A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
{Cole, Skelton. 3887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
§Coleman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.
tColes, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
§Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, London, N.
§Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.
{Collie, Norman. University College, Gower-street, London, W.C.
{Collier, Thomas. Ashfield, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
tCollier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
§Collinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham.
t{CoLLinewoop, Curupert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, London, W.C.
*Oollingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 96 Great Portland-street,
London, W.
*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tCottins, J. H., F.G.S. 60 Heber-road, Dulwich Rise, London, 8.E
{Collins, Sir William. 38 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
{Colman, H. G. Mason College, Birmingham.
*Cormman, J. J..M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-
street, London, E.C.
{Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8S. W.
{Colomb, Sir J. C. R., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Treland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8. W.
§Coltman, Thomas. West End Cottage, King Richard’s-road,
Leicester.
tCommans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.
{Common, A. A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing,
Middlesex, W.
tCommon, J. F. F. 3 Glossop-terrace, Cardiff.
§Comyns, Frank, B,A., F.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham.
t{Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.
{Connal, Sir Michael. 16 Lynedoch-terrace, Glasgow.
{Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.
*Connor, Charles C., M.P. Notting Hill House, Belfast.
{Conroy, Sir Jonn, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. Balliol College, Oxford.
26
IST OF MOEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1893.
1876,
1882.
1876,
1881.
1868.
1868.
1884,
1878.
1881.
1859.
1885,
1883.
1865.
1888.
1885.
1884.
1893.
1883.
1858.
1884.
1889.
1884.
1878.
1871.
1885,
1881.
1842.
1891.
1887.
1881.
1883.
1870.
1893.
1889,
1884,
1885.
1888,
1891.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1857.
1874.
1864.
1869.
§Conway, W. M., M.A. 21 Clanricarde-gardens, London, W.
{Cook, James. 162 North-street, Glascow.
{Cooxn, Major-General A. C., R.E., O.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, London, S.W.
*Cooxr, ConraD W. 28 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
{Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.
tCooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
tCooxr, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, Lon-
don, N.
{tCooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
{Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
{Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.
*Cooke, His Honour Judge, M.A., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
tCooke-Taylor, R. Whateley. Frenchwood House, Preston.
{Cooke-Taylor, Mrs. Frenchwood House, Preston.
tCooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
{Cooley, George Parkin.. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.
tCoomer, John. Willaston, near Nantwich.
tCoon, John S. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts,
U.S.A
§Cooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
{Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, Loudon, W.C.
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
{Cooper, Mrs. M.A. West Tower, Marple, Cheshire.
{Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCope, EK. D. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Cope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.
{CopELAND, Ratpu, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.
tCopland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.
{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.
Corbett, Edward. Grange-avenue, Leyenshulme, Manchester,
§Corbett, E. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.
*Corcoran, Bryan. 31 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
§Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes House, R.S.O., Lincoln.
*Core, Thomas H. Fallowfield, Manchester.
*CorFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College. 19 Savile-row,
London, W.
*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.
{Cornish, Vaughan. Ivy Cottage, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Cornwallis, F.S. W. Linton Park, Maidstone.
{Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon.
{Corser, Rey. Richard K. 12 Beaufort-buildings East, Bath.
tCory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.
{Cory, Alderman Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road,
Cardiff.
tCostelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 33 Chancery-lane, London, W.C.
*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt, Sand Park, Shaldon, Devonshire.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
tCottam, Samuel. King-street, Manchester.
*CorreriLt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics.
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.
tCorron, General Freperick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W. :
{Corron, Witriam. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Year of
Election.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1889.
1890.
1863.
1868,
1872.
1886,
1871.
1867.
1867.
1892.
1882.
1867.
1888.
1867.
1885.
1890.
1892.
1884,
1876.
1858.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1846.
1890.
1883.
1870.
1885.
1879.
1876.
1887.
1880.
1890.
1878.
1857.
1885.
1885.
{Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallet, Somerset.
{Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Courtney, F. 8. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, London,
S.W.
{Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
{Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
tCowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S. 31 Belsize Park-gardens,
London, N.W.
t{Cowen, Mrs. G. R. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.
Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter.
tCowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
*Cox, Edward. Lyndhurst, Dundee.
*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
tCox, Robert. 384 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
tCox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway.
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, London, 8. W.
*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
t{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.
{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.
§Crabtree, William, M.Inst.C.E. 126 Manchester-road, Southport.
{Cradock, George. Wakefield.
*Craig, George A. 66 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
§Cratcie, Major P. G., F.S.S. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead,
London, N. W.
${Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,
{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
tCrathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Orayen, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.
*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey,
Cheshire.
*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate-
ford, Edinburgh.
*CRAWFORD AND Bacarrus, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.
*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough,
Leicestershire.
§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.
*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S, 25 Tollington-park, London, N.
*Crawshay, Mis. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.
§Creak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 36 Kidbrooke Park-road,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
tCreswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffieid.
*Crewdson, Rey. George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.
*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.
*Orisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill,
London, W.
*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.
prone: John O'Byrne, M.A. University College, Stephen’s Green,
ublin,
{Orolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
t{Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tCrombie, John. 129 Union-street, Aberdeen.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1886.
1887.
1865,
1879.
1870,
1870.
1890.
1887.
186].
1883.
1868.
1886,
1853.
1870.
1871.
1887.
1888.
1882,
1890.
1883.
1863.
1885.
1888.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1878.
1883.
1874.
1861,
1861.
1882.
1887.
1877.
1891.
1852.
1892,
1885.
1869,
1883.
{Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen.
tCromsrg, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.
{tCrombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Crompton, A. 1 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
tCrompton, Dickinson W. 40 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
§Croox, Henry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.
§Crooxes, WitttAM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,
London, W.
tCrookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.
tCrosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
*Crosfield, William, M.P. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
TCross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.
§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
tCross, Rey. John Edward, M.A. Halecote, Grange-over-Sands.
{Cross, Rev. Prebendary, LL.B. Part-street, Southport.
tCrosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
TCrosskey, Cecil. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham.
{Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.
*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax.
{Crossley, Herbert. Ferney Green, Bowness, Ambleside.
*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.
{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.
§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.
*Crowley, Ralph Henry. Bramley Oaks, Croydon.
{Crowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield.
{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tCruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen,
tCrummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
tCrust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding.
*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
*Culverwell, Edward P. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.
{Oulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
tCulverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.
{Cumming, Professor, 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.
bevisene Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.
*Ounliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.
*Ounninenam, Lieut.-Colonel Annan, R.E., A.LC.E. 19 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
Cunningham, David, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., F.S.S. Harbour-
chambers, Dundee.
*CunnineHaM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.
{Cunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.
tOunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
tCunningham, Very Rev. John. St. Mary’s College, St. Andrews,
N.B.
tCunnincuam, J. T., B.A. Scottish Marine Station, Granton,
Edinburgh.
{Cunninenam, Rosert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen’s College, Belfast.
ee Rey. Wittiam, D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cam-
ridge.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 29
Year of
Election.
1892.
1850.
1892.
1885.
1892.
1884.
1878.
1884.
1883.
1881.
1889.
1854.
1883.
1889.
1887.
1865.
1865.
1867.
1870.
1862.
1876.
1849.
1861.
1876.
1884.
1882.
1881.
1878.
1882.
1888.
1872.
1880.
1884.
1870.
1885.
1891.
1890.
1875.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1893.
{Cunningham, William. 14 Inverleith-gardens, Edinburgh.
Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
§Cunningham-Craig, EK. H. Clare College, Cambridge.
tCurphey, William S._15 Bute-mansions, Hill Head, Cardiff.
*Currie, James, jun. Larkfield, Golden Acre, Edinburgh,
{Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.
{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
tCushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.
Cushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.
§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depot, Belvedere-road,
Lambeth, London, S.W.
{Dageger, John H., F.I.C., F.C.S. Endon, Staffordshire.
{Daglish, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
tDahne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.
*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Westbourne, Buxton, Derbyshire.
tDale, Henry F., F.R.MS., F.ZS. Royal London Yacht Club, 2
Savile-row, London, W.
tDale, J.B. South Shields.
{Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
{Dalgleish, W. Dundee.
tDattrncErR, Rev. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside, New-
stead-road, Lee, London, S.E.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
{Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. 1 Westbourne-terrace-road, Lon-
don, W.
{Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
*DaRBISHIRE, ROBERT DUKINFIELD, B.A., F.G.S. 26 George-street
Manchester.
{Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.
TDarling, Thomas. 99 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge.
*DaRwi, Grorcz Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.
*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
{Darwin, W. E., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.
TDaubeny, William M. 1 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
TDavenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.
sig M.Inst.C.E. 3 Prince’s-street, Westminster,
tDavid, A. J.. BA. LLB. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, Lon-
don, E.C.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
tDavidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.
tDavies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.
{Davies, Arthur, East Brow Cottaye, near Wi hitby.
TDavies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol.
§Davies, David. 55 Berkley-street, Liverpool.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.
bak Rey. T. Witton, B.A. Midland Baptist College, Notting-
am.
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1842.
1887.
1875.
1870.
1864,
1842.
1882.
1883.
1885.
1891.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869,
1869,
1860.
1864,
1886.
1891,
1885,
1884,
1855,
1859.
1892.
1870.
1861.
1887.
1861,
1884.
1866.
1884.
1893.
1878.
1879.
1884.
1889.
1875.
1884.
1889,
1874,
1874,
1878.
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
{Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
*Davis, Alfred. 28 St. Ermin’s-mansions, London, 8. W.
*Dayis, A. 8. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.
tDavis, Cartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
Davis, Rev. David, B.A. Almswood, Evesham.
tDavis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.
}Davis, Robert Frederick, M.A. Earlsfield, Wandsworth Common,
London, 8.W.
*Davis, Rudolf. Almswood, Evesham. .
{Davis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
{Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
{Davison, Cuartes, M.A. 373 Gillott-road, Birmingham.
*Dayison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
tDavy, Epmunp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
{Daw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
tDaw, R. R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
*Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Cefn Mawr Hall, Mold, North Wales.
tDawxins, W. Bovn, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Palzontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.
{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.
t{Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
*Dawson, Major H. P., R.A. East Holt, Alverstoke, Gosport.
{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Dawson, Sir Wittiam, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S,
Montreal, Canada.
*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common,
Kent.
tDay, J.C., F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.
*Dracon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick- square, London,
SW.
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington,
t{Deakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.
tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
ene Frank, F.S.S. 26 Upper Hamilton-terrace, London,
N
fDesvus, Herricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 1 Obere Sophienstrasse,
Cassel, Hessen.
tDeck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 Kine’s-parade, Cambridge.
§Deeley, R. M. 10 Charnwood-street, Derby.
tDelany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.
{De - oo Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London,
Vis
*De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.
{Dendy, Frederick Walter. 5 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.
{Denham, Thomas, J.P. Huddersfield.
tDenman, Thomas W. Lamb’s-buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
§Drnny, ALFRED, F.L.5., Professor of Biology in the Firth College,
Sheffield.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
§DrE pee Cuartes E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, Lon-
don, W.
tDe Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS, 31
Election.
1868.
1868.
1881.
1888.
1884.
1872.
1887.
1884.
1873.
1889.
1863.
1887.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1862.
1877.
1869.
1876
1884.
1874.
1883.
1888.
1886,
1879.
1885.
1887.
1885.
1890.
1885.
1860.
1892.
1891.
1878.
1893.
1864.
1875.
1870.
1876.
{Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,
Bayswater, London, W.
tDewar, Jamus, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-
bridge.
{Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
tDewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.
*Dewar, William, M.A. Rugby School, Rugby.
{Dewick, Rev. E. S, M.A., F.G.S. 926 Oxford-square, Lon-
don, W.
{De Wriyron, Colonel Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LTD,,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
{De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.
*Dew-SmirH, A. G., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Dickinson, A. H. Portland House, N ewcastle-upon-Tyne,
tDickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
{Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.
{Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.
{Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff, Preston.
§Dickson, H. N. 125 Woodstock-road, Oxford.
{Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen,
TDickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.
*Dirxr, The Right Hon. Sir Cuarrzs WentWortH, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, London, 8. W.
tDillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.
{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
{Ditchfield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London,
W.C.
{Dix, John William H. Bristol.
*Dixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork:
TDixon, Miss E. 2 Cliffterrace, Kendal.
§Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, London, 8,W.
{Dixon, George. 42 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Dixon, Haroxp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College, Manchester. Birch Hall, Rusholme, Man-
chester.
{Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.
{Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire,
tDoak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
{Dobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.
§Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh.
*Dobbs, a Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne-park, Lon-
don, W.
{Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
{Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.
*Dosson, G. E., M.A., M.B., F.R.S.,F.L.S. Adrigole, Spring Grove,
Isleworth.
§Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham,
“Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
*Doewra, George, jun. 32 Union-street, Coventry.
*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.
{Dodds, J. M. St. Peter's College, Cambridge.
32
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889.
1893.
1885.
1882.
1869.
1877.
1889.
1861.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1889.
1867.
1863.
1876.
1877.
1884.
1890.
1885.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1876.
1884.
1857.
1865.
1881.
1887.
1885.
1892.
1868.
1890.
1892.
1887.
1895.
1889.
1892.
1889.
1856.
1870.
1867.
1852.
tDodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.
§Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.
{Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
{Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
{Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
*Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.
{Donkin, R.S., M.P. Campville, North Shields.
{Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. South Ken-
sington Museum, London, 8. W.
{Donner, Edward, B.A. 4 Anson-road, Victoria Park, Manchester.
{Dorning, Elias, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 41 John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.
{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.
tDorsey, E. B. International Club, Trafalgar-square, London, S.W.
{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Care of H. M. Doughty, Esq., 5 Stone-
court, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
*Douglas, Rev. G. C. M., DD. 18 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Doverass, Sir James N., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Stella House, Dul-
wich, London, 8.E.
tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.
tDove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.
tDove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.
tDove, P. Edward, F.R.A.S., Sec.R.Hist.Soc. 23 Old-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
tDowe, John Melnotte. 69 Seventh-ayenue, New York, U.S.A.
tDowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.
*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.
tDownrne, 8., LL.D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
*Dowson, Joseph Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Great Queen-street, Lon-
don, 8S. W.
§Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.
{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.
*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
{Dresser, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, London, E.C.
tDrew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.
{Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
Armagh.
tDreyfus, Dr. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester,
§Drucr, G. Craripes, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford.
tDrummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tDu Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.
tDu Chaillu, Paul B. Care of John Murray, Esq., 504 Albemarle-
street, London, W.
*Ducrz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jon Reynotps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.
{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.
*Dourr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrstuarr ELPHINSTONE GRANT-,
G.C.S.L, F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S. York House, Twickenham.
{Dufferin and Ava, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.C.S.L, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 33
Year of
Election.
1877.
1875.
1890.
1884,
1883.
1892.
1866.
1891.
1880.
1881.
1893.
1892.
1881.
1865.
1882.
18835.
1876.
1878.
1884,
1859.
1890.
1893.
1885.
1866.
1869.
1860.
1887.
1884.
1885.
1869.
1868.
1877.
1888.
1874.
1871.
1863.
1876.
1883.
1893.
1887.
1884,
1861.
{Dutfey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Dutflin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.
{Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tDugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
§Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.
{Dulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, London, S.W.
*Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
Dunean, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
*Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.
{Duncan, William S. 148 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, London, W.
{Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil. Nawton Grange, York.
*Dunell, George Robert. 9 Grove Park-terrace, Chiswick, London, W.
{Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo-
mew House, London, E.O.
tDunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York.
{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
{Dunn, J. T., M.Se., F.C.S. High School for Boys, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.
{Dunn, Mrs. Denton Grange, Gateshead-on-Tyne.
{Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
fDunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliain-place, Dublin.
§Dunnington, F. P. University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia,
U.S.A.
{Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
tDunsford, Follett. Rougemont Villa, Headingley, Leeds.
*Dunstan, M. J. R. 9 Hamilton-drive, Nottingham.
*Dunstan, WynpHAM R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.8., Lecturer on Chemis-
try at St. Thomas’s Hospital and Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
{ Duprey, Perry. Woodberry Down, Stoke Newington, London, N.
{D’ Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.S8. Moorlands, Exmouth, Devon.
{Duruam, ArrHur Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
{Dyason, John Sanford, F.R.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. Boscobel-gardens,
London, N.W.
tDyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.
*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
*Dymond, Edward EH, Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.
tEade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
{Earle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
tEarson, H. W.P. 11 Alexandra-road, Clifton, Bristol.
{Eason, Charles. 80 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
*Easton, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 11 Delahay-street, West-
minster, S. W.
tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
fEaston, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.
{Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.
§Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, London,
EC.
*Kccles, ‘Mrs. 8. White Coppice, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Kckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
{Ecroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
Cc
34
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1870.
1883.
1888.
1884.
1883.
1867.
1855.
1884.
1887.
1876.
1890.
1885.
1868.
1863.
1885.
1883.
1891.
1864.
1883.
1879.
1886.
1877.
1875.
1885.
1880.
1864.
1891.
1884.
1869.
1887.
1862.
1885.
1887.
1870.
1863.
1891.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 6 Park-square, Leeds,
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
{Ede, Francis J. Silchar, Cachar, India.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. 66 Warwick-road, South
Kensington, London, 8.W.
§EpapwortH, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College,
Oxford. i
*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Furnival’s Inn, London, E.C.
{Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Honiton, Devon.
*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, London, S.W.
*Edmunds, James, M.D. 29 Dover-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
h Baoands, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B. 60 Park-street, Park-lane, London,
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
*Epwarps, Professor J. Baxrr, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
tEdwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon, Lord, Tatton Park, Knutsford.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
§Elford, Perey. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Elgar, Francis, LL.D., M.Inst.C.l., F.R.S.E. 113 Cannon-street,
London, E.C.
tElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston,
Bedford.
{Ellenberger, J. L. Worksop.
{Ellingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich.
{Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, 5S. W.
iho = Me D.Sc. Professor of Engineering in University College,
ardiff.
tElliott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A.
*Erirorr, Epwiry Battery, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
Queen’s College, Oxford.
Eiliott, John Foge. Elvet Hill, Durham.
tElliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire,
{Elliott, Thomas Henry, F.S.S. Board of Agriculture, 4 Whitehall-
place, London, S.W.
{Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire,
*Fllis, H. D. 6 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
tEllis, John. 17 Church-street, Southport.
*E.iis, Joun Henry. Woodland House, Plymouth.
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
§Ellis, Miss M. A. 2 Southwick-place, London, W.
tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada.
tExxris, Wrrt1aM Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.
tElphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn,
London, W.C.
{Elwes, George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.
§ELwortHy, Freperick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.
*Exy, The Right Rev, Lord AtwynE Compron, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.
{Embleton, Dennis, M.D. 19 Claremont-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
t{Emerton, Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 35
Year of
Election.
1891.
1884.
1863.
1858.
1890.
1866.
1884,
1853.
1869.
1883.
1869.
1844,
1864.
1885.
1862.
1878.
1887.
1887.
1869.
1888.
1883.
1891.
1881.
1889.
1887.
1870.
1865.
1891.
1889.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1861.
1881.
1885.
1875,
1865,
1891.
1886,
1871.
1868,
{Emerton, Mrs. Wolseley. Banwell Castle, Somerset.
{Emery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
{tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire,
tEmpson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
fEmsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds.
tEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
{tEngland, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.
{English, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
Hull.
tEnglish, J. T. Wayfield House, Stratford-on-Avon.
{Entwistle, James P. Beachtield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.
*Enys, John Davis. Care of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.
tErichsen, John Eric, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., President of, and
Emeritus Professor of Surgery in, University College, London.
6 Cayvendish-place, London, W.
*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
tEsselmont, Peter. 34 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
*Esson, WittrAM, M.A., F.RS., F.C.S., F.R.A.S, Merton College,
and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
tEstcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
Manchester.
*Estcourt, Charles. Vyrniew House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
*Estcourt, P. A. WVyrniew House, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
yErneriper, Rosert, F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square,
London, 8.W.
{Etheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, London, S.W.
§Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Vizianagram, Madras.
tEvan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire.
jEvans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.
*Evans, A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
*Evans, Mrs. Alfred W. A. Hillside, New Mills, near Stockport,
Derbyshire.
*Kvans, Arthur John, F.S.A. 33 Holywell, Oxford.
*Eyans, Rey. Cuartes, M.A. The Rectory Solihull, Birmingham.
tEvans, Franklen. Llwynarthen Castleton, Cardiff.
{Evans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.
tEvans, Horace L. 6 Albert-buildings, Weston-super-Mare.
*Evans, James C. Morannedd, Kastbourne-road West, Birkdale Park,
Southport.
*Hyans, Mrs. JamesC. Morannedd, Eastbourne-road West, Birkdale
Park, Southport.
*Evans, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc., Treas.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.L.S., F.G.S. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.
tEvans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.O., Pembrokeshire.
*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth,
tEvans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Kvans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.
tEvans, William Llewellin. Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff.
fEve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.
tEve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C.
*Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Derryvolgie,
Belfast.
Cc 2°
36
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863.
1886.
1883.
1881.
1874.
1876.
1883.
1871.
1884.
1882.
1890.
1891.
1865.
1886.
1864,
1885.
1877.
1891.
1892.
1886.
1879.
1888.
1883.
1885.
1859.
1885.
1866.
1883.
1857.
1869.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1886.
1864,
1852.
1883.
1890.
1876.
1883,
1871.
1867.
1867.
1883,
1883,
*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
tEveritt, Wiliam EK. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.
{Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.
yEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh.
tEwart, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast.
*Ewine, James ALFRED, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Mechanism and Applied Mathematics in the University of
Cambridge. , *
tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.
*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
*Eyerman, John. Oakhurst, Haston, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
tEyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred Touse, Abingdon.
{Fasrr, Epmunp Beckett. Straylea, Harrogate.
*Faija, Henry, M.Inst.C.E, 41 Old Queen-street, London, S.W.
*Farrtry, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.
{Fairley, Wiliam. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.
{ Falkner, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.
tFallon, Rev. W.S. 1 St. Alban’s-terrace, Cheltenham.
§Farapay, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.S. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.
{Fards, G. Penarth.
*Farmer, J. Bretland, M.A., F.L.S. Magdalen Collece, Oxford.
t{Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Lewes.
*Farnworth, Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.
tFarnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
{Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
tFarquhar, Admiral. Cuarlogie, Aberdeen.
{Farquharson, Robert F. O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
{Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.
*FarrarR, Ven. FRrepERIC Witiiam, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Arch-
deacon of Westminster. 17 Dean’s-yard Westminster, 8. W.
{Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.
tFarrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
*Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.
tFaulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.
§Faulkner, John. 135 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.
*Faweett, Ff. B. University College, Bristol.
§Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 8 Alva-street, Edinburgh.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire,
*Frtiows, Frank P., K.S.J.J., F.S.A., F.S.8. 8 The Green, Hamp-
stead, London, N. W.
{Fenton,S.Greame. Keswick, near Belfast.
tFenwick, E. H. 29 Harley-street, London, W.
{Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.
{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
{Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glascow.
*Frereuson, Jonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.8.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.
tFerguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace,
Edinburgh.
* Fergusson, H. B. 13 Aitrlie-place, Dundee.
tFernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham.
*Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 37
Year of
Election.
1862. {Ferrers, Rev. Norman Macrxop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College
Lodge, Cambridge.
1873. tFerrier, David, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London. 34 Cavendish-square,
London, W.
1892. {Ferrier, Robert M., B.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-
ne.
1882. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton,
1887. {Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.
1875. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1868. tField, Edward. Norwich.
1886. {Field, H.C. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1869. *Fretp, RoceErs, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, S. W.
1887. {Fielden, John C. 145 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
1882. {Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.
1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.
Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
1878. *Findlater, William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1885. {Findlay, George, M.A. 50 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
1892. {Findlay, J. R., B.A. 3 Rothesay-terrace, Edinburgh.
1884. {Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
1887. {Finnemore, Rey. J.,M.A., Ph.D., F.G.S. 12 College-road, Brighton.
1881. {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.
Firth, Thomas. Northwich.
1891. {Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff,
1884, *Fisher, L.C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.
1869. {FisuER, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near .
Cambridge.
1873. {Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
1879. {Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield.
1875, *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.
1858, {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
1887. *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. University College, London, W.C.
1885. {Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.
1871. *Fison, Freperick W., M.A., F.C.S. Greenholme, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds.
1871. {Fircn, J. G., M.A., LL.D. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent's Park,
London, N. W.
1883. {Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.
1868. {Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.
1878. {Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1878. §FirzaeraLp, Grorce Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College, Dublin.
1885. *Fitzgerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 69 Botanic-avenue, Belfast,
1857. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1888. *Fitzpatrick, Rev. Thomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1865. { Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul's, Birmingham.
1881. {Fleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael’s Vicarage, Ebury-
square, S. W.
1876. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
1876. {Fleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.
1867. §FLercHER, ALFRED E., F.C.S. 13 Christchurch-street, Crouch End,
London, N.
1870. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
1890. {Fletcher, B. Morley. 12 Trevor-square, London, S.W.
1892, §Fletcher, George. 59 Wilson-street, Derby.
38
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1869.
1888.
1862.
1889.
1877.
1890.
1887.
1883.
1891.
1879.
18380.
1873.
1883.
1885.
1890.
1875.
1883.
1887.
1867.
1883,
1884.
1877.
1882,
1870.
1875.
1865.
1865.
1883.
1857.
1877.
1859.
1863.
1866.
1868.
1888.
1892.
1876.
1882,
1884.
1883.
1883.
tFiercurr, Lavineron E., M.Inst.C.E. Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*FiptcHer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.GS., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
London, S.W. 386 Woodville-road, Ealing, London, W.
§FLower, Sir Wittram Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S.,
F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.8., Director of the Natural History De-
partments, British Museum, South Kensington, London. 26
Stanhope-gardens, London, 8.W.
{Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, London, S.W.
*Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Helwan, Egypt.
*Flux, A. W., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tFoale, William. 38 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.
{Foale, Mrs. William. 3 Meadfoot-terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth,
§Foéldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.
{Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
tFoote, R. Bruce. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill,
London, E.C.
*Forbes, Grorer, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, London, S. W.
t{Forsss, Henry O., F.Z.S., Director of the Museum. Liverpool.
{Forbes, The Richt Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.
t{Forp, J. Rawiryson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.
*ForpHam, H. Grores, F.G.8. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.
§Formby, R. Kirklake Bank, Formby, near Liverpool.
tForrest, Sir Joun, K.C.M.G.,F.R.G.S. Perth, Western Australia.
tForster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonards-on-Sea.
tForsyth, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
tFort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.
}Forrescuz, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.
§Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend.
tForwood, Sir William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool.
tFoster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8.W.
tFoster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College,
Birmingham. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Fostrr, CremEent Le Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno.
{Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno.
*FostrrR, GrorcE Carey, B.A., F.RS., F.C.S., Professor of
Physics in University Collere, London. 18 Daleham-gardens,
Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.
*Fosrer, Micuart, M.A., M.D., LL.D., Sec.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.8.,
Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Shel-
ford, Cambridge.
tFoster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tFowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,
{Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
§Fowler, Gilbert J. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
§Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-circus,
London, E.C.
*Fowler, John. 16 Kerrsland-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Fow rer, Sir Joun, Bart., K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, 8. W.
Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth.
*Fox, Charles. The Cedars, Warlingham, Surrey.
§Fox, Sir Charles Douglas, M.Inst.C.E. 28 Victoria-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 39
Year of
Election.
1883.
1847,
1888.
1886.
1881.
1889.
1866.
1884,
1845.
1887.
1889.
1882.
1885.
1859,
1865.
1871.
1859,
1871.
1884.
1884.
1877.
1865.
1884,
1869.
1886.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1892.
1882.
1883.
1887.
1875,
1875.
1884,
1872.
1859.
1869,
1884,
1891.
1881.
1887.
{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Falmouth.
*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.
{Fox, Thomas. Court, Wellington, Somerset.
{Foxwell, Arthur, M.A., M.B. 17 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*FoxweEtt, Hrrsert §., M.A., F.S8.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
tFrain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-pluce, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
*F feaicis, G.B. Inglesby, North-road, Hertford.
{Francis, James B. Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Francis, WitL1AM, Ph.D., F.L.S8., F.G.8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.
{FRANKLAND, Epwarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey.
*FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in University College, Dundee.
{Franklin, Rey. Canon. Clayton-street West, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Fraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin.
{Fraspr, Anevs, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 2382 Union-street, Aberdeen.
tFraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.
*FraseER, JoHN, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
tFraser, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
*Frazer, Daniel. 127 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
tFrazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.
*FreamM, W., LL.D., B.Sc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.
§Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.
{Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. Royal Mint, London, E.
{Frere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.
{Freshfield, Douglas W., Sec.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W.
Freund, Miss Ida. Eyre Cottage, Upper Sydenham, S.E.
tFries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.
}Froehlich, The Chevalier. Grosvenor-terrace, Withington, Man-
chester.
*Frost, Hdmund. The Elms, Lasswade, Midlothian.
§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
{Frost, Major H., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.
*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. St. James’s-chambers, Duke-street, London,S.W.
tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 13 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.
§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.
{Funier, Freprrick, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.
{Futter, Grorer, M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington,
London, W.
§Fuller, William. Oswestry.
{Fulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.
tGabb, Rev. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire,
tGaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester,
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1836.
1857.
1863.
1876,
1850.
1876.
1865.
1885.
1888.
1888.
1861.
1861.
1889.
1875.
1887.
1860.
1860.
1869.
1870.
1889.
1870.
1888,
1877.
1868.
1889.
1883.
1887.
1882.
1882.
1884.
1888.
1887.
1882.
1873.
1883.
1874.
1882.
1892.
1889.
1870.
1870.
1862.
1890.
1875.
1875.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
tGacus, AtpHonsE, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.
tGairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
tGairdner, W. T., M.D., F.R.S., LL.D., Professor of Medicine in the
University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.
tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giascow.
tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W.
*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.
tGallenga, Mrs. Anna. The Falls, Chepstow.
fGallenga, Mrs, A.A. R. The Falls, Chepstow.
tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
{Galloway, Jobn, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
tGalloway, Walter. Tighton Banks, Gateshead.
tGattoway, W. Cardiff.
inet & W. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
*Gatton, Sir Doveras, K.0.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Gzunerat SEecrerary.) 12 Chester-street,
Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
*Gatron, Francis, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-
gate, Knightsbridge, London, S.W.
TGatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. 40 Great Marlborough-street,
London, W.
§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D.,C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.
§Gamble, David, jun. St. Helens, Lancashire.
tGamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.
*Gamble, J. Sykes, M.A., F.L.S. Dehra Diin, North-West Provinces,
India.
{Gamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.
{Gamern, ARTHUR, M.D.. F.R.S. Davos, Switzerland.
{Gamgee, John. 6 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.
tGant, Major John Castle. St. Leonards.
{Garpryer, Watrer, M.A., F.R.S.,F.L.S. Clare College, Cambridge.
*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. 25 Northbrook-road, Lee, Kent.
tGarpveER, JoHN Stari, F.G.S. 29 Albert Embankment, Lon-
don, S.E.
tGarman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
§Garnett, Frederick Brooksbank, C.B., F.S.S. 4 Argyll-road, Kensing-
ton, London, W.
*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, near Bolton, Lancashire.
tGarnett, William, D.C.L., London County Council.
{Garnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.
§Garson, J. G.,M.D. 382 Duke-street, St. James's, London, S.W.
*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.
{Garton, William. Woolston, Southampton.
§Garvie, James. Springfield-road, New Southgate, London, N.
{Garwood, E. J. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Felbridge Place,
Kast Grinstead, Sussex.
tGaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.
{Gavey, J. 43 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.
{Gaye, Henry S., M.D. Newton Abbot, Devon.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Year of
Election.
1892.
1871.
1883.
1885.
1887.
1867.
1871.
1882.
1875.
1885.
1884,
1884,
1865.
1889.
1874.
1892.
1876.
1892.
1884.
1885.
1889.
1893.
1887.
1888.
1884,
1842,
1883.
1857.
1884.
1883.
1882.
1878.
1871.
1888.
1868.
1887.
1888,
- 1884,
1892.
{Geddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.
tGeddes, John, 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Geddes, John. 383 Portland-street, Southport.
{Geddes, Professor Patrick. 6 James-court, Edinburgh.
tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.
fGerin, Sir ArcurBatp, LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.GS.,
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
{Gurxrs, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. 31 Merchiston-avenue, Edinburgh.
*GryEsE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwith.
*George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.
{Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.
*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. Worcester College, Oxford.
{Gibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada.
{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham.
{Gibson, Charles, M.D. 8 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tGibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C. 23 F itzwilliam-square,
Dublin.
§Gibson, Francis Maitland. 1 Fingal-place, Edinburgh.
*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 17 Alva-street,
Edinburgh.
{Gibson, James. 10 North Mansion House-road, Edinburgh.
tGibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
{Gthson, John, Ph.D. 15 Hartington-gardens, Edinburgh.
*Gibson, T. G. 2 Eslington-read, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S._ 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
{Girren, Ropert, C.B., LL.D.,F.R.S., V.P.S.S. 44 Pembroke-road,
London, 8.W.
*Gifford, H. J. Lyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.
tGilbert, E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.
GirzErt, Sir JosepH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Pro-
fessor of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford. Har-
penden, near St. Albans.
§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.
{Gilbert, J. T., M.R.LA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.
*Gilbert, Philip H. 1575 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
TGilbert, Thomas. Derby-road, Southport.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
fGiles, Alfred, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. 26 Great George-street, London,
S.W
Giles, Oliver. Crescent Villas, Bromsgrove.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.
“Griz, Davin, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Observatory, Cape
Town.
§Gill, John Frederick. Douglas, Isle of Man.
{Gill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le~Grand, E.C.)
{Gillett, Charles Edwin. Wood Green, Banbury, Oxford.
Gilliland, E. T. 259 West Seventy-fourth-street, New York,
U.S.A
Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
§Gilmour, Matthew A. B, Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.
42
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1867.
18938.
1867.
1884.
1874.
1886.
1883.
1885.
1850.
1849.
1890.
1861.
1871.
1883.
1881.
1881.
1870.
1859.
1867.
1874.
1870.
1889.
1872.
1886.
1887.
1878.
1880.
1883.
1852.
1879.
1876.
1881.
1886.
1873.
1890.
1884.
1852.
1878.
1884.
1886.
1885.
1884,
tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
*Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham, London.
tGryssure, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.
{Girdwood, Dr.G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada,
*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.
*Gisborne, Hartley. Qu’Appelle Station, Assa, N.W.T., Canada.
*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*Gladstone, Miss HK. A. 17 Pembridge-sqyuare, London, W.
*Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.8. 384 Denmark-yillas, Hove,
Brighton,
*GuapstonE, JouN Hatt, Ph.D., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, London, W.
*Gladstone, Miss Margaret E. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W.
*GiaisHer, JAmus, F.R.S., F.R.A.S, The Shola, Heathfield-road,
South Croydon.
*GLAISHER, J. W.L.,M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
{Glasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.
*GLazEBROOK, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. 7 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
*Gleadow, Frederic. 84 Kensington Park-road, London, W.
Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 Annfield-place, Glascow.
TGlennie, J. 5S. Stuart, M.A. The Shealing, Wimbledon Common,
Surrey.
tGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, 8. W.
tGlover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.
tGlynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{tGoddard, F. R. 19 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{GopparpD, RicHarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Godlee, Arthur. 3 Greenfield-crescent, Edybaston, Birmingham.
tGodlee, Francis. 51 Portland-street, Manchester.
*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
tGopmay, F. Dv Cann, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street,
Cavendish-square, London, W.
tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.
tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
§Gopwiy-Avsten, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S.,
F.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford.
tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.
tGotpscumipt, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.
tGoxpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., C.B., K.O.S.1, F.R.G.S.
Godfrey House, Hollincbourne.
tGoldthorp, Miss R. F.C. Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Gonner, HK. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.
tGood, Charles HE. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal,
Canada.
tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
tGoodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.
tGoodbody, Robert. airy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
tGoodman, F. B. 46 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tGoopmay, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Goodridge, Richard E. W. 1023 The Rookery, Chicago, Illinois,
U.S.A.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 43
Year of
Election.
1884. {Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.
1883. tGoouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.
1885. ¢{Gordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton. 50 Queen’s
j Gate-gardens, London, 8. W.
1885. ¢{Gordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.
1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, S.W.
1884. *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Care of Messrs. H. 8S. King
& Co., 45 Pall Mall, London, S. W.
1857. tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
1885. {Gordon, Rev. Wiliam. Braemar, N.B.
1887. {Gordon, William John. 38 Lavender-gardens, London, S.W.
1865. {Gore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 67 Broad-street, Bir mingham.
1875. *Gotch, Francis, B.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Physiology i in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 11 Prince’s Park-terrace, Liver-
pool.
1873. {Gott, tiketlea, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1849. {Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
1857. {Gough, The Right Hon. George §., Viscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
Lough Cutra Castle. Gort, Co. Galway, and St. Helen’s,
Booterstown, Co. Dublin.
1881. tGough, Thomas, B.Sc., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York.
1888. {Gouraud, Colonel. Little Menlo, Norwood, Surrey.
1878. {Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, York-
shire.
1867. {Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.
1876. {Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1883. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1873. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1886. tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.
1875. {GrauHame, JAMES. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.
1892. §Grange, C. Ernest. Royal Grammar School, Lancaster.
1893. §Granger, F. S., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street, Nottingham.
1892. §Grant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.
1864. {Grantham, Richard F. Northumberland-chambers, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C.
1881. {Gray, Alan, LL.B. Muinster-yard, York. ;
1890. {Gray, Professor Andrew, M.A., F.R.S.E. University College,
Bangor.
1864, *Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Rotherham.
1865. {Gray, Charles. Swan Bank, Bilston.
1876. {Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, ’ Glasgow.
1881. {Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.
1898. §Gray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
City-buildings, 69 Corporation-street, Manchester.
1892. *Gray, James H., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.
1887. §Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. Spring Hill, Wellington-road South,
Stockport.
1887. {Gray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
1886. *Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.
1881. {Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
1873. {Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 8 Mount Charles, Belfast.
-44
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883.
1883.
1886.
1883.
1866.
1887.
1869.
1872.
1893.
1872.
1889.
1888.
1887.
1887.
1858.
1882.
1881.
1884,
1884.
1884.
1887.
1863.
1889.
1890.
1877.
1883.
1849,
1887.
1887.
1861.
1860.
1868.
1883.
1881.
1892.
1859.
1870.
1878.
1859.
1870.
1884.
1884
1891
~*~
*Gray, Colonel Witt1AM. Farley Hall, near Reading.
t{Gray, William Lewis. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C,
t{Gray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C.
t{Greaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham,
tGreathead, J. H., M.Inst.C.K. 15 Victoria-street, London, 8.W.
§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.
t{Greaves, H. R. The Orchards, Mill End, Stockport.
{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.
{Greaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.
*Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.
*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.
{Green, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
University of Oxford. 137 Woodstock-road, Oxford.
§GReEEN, JosePH R., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
{Greene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, London, 8. W.
{Greenhaleh, Richard. 1 Temple-gardens, The Temple, London, E.C.
*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors.
{Greenuitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery Colleze, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, London, W.C.
§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.
{Greenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London,
N.W
{Greenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada.
tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.
{Greenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby.
{Greenwell, G. EK. Poynton, Cheshire,
{Greenwell, T. G. Woodside, Sunderland.
tGreenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.
tGreenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.
tGreenwoop, J.G., LL.D. 34 Furness-road, Hastbourne.
t{Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
§Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.
*Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Grec, Ropert Pures, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
{Greeor, Rey. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeen-
shire.
tGregory, Sir Charles Hutton, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S.W.
tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.
tGregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, 8.0., Yorkshire.
§Grey, J. 351 Clarewood-terrace, Brixton, London, 8.W.
tGrrerson, Toomas Borin, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
tGrieve, John, M.D. Care of W. L. Buchanan, Esq., 212 St. Vin-
cent-street, Glasgow.
{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Griffin, S. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, London, N.
*GrirrirH, Grorer, M.A. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.)
College-road, Harrow, Middlesex.
{Griffith, Rev. Henry, F.G.S. Brooklands, Isleworth, Middlesex.
{Griffiths, E. H. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
. tGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.
. {Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1847.
{Griffiths, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45;
Election.
1870.
1888.
1884.
1881.
1864.
1892.
1891.
18653.
1869.
1886,
1891.
1867.
1887.
1842.
1885.
1891.
1877.
1866.
1880.
1876.
1883.
1857.
1876.
1884,
1887.
1865.
1884,
1881.
1842,
1888.
1892.
1870.
1879,
1875.
1887.
1879.
1883,
1881.
1854,
1887.
1872.
tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
*Grimshaw, James Walter. Australian Club, Sydney, New South
Wales.
tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
tGripper, Edward. Mansfield-road, Nottingham.
t{Groom-NAPrIEeR, CHARLES OrtLEy. 18 Elgin-road, St. Peter’s
Park, London, N.W.
§Grove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.
Grovg, The Right Hon. Sir Wrirram Rosert, Knt., M.A., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S. 115 Harley-street, London, W.
tGrover, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.
*Groves, Tuomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.
{Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.RS., F.R.A.S, 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.
{Grundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham,
tGrylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.
{Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
tGuittemarpD, F.H.H. Eltham, Kent.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-creen, Dublin.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
tGunn, John. 4 Parkside-terrace, Edinburgh.
tGunn, John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.
tGunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh.
{Gtnrner, Aubert C. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, South Kensington, London, S.W.
§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, Hich-street, Swansea.
{Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
{Guthrie, Malcolm. 2 Parkfield-road, Iaverpool.
tGwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
tGwytuer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.
{Hackett, Henry Eugene. Hyde-road, Gorton, Manchester.
tHackney, Wiliam. 9Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London, S. W.
tHadden, Captain C. F.,. R.A. Woolwich.
*Happon, ALFRED Cort, B.A., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
Hadfield, George. Victoria~park, Manchester.
*Hadfield, R. A. Hecla Works, Sheffield.
§Haigh, K., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.
qHaigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
{Haxs, H. Witson, Ph.D., F.0.8. Queenwood College, Hants.
tHale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor.
tHale, The Hon. E. J. 9 Mount-street, Manchester.
*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.
“Hall, Miss Emily. Burlington House, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
tHall, yeaa Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London,
W.C.
*HALL, Huan Frrerr, F.G.S. Staverton House, Woodstock-road,
Oxford.
tHall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northwich.
*Hall, Captain Marshall, F.G.S. Easterton Lodge, Parkstone R.S.O.,
Dorset.
46
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885.
1884.
1866.
1891.
1891.
1875.
1888.
1886.
1858.
1883.
1885.
1869.
1888,
1851.
1881.
1892.
1878.
1875.
1861.
1876.
1890.
5882,
1884.
1859.
1886,
1859,
1890.
1886.
1892.
1865.
1869.
1877.
1869.
1886.
1880.
1838.
1858.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1881.
1890.
1876.
1887.
1878.
§Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N.
tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, Canada.
*Hatt, TownsHEenD M.,F.G.S. Orchard House, Pilton, Barnstaple.
*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorgan-
shire.
§Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.
*Hauierr, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
§ Halliburton, W. D., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in King’s
College, London. 9 Ridgmount-gardens, Gower-street, Lon-
don, W.C.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
{ Hambleton, G. W. 23 Bryanston-street, Portman-square, London, W.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S, Holmeside, Hazelwood,
Derby.
*Hamel, Toner D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.
t{Hamilton, David James. 1a Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
tHamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Hammonp, Antony, J.P. 10 Royal-crescent, Bath.
tHammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
*Hammond, Robert. Hilldrop, Highgate, London, N,
{Hanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.
{Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 15 Pelham-grove, Sefton Park, Liver-
ool.
alae C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, London, 8. W.
tHancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon-
don, E.0.
tHancock, Mrs. W. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin,
{Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Hankinson, R. ©. Bassett, Southampton.
§Hannaford, E. P. 2573 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
tHannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
§Hansford, Charles. 3 Alexandra-terrace, Dorchester.
*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
(GENERAL SEcRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford.
*Harcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate, Lon-
don, 8. W.
*Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. Beechenden, Hampstead, London,N.W.
§Harden, Arthur, F.C.S. Ashville, Upper Chorlton-road, Manchester.
tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
tHarding, Joseph. Millbrook House, Exeter.
{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
tHarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk,
{ Hardman, John B, St. John’s, Hunter’s-lane, Birmingham.
t Hardy John. 118 Embden-road, Manchester.
*Harn, Cuartes Joun, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester-
square, London, W.
tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
tHargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{Hargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
{Hargrove, Rey. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds,
{Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.
§Harker, ALFRED, M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Harker, Allen, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.
tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.
*Harkness, H. W. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco,
California, U.S.A.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 47
Year of
Election.
1871. {Harkness, William, F.C.S. Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
W.C
1875.
1877.
1883.
1862.
1883.
1862.
1868.
1881.
1882.
1872.
1884.
1872.
1888.
1842,
1889.
1884.
1888.
1860.
1864,
1874.
1858.
1892.
1889.
1870.
1853,
1892.
1886.
1885.
1876.
1875.
1893.
1871,
1890.
1886.
1887.
1885.
1885.
1862.
1884.
1882.
1893.
1875,
1889.
“Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton, Sussex.
*Harley, Miss Clara. The Quintic, Savile Park, Halifax, Yorkshire,
*Hartry, Grorezr, M.D., F.R.S., F.0.8. 25 Harley-street, Lon-
don, W.
*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
*Hartey, Rev. Rosurt, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S, The Quintic,
Savile Park, Halifax, Yorkshire,
*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
*Haruer, Srpney F., M.A., B.Se. King’s College, Cambridge.
{Harper,G.T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton,
tHarpley, Rey. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.
{Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. Wallbrac-place,
Montreal, Canada.
*Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby Lonsdale, Westmoreland,
{Harris,C.T, 4 Kilburn Priory, London, N.W.
*Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. oray-place, Dunedin, New Zealand.
§Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.
{Harris, Miss Katherine E, 73 Albert Hall-mansions, Kensington-
gore, London, S.W.
tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, London, S.W.
tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.
tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
{tHarrison, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
“Harrison, JAMES Parx, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park,
London, W.
tHarrison, Joun. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.
§Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.
{Harrison, REGINALD, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, London, W.
THarrison, Robert. 86 George-street, Hull.
{Harrison, Rev. S. N. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham.
{Harz, Cuartes J. 10 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.
tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.
*Hartland, E. Sidney, F.S.A. Barnwood Court, Gloucester.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
tHarrrey, Watrer Nozt, F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.0.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
* Hartnell, Wilson. 8 Blenheim-terrace, Leeds.
*Hartoa, Professor M. M., D.Sc. Queen’s College, Cork,
§Hartog, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.
{ Harvey, Surgeon-Major Robert, M.D. Calcutta.
§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.
“Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.
{Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada,
{Haslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester,
§Haslam, Lewis. Ravenswood, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Hastines, G. W. Barnard’s Green Tiouse, Malvern.
tHatch, Dr. F. H., F.G.8. 28 J ermyn-street, London, S.W,
48
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1893.
1857.
1887.
1872.
1864.
1884.
1889.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1890
1877.
1861.
1867.
1885.
1891.
1873.
1869.
1858.
1888.
1851.
1883.
1883.
1885.
1871.
1883.
1861.
1883.
1885.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1883.
1866.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1865.
1892.
1889.
1884,
1833.
1888.
1888.
§Hatton, John L. 8S. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, London, E.
tHaveurton, Rev. Samust, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D. F.R.S.,
M.R.LA., F.G.S., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.
*Hawkins, William. 11 Fountain-street, Manchester.
*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, London,.
S.W
*HawksHaw, Joun Crarke, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 50 Harring-
ton-gardens, South Kensington, 8.W.; and 35 Great George-
street, London, 8. W.
*Haworth, Abraham. Hilston House, Altrincham.
§Haworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.
*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.
tHaworth, S. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester.
tHaworth, Rey. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birmingham.
t{Hawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.
tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.
*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., K.O.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
tHay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
*Haycraft, John Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. University College,
Cardiff.
t{Hayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff.
*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.
tHayward, J. High-street, Exeter.
*HAYWARD, Ropert Batpwry, M.A., F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin,
Isle of Wight.
tHazard, Rowland R. Little Mulgrave House, Hurlingham,
§Heap, Jpremian, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 47 Queen-street, West-
minster, S.W.
tHeadley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
{Headley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W.
§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.
§Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere.
*Heap, Ralph, jun. 1 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C.
*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, Manchester.
tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.
{Heape, Joseph R. 96 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.
*Heape, Walter, M.A. St. Mary’s, Trumpington, Cambridge.
{Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
{Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.
{tHeath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
tHeath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Calton Hill, Edinburgh.
tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.
tHeaton, Miss Ellen. -Woodhouse-square, Leeds.
tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham.
*Haton, Witiiam H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University
College, Nottingham.
*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
§Heayiside, Rey. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.
tHxavisipg, Rev. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
*Heawood, Edward, B.A., F.G.S. 41 Old Elvet, Durham.
*Heawood, Percy Y., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 49
Yeur of
Election.
1855.
1867.
1869.
1882.
1887.
1863.
1881.
1887.
1867.
1878.
1883.
1891.
1892.
1880.
1885.
1892.
1856.
1878.
1884,
1892.
1855.
1855.
1890.
1890.
1892.
1887.
1891.
1871.
1874.
1890.
1884.
1893.
1883.
1881.
1882.
tHecror, Sir James, K.0.M.G., M.D., F.RS., F.G.S., F.B.GS.,
Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington,
New Zealand.
tHeddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B.
{Hedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.
tHedger, Philip. Cumberland-place, Southampton.
*Hepers, Kiniineworru, M.Inst.C.E, 7 Carteret-street, London,
tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Here-Suaw, H.8., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in Uni-
versity College, Liverpool. 20 Waverley-road, Liverpool.
§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Sussex Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.
tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.
*Henderson, A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, S.E.
{Henderson, Mrs. A. L. 277 Lewisham High-road, London, S.E.
*Henderson, G. G., D.Sc., M.A., F.C.S., F.L.C., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. . 204
George-street, Glasgow.
§Henderson, John. 8 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.
*Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall-mansions,
London, 8S. W.
{Henderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.
§Henigan, Richard. Alma-road, The Avenue, Southampton.
fHennessy, Huyry G., F.R.S., MRA. 81 Marlborough-road,
Dublin. .
*Henricr, Otaus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute.
Central Institution, LExhibition-road, London, S.W. 34
Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
tHenshaw, George H. 48 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Hepbura, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Edinburgh.
*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Dartford, Kent.
tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
tHepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.
{Hepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.
*Herbertson, Andrew J. University Hall, Edinburgh.
*Herpmayn, Wirtiam A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor of
Natural History in University College, Liverpool.
tHern,S. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.
*HERSCHEL, ALEXANDER 8, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.
§Herscuet, Colonel Joun, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.
{Hewetson, H. Bendelack, M.R.C.S., F.L.S. 11 Hanover-square,
Leeds.
§Hewett, George Edwin. Cotswold House, St. John’s Wood Park,
London, N.W.
§Hewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.
tHewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-avenue,
The Plains, Belfast.
tHey, Rey. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York.
tHeycock, Charles T., B.A. King’s College, Cambridge.
D
50
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1888.
1866.
1879.
1861.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1881.
1875.
1877.
1886,
1884.
1887.
1864.
1875.
1871.
1891.
1885.
1872.
1881.
1887.
1884.
1857.
1886,
1881.
1885.
1888.
1876.
1885.
1886.
1863.
1887.
1858.
1870.
1883.
1888.
1886.
tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Beacons-
field-villas, Dynham-road, West Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
tHeywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.
§Hpywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.
*Hnywoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.S8. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W.
tHeywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
{Hichens, James Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The College, Cheltenham.
§Hick, Tsomas, B.A.,B.Se. Brighton Grove, Rusholme, Manchester.
f{Hicxs, Henry, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Hendon Grove, Hendon,
Middlesex, N. W.
§Hicxs, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of Firth
College, Sheffield. Firth College, Sheffield.
tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.
tHickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Hrcxson, Sypnuy J., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.
*Hiern, W.P., M.A. Oastle House, Barnstaple.
tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.8., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.
t{Hieers, Crmment, B.A., F.C.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,
London, W.
§Higgs, Henry, LL.B., F.S.S. 164 Brixton Hill, London, S.W.
Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
*Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex.
§Hill, Charles, F.8.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathly, East Grinstead.
*Hill, Rey. Canon Edward, M.A.,F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
Hn, Paik Epwiy, M.A., F.G.S. The Rectory, Cockfield, R.S.O.,
Suffolk.
tHill, G. H. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester.
tHill, Rey. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada.
§Hill, John, M.Inst.C.E., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s
Office, Ennis, Ireland.
tHill, M. J. M., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Pure Mathematics in Uni-
versity Colleze, London.
{Hill, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W.
*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.
Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts.
THill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
*Hininovse, Wiii1aM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Mason
Science College, Birmingham. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, Bedford.
THills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.
tHincks, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stokeleigh, Leigh Woods,
Clifton, Bristol.
tHinpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S. Avondale-road, Croydon, Surrey.
*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.
*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.
tHingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart., M.P. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley,
Worcestershire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 51
Year of
Election,
1881.
1884,
1884,
1890.
1858.
1884,
1881.
1879.
1887.
1883.
1877,
1883.
1877.
1876.
1852,
1863.
1887,
1880.
1873.
1884,
1863.
1865.
1854.
1883.
1873.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1857.
1887.
1891.
1879.
1889.
1886.
1865.
1883,
1883.
1866.
1873.
1892.
1889.
1882.
1893.
1891,
tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York.
{tHineston, Witr1am Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 37 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.
tHirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada,
*Hirst, James Andus. Adel Tower, Leeds.
tHirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
tHoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
§Hobbes, Robert George. Livingstone House, 374 Wandsworth-road
London, 8. W.
{Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. West Riding Union Bank, Dewsbury.
*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.
tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
tHocking, Rey. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tHodge, Rey. John Mackey, M.A. 88 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s
College, Belfast.
*Hopexin, THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.
§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry
and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 8
Park-villas, Blackheath, London, S.E. |
*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.
tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Holcroft, George. Tyddyngwladis, Ganllwyd, near Dolgelly, North
Wales.
tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.
*Holden, Sir Isaac, Bart., M.P. Oakworth House, near Keighley,
Yorkshire.
tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.
tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.
tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.
*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
*Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.
tHolgate, Benjamin, I'.G.S. Cardigan Villa, Grove-lane, Head-
ingley, Leeds,
{Holland, Calvert Bernard. Ebbw Vale, South Wales.
*Holland, Philip H. 5 Heath-rise, Willow-road, Hampstead, Lon-
don, N. W.
§Hollinder, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, London, W.C.
tHolliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
tHollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,
Middlesex.
*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.
tHolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.
{| Holmes, Ralph, B.A. Hulme Grammar School, Manchester.4
*Holmes, Thomas Vincent, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, S.E.
*Holt, Miss J. B. Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E. 42 Newport-road, Cardiff,
D2
52
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1875.
1847.
1892.
1865.
1877.
1856.
1842.
1884.
1865.
1884.
1882.
1870.
1871.
1858.
1891.
1886,
1885,
1876.
1875.
1884.
1887.
1892.
1893.
1884.
1868.
1859.
1886.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1893.
1883.
1886,
1887.
1882.
1886.
1876.
1885.
1889.
1857.
*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.
tHooxer, Sir Josrru Darton, K.C.8.1., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
FE.RS., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale.
§Hooker, Reginald H., B.A. Royal Statistical Society, 9 Adelphi-
terrace, London, W.C
*Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, 8. W.
*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. The Vicarage, Blackheath Hill,
Greenwich, 8.E.
{Hooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur. 14 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
*Hopkins, Edward M. Orchard Dene, Henley-on-Thames.
{Hopkins, J.S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*HopKINSON, CHARLES. 505 Moss-lane East, Manchester.
*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.
*Hopxinson, Jonny, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Holmwood, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
*PlosOes Jonyn, F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Margaret-
street, Cavendish-square, London, W.; and The Grange, St.
Albans.
tHopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
tHorder, T. Garrett. 29 Charles-street, Cardiff.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
tHorne, Edward H. Innisfail, Beulah Hill, Norwood, 8.E.
tHorne, John, F.R.S.E., F.G.S8. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff
Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
*Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glasgow.
*Horniman, F. J., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Hill,
London, 8.E.
*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
tHorsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.
tHorsley, Reginald E., M.B. 46 Heriot-row, Edinburgh,
*Horstey, Victor A. H., B.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of
Pathology in University College, London. 25 Cayendish-
square, London, W.
*Hotblack, G.S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.
{Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.
Houghton, F.T.S., M.A. 119 Gough-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
t{Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S8. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, 8.E.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
§Howard, F. T., B.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff.
tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.8. Sandycroft, Shaw.
*Howard, James L., D.Sc. 20 Oxford-road, Waterloo, near Liver-
ool,
sae ouet 8.8. Llanishen Rise, near Cardiff.
tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 153 Cavendish-
street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire.
tHowatt, David. 5 Birmingham-road, Dudley.
tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
t{Howden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B.
§Howden, Robert, M.B. University of Durham College of Medicine,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey of
Great Britain. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 53
Year of
Election.
1887.
1868.
1891.
1886,
1884,
1884.
1865.
1863.
1883.
1883.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1867,
1858,
1892.
1887.
1883.
1871.
1887.
1870.
189].
1876.
1868.
1891.
1865.
1883.
1867.
1887.
1890.
1884,
1878.
1880.
1862.
1877.
1891.
1886.
1891.
1865.
tHowell, J. A. Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
tHowett, Rey. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
§ Howell, Rev. William Charles, M.A., Vicar of Holy Trinity, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.
§Howes, Professor G. B., F.L.S. Royal College of Science, South
Kensington, London, 8. W.
tHowland, Edward P., M.D. 211 413-street, Washington, U.S.A.
tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.
*How tert, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
tHoworrn, Sir H. H., K.C.I.E., M.P., F.R.S., F.S.A. Bentcliffe,
Eccles, Manchester.
tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.
tHoyle, James. Blackburn.
§Hoyrz, Witr1am E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.
tHudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
tHudson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Barton-crescent, Daw-
lish.
*“Hupson, Witr1am H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.
*Huecins, WittiaM, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Oamb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
90 Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, S.W.
tHughes, Alfred W. Woodside, Musselburgh.
tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tHughes, Miss E. P. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.
*Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
§Hughes, Thomas. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.
*Hughes, Rev. Thomas Edward. Walltield House, Reigate.
§Huenss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of
Geology in the University of Cambridge.
§Hughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.
THughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham,
Birmingham.
tHurke, Jonn Wuirarer, F.RS., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. 10 Old Bur-
lington-street, London, W.
§Huxz, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Arundel-gardens,
Notting Hill, London, W.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
*HummeEt, Professor J. J. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
t{Humphrey, Frank W. 68 Prince’s-gate, London, S. W.
*Humphreys, A. W. 50 Broadway, New York, U.S.A.
tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
tHumphreys, Noel A., F.S.S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.
*Houmpary, Sir Groner Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.
“Hunt, Arrnur Roops, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.
*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.
tHunt, Charles, The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.
ae a de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,
ardiff.
Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
54 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election
1864. {Hunt, W. Folkestone.
1875. *Hunt, William. Northcote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.
1881. tHunter, F. W. Newhbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
1889. tHunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co, Durham.
1881. {Hunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.
1884. *Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheffield.
1869. *Hunter, Rev. Robert. LL.D., F.G.S. Forest Retreat, Staples-road,
Loughton, Essex.
1879. {Huntrnetoy, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
London. King’s College, London, W.C.
1885. {Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.
1863. {Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
1883. *Hurst, Charles Herbert. Owens College, Manchester.
1869. {Hurst, George. Bedford.
1882, {Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden.
1861. *Hurst, ray ea John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Treland.
1870. {Hurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
1887. {Husband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.
1882. {Hussey, Captain E. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.
1876. { Hutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
1868. *Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. Barnhill, Brodick, Isle of Arran, N.B.
Hutton, Crompton, Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1864, *Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
1857. {Hutton, Henry D, 17 Palmerston-road, Dublin.
1887. *Hutton, J. Arthur. 29 Dale-street, Manchester.
1861. *Hurron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
1852. {Huxtny, The Right Hon. Tuomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Hon. Professor of Biology in the Royal
College of Science, London. Hodeslea, Eastbourne.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
1883. {Hyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.
1871. *Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
1882. *I’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington.
1883. §Idris, T. H. W. 58 Lady Margaret-road, London, N.W.
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
1884. *Lles, George. 7 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.
1885. {im-Thurn, Everard F., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana.
1888. *Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Ool. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.
1858. {Ingham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
1893. §Ingle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.
1876. tInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1891. {Ingram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.
1852. {Ineram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.I.A., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
1885. {Ingram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.
1886. {Innes, John. The Limes, Alcester-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
1892. §Ireland, D. W. 10 South Gray-street, Edinburgh,
1892. {Irvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.
1892. {Irvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.
1882. aaa: Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc., F.G.8. Hockerill, Bishop Stortford,
erts.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 55
Year of
lection.
1888,
1883.
1881,
1891,
1886,
1859.
1884.
1876,
1883.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1883,
1874.
1886,
1887.
1885,
1866,
1869,
1887,
1874.
1865,
1891.
1891.
1891.
1872.
1860,
1886.
1891,
1891.
1891,
1891.
1858.
1884,
1881.
1887.
1885.
1885,
1859.
1889,
1870.
1891.
1886,
1891.
1855.
1867.
*Isaac, J. F, V.. B.A. 114 Marine-parade, Brighton.
{Isherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
fIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square,
London,
*Ismay, Thomas H. 10 Water-street, Liverpool.
fIzod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tJack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.
*Jacxson, Professor A. H., B.Se., F.C.S8. Care of Messrs. Wm.
Bowen & Co., 358 Collins-street, Melbourne, Australia.
t{Jackson, Arthur, F.R.C.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.
tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.
*Jackson, F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 1 Morley-road, Southport.
*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset,
§Jackson, George. Clareen, Higher Warberry, Torquay.
*Jackson, George. 53 Elizabeth-street, Cheetham, Manchester.
tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.
§Jackson, Moses, J.P. Lansdowne House, Tonbridge.
§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.
*Jaffe, John. 38 Prom, des Anglais, Nice, France.
*Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
{James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.
*James, Charles Henry. 8 Courtland-terrace, Merthyr Tydfil.
*James, Charles Russell. Brynteg, Merthyr Tydfil.
tJames, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney-hill, London, E.C.
tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.
{James, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.
tJames, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.
tJames, John. 24 The Parade, Cardiff.
tJames, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street, Strand,
London, W.C.
tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P, 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.
f{James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
{Jameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W.
tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.
§Jamieson, G. Auldjo. 37 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.
{Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B.
{Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire,
*Japp, F. R., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Aberdeen.
tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
tJasper, Henry. Holmedale, New Park-road, Clapham Park, Lon-
don, 8S. W.
§Jeffcock, Rev. Prebendary John Thomas, F.S.A. The Rectory,
Wolverhampton.
tJefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.
*Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Jeffreys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S, Pump-court, Temple, London, E.C.
56
Year of
Election
1885.
1887.
1881.
1864.
1875.
1880.
1891.
1852.
1898,
1872.
1878.
1889,
1884,
1891.
1884,
1884.
1883.
1883.
1871.
1883.
1865.
1888.
1875.
1872.
1870.
1863.
1881.
1890,
1887.
1883.
1883,
1861.
1883,
1859.
1864.
1884.
1883.
1884,
1884,
1885.
1886.
1864.
1864,
1871.
1888,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
{Jeftreys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield.
§Jzrrs, Osmunp W. 12 Queen’s-road, Rock Ferry, Cheshire.
tJztuicon, C. W. A. Southampton.
{Jelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.
§Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, London,
S.W.
*JENKINS, Sir Joun Jones. The Grange, Swansea.
§Jenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. 17 St. Julian’s-road,
Kilburn, London, N.W.
{Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.
§Jennings, G. EK. Ash Leigh-road, Leicester.
{Jemnings, W. 13 Victoria-street, London, 8S.W.
tJephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.
Jessop, William, jun. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.
tJevons, F, B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.
tJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.
{John, EK. Cowbridge, Cardiff.
tJohns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.
§Johnson, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.
{Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
{Johnson, Ben. Micklegate, York.
*Johnson, David, F.C.8., F.G.S. 3 Victoria-road, Clapham, London,
S.W.
{Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
*Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
tJohnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, London, N.
{Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
{Johnson, J. T, 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.
tJohnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham,
{Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.
*Johnson, Thomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
tJohnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.
{Johnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.
{Johnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.
fJohnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.
{Johnston, H. H. Tudor House, Champion Hill, London, 8.E.
TJohnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
tJohnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W
tJohnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.
tJohnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,
*Johnston, W. H. 6 Latham-street, Preston, Lancashire.
{Jonnston-Lavis, H.J., M.D., F.G.S8. Palazzo Caramanico, Chiato-
mone, Naples.
tJohnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.
*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.
tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.
tJorty, Wirriam, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 57
Year of
Election.
1888.
1881.
1849.
1887.
1891.
1890.
1891.
1891.
1887.
1891.
1883.
1884.
1877.
1893.
1881.
1873.
1880.
1860.
1883.
1891.
1875.
1884,
1891.
1891.
1875.
1879.
1890.
1872.
1848.
1883.
1886.
1891.
1848.
1870.
1883.
1868.
1888,
1887,
1859.
1883.
1884.
1884.
tJoly, John, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. 39 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.
tJones, Baynham. W Alien House, Glidltenham:
{Jones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools.
{Jones, D, Edgar, M.D. Spring Bank, Queen-street, Cardiff.
§Jones, Rey. Edward, F.G.8. Osbourne-place, Fairfax-road, Prest-
wich, Lancashire.
t{Jones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.
{Jones, Evan Rowland. Bonnyrigg, Penarth.
{Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.8. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.
*Jones, Rey. G. Hartwell, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.
*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. 5 Cook-street, Liverpool.
{Jones, Rey. Harry, M.A. 8 York-gate, Regent’ s Park, London,
N.W
tJones, Henry C., F.C.8. Royal College of Science, South Kensing-
ton, London, S.W
§ Jones, Professor J. E., B.Sc. Ellenslea, 70 Lichfield-road, Stafford.
*Jonus, J. Virramu, M.A., B.Sc., Principal of the University College
of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.
tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
tJones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
tJones, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 10 Uverdale-road, Kine’s-
road, Chelsea, London, 8S. W.
tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.
tJones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Jose, J. E. 11 Cressington Park, Liverpool.
tJoseph, J. H. 788 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Jotham, F. H. Penarth.
tJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. Rothesay, N.B.
tJowitt, A. Hawthorn Lodge, Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.
{Jowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.
{Joy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
*Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. West Hanney, Wantage, Berkshire.
tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.
tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,
{Joynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
tJupp, Jonn Wester, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
Royal College of Science, London. 16 Cumberland-road, Kew.
tJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane,
London, W.C.
*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road,
London, N.
SKapp, Gisbert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. Erba, Wimbledon Park,
urrey.
{Kay, Miss. Hamerlaund, Broughton Park, Manchester.
tKay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.
{Kearne, John H. Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
tKeefer, Thomas Alexander. Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada,
58
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1875. {Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
1886, {Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.
1892, {Keiller, Alexander, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 54 Northumberland-
street, Edinburgh.
1887. {Kellas-Johnstone, J. F. 35 Crescent, Salford.
1884, {Kelloge, J. H.,MD. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.
1864, *Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
1885. §Keltie, J. Scott, Assist.Sec.R.G.S., F.S.S._ 1 Savile-row, London, W.
1847, *Ketvin, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., Pres.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
University of Glasgow. The University, Glasgow.
1877. *Kelvin, Lady. The University, Glasgow.
1887. §Kemp, Harry. 254 Stretford-road, Manchester.
1884, {Kemper, Andrew U.,A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.
1890. §Kempson, Augustus. Care of Capital and Counties Bank, North-
ampton,
1891. sKneuden Percy F., F.G.S. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1875, {Kennepy, ALExanpER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Emeritus
Professor of Engineering in University College, London, 2
Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W.
1884, {Kennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.
1876, {Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.
1884, {Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884. {Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
1886, {Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
1893. §Kent, A. F, Stanley. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, 8.E.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester,
1886. §KEnwArRD, James, F.S.A. 280 Hagley-road, Birmingham,
1857. *Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
1876. {Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.
1881. {Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsay, Isle of Man.
1892, §Kerr, J. Graham, Christ’s College, Cambridge,
1884. {Kerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.
1887. {Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.
1883, {Kerr, Rev. Jonny, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College,
Glasgow.
1889, {Kerry, W. H. R. Wheatlands, Windermere.
1887. {Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.
1869. *Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Villa ‘Mon Repos, Altrincham,
Cheshire.
1869. *Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Villa ‘Mon Repos,’ Altrincham,
Cheshire.
1883. *Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.
1876. {Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1886. §Kipston, Ropert, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 24 Victoria-place, Stirling.
1885, *Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.
1890. §Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.
1878. {Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.
1860. {Krvanan, G. Henry, M.R.LA. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
1875, *Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
1888. {King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.
1888. *King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.
1888. *King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 59
Year of
Election,
1875.
1871.
1855.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1860.
1875.
1870.
1889,
1869,
1876.
1875.
1867.
1892.
1870.
1860.
1875.
1883.
1870.
1890,
1886.
1869.
1886.
1888.
1888.
1872.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1873.
1874.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1875.
1888.
1892.
1890,
1888.
1881.
1870.
1865.
1858.
1884,
1885.
*King, F, Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
*King, John Godwin. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants,
{King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London,
N.W
*King, Joseph, jun. 6 Wedderburn-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. 1 Vittoria-square, Clifton, Bristol,
*King, Percy L. 5 Clifton Park, Bristol.
tKing, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
§King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.
{Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
§Kingston, Thomas. The Limes, Clewer, near Windsor.
§Krnezerr, CHartzs T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst, Kent.
{Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
{Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. Blair Castle, Culross, N.B,
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
{Kirxman, Rey. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Fernroyd, St. Mar-
garet’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
{Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
{Kirsop, Mrs. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
{Kitchener, Frank EK. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
*Kirson, Sir JAmes, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
{Klein, Rey. L. Martial. University College, Dublin.
{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
{Knight, J. M. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
{Knight, J. R. 32 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.
tKnott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc, F.R.S.E, 2 Lauriston Park,
Edinburgh.
*Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Knowles Lodge, Cuckfield, Hay-
ward's Heath, Sussex.
*Knott, Herbert. Wharf Street Mills, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Knott, John F. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
{Knott, Mrs. Staveleigh, Stalybridge, Cheshire.
*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.
tKnowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co, Antrim.
{Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.
{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
cage George James. 27 Portland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
WwW
*Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
{Knubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
§Kohn, Dr. Charles A. University College, Liverpool.
*Krauss, John Samuel. Whitecot, Wilmslow, Cheshire.
*Kunz, G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.
tKurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, London, W.
{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S, Kensington, Liverpool.
{Kynnersley, J. C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.
tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
tLaflamme, Rev. Professor J. C. K. Laval University, Quebec,
Canada.
*Laing, J. Gerard. 1 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.
60
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870.
1882.
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.
1887.
1885.
1883.
1895.
1884.
1893.
1890.
1884.
1871.
1886.
1877.
1883.
1859.
1886.
1870,
1865.
1880.
1884.
1878.
1885.
1887.
1881.
1883.
1870.
1870.
1891.
1888.
1892.
1883.
1870.
1878.
1862.
1884,
1870,
1881.
1889,
1875.
1885.
§Laird, John. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
tLake, G. A. K., M.D. East Park-terrace, Southampton.
tLake, W.C., M.D. Teionmouth.
tLalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.
*Lamb, Edmund,M.A. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, S.W.
tLamb, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. Burton-road, Didsbury, Manchester.
{Lamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.
f{Lamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.
tLampert, Rey. Brooxn, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, Kent, S.E.
§Lambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.
tLamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.
§Lamplugh, G. W., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,
London, 8.W.
tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.
tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.
{Lancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.
tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, London, S.E,
tLang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness.
tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow.
*Lane wey, J. N., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLanxuster, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of
Human and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford.
2 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
*LANSDELL, Rev. Huyry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.
§Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,
tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
Lapworth, Cuartes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham, 13
Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tLarmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.
tLarwmor, JoserH, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
§Lascelles, B. P. The Moat, Harrow.
*LatHaM, Batpwin, M.Inst.0.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, S.W.
tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. Catesby House, Manor-
road, Barnet, Herts.
fLaurie, A. P. 49 Beaumont-square, London, E.
tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, London, E.C.
§Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. King’s College, Cambridge.
tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia.
*Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.
tLaw, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W.
{Law, Rev. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
§Law, Robert. Fenny Royd Hall, Hipperholme, Halifax, Yorkshire.
tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
fLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.
§Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Winchester-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
tLawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
tLawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 6]
Year of
flection.
1868.
18538.
1888.
1856.
1883.
1883.
1875.
1870.
1884.
1884,
1847,
1863.
1884.
1872.
1884.
1883.
1861.
1887.
1891.
1884.
1887.
1892.
1886.
1882.
1859.
1883.
1889.
1881.
1872.
1869.
1892.
1868.
1856.
1890.
1891.
1886.
1867.
1859.
1882.
1867.
1878.
1887.
1874.
1884,
1871.
*Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.8, Ootacamund, Bombay.
t{Lawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
§Layard, Miss Nina F. 1 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.
tLea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.
§Leach, John. Claremont, Leyenshulme, Manchester.
tLeach, Colonel Sir G., K.C.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, London,
S.W
*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 6 Sussex-place, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.
t{Learmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.
*LeatHam, Epwarp Axrpam. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield; and
46 Eaton-square, London, 8. W.
tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.
{Lepour, G. A., M.A., F.G.8., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
tLLeckie, R. G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia.
tLee, Daniel W. Halton Bank, Pendleton, near Manchester.
tLee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.
*Lee, Sir Joseph Cooksey. Park Gate, Altrincham.
§Lee, Mark. 8 Llandati-road, Cardiff.
*Leech, Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.
#Leech, D. J., M.D., Professor of Materia Medica in the Owens
College, Manchester. Elm House, Whalley Range, Manchester.
*Lrrs, Cuarztes H., M.Se. 6 Heald-road, Rusholme, Manchester.
*Lees, Lawrence W. Claregate, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.
tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.
tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.
*Leese, Miss H. K. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.
*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.
*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., O.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.
{Lx Fevves, J. E. Southampton.
{Lerevre, The Right Hon. G. SHaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Bryan-
ston square, London, W.
tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
§Lehfeldt, Robert A. Firth College, Sheffield.
tLercesteR, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Nor-
folk
olk.
tLrieH, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square,
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,
§Leigh, Marshall. 22 Goldsmid-road, Brighton.
tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.0., Glamorganshire.
tLeipner, Adolph, Professor of Botany in University College, Bristol.
38 Hampton Park, Bristol.
{Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
§Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 11 The Avenue, Southampton,
tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
tLennon, Rey. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland,
*Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, London, W.
tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
tLesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.
tLeslie, Alexander, M.Inst.C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
62
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS.
of
Election.
1890,
1885.
1880.
1887.
1890.
1895.
1879.
1870.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1891,
1891.
1884.
1860.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1862.
1887.
1878.
1881.
1871.
1885.
1883.
1882.
1888.
1861.
1876.
1864
1880
1889
1842,
1865
1865
1886
1891
1886
1865
1854
1892
1867
1892
. “Lester, Joseph Henry. 51 Arcade-chambers, St. Mary’s Gate
Manchester.
§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.
tLercuer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.
tLeverkus, Otto. The Downs, Prestwich, Manchester.
tLevy, J. H. Florence, 12 Abbeville-road South, Clapham Park,
London, 8. W.
*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Naval
College, Greenwich.
tLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, London, 8. W.
tLewis, Aurred Lionen. 54 Highbury-hill, London, N.
tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.
§Lewis, D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwith.
tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff.
tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.
tLewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff,
*Lewis, Sir W. T. The Mardy, Aberdare.
tLippeEtt, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D. Ascot, Berkshire.
tLiebermann, L. 54 Portland-street, Manchester.
tLietke, J.O. 380 Gordon-street, Glascow.
*Lightbown, Henry. Weaste Hall, Pendleton, Manchester.
tLizrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
amptonshire.
*Luoverick, The Right Rev. Coartes Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.IL.A. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick.
{Limpach, Dr. Crumpsall Vale Chemical Works, Manchester.
{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
*Lindley, William, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 74 Shooters Hill-road, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
tLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
tLipscomb, Mrs. Lancelot C.7A. 95 Elgin-crescent, London, W.
tLisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.
*Lister, Rev. Henry, M.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead.
tLister, J. J. Leytonstone, Essex, E.
*Liverne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.
*Liversidge, Archibald, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor
of Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney,
N.S.W.
. §Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight.
. [LLEWELYN, Sir Jonn T. D., Bart. Penllegare, Swansea.
Lloyd, Rey. A, R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
. {Lloyd, Rev. Canon. The Vicarage, Rye Hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester.
. tLloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
. thloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
. {Lloyd, John Henry, Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
am.
. *Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt. 46 Chatham-street, Liverpool.
. tLloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
. “Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myvod House, Wednesbury.
. *Losiey, James Logan, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. City of London College,
Moorgate-street, London, E.C.
. §Loch, C.8., B.A. 154 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.
. *Locke, John. Whitehall Club, London, 8. W.
. tLockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 63
Year of
Election.
1863.
1886,
1875.
1889.
1876.
1871.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1883.
1883.
1875.
1872.
1881.
1883.
1861.
1889.
18838.
1887.
1886.
1876.
1883.
1875.
1892.
1889.
1867.
1885,
1891.
1885.
1892.
1861.
1884.
1886.
1850.
1881.
1853.
1881.
1870.
1889.
1878.
1889.
1891.
1875.
1881,
1873.
tLocxrrr, J. Norman, O.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, London, 8S. W.
*Lopen, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines,
*Lopex, Otrver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
University College, Liverpool. 2 Grove-park, Liverpool.
tLogan, William. Langley Park, Durham,
fLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.
*Long, John Jex. 11 Doune-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington,
tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
tLongdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
tLonge, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham.
{tLongmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.
*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.S8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.
*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
*Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey,
*Longton, E. J., M.D. Lord-street, Southport.
*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
tLord, Riley. Highfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Louis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, London, W.
*Love, A. E. H. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Love, E. F. J., M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.
ate J eae F.R.AS., F.G.S.,F.Z.S. 11 Notting Hill-square, Lon-
on, W.
tLove, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport.
*Lovett, W. Jesse, F.I.C. 75 Clarendon-road, Crumpsall, Man-
chester.
§Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire,
{Low, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, London, W.
*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwyn’s Hill, Kast Grinstead, Sussex.
§Lowdon, John. Hillside, Barry, Cardiff.
*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex,
tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.
*Lowe, Epwarp JosEpu, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.M.S,
Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow.
tLowe, F. J. Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C.
*Lowe, John Landor, M.Inst.C.H, Engineer’s Office, Midland Rail-
way, Derby.
ee wala a Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin-
ureh.
tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
*Luspock, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D.
F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S._ High Elns, Down, Kent. (
{Lubbock, John B. High Elms, Hayes, Kent.
tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.
tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, S.W.
tLuckley, George. 7 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
*Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.
{Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
tLuden,C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.
tLumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
64
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1866.
1875.
1850.
1892.
1855,
1885.
1874.
1864.
1871.
1884.
1884.
1874.
1885.
1862.
1852.
1854,
1876,
1868.
1878.
1879.
1885.
1883.
1866.
1884,
1834,
1840,
1884,
1886.
1887.
1884.
1884,
1891.
1876.
1868.
1878.
1892.
1892.
1888.
1886.
1884.
1884.
1878.
1884,
1883.
*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
fLund, Joseph. Dkley, Yorkshire.
*Lundie, Cornelius. 382 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Lunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh.
{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.
*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Mining Engineer-
ing in Yorkshire College. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.
*Lupton, Sypney, M.A. Grove Cottage, Roundhay, near Leeds.
*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
tLyell, ae Leonard, Bart., M.P., F.G.S8. 48 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.
tLyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Lyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.
§Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
*Lytz, F. Maxwett, F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, London, S.W.
{McAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.
*MacapamM, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
*Macapam, Wit11am Ivison., F.R.S.E., F.LC., F.C.S. Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.
{MacaLisTER, ALEXANDER, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.
tMacAnisrer, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
§MacAndrew, James J..F.L.S Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.
§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.
*M‘Arthur, Alexander, F.R.G.S. 79 Holland Park, London, W.
{Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.
Macavtay, JAmus, A.M., M.D, 25 Carlton-vale, London, N.W.
MacBrayne, Robert. 65 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
McCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.
MacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam.
McCarthy, J. J.. M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.
{McCausland, Orr. Belfast.
*McClean, Frank, M.A., F.8.8. Rusthall House, Tunbridge Wells.
*M‘Criettanp, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glaszow.
t{M‘Cuintock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S. W.
*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
*McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. University College, Dundee.
{McCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh.
t{McCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.
{MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.
*McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMcDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin.
{MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
t{MacDonnell, Rev.CanonJ.C.,D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutterworth.
*
* ++ ++
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
Year of
Election.
1878.
1884.
1884,
1881.
1871.
1885.
1879.
1884,
1867.
1888.
1884,
1884,
1878.
1885.
1884,
1886.
1885.
1876.
1867.
1884.
1883,
1884.
1885.
1873.
1888.
1880.
1884,
1884.
1883.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1884,
1887.
1867.
1889,
1891.
1850.
1867.
1872.
1892.
1892.
1892.
tMcDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
tMacdougall, Alan, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Adelaide-street East, Toronto,
Canada.
tMcDougall, John. 35 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F'.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.
{M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
{Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 15 Scotland-street, Edinburgh.
{Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.
TMacfie, K. N., B.A., B.C.L. Winnipeg, Canada.
*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
tMacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, London, W.
tMacGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.
tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont-
real, Canada.
{McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-ayenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
tMacgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen,
*MacGreeor, JAMES Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.
tMcGregor, William. Kohima Lodge, Bedford.
{M‘Gregor-Robertson, J.. M.A., M.B. 400 Great Western-road,
Glasgow.
TM‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
*M‘Intosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 Abbots-
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.
tMclIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.
tMack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.
tMackay, Alexander Howard, B.A., B.Sc. The Academy, Pictou,
Nova Scotia, Canada.
§Macxay, Joun Yue, M.D. The University, Glascow.
t¢McKewprickx, Jonn G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. The University,
Glasgow.
{McKendrick, Mrs. The University, Glasgow.
*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Athenzeum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
tMcKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.
{McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.
tMackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.
tMackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hythe, Kent.
*Mackey, J. A. 1 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
tMacxigr, Samuet JoserH. 17 Howley-place, London, W.
{McKilligan, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.
tMackinder, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.
*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tMcKinley, Rev. D. 33 Milton-street, West Hartlepool.
tMackintosh, A. C. Temple Chambers, Cardiff,
TMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
{Mackson, H. G. 25 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.
*“McLacutan, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, 8.E.
§Macracan, Sir Dovetas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Medical Jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh. 28
Heriot-row, Edinburgh.
{Maclagan, Philip K. D. 14 Belgrave-place, Edinburgh.
}Maclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
E
66 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873. {McLandsborough, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manning-
ham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1885. *M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.
1860. {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
1873. tMacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
1882. {Maclean, Inspector-General,C.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton.
1892. *Maclean, Magnus, M.A., F.R.S.E. The University, Glasgow,
1884. tMcLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884. t{McLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884. {McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.
1868. §McLxop, Hersert, F.R.S., F.C.S.. Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.
1892. {Macleod, Reginald. Woodhall, Midlothian.
1892. {Macleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.
1861. *Maclure, John William, M.P., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Whalley Range,
Manchester.
1883. *McManon, Lieut.-General C. A. 20 Nevern-square, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8S. W.
1883. {MacMahon, Major P. A., R.A., F.R.S., Professor of Electricity in
the Artillery College, Woolwich. 40 Shaftesbury-avenue,
London, W.C.
1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland.
1862. {Macmillan, Alexander. 21 Portland-place, London, W.
1888. ¢{McMillan, Robert. 20 Aubrey-street, Liverpool.
1874. t{MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
1884. {MeMurrick, J. Playfair. Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.
1867. {M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.
1883. {MeNicoll, Dr. EK. D. 15 Manchester-road, Southport.
1878, {Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
1887. tMaconochie, Archibald White. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros.,
Lowestoft.
1883. {Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
1886. {Macpherson, Lieut.-Colonel J. C., R.E. Ordnance Survey Office,
Southampton.
1887. §McRae, Charles, M.A., F.L.S. Department of Science and Art,
South Kensington, London, 8.W.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 2 Ilchester-gardens, Prince’s-square,
London, W.
1883. {McWhairter, William. 170 Kent-road, Glasgow.
1887. tMacy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.
1883. {Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.
1883. t{Maggs, Thomas Charles, F.G.S. 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.
1868. {Magnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.
1875. *Magnus, Sir Philip, B.Sc. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square,
London, W.
1878. t{Mahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.
1869. {Main, Robert. The Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.
1887. {Mainprice, W.S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1885. *Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart. Stirling, N.B.
1883. {Maitland, P.C. 136 Great Portland-street, London, W.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
1881. t{Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.
1874. {Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
1889. {Maling, C. T. 14 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1857. {Mallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co., U.S.A.
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
of
Election.
1887
1870.
1885.
1888.
1878.
1864.
1888.
1891.
1889.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1864,
1863.
1888.
1888.
1881.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889.
1889.
1892.
1881.
1890.
1881.
1858.
1876.
1886.
1849.
1865.
1885.
1887.
1891.
1848.
1878.
1883.
1884.
1889.
. }MancuestErR, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.
tManifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
{Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen.
{Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.
§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
{Mansel-Pleydell, J.C. Whatcombe, Blandford.
}Mansergh, James, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Westminster-chambers, Lon-
don, 8. W.
{Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Manville, E. 3 Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
*March, Henry Colley, M.D. 2 West-street, Rochdale.
tMarcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.
tMargetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.
tMarginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.
§Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, N. orthampton.
{Marxnam, OLements R., C.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A,
21 Eccleston-square, London, 8S. W.
tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
tMarling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Marr, JoHN Epwarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. St. John’s College
Cambridge. ‘
tMarsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.
{ Marsden, Joseph. Ardenlea, Heaton, near Bolton.
*Marsden, Samuel. St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A.
*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.
*Marsh, Henry. Cressy House, Woodsley-road, Leeds.
tMarsh, J. E., B.A. The Museum, Oxford.
tMarsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
*MarsHALi, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy
in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road
Cambridge. ‘
{Marshall, Frank, B.A. 31 Grosvenor-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
siete Hugh, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Druim Shellach, Liberton, Mid-
othian,
*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Church Institute, Leeds.
{Marshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.
{Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.
tMarshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
{ Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
*MARSHALL, WILLIAM Baytey, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edebas-
ton, Birmingham. x
*MarsHatt, Witt1am P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston
Birmingham. ;
§Marren, Epwarp Brnpon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
tMarten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, S.W.
*Martin, Rev. H. A. Laxton Vicarage, Newark.
*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.
{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
tMarrin, H. Newett, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Biology in Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.
ane Joun Broputrs, M.A., F.S.S. 17 Hyde Park-gate, London,
§Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 8 Windsor-crescent, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Lyon House, New
Barnet, Herts.
B2
68
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1890.
1865.
1883.
1891.
1878.
1847.
1886.
1879.
1893.
1891.
1885.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1865.
1865.
1889.
1861.
1881.
1883.
1858.
1885.
1885.
1863.
1890.
1893.
1865.
1876.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1884.
1878.
1878.
1884.
1871.
1879.
1887.
1881.
1867.
1883.
1879,
§Martindale, William. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.
*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London,
WwW
Ce
tMartineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Marwick, Sir James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow.
tMarychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.
{Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.
}{Masketynz, Nrvit Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Basset Down House,
Swindon.
tMason, Hon. J. E, Fiji.
tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.
*Mason, Thomas. 6 Pelham-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
§Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.
t{Masson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
tMather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.
*Mather, William, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Man-
chester.
{Mathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.
tMathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
*Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
t{Mathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London,
W.
*Maruews, Wriiram, M.A., F.G.S. 60 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
t{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.
t{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
t{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.
tMarruews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.
{Matthews, J. Duucan. Springhill, Aberdeen.
{Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Maund, E. A. 294 Regent-street, London, W.
§Mavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.
*Maw, Grores, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Kenley, Surrey.
{Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
{Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.
§May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray,
Kent.
tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.
*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C,
*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.
tMeath, The Right Rev. C. P. Reichel, D.D., Bishop of. Dundrum
Castle, Dublin.
{Mecham, Arthur. 11 Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
{Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W.
{Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-
ments.
*Metpota, Rapwaszt, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
{Mxrtprum, CHarzss, C.M.G., LLD., F.R.8., F.R.A.S. Port Louis,
Mauritius.
tMellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.
*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
of
Hection.
1866.
1883.
1881.
1887.
1847,
1863.
1877.
1862.
1879.
1880.
1889.
1863.
1869.
1886.
1865.
1881.
1893.
1883.
1881.
1889.
1886,
1881.
1885.
1859.
1889,
1892.
1882,
1875.
1884,
1892.
1888.
1885.
1886,
1861.
1876,
1884.
1876.
1868.
1880.
1834.
1885.
1882
1885,
1885
1887
{Mzt1o, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.
§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.
{Melvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.
tMelville,Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College,Galway.
tMelvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
*Menabrea, General, Marquis of Valdora, LL.D. Chambéry, Savoie.
t{Mennett, Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, E.C.
§MERIVALE, JoHN Herman, M.A., Professor of Mining in the College
of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMerry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
t{Mratt, Louis C., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
the Yorkshire College, Leeds.
{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.
{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.
§Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.
Middleton, Henry. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
tMiddleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.8. 15 Grange-road, West Har-
tlepool.
{Milburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tMiles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.
§Mixes, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton.
§Mixt, Huen Rosert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Librarian R.G.S. 109 West
End-lane, Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.
*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
*Millard, William Joseph Kelson, M.D., F.R.G.S. Holmleigh, Rock-
leaze, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
tMiller, A. J. 15 East Park-terrace, Southampton.
{Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
{Miller, Mrs. Hugh. Lauriston-place, Edinburgh.
{Miller, Hugh, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 3 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.
{Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.
tMiller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
tMiller, Rev. John. The College, Weymouth.
*Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.
*Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.
{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.
*Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotland
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasgow.
. §Mills, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E. Mansfield Woodhouse, Mansfield.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S.E. Inveresk.
tMilne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
. *Miryz, Jonny, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mining and Geology in
the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan. Ingleside,
Birdhurst Rise, South Croydon, Surrey.
. t{Milne, J.D. 14 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.
. {Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
. [Milne-Redhead, R., F.L.S. Holden Clough, Clitheroe.
70
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1882.
1888.
1880.
1855.
1859.
1876.
1883.
1885.
1863.
1873.
1885.
1885.
1879.
1885.
1864.
1885.
1883.
1878.
1877.
1884.
1887.
1891.
1882.
1891.
1892.
1872.
1872.
1884,
1881.
1891.
1890.
1857.
1871.
1891.
1881.
1873.
1891
1885
1887
1891
1882
}Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 22a Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
tMilsom, Charles. 69 Pulteney-street, Bath.
{Minchin, G. M., M.A. Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper’s
Hill, Surrey.
tMirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
tMitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
{Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
London, W.
{Mitchell, C. Walker, LL.D. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tMitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen.
{Mitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.
{Mrvarz, St. GroreE, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Hurst-
cote, Chilworth, Surrey.
tMoffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.
tMogg, John Rees. The Priory, Glastonbury.
tMoir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
tMollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.
tMolloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.
*Molloy, Rey. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
{tMonaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.
*Mond, Ludwig, F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
*Mond, Robert Ludwig, B.A., F.R.S.E. 20 Avenue-road, Regent’s
Park, London, N.W.
*Montagu, Samuel, M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, Lon-
don, W.
{Montefiore, Arthur, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Care of London and South-
Western Bank, South Hampstead, London, N.W.
{Montgomery, Very Rev. J. F., D.D. 17 Athole-crescent, Edin-
‘oh
burgh.
{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.
tMoon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
tMoore, George Frederick. 49 Hardman-street, Liverpool.
§Moore, Henry. Collingham, Maresfield-gardens, Fitzjohn’s-avenue,
London, N.W.
tMoore, John. Lindenwood, Park-place, Cardiff.
{Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.
*Moorg, Joun Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 113 Eaton-square,
London, S.W. ; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
*Moore, Rev. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.
{Morez, ALEXANDER G., F.L.S., M.R.I.A. 74 Leinster-road, Dublin.
tMorel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff.
tMorean, ALFRED. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,
U.S.A.
{Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, London,
S.W
§Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.
{Morgan, John. 57 Thomson-street, Aberdeen.
tMorgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.
{Morgan, Sir Morgan. Cardiff.
§Morgan, Thomas. Cross House, Southampton.
LIST OF MEMBERS. yall
Year of
Election.
1878. {More@an, WittiAM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea.
1889. §Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne,
1892. {Morison, John, M.D., F.G.8. Victoria-street, St. Albans.
1867. {Morison, William R. Dundee.
1893. §Morland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.
1891. {Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.
1883. *Morley, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.C.S. 29 Kylemore-road,
West Hampstead, London, N.W.
1889, {Mortey, The Right Hon. Jonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.P. 95
Elm Park-gardens, London, 8.W.
1881. {Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.
1880. {Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn R.S.0., Car-
marthenshire.
1883. {Morris, C. 8. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
1892. tMorris, Daniel, C.B., M.A., F.L.8. 11 Kew Gardens-road, Kew.
1883. {Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
1880. §Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
1883. tMorris, John. 40 Wellesley-road, Liverpool.
1888. {Morris, J. W., F.L.S. The Woodlands, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
1880. {Morris, M. 1. E. The Lodge, Pencluwdd, near Swansea.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
1876. {Morris, Rev. S. S.0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. H.M.S. ‘Garnet,’
S. Coast of America.
1874. {Morrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.
1890. {Morrison, Sir George W. Municipal Buildings, Leeds.
1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
1886. {Morrison, John T. Scottish Marine Station, Granton, N.B.
1865. {Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1857. §Morton, Grorex H., F.G.S. 209 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
1858. *Morron, Henry JosepH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.
1871. {Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
1887. {Morton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.
1886. *Morton, P. F. Hook House, Hook, near Winchfield, Hamp-
shire,
1883. {Moseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.
1891. {Moss Arthur J., M.B. Penarth, Glamorganshire.
1878. *Moss, Joun Francis, F.R.G.S.. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.
1876. §Moss, Ricnarp Jackson, F.0.8., M.R.IL.A. St. Aubyn’s, Bally-
brack, Co. Dublin.
1864, *Mosse, J. R. Conservative Club, London, 8.W.
1892. {Mossman, R. C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.
1873. {Mossman, William. Ovenden, Halifax.
1892. *Mostyn, S. G., B.A. Colet House, Talgarth-road, London, W.
1869. §Morr, AtBERT J., F.G.S. Detmore, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.
1866, §Mort, FrepErick T., F.R.G.S. 2 College-street, Leicester.
1862. *Movart, Freperick Joun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-yvillas, Campden Hill, London, W.
1856, {Mould, Rev. J.G.,B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk.
1878. *Moulton, J. Fletcher, M.A., Q.C., F.R.S, 57 Onslow-square, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
1861. *Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.
1877. t{Mount-Epecumsr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgeumbe, Devonport.
72
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887.
1888.
1884,
1884.
1876.
1874.
1876.
1872.
1876.
1884.
1883.
1883.
1891.
1884.
1880.
1866.
1876.
1885.
1883.
1872.
1864.
1864.
1855.
1890.
1889.
1852.
1884,
1887.
1869.
1891.
1859.
1884.
1884.
1872.
1892.
1863.
1888,
1874.
1870.
1891.
1890.
tMoxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.
tMoyle, R. E., B.A., F.C.S. The College, Cheltenham.
tMoyse, C. E., B. ss, Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.
tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Muir, Sir John, Bart. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.
{Mour, M. M. Parrtson, M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.
tMuir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Beecherofi, Bothwell,
Glasgow.
tMuirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, 8. W.
*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. Bridge of Weir, Ren-
frewshire,
*Muirhead-Paterson, Miss Mary. Laurieville, Queen’s Drive, Cross-
hill, Glasgow.
tMvunHaxt, Micnart G. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
{Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.
§Mtxiier, F. Max, M.A., Professor of Com parative Philology in
the University of Oxford. 7 Norham- -gardens, Oxford,
*Mitier, Hveo, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’ 8 Park, London, N.W.
{Muller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
tMunpetta, The Right Hon. A. J.. M.P., F.RS., F.R.GS. 16
Elvaston-place, London, 8.W.
Munro, Donald, F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.
tMouwro, J. E. GRrawrorp, LL.D. Owens College, Manchester.
*Munno, Rosprt, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
*Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton.
tMurxca, "JEROM. Cranwells, Bath.
*Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead.
{Murdoch, James B. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.
tMurphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.
{Murphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.
tMurphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
§Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland.
tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.
{Murray, Adam. 78 Manor Road, Brockley, S.E.
tMurray, G. R. M., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural His-
tory), South Kensington, London, 8. W.
{Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
tMurray, Jonny, F.R.S.E. ‘Challenger’ Expedition Office, Edin-
burgh.
i Miuriay 3 . Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral
Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,
Montreal, Canada.
Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
Murray, T. 8. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.
Murray, William, M.D. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Murray, W. Vaughan. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park,
London, W.
§Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
§Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
USA
Satapets bat peste
*Myres, J ohn L., MA. Swanbourne, Winslow, Buckinghamshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 73
Year of
Election.
1886,
1892,
1890.
1876.
1872.
1887.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1855.
1876.
1886.
. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
. *Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
§Nagel, D. H., M.A., F.C.S. Trinity College, Oxford.
*Nairn, Michael B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
§Nalder, Francis Henry. 16 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London,
E.O0
{Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
}Nares, Admiral Sir G. 8., K.C.B., R.N., F.RS., F.RGS. St.
Bernard’s, Maple-road, Surbiton.
}Nason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D., F.C.S. Troy, New York,
§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.
*Neild, Theodore, B.A. Dalton Hall, Manchester.
tNeill, Joseph 8. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.
{Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
{Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
{Nelson, D. M. 11 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
tNettlefold, Edward. 51 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Dunedin, New Zealand.
. [Neville, F. H. Sidney College, Cambridge.
. {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
. *Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.
. *Newell, W. H. A. 10 Plasturton-gardens, Cardiff.
. {Newbolt, F.G. Edenhurst, Addlestone, Surrey.
. *NEwMAN, Professor Francis Wittram. 15 Arundel-crescent,
‘Weston-super-Mare.
. §Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Roseacre, Epping.
. *“Newron, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.
. [Newroy, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8. W.
. [Newton, Rey. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
. TNias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
. {Nias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W.
. {Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
. {Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.
. [Nicnortson, Sir CHartxs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.
. {Nicnorson, Henry Atteynz, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.
. *Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.
. PNicnotson, Josrrn §., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,
. {Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.
. [Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.
. {Nicholson, William R. Clifton, York.
. §Nickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.
. {Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.
. §Nicol, W. W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Mason Science College,
Birmingham.
. {Niven, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Aber-
deen.
. Niven, George. Erkingholme, Coolhurst-road, London, N.
74
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1877.
1874.
1884,
1863.
1879.
1886.
1887.
1870.
1882.
1863.
1888.
1865,
1872.
1883,
1881.
1886.
1861.
1887.
1883.
1882.
1878.
1888.
1858.
1884.
1857.
1877.
1885.
1876.
1885.
1893.
1859.
1884.
1881.
1887.
1892.
1853.
1885.
tNiven, James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.
{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.
{Nixon, T. Alcock. 33 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*Nosiz, Sir Anprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tNoble, T. 8., F.G.S. Lendal, York.
tNock, J. B. Mayfield, Penns, near Birmingham,
{Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.
tNolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
tNorfolk, F. 16 Carlton-road, Southampton.
§Norman, Rey. Canon Atrrep Mertz, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.
Burnmoor Rectory, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.
tNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.
{Norris, Ricoarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birming-
ham.
tNorris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
*Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.
tNorth, William, B.A., F.C.S. 84 Micklegate, York.
*Norruwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosyenor-
square, London, W.
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London,
S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.
tNorton, Lady. 35 Eaton-place, London, S.W.; and Hamshall,
Birmingham.
tNoton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham.
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
tNursey, Perry Fairfax. 161 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
*Nutt, Miss Lilian. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, S.E.
§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
f{O’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
{Odgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple,
London, E.C.
*Opitine, WittraM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
t{Odlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.
{O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.
tOgden, Joseph. 13 Hythe-villas, Limes-road, Croydon.
tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
tOgilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.
{Oertvin, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Heriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.
§Ogilvie, Miss Maria M., D.Sc. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
tOgilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
{O’Halloran, J. S., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute, Northum-
berland-avenue, London, W.C.
tOldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.
{Oldham, Charles. Syrian House, Sale, near Manchester.
§Oldham, H. Yule. Lecturer in Geography in the University of
Cambridge.
t{OLpHam, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.
{Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75
Blection.
1893.
1892.
1863.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1889.
1882,
1880.
1887.
1872.
1883.
1867.
1883.
1883.
1880.
1861.
1858.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1838.
1873.
1887.
1865.
1869.
1884,
1884,
1882.
1881.
1882.
1889.
1888.
1877.
1889.
1883.
1883.
1872.
1884.
1875.
1870.
§Oldham, R. D., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs. H. S.
King & Oo., Cornhill, London, E.C.
tOliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.
Oliver, Daniel, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,
Surrey.
fOliver, F. W., D.Sc. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew, Surrey.
{Oliver, J. A. Westwood. The Liberal Olub, Glasgow.
§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.
Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Olsen, O. T., F.R.AS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s - terrace,
Grimsby.
*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, London, W.
*“Ommanney, Rey. E. A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Frome, Somerset.
fO’Neill, Charles. Glen Allan, Manley-road, Alexandra Park, Man-
chester.
tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,
S.W
fOppert, Gustay, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras.
tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
{Ord, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
{Ord, Miss Sarah. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.
{O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
tOrmerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester.
ftOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
fOrpen, Miss, 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Orpen, Major R.T., R.E. Gibraltar.
*Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
tOsborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
§O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. Firth College, Sheffield.
*Ostur, A. Fottert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
“Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.
*Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
fOsler, William, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.
es James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
rent,
*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.
*Ottewell, Alfred D, 14 Sansome-street, San Francisco, U.S.A.
{Owen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, ‘Wolverhampton.
*Owen, Thomas. 8 Alfred-street, Bath.
fOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S, 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.
{Page, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.
{Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.
*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.
tPaine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.
{Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
prAna R. H. Ineus, F.R.S., F.S.S. Belton, Great Yar-
mouth,
76
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1883.
1889.
1873.
1878.
1887.
1866.
1872.
1890.
1883.
1886,
1884,
1883.
1883.
1880.
1863.
1874,
1886.
1853.
1891.
1865.
1879,
1887.
1859.
1862.
1883.
1877.
1865.
1878.
1883.
1875.
1881.
1887.
1884.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1871.
1884.
1876.
1874.
1889.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1879.
1863.
1892.
1863.
tPalgrave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth.
{Patmer, Sir CHARLES Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, Yorkshire.
{Palmer, George, M.P. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. 8 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.
“Palmer, Miss Mary Kate. Kilburn House, Sherwood, Notts.
§Palmer, William. Kilbourne House, Cavendish Hill, Sherwood,
Nottinghamshire.
*Palmer, W. R. 1 The Cloisters, Temple, E.C.
Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
tPankhurst, R. M., LL.D. 8 Russell-square, London, W.C.
§Pant, F. J. Vander. Clifton Lodge, Kingston-on-Thames.
tPanton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Panton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.A., F.G.S. Ontario Agricultural
College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
tPark, Henry. Wigan.
{Park, Mrs. Wigan.
*Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.
{Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tParker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
{Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
{Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.
*Parkes, Samuel Hickling, F.L.S. Ashfield-road, King’s Heath, Bir-
mingham.
§Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.
§Parkinson, James. Station-road, Turton, Bolton.
{Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.
*Parnell, John, M.A. Hadham House, Upper Clapton, London, N.E.
}Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.
{Parson, T. Edgeumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.
*Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Parsons, Hon. C. A. Elvaston Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.
}Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol.
§Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.
{Paterson, A. M., M.D. University College, Dundee.
*Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland.
*Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh.
*Paton, Hugh. 911 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Paton, Rev. William. The Ferns, Parkside, Nottingham.
*Patterson, A. Henry. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
}Patterson, Edward Mortimer. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada.
§Patterson, T. L. Maybank, Greenock.
}Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.
} Pattinson, H. L., jun. Felling Chemical Works, Felling-upon- Tyne.
{Parrinson, JoHN, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
}Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 11 Queen Victoria-street, London,
E.C.
*Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.
fPavt, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
tPaul, J. Balfour. 32 Great King-street, Edinburgh.
f{Pavy, Freperick Wit11am, M.D., F.R.S. 85 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 77
Year of
Election.
1887. t{Paxman, James. Hill House, Colchester.
1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.
1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1877. *Payne, J. C. Charles. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
1881. tPayne, Mrs. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
1866. {Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1888. *Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.
1886. {Payton, Henry. Eversleigh, Somerset-road, Birmingham.
1876. {Peace,G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
1879. tPeace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.
1885. {Peach, B. N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,.
Edinburgh.
1883. {Peacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, Lon-
don, W.
1875. {Peacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,
W.C
1881. *Prarcer, Horace, F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge.
1886. *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.
1888, §Pearce, Rev. R. J., D.C.L., Professor of Mathematics in the Univer-
sity of Durham. 7 South Bailey, Durham.
1884. {Pearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada,
1886. {Pearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1887. {Pearse, J. Walter. Brussels.
1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, S.W.
1891. {Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.
1893. *Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.
1888. {Pearson, Miss Helen E, 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
1892. {Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.
1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1883. {Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
1872. *Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.
1881. {Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.
1870. {Pearson, Rev. Samuel, M.A. Highbury-quadrant, London, N.
1883, *Pearson, Thomas H. Redclyffe, Newton-le- Willows, Lancashire.
1863. §Pease, H. F., M.P. Brinkburn, Darlington.
1889. {Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1863. a Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guis-
orouch.
1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. {Peck, John Henry. 52 Hoghton-street, Southport.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House,
Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1888, {Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
1885. {Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron Park, Edinburgh.
1884. {Peebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.
1883. tPeek, Cuthbert E. Wimbledon House, Wimbledon, Surrey.
1878. *Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.
1881. {Peges, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S,W.
1884, {Pegler, Alfred. Elmfield, Southampton.
1861. *Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
1868. {PrtHam, The Hon. and Right Rev. J. T., D.D. Norwich.
1878. {Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C.
1865, {Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
1861. *Pender, Sir John, G.C.M.G.,M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, S.W.
1887, §PenpLeBURY Wittiam H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.
78
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1856.
1881.
1875.
1889.
1868.
1884.
1864.
1885.
1886.
1886.
1879.
1874,
1883.
1883,
1885.
1871.
1882.
1886,
1884.
1884.
1886,
1886,
1863,
1892.
1870.
1855.
1853.
1877.
1863,
1889,
1883.
1887.
1892.
1880.
1890.
1885.
1881.
1868,
1884.
1883,
1885.
1884,
1888,
§Puneety, Witt1aM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.
tPenty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York.
{Perceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.
tPercival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 6 Lovaine-crescent, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
*Perigal, Frederick. Cambridge Cottage, Kingswood, Reigate.
*Prrxin, Wittram Hewry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts,
Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.
{Perkin, William Henry, jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.
*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.
{Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, London, N.W.
{Perrin, Henry 8. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N. W.
{Perrin, Mrs. 23 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, W.
{Perry, James. Roscommon.
*Purry, JoHN, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering and
Applied Mathematics in the Technical College, Finsbury. 381
Brunswick-square, London, W.C.
tPerry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.
{Perry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.
{Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.
*Peyton, John HE. H., F.R.A.S.,F.G.S. 28 Sillwood-road, Brighton.
{Pfoundes, Charles. Spring Gardens, London, 8.W.
tPhelps, Colonel A. 28 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Phelps, Charles Edgar. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Notting-
ham.
tPhelps, Mrs. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.
tPhelps, Hon. E.J. American Legation, Members’ Mansions, Victoria-
street, London, S.W.
{Phelps, Mrs. Hamshall, Birmingham.
*Puenk, JoHn Samvuet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8S. W.
{Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
tPhilip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.
§Philips, T. Wishart. Lonsdale, Wanstead, Hssex.
{Philipson, Dr. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Philipson, John. 9 Victoria-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.
{Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.\S. 18 Exchange-street, Manchester,
§Phillips, J. H. Poole, Dorset.
§Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological
Society, Scarborough.
§Phillips, R. W., M.A., Professor of Biology in University College,
Bangor.
tPhillips, S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.
tPhillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.
tPuirson, T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey,
W.
S.W.
*Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford.
“Pickard, Joseph William. Lindow Cottage, Lancaster.
*PICKERING, SPENCER U., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 48 Bryanston-square,
London, W.
*Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason County, Kentucky,
U.S.A.
*Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
Year of
Blection.
1871.
1884.
1865,
1873.
1857.
1883.
1877.
1868.
1876.
1884.
1887.
1875.
1883.
1864.
1883,
1893.
1868.
1872.
1842.
1867.
1884,
18853.
1893.
1857.
1861.
1881.
1888.
1846.
1862.
1891.
1892.
1868.
_ 1883.
1886.
1883.
1863.
1887.
1883.
1883.
tPigot, Thomas F.,M.R.IL.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.
{Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
tPrez, L. Owen. 201 Maida-vale, London, W.
{Pike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada.
{Pilkington, Henry M., LL.D., Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street,
Dublin.
tPilling, R. C. The Robin's Nest, Blackburn.
Pim, George, M.R.I.A. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
{Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
tPinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
tPrrim, Rev. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,
tPirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A.
tPitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, London, E.C.
{Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.
tPitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D, 34 Ashburn-place, South Ken-
sington, London, S.W.
tPitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
{Pitt, Sydney. 12 Brunswick-gardens, London, W.
*Pitt, Walter, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.
{Prrr-Rivers, Lieut.-General A. H. L., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S.,
F.\S.A. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, 8. W.
t Plant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evington-street, Leicester.
Prayrarr, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, S.W.
}{Prayratr, Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. L., K.C.M.G., H.M. Consul, Algeria.
(Messrs. King & Co., Pall Mall, London, 8. W.)
*Playfair, W. S., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 31 George-street, Hanover-square, London, W.
*Plimpton, R.T.,M.D. 23 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, London,
S.W.
§Plowright, Henry J., F.G.S. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.
{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
*Pocuin, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
tPocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.
t¢Porz, WrotraM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S8. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
tPomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.
§Popplewell, W. C., B.Sc. Claremont-road, Irlams-o’-th’-Height,
Manchester.
t{PortaL, WynpH4AM S. Malshanger, Basingstoke.
*Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D. Brechin Lodge, Cambridge-road, South-
port.
{Porter, Paxton. Birmingham and Midland Institute, Birmingham.
tPostgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.
{Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Neweastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Portland-terrace, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
§Potts, John. Thorn Tree House, Chester-road, Macclesfield.
80
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886
1873.
1887.
1883.
1875.
1887.
1867.
1855.
1883.
1884.
1884,
1891,
1869.
1888.
1884.
1892.
1889.
1898.
1893.
1884.
1856,
1882.
1888.
1881.
1875.
1891.
1876.
1892.
1875.
1883.
1864.
1889.
1876.
1888.
1881.
1863.
1885.
1863,
1884,
*Poutton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Professor of
Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Oxford.
*Powell, Sir Francis S., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge-square, London, W.
*Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.
{Powell, John. Waunarlwydd House, near Swansea.
tPowell, Willem Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.
§Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Mosley-street,
Manchester.
tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
*Poynter, John EK. Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland.
tPorntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
College, Birmingham. 11 St. Augustine’s-road, Birmingham,
§Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.
*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. Brazenose College, Oxford.
tPratt, Bickerton. Brynderwen, Maindee, Newport, Monmouth-
shire,
*Preece, Witttam Henry, C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
*Preece, W. Llewellyn. Telegraph Department, Midland Railway,
Derby.
eeieinie Haak His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada.
§Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.
§Preston, Alfred Eley. 14 The Exchange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Preston, Martin Inett. 9 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.
§Preston, Professor THomas. ‘Trinity College, Dublin.
*PrestwicH, JosepH, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.C.S. Shore-
ham, near Sevenoaks.
*Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.
*Pricr, Rey. BarrHotomew, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Master
of Pembroke College, Oxford.
tPrice, John E., F.S.A. 27 Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C,
Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
tPrice, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. Oriel College, Oxford.
{Price, Peter. 12 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.
tPrice, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.
{Priestley, John. 174 Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
tPrince, Professor Edward E. St. Mungo’s College, Glasgow.
{Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tPrince, Thomas. Horsham-road, Dorking.
*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
NSW.
*Pritchard, Eric Law. 12 Alwyne-place, Canonbury, London, N,
*PritcHaRD, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover-
square, London, W.
tProbyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, London, S. W.
§Procter, John William. Ashcroft, Nunthorpe, York.
tProctor, R. S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
tProfeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B.
tProud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 81
Year of
Election.
1879,
1872.
1871.
1873.
1867.
1883.
1891.
1842.
1887.
1885.
1852.
1881.
1882,
1874.
1866.
1878.
1884.
1860.
1883.
1883.
1868.
1879.
1861.
1893.
1870.
1887.
1870.
1877.
1879.
1855.
1888.
1887.
1864.
1885.
1863.
1884,
1884.
1861.
1889.
1867.
1876.
1883.
1887,
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road
Ilfracombe.
*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts.
*Puckle, Thomas John. 42 Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
tPullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
*Pullar, Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Ochil, Perth.
tPullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.
*Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.
§Pumpurey, WittiaAM. lLyncombe, Bath.
§Purdie, Thomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews. St. Andrews, N.B.
{Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.I). Belfast.
{Purey-Cust, Very Rey. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.
tPurrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton.
{Purser, Freperick, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
tPurserR, Professor Jomn, M.A., M.R.LA. Queen’s College
Belfast.
tPurser, John Mallet. 38 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stafford-place, Oxford-street, London, W.
*Pusey, S. HK. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.
§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon,
§Pye-Smith, Mrs, 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon.
{Pyz-Smiru, P. H.,M.D.,F.R.S, 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, London, 8.H.
t{Pye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.
*Pyne, Joseph John, The Willows, Albert-road, Southport.
§Quick, James. University College, Bristol.
tRabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, London, 8.W.
tRabone, John. Penderell House, Hamstead-road, Birmingham.
tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
{Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
tRadford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston.
tRadway, C. W. 9 Bath-street, Bath.
*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Whitefield, Manchester.
fRainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath.
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.
tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.
Ramsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.
tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.
{Ramsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.
t{Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.
{Ramsay, Major R.G. W. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.
*Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 109 Sinclair-road, West Kensington Park,
London, W.
*Ramsay, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, London, W.C.
Ramsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, London, W.
t{Ramsbottom, John. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire,
F
82
Year of
Election
1878.
1835.
1869.
1868.
1893.
1863.
1861.
1872.
1889,
1864,
1870.
1892.
1870.
1870.
1874.
1889.
1870.
1866.
1855.
1887.
1875.
1886.
1868.
1883.
1870.
1884.
1852.
1892.
1863.
1889.
1889.
1888,
1890.
1891.
1861.
1889.
1891.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
*Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
*Rance, Henry. 6 Ormonde-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-
sington, London, 8. W.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Ashburnham-road, Bedford.
§Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.
§Ransom, WILLIAM Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
tRansome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Devisdale, Bowdon,
Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 11 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s
Inn, London, W.C.
§Rapkin, J. B. Sidcup, Kent.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 8 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
W
tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
{Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.
§Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.
{Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.
§ Rathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.
tRavensteEIN, E. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 91 Upper Tulse-hill, London,
S.W
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.
tRawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.
tRawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.
*RawLinson, Rey. Canon Groran, M.A. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
*RawLrnson, Major-General Sir Huyry O., Bart., G.C.B., LL.D.,
F.R.S.,F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
{Rawson, Harry. LEarlswood, Ellesmere Park, ‘Eccles, Manchester.
§Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn-
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W.
t{Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A., F.C.S. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-
gate, London, S.W.
*RayieicH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution, London. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.
*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. | Queen-street, Lancaster.
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.
{Reapz, THomas Metrarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
§Readman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E, 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.
*REDFERN, Professor PerzrR, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
tRedgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Grove Lodge, Muswell
Hill, London, N.
{Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
tRedmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.
{Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
}Rednall, Miss Edith E. Ashfield House, Neston, near Chester.
*Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E.,F.C.S. 4 Bishopsgate-street Within,
London, E.C.
Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
{Reece, Lewis Thomas. Somerset House, Roath, Cardiff.
{Reep, Sir Epwarp J., K.0.B., M.P., F.R.S. 75 Harrington-
gardens, London, S. W.
tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill.
*Reed, Thomas A. Merchants’ Exchange, Cardiff.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 83
Year of
flection.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1888.
1875.
1881,
1883.
1892.
1889.
13876.
1884.
1892.
1887.
1850.
18958.
1875.
1863.
1891.
1885.
1889.
1867.
1883.
1871.
1870.
1858.
1887.
1883.
1890.
1858.
1877.
1888.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1891.
1889.
1888.
1863,
1861.
1869.
1882.
1884.
1889.
1884,
§Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E. The Elms, Penarth.
tRees, Samuel. West Wharf, Cardiff.
{Rees, William. 25 Park-place, Cardiff.
tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, London, W.C.
tRees-Mogg, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
§Reid, Arthur S., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
*Rurp, Crement, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
{Reid, E. Waymouth, B.A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee.
tReid, George, Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-
ne.
reid, cranes. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
tReid, Rev. James, B.A. Bay City, Michigan, U.S.A.
§Reid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.
*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.
tReid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
§Reinach, Albert von. Frankfort.
§Rumvorp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physical Science in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
{Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
§Rendell, Rev. J. R. Whinside, Accrington.
tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.
*Rennie, George B. Hooley Lodge, Redhill.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
*Reynolds, A. H. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.
{Rxyyoxps, James Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., M.R.LA.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.
*Reynoips, Ossornz, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 28 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§Ruynoips, RrcHAaRD, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds.
tRhodes, George W. The Cottage, Victoria Park, Manchester.
{Rhodes, Dr. James, 25 Victoria-street, Glossop.
tRhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.
*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.
*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
§Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George’s-road,
London, S.W.
{Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.
*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.
tRichards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.
{Richards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.
ek Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
*Ricuarpson, ARTHUR, M.D. University College, Bristol.
tRicwarpson, Sir Beysamin Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.RS, 25
Manchester-square, London, W.
tRichardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
*Richardson, Charles. 15 Burnaby-gardens, Chiswick, London, W.
§Richardson, Rev. George, M.A. The College, Winchester.
*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, 150 Piccadilly,
London, W.
§Richardson, Hugh. Sedbergh School, Sedbergh R.S.0., York-
shire.
*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.
F2
84
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1870.
1889.
1881.
1876.
1891.
1891.
1886,
1863.
1868.
1877.
1883.
1862,
1861,
1889.
1884,
1863.
1881.
1883.
1885.
18838.
1892.
1873.
1867.
1892.
1867.
1889.
1869.
1888.
1854.
1869.
1878.
1887.
1859.
1870.
1891.
1881.
1879.
1879.
1885.
1868.
1883.
1859.
1884,
tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.
{Richardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
fRuthardsar W.B. Elm Bank, York.
§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Riches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.
§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.
§Richmond, Robert. Leighton Buzzard.
t Richter, Otto, Ph.D, 407 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Ricxerrs, Cuartes, M.D., F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birken-
head.
} Ricketts, James, M.D. St. Helens, Lancashire.
*RIDDELL, Major-General CHARLEs J. Bucuanan, O.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon. :
*Rideal, Samuel, D.Sc., F.C.S.,F.G.S. 41 Carlyle-square, London,S.W.
tRidgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
tRidley, John 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W,
tRidley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.
tRidout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.
*Rigby, Samuel. Fern Bank, Liverpool-road, Chester.
*Rige, Arthur. 71 Warrington-crescent, London, W.
*Rice, Epward, M.A. Royal Mint, London, E.
tRigg, F. F., M.A. 32 Queen’s-road, Southport.
*Rigge, Samuel Taylor, F.S.A. Balmoral-place, Halifax.
§Rintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.
tRipley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
*Rrpon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1, C.LE.,
D.C.L., F.RS., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment,
London, 8S. W.
{Ritchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
{Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melville-crtscent, Edinburgh.
tRitchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
{Ritson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.
tRobb, W. J. Firth College, Sheffield.
{Robberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
*Roppins, Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale,
London, W.
tRoberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.
*Roberts, Evan. Thorncliffe, 5 York-road, Southport.
tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
*Roserts, Isaac, D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.
tRoberts, Rev. J. Crossby, F.R.G.S. 41 Derby-road, East Park,
Northampton.
tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square,
London, E.C,
tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.
{Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.
{Roprrts, Sir Wixr1am, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Manchester-square,
London, W.
*Roperts-AvsteN, W. CuHanpier, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Chemist to
the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Col-
lege of Science, London. Royal Mint, London, E.
tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.
Robertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
tRobertson, E. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 85
Year of
Election.
1871.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1892.
1888.
1886,
1886.
1861.
1852.
1887.
1887.
1861.
1888.
1863.
1878.
1876.
1887.
1881.
1875.
1884,
1863.
1891.
1888.
1870.
1876.
1872.
1885.
1885.
1866.
1867.
1890.
1883.
1882.
1884,
1889.
1876.
1876.
1892.
1891.
tRobertson, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Athenzeum Club, Lon-
don, S.W.
{Robertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.
{Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.
tRobertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
{Robertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, Edinburgh.
*Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, St.
John’s Wood, London, N.W. —
*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.
{ Robinson, Edward E. 56 Dovey-street, Liverpool.
{Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
tRobinson, Rey. George. Beech Hill, Armagh.
tRobinson, Henry. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
tRobinson, James. Akroydon Villa, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Rosryson, Jonny, M.Inst.C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.
tRobinson, John. Engineer’s Office, Barry Dock, Cardiff.
{tRobinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.
tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
JRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.
tRobinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, London, S.W.
*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Beechwood, Darlington,
{Robinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.
{Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
§Robinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.
{Robottom, Arthur. 38 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, London,
N.W.
*Robson, E.R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S. W.
{ Robson, gels R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
on William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-
urgh.
*Rodger, Edward. 1 Olairmont-gardens, Glasgow.
*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 Jokn-street, Adelphi, London, W.C.
tRoe, Sir Thomas, M.P. Grove-villas, Litchurch.
tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee.
*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.
Rogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.
§ Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall.
*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth.
}Rogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.
tRoxuit, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.
tRomaners, Groree Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.LS. 94 St
Aldate’s, Oxford.
*Romanes, John. 3 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.
{Ronnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.
. {Roper, C. H. Macdalen-street, Exeter.
*Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
. *Roper, W.O. Eadenbreck, Lancaster.
. *Roscon, Sir Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., M.P.,
E.R.S., F.C.S. 10 Bramham-gardens, London, 8.W.
. *Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 25 Dalebury-road, Upper Tooting, Lon-
don, 8. W.
. tRose, Hugh. Kilravock Lodge, Blackford-avenue, Edinburgh.
86 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885. tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.
1874, {Ross, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada.
1857. {Ross, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin.
1887. {Ross, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.
1880. {Ross, Captain G. E. A., F.R.G.S. 8 Collingham-gardens, Cromwell-
road, London, 8. W.
1859. *Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.
1869, *RosszE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
FE.RS., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ire—
land.
1891. §Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescott-street, Halifax, Yorks.
1893. §Rothera, G. B. 11 Crick-road, Oxford.
1865. *Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.
1876. {Rottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
1884, *Rouse, M.L. 343 Church-street, Toronto, Canada.
186]. t{Rourna, Epwarp J.,M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.
1861. {Rowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow.
1883. {Rowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1887. tRowe, Rev. Alfred W., M.A., F.G.S. Felstead, Essex.
1881. tRowe, Rev. G. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.
1865. {Rowe, Rey. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.
1877. {Rowz, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth.
1890. tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.
1881. *Rowntree, Joseph. 37 St. Mary’s, York.
1881. *Rowntree, J.S. The Mount, York.
1862. {Rowsell, Rev. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-
ming.
1876. tBoxbureh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
1883. {Roy, Charles 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1885. {Roy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.
1888. {Roy, Parbati Churn, B.A. Calcutta, Bengal, India.
1875. *Ritckrer, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
College of Science, London. (GENERAL TREASURER.) 19 Gled-
how-gardens, South Kensington, London, 8. W.
1892. §Riicker, Mrs. Levetleizh, Dane-road, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
1869. §Rupter, Ff. W., F.G.8. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W
1882. {Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, London,.
S.W
1884, {Runtz, John. Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington,
London, N.
1887. §Ruscoe, John, F.G.S. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.
1847. {Rusxin, Joun, M.A., D.C.L., F.G.8. Brantwood, Coniston, Amble-
side.
1889. {Russell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.
1875. *Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.
1884, tRussell, Gaon. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, London, §.E.
1890, {Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.
1883, *Russell, J. W. 10 Fyfield-road, Oxford.
Russell, John. 389 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
1852. *Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
1876. {Russell, R., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth. :
1886. {Russell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. 87
of
Election.
1852
1886.
1883,
1889,
1891.
1871.
1887.
1879.
1875.
1889.
1865.
1861.
1883.
1871,
1885.
1866.
1886.
1881.
1857.
1883.
1873.
1872.
1887.
1861.
1885.
1878.
1883.
1884.
1883.
1872.
1883.
1893.
1892.
1886.
1886.
1886,
1868.
1886,
. *Russert, Witt J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.
*Ruston, Joseph. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln.
tRutherford, Rev. Dr. 6 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Rutherford, George. Garth House, Taff’s Well, Cardiff.
§RurERForD, WituiaM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
tRutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
tRuxton, Vice-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell-
gardens, London, S.W.
{Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London, E.C. .
{Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
*RYLANDs, THOMAS GLAZEBROOK, F.LS., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.
{Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.
{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
Wiltshire.
§Saint, W. Johnston. 11 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.
*Sr, ALBANs, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.
§St. Clair, George, F.G.S, 225 Castle-road, Cardiff.
{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.
{Saraon, Rev. Grorcz, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost of
Trinity College, Dublin.
oes Robert G. The Nook, Kingswood-road, Upper Norwood,
E
*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.
{Satviy, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hawkstfold, Haslemere.
{Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
{Sandeman, E. 53 Newton-street, Greenock.
tSanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.
*Sanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
{Sanders, Henry. 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada.
tSanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.
§SanpeErRson, J. S. Burpon, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford.
(PREsIDENT.) 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
tSanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.
§Sanderson, Oundle. 9 The Ropewalk, Nottingham.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
§Sang, William D, 28 Whyte’s Causeway, Kirkcaldy, Fife.
§Sankey, Percy K. Hill House, Lyndhurst, Hants.
tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.
{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 83a Edmund-street, Birmingham.
{Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.
tSaunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.
1881. {Saunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, London, W.
1888
. tSaunders, Rey. J. C. Cambridge.
88
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1846.
1884.
1891.
1884,
1887.
1871.
1883.
1888.
1872.
1887.
1884,
1883.
. 1884,
1879.
1883.
1888.
1880.
1892.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.
1888.
1873.
1887.
1847.
1883.
1867.
1881.
1882,
1878.
1881.
1889.
1885.
1886.
1857.
1861.
1884,
1869.
{SaunpeErs, TRELAWNEY W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.
{Saunders, William. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada,
{Saunders, W.H. R. Lilanishen, Cardiff.
{Saunderson, 0. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Savage, Rev. E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Parsonage, Douglas,
Isle of Man.
tSavage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.
tSavery,G.M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.
*Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
§Saycr, Rey. A. H., M.A., D.D. Queen’s College, Oxford.
{Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Scarborough, George. Holly Bank, Halifax, Yorkshire.
tScarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
*ScuArmr, HE. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity College, London. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.
{Schiifer, Mrs. Croxley Green, Rickmansworth.
§ScHarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)
{Schloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, London, S.W.
Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
tSchofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.
tSchofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.
§Scholes, L. Eden-terrace, Harriet-street, Stretford, near Man-
chester.
{Scholey, J. Cranefield. 30 Sussex-villas, Kensington, London, W.
Scuuncxr, Epwarp, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,
Manchester.
*Scuusrer, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.
{Schwabe, Colonel G. Salis. Portland House, Higher Crumpsall,
Manchester.
*Scrater, Puirre Luriey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.GS.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, London, W.
*Scrater, Witt1am Lortry, M.A., F.Z.S. Eton College, Windsor.
{Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
*Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. University Chemical Laboratory,
Cambridge.
tScott, Colonel A.deC.,R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
*Scott, Arthur William, M A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.
§Scott, Miss Charlotte Angus. Lancashire College, Whalley Range,
Manchester.
§Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. The Old Palace, Richmond,
Surrey.
{Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.
tScott, Robert. 161 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
*Scorr, Roprert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.S., Secretary to
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8S. W.
§Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
*Scott, Sydney C. 15 Queen-street, Cheapside, London, E.C.
tScott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon
LIST OF MEMBERS. 89
Year of
Election.
1881.
1883.
1890.
1859.
1880.
1880.
1861.
1893.
1891.
1855.
1879.
1885.
1887.
1873.
1892.
1888.
1858.
1888.
1870.
1892.
1883.
1875.
1892.
1891.
1868.
1891.
1888.
1883.
1871.
1867.
1881.
1869.
1878.
1886,
1883.
1870.
1865.
1887.
1870.
1891.
1889.
1887.
1883.
1883.
*Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.
tScrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.
§Searle, G. F. C., B.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
tSeaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.
{Srpewrcx, ApAm, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{Srrzoum, Henry, F.R.GS., F.LS., F.Z.S. 22 Courtfield-gardens,
London, 8.W.
*SreLey, Harry Govier, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S., F.R.GS., F.Z.8.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London, 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, London, W.
§Srtpy-Bieex, L. A., M.A. University College, Oxford.
{Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.
tSeligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
tSelim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C.
§Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.
§Semple, James C., F.R.G.S., M.R.I.A. 2 Marine-terrace, Kings-
town, Co. Dublin.
tSemple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
jSemple, William. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.
§SenIER, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.
*Senior, George. Old Whittington, Chesterfield.
*Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. Temple-chambers, Victoria
Embankment, London, E.C.
*Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
§Seton, Miss Jane. 387 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.
TSeville, Miss M. A. Blythe House, Southport.
{Seville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport.
tSeward, A. C.,M.A., F.G.S. 33 Chesterton-road, Cambridge.
{Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
tShackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.
{Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.
t{Shadwell, John Lancelot. 17 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, London, W.
*Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, London, 8.W.
{Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
{Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.
*Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter.
{Suarp, Dav, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.
Sharp, Rey. John, B.A. Horbury, Waketield.
tSharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby.
Sharp, Rev. William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
tSharples, Charles H., F.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston.
Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
tShaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham.
*Shaw, James B. Holly Bank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
{tShaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.
{Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, London, E.C.
*Shaw, Mrs. M. S., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.
§Shaw, Saville, F.C.S. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Saaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
tShaw, Mrs. W. N. Emmanuel House, Cambridge.
90
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1891.
1884.
1878.
1865.
1881.
1885.
1885.
1890.
1883.
18853.
1883.
1883.
1888.
1886,
1892.
1888,
1867.
1887.
1889.
1885.
18853.
1870.
1888,
1888,
1875.
1882.
1889.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1877.
1885.
1873.
1878.
1859.
1871.
1862.
1874.
1876,
1887.
1847.
1866.
1893.
1871.
{Sheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.
tSheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury.
{Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 3854 Great George-street, West-
minster, S. W.
{Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.
{Suenstonn, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol.
{Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.
{Shepherd, Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen.
{Shepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-
ley, Leeds.
{Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.
{Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
{Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.
{Sherlock, Rey. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, wd Lancaster.
*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. Langridge Rectory, Bath.
{Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, London, $.W.
tShields, John, B.Sc., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.
*Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, Lon-
don, F.C.
tShinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey,S. W.
*Suipiuy, ArtHUR E., M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
{Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.
{Shirras, G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.
{Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.
*SHOOLBRED, JAMES N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 47 Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
tShoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C.
§Shoppee, G. A., M.A., LL.D. 61 Doughty-street, London, W.C.
{SHorzr, Toomas W., F.C.S., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, South-
ampton.
{Snorn, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.
{Sibley, Walter K., B.A., M.B. 7 Harley-street, London, W.
{Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.
*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson, M.P. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sipewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., D.C.L., Professor of Moral Philo-
sophy in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-
road, Cambridge.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden Hill, London, W.
{Steprson, Professor Guorcn, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Clare-
street, Dublin.
tSim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Oraigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
{Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C
{Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.
{Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W.
*Simon, Henry. Darwin House, Didsbury, near Manchester.
tSimon, Sir John, K.O.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Consulting
Surgeon to St. Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square,
London, W.
{Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
§Simpson, A. H., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottinghamshire.
*Srupson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. oY
Election,
1883.
1887.
1859.
1863.
1857.
1883.
1887.
1874.
1870.
1864,
1892.
1879.
1883.
1885.
1892.
1888.
1870.
1873.
1889.
1884,
1877.
1891.
1884.
1849.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1885.
1889.
1858.
1876.
1877.
1890.
1876,
1876.
1867.
1892.
1892.
1857.
1872.
1874.
1887.
1873.
1887.
{Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkd ale, Southport.
{Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.
{Simpson, John, Maykirk, Kincardineshire.
{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
{Snrpson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.R.8., F.C.S., 9 Barton-street,
West Kensington, London, W.
tSimpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester.
tSinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
*Sinclair, W. P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
*Sircar, The Hon. Mohendra Lal, M.D., C.LE. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.
§Sisley, Richard, M.D, 11] York-street, Portman-square, London, W.
{Skertchly, Sydney B. J.,F.G.S. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshal-
ton, Surrey.
{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.
{Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.
{Skinner, William. 35 George-square, Edinburgh.
§Sxring, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath.
§StapEN, Water Percy, F.G.S., F.L.S. 153 Hyde Park-gate, Lon-
don, S.W.
{Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
§Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire.
{Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
tSleeman, Rev. Philip, L.Th., F-R.A.S., F.G.S. Clifton, Bristol.
§Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.
{Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
{Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
§Small, E. W., M.A., F.G.S. County Council Offices, Newport,
Monmouthshire.
§Small, William. Cavendish-crescent North, The Park, Notting-
ham.
t{Smallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport.
§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
*Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow,
{Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
{Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
{Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
§Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
{Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Smieton, John G. 8 Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham,
London, 8.W.
{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
ae Apam Guitiizs, F.R.S.E. 85 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edin-
urgh.
{Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Wabash College, Craw-
fordsville, Indiana, U.S.A.
{Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.LA. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W.
*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
{Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
*Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
92
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1889,
1865.
1886.
1886,
1886.
1886.
1892.
1866.
1887.
1892.
1885.
1860.
1870.
1889.
1888.
1885.
1876.
1871.
1883.
1837.
1885,
1870.
1866.
1873.
1867.
1867.
1859.
1884.
1892.
1885,
1887.
1852.
1875.
1876.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1892,
1882.
1874.
1850.
1883.
1874,
1857.
1888.
*Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras.
{Ssore, Davy, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
{Smith, Edwin, 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham,
{Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
{Smith, E.O. Council House, Birmingham,
Smith, E. Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, London, S.W.
*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
§Smith, Rev. F. J.. M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.
{Smith, Rev. Frederick. 16 Grafton-street, Glasgow.
{Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 91 Fountainhall-road, Aberdeen.
*Smith, Heywood, M.A.,M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square,
_ London, W. Z
{Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
*Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 49 Beaumont-square,
London, E.
tSmith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.
{Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
*Smith, J. Guthrie. 54 West Nile-street, Glasgow.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire.
{Smith, J. William Robertson, M.A., Lord Almoner’s Professor of
Arabic in the University of Cambridge.
tSmith, M. Holroyd. Fern Hill, Halifax.
Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
{Smiru, Ropert H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the
Mason Science College, Birmingham.
Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C.
{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Smith, Thomas. Dundee. ;
tSmith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.
{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire. :
tSmith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.
{Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.
*Smith, Watson. University College, London, W.C.
{Smith, Dr. Wilberforce. 14 Stratford-place, London, W.
{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.
*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.
Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
{SmirHELts, ARTHUR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the York-
shire College, Leeds.
{Smithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York,
{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.
§Smithson, G. E. T. Tyneside Geographical Society, Barras Bridge,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.
{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.
*SmyrH, CHaRLEs Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. Clova, Ripon.
{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.
tSmyth, Henry. Eastern Villa, Newcastle, Co. Down, Ireland.
*Suyra, JOHN, jun., M.A., F.C.S.,F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.
*Syare, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 93
Year of
Election.
1888. {Snell, Albion T. Brightside, Salusbury-road, Brondesbury, London,
N.W
1887. {Snell, Rev. Bernard J., M.A. 5 Park-place, Broughton, Man-
chester,
1878. §Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.
1889, {Snell, W. H. Lamorna, Oxford-road, Putney, 8.W.
1879, *Sottas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in the University of Dublin. Trinity College,
Dublin.
1892, *Somervail, Alexander. Torquay.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
1859, *Sorsy, H. Cuirron, LL.D.,F-.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
1879. *Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheffield.
1892. {Sorley, James, F.R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh,
1888. {Sorley, Professor W. R. University College, Cardiff.
1886. {Southall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-
ham.
1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
1859. {Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
1887. §Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 44 Brown-street, Manchester,
1883. {Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley
Staffordshire.
1890. {Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.
1863. *Spark, H. King, F.G.S. Startforth House, Barnard Castle,
1893. *Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston,
1889, {Spence, Faraday. 67 Grey-street, Hexham.
1869. *Spence, J. Berger. 31 Lombard-street, London, E.C,
1887, {Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.
1884, §Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury,
1889, *Spencer, John. Newburn, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1891. *Spencer, Richard Evans. ‘ 6 Working-street, Cardiff.
18683, *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.
1864, *Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.LS., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-
bury, London, N.
1864, *Spriier, Jonn, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
1878. §Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, 8S. W.
1864, *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 41 Grosvenor-place, London,
S.W.
1854, *Spracur, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 26 St. Andrew-
square, Edinburgh.
1883. {Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.8. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E,
1888, {Spreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, London, E.C.
1884, *Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Tamworth.
1877. {Sauarz, WILLIAM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S, 4 Portland-square, Plymouth,
*Squire, Lovell. 6 Heathfield-terrace, Chiswick, Middlesex.
1888. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 7 and 8 Paternoster-row, London, E.C,
1884, {Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,
1892. {Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of En-
gineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. 49 May-
. field-road, Edinburgh.
1883. *Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.
1865, {Sranrorp, Epwarp C.C., F.C.S. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
1881. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood,
Surrey, 8.E.
“94
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1883.
1893.
1883.
1876.
1873.
1881.
1881.
1884.
1892.
1891.
1873.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1884.
1884.
1879.
1870.
1880.
1886.
1892.
1865.
1889.
1890.
1885.
1887.
1892.
1864,
1885.
1886.
1887.
1875.
1892.
1876.
1867.
1876,
1867.
1865.
1890.
1888.
1854.
1845.
1887.
{Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, S.E.
§Staples, Sir Nathaniel. Lisson, Cookstown, Ireland.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.LA. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
{Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe.
{Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 3 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
*Stead, Charles, Saltaire, Shipley, Yorkshire.
{Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
{Stead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, London, E.
{Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada,
§Stebbing, Rev. Thomas R. R., M.A. Ephraim Lodge, The Common,
Tunbridge Wells.
tSteeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
{Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire,
{Steinthal, Rev. 8S. Alfred. 81 Nelson-street, Manchester,
{Stelfox, John L. 6 Hilton-street, Oldham, Manchester,
{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.
{Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,
*Stephens, W. Hudson. Lowville (P.0.), State of New York,
U.S.A.
*SrppHEnson, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.
*Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. 23 Elm Grove-terrace, London-road,
Salisbury.
*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. 10 Cleveland-terrace, Swansea.
{Stevens, Marshall. Highfield House, Urmston, near Manchester.
{Stevenson, D, A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.
*Srnvenson, James C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields.
tStevenson, T. Shannon. Westoe, South Shields.
*Steward, Rev. Charles J., F.R.M.S. Somerleyton Rectory, Lowes-
toft. ;
*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Heathcot, Aberdeen.
*Stewart, A. H. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, S.E.
{Stewart, C. Hunter. 3 Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Srewart, Cuartzs, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London,
S.E
{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.-
*Stewart, Duncan. 12 Montgomerie-crescent, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
{Stewart, George N. Physiological Laboratory, Owens College, Man-
chester.
*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
Clifton, Gloucestershire.
§Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.
{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
{Srretine, Witt1aM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.
*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Stock, Joseph S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
{Stockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.
*Srocxrr, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper's Hill, Staines.
{Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
*Sroxes, Sir Grorce Gasrret, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Se.,
F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.
{Stone, E. D., F.C.S. 19 Lever-street, Piccadilly, Manchester.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 95
Year of
Election.
1862.
1886.
1886.
1874.
1888.
1876.
1883,
1857.
1878.
1861.
1876.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1873.
1884,
1859.
1888.
1874,
1871.
1881.
1876.
1863.
1889.
1882.
1881.
1889,
1879.
1884.
1859.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1878.
1876.
1872.
1886.
1892.
{Sronz, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
{Stone, J. B. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.
tStone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
{Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, London, E.C.
{Sronn, Joun. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.
{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. 49 Bolsover-street, Regent’s Park,
London, N.W.
tStone, Thomas William, 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush,
London, W.
{Srovey, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.
*Stoney, G. Gerald. 90 Meldon-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*SronEy, GEoRGE JonnstonE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MR.LA. 8
Upper Hornsey Rise, London, N.
§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. 31 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
tStopes, Mrs. 31 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
{Storer, Edwin. Woodlands, Crumpsall, Manchester.
*Storey, H. L. Caton, near Lancaster.
§Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon
don, E.C.
§Storrs, George H. Fern Bank, Stalybridge.
§Story, Captain James Hamilton. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
*Stothert, Perey K. Audley, Park-gardens, Bath.
{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
*SrracueEy, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.K., O.S.L, LL.D., F.R.S.,
eee F.LS., F.G.S. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, Lon-
on, W.
{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, 8S. W.
{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
TStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
{Straker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mill-on-Tyne.
{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham.
{Strangways, C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
London, 8S. W.
AO H. 8. The Limes, Leigham Court-road, Streatham,
W
*Strickland, Charles. 21 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.
tStronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.
*Stroud, Professor H., M.A., D.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.
*Stroup, WILLIAM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.
*SrrurueErs, Joun, M.D., LL.D., Emeritus Professor of Anatomy in
abe University of Aberdeen. 24 Buckingham-terrace, Edin-
urgh.
{Strype, W. G. Wicklow.
*Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.
*Stuart, Rey. Edward A.,M.A, 116 Grosvenor-road, Highbury New
Park, London, N.
tStuart, G. Morton, M.A. East Harptree, near Bristol.
{Stuart, Morton Gray, M.A. LEttrickbank, Selkirk,
96
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1884.
1893.
1888.
1885.
1879.
1891.
1884.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1873.
1863.
1886.
1892.
1884,
1863.
1889.
1891.
1881.
1876,
1881.
1862.
1879.
1883.
1887.
1870.
1885.
1887.
1873.
1890.
1891.
1889,
1883.
1873.
1887.
1890.
1887.
1893,
1870.
1885,
1881.
1859,
1855.
{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.
§Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
*Stubbs, Rev. Elias T., M.A. 4 Springfield-place, Bath.
§Stump, Edward C. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.
*Styring, Robert. 3 Hartshead, Sheffield.
*Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. 9 Park-grove, Wordsworth-road,
Birmingham.
tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada,
{Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, London, E.
{Sunderland, John E. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.
tSutcliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.
{Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.
tSutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
§Sutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh.
tSutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.
{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
tSutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
t{Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.
tSwales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.
{Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.
§Swan, Joseph Wilson, M.A. Lauriston, Bromley, Kent.
*Swan, Witiiam, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Emeritus Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of St. Andrews. Ardchapel,
Helensburgh, N.B.
*Swansea, The Right Hon. Lorn, F.G.S. Park Wern, Swansea;
and 27 Belgrave-square, London, 8. W.
t{Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.
Sweeting, Rev. T. HE. 50 Roe-lane, Southport.
§SwinBurneE, Jaurs. 4 Hatherley-road, Kew Gardens, London.
*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Capheaton, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.
{Swindells, Miss. Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. Wilton Villa, The Firs, Bowdon,
Cheshire.
*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
§SwryHor, Colonel C. Avenue House, Oxford.
§Swinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.
§Sworn, Sidney A., B.A., F.C.S. The Municipal Technical School,
Gravesend.
{Sykes, Alfred. Highfield, Huddersfield.
{Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.
*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Bec Common, London, S.W.
{Sykes, Joseph. 113 Beeston-hill, Leeds.
*Sykes, T. H. Cheadle, Cheshire.
SyLvEstER, James JosepH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford.
§Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.
{Symzs, Rrowarp Guascorr, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
{Symington, Johnson, M.D. 2 Greenhill Park, Edinburgh.
*Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.
Seueae, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.Met.Soc. 62 Camden-square, London,
WwW
*Syatons, Wu1am, F.C.S. Dragon House, Bilbrook, near Taunton,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 97
Year of
Hlection.
1886.
1872.
1858,
§Symons, W. H., F.1.C., F.R.M.S, 130 Fellowes-road, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
tSynge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.R.G.S. United Service
Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
. tTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.
. *Tarr, Lawson, F.R.C.S. The Crescent, Birmingham.
. {Tarr, Perer Gurarie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
. {Tait, P. M., F.S.S. 87 Charlotte-street, Portland-place, Lon-
don, W.
. {Talbot, Rev. E.S. The Vicarage, Leeds.
. §Talbot, Herbert, M.I.E.E. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham.
. {Tamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.
. {Tanner, Colonel H. C. B. The Red House, Petersfield.
. {Tanner, H. W. Lrioyp, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Astro-
nomy in University College, Cardiff.
2. *Tansley, Arthur G. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. §Tapscott, R. L., F.G.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.
. {Tarpry, Hvuex. Dublin.
. *Tarratt, Henry W. Moseley, Owl’s-road, Boscombe, Bournemouth.
. *Tate, Alexander. Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.
3. §Tate, George, Ph.D., F.C.S. College of Chemistry, Duke-street,
Liverpool.
. {Tate, Thomas, F.G.S. 5 Eldon-mount, Woodhouse-lane, Leeds.
. *Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
. t{ Taunton, Richard. Brook Vale, Witton.
. *Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.
Taylor, Frederick. Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
. §Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.
. {Taylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
. {Taylor, George Spratt, F.C.S. 18 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, London, N.W.
. *Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, London,
S.W
. *Taylor, H. M.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
. *Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. 17 Castlegate, Nottingham.
. {Taytor, Rey. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
. *Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 29 Portman-square, London, W.
. {Taytor, Jon Extor, Ph.D. F.LS., F.G.S. The Mount,
Ipswich.
. *Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.
. tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.
. {Taylor, Michael W., M.D. Hatton Hall, Penrith.
. Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow.
. *Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.
. {Taylor, Rev. 8. B., M.A. Whixley Hall, York.
. tTaylor, 8. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport.
. tTaylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
. {Taylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.
. tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.
. §Taylor, W. F. Boswell Court, Croydon, Surrey.
. tTaylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.
tTeale, Thomas Pridgin, M.A., F.R.S. 88 Cookridge-street, Leeds.
G
98
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1885.
1879.
1880.
1863.
1889.
1882,
1881.
1892.
1885.
1883.
1887.
1882,
1885.
1871.
1871.
1835.
1870.
1891.
1871.
1891,
1891.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1875.
1875.
1869.
1881.
1892.
1869.
1891.
1880.
1885.
18838.
1885.
1886.
1886.
1875.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1882.
1888.
cine a J. H., M.A., F.RB.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
{Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near
Worcester.
{Tempie, Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.C.S.L, C.I.E., D.O.L., LL.D.,
M.P., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.
{Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Tennant, James, Saltwell, Gateshead.
§Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.
{Terry, Sir Joseph. Hawthorn Villa, York.
*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.
{Tetley, C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
{Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.
tTetlow, T. 275 Stamford-street, Ashton-under-Lyne,
*Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Gower-street, London, W.C.
{Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W.
{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
{Tutsetron-Dyer, W. T., C.M.G., O.LE., M.A., B.Se., Ph.D.,F.B.S.,
F.L.S. Royal Gardens, Kew. ;
Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.
t{Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
{Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.
*Thomas, Miss Clara. Llwynmadoc, Garth, R.S.O.
t{Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.
§Thomas, E. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.
t{ Thomas, Ernest C., 6.4. 18 South-square, Gray's Inn, London,
W.C.
*Tnomas, F, WotrerstaN. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
t¢Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.
t{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter,
§THomas, J. Brount. Southampton.
tThomas, J. C., B.Sc. Queen Elizabeth’s Grammar School, Car-
marthen.
tThomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.
¢Thomas, John Tubb, L.R.C.P. Eastfields, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Drumpellier, Brunswick-road,
Gloucester.
{Thomas, P. Bossley. 4 Bold-street, Southport.
§Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Carditt.
{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.
{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton,
SEhomases ae 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
t{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 55 Victoria-road, Northamp-
ton
t¢Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
{Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.
t{Thompson, Charles O, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.
*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 99
Year of
Election.
1885.
1883.
1891.
1859,
1893.
1870.
1889.
1883.
1891.
1891.
1883.
1891.
1861.
1876.
1885.
1876.
1883.
1867.
1889.
1868.
1876.
1891.
1890.
1883.
1871.
1886.
1863.
1874.
1880.
1871.
1886,
1887.
1867.
1883.
1845.
1881.
1871.
1881.
1864.
1871.
1883
1883
{Thompson, D’Arey W., B,A., Professor of Physiology in University
College, Dundee. University College, Dundee.
*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.
{Thompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.
tThompson, George, jun. Pitmedden, Aberdeen.
*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, London, S. W.
Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, York-
shire,
{THompson, Sir Henry. 385 Wimpole-street, London, W.
{ Thompson, Henry. 2 Eslington-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 8 Addiscombe-villas, Croydon.
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
{Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.
{Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Tuompson, Isaac Cooxg, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. Woodstock, Waverley-
road, Liverpool.
{Thompson, J. Tatham. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.
*THomPson, JosEPH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.
*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.
{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.
{THompson, Srtvanus Pures, B.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.AS.,
Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Institute,
Finsbury Technical Institute, E.C.
*Thompson, T. H. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.
{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§THomson, James, F.G.S. 22 Leven-street, Pollokshields, Glasgow.
tThomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
Thomson, John. 704 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
§Thomson, J. Arthur, M.A., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Zoology at the
School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 30 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.
{Tnomson, J. J., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in
the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*THomson, JoHN Mrixar, F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in Kine’s
College, London. 53 Prince’s-square, London, W.
t{Thomson, Joseph. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
tThomson, Murray. 44 Victoria-road, Gipsy Hill, London, S.E.
§THomson, WitiiAM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.
§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.
{Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
§Thornley, J. E. Lyndon, Bickenhill, near Birmingham.
{Thornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.
{Thornton, Thomas. Dundee.
§Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.
fThorp, Dr. Disney. Lypiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.
{Thorp, Fielden, Blossom-street, York.
{Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.
*Thorp, Josiah. 87 Selborne-street, Liverpool.
*THorp, WILLIAM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 24 Crouch Hall-road, Crouch End,
London, N.
{TuHorrr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.0.8., Professor of Che-
mistry in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
. §Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 12 London-street, Southport,
. [Thresh, John C., D.Sc. The Willows, Buaton.
Gz
100
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1868,
1889,
1870.
1878.
1874,
1873.
1883,
1888,
1865.
1876.
1891.
1889,
1887.
1857,
1888,
1864,
1887.
1887,
1865,
1865.
1873.
1887.
1861.
1872.
1886.
1875.
1886,
1884,
1884,
1873.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1876.
1883.
1870.
1875.
1868,
1891.
1884.
1868.
1891.
{Tuurtirer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., C.S.1L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.
{Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
tTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.IL.A. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.
*Trppeman, R, H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.
{Trmpen, Wiitram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
and Metallurgy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham.
{Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.
{Tillyard, A. I., M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.
{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.
{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Hill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry.
t{Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S8.E.
§Todd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.
§Toll, John M. Carlton House, Kirkby, near Liverpool.
{Tolmé, Mrs. Melrose House, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
tTombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
t{Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
*ToMLINSON, CHARLES, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 North-road, Highgate,
London, N.
tTonge, Rev. Canon. Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
{Tonge, James. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.
tTonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwickshire.
*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, 8S. W.
tTopham, F. 15 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
*Topham, John, A.I.C.E, 53 Annandale-road, Vanbrugh Hill, Lon-
don, 8.E.
*Toprry, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S., A.L.C.E. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, S. W.
tTopley, Mrs. W. 18 Havelock-road, Croydon.
{Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher--
wood, Nottingham.
tTorr, Charles Walker. Cambridge-street Works, Birmingham,
{Torrance, John F. Folly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada.
*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
{Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tTownsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
{Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
*Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.
t{Trart, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.
{Traitt, Wittram A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.
t{Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.
tTraqvarr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Natural History Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh.
{Trayes, Valentine. The Hill, Abergavenny.
{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.
{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
tTreharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.
Trench, F, A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 101
Year of
lection.
1887.
1883.
1884.
1884.
1879.
1877.
1871.
1860.
1884.
1885.
1891.
1887.
1869.
1885.
1847,
1888.
1871.
1887.
1883.
1892.
1855.
1893.
1891.
1882.
1883.
1888.
1886.
1863.
1893.
1890.
1885.
1884.
1884,
1886.
1847.
1888.
1882.
1865.
1883.
1861.
1884,
1888,
*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds.
{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks,
{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
§Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
U.S.A.
{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
{Trimen, Henry, M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Peradeniya, Ceylon.
{Trimen, Roranp, F.R.S., F.LAS., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s
Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.
§TRIsTRAM, Rey, Henry Baxsr, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon
of Durham, The College, Durham.
*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 22 Cottesmore-gardens, Victoria-road,
Kensington, London, W.
§Trorrer, Courts, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 17 Charlotte-square, Edin-
burgh.
{Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.
*Trouton, Frederick T., M.A., D.Se. Trinity College, Dublin,
{Troyte, C. A. W. -Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.
*Tubby, A. H. Guy’s Hospital, London, S.E.
*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.
tTuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.
Tuke, James H. Bancroft, Hitchin.
{Tuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
tTuke, W.C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.
{Tupper, The Hon. Sir Cuarzs, Bart., G.C.M.G., O.B., High Com-
missioner for Canada. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S,W.
§Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.
{Turnbull, John. 37 West George-street, Glascow.
§Turner, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.
{Turner, Miss E, R. Ipswich.
{Turner, G. S. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.
tTurner, Mrs. G. S. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton.
{Turner, J.S., J.P. Granville, Lansdowne, Bath.
*TurNER, THomAs, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.1.C. Mason Science College,
Birmingham.
*TURNER, Sir WILLIAM, M.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Pro-
fessor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-
terrace, Edinburgh.
§Turney, Sir Joun, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.
*Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. 2 St. James’s-terrace, Nottingham.
tTurrell, Miss 8S. S. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol.
*Tutin, Thomas. The Orchard, Chellaston, Derby.
*Tweddell, Ralph Hart. Meopham Court, Gravesend, Kent.
*Twigg, G. H. Church-road, Moseley, Birmingham.
tTwiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
§Tyack, Llewellyn Newton. University College, Bristol.
§Tyer, Edward. Horneck, Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, London,
N.W
§Tytor, Epwarp Buryerr, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the
University Museum, Oxford.
tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Garden-wharf, Battersea, London, S.W.
*Tysoe, John, 28 Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.
*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
tUnderhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.
102
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1886.
1885.
1883.
1883.
1876.
1887.
1872.
1876,
1859.
1866.
1880,
1885.
1887.
1888.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1868,
1865.
1870.
1869,
1884.
1887.
1875.
1888,
1881.
1878.
1883.
1885.
1864.
1890.
1868.
1883.
1891.
1886.
1860.
1890.
1888.
1890.
1891.
1884,
{Underhill, Thomas, M.D. West Bromwich.
§Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London.
§Unwin, John. Park-crescent, Southport.
§Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, near Liverpool.
*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W.
tUpton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.
{Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, London, W.
tUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
fUrquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
Treland.
tUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
tUssner, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
tVachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.
*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.
tVallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.
{Van Horne, W. C. Dorchester-street West, Montreal, Canada.
*Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.
tVarpy, Rev. A. R., M.A. Kang Edward’s School, Birmingham.
tVarley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
*Vartey, S. ALFRED. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tVarley, Mrs. 8. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, London, N.W.
tVarwell, P. Alphineton-street, Exeter.
tVasey, Charles, 112 Cambridge-gardens, London, W.
*VaucHan, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop’s House, Carlisle-
place, Westminster, S.W.
{ Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
Vaughan, William, 42 Sussex-road, Southport.
§ Ve tery, V. H., M.A., F.C.S. 22 Norham-road, Oxford.
*VERNEY, Captain Epmunp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Claydon House,
Winslow, Bucks.
*Verney, Mrs. Olaydon House, Winslow, Bucks.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
{Verwon, H. H., M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.
*Vicary, WittiaM, F.G.8S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
*Villamil, Major R. de, R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co., 16 Char-
ing Cross, London, 8. W.
{Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
*Vines, Sydney Howard, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford, Headington Hill, Oxford.
{Vivian Stephen. Llantrisant.
*Waclvill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. Leamington.
t{Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.
} Wadsworth, George Henry. 3 Southfield-square, Bradford, York-
shire.
{Wadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.
§WacrR, Harotp W.T. Yorkshire College, Leeds.
tWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
t Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten=
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.
_ LIST OF MEMBERS. 103
Year of
Election.
1886
1870.
1892
1884.
1891
1873
1891
1882
1883.
1883.
1891.
1883,
1866.
1890.
1885.
1866.
1855.
1867.
1886.
1866,
1884.
1888.
1887.
1883.
1881.
1883.
1863.
1892.
1887.
1889.
1883.
1884.
1886.
1883.
1887.
1891,
1883.
1862.
1881.
1863.
1884.
1887.
.
1893.
1890.
1885.
1885.
{Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.
{ Wake, CHARLES STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire.
f{Walcot, John. 50 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
{Waldstein, Charles, M.A,, Ph.D. Cambridge.
tWales, H. T. Pontypridd.
t Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tWalford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.
*Walkden, Samuel. 3 West End-terrace, Winchester.
§ Walker, Alfred 0., F.L.S. Nant-y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay.
{Walker, A. Tannett. Hunslet, Leeds.
{ Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.
{ Walker, Charles Clement, F.R.A.S. Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport,
Shropshire.
§ Walker, Mrs. Emma. 18 Lendal, York.
{Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
{ Walker, Frederick W. Hunslet, Leeds.
{Walker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool.
tWalker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
t Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee.
{Watxker, General J. T., CB, RE, LLD., F.RS., F.R.GS.
_ 18 Cromwell-road, London, 8.W.
*WALKER, JOHN Francis, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham,
York.
}Watker, Joun James, M.A., F.R.S. 12 Denning-road, Hamp-
stead, London, N.W.
*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
*Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. Sydney, New South Wales.
tWalker, 8. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
tWalker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, 8.E.
tWalker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.
tWalker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, London, S.W.
tWalker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
*Walker, William. 18 Lendall, York.
tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
tWattzace, ALFRED Rousset, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Corfe
View, Parkstone, Dorset.
§ Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
*Waller, Augustus, M.D., F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove End-
road, London, N.W.
*Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.
t Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
Wallis, Whitworth, F.8S.A. Westfield, Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{Walmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan.
tWalmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.
§ Walmsley, Professor R. M., D.Sc. Heriot Watt College, Edin
burgh.
{Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
tWatpotr, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W..
t{ Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.
{Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W,
tWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
}Ward, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Principal of Owens College, Manchester,
104 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1874. § Ward, F. D., J.P., M.R.I.A. Clonaver, Strandtown, Co. Down.
1881. § Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.
1879, {Warp, H. Marswatt, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in
the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill,
Egham.
1890. { Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.
1874. § Ward, John, F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
1887. § Warp, Joun, F.G.S. 28 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire,
1857. { Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
1880. *Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford,
S.E
1884. *Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.
1883. {Ward, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool.
1887. {Ward, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.
1882. {Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,
1867. { Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street. Dundee.
1858. { Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
1884. § Wardwell, George J. Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.
1887. *Waring, Richard 8. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
1878. §Warineton, Ropert, F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Albans,
Herts.
1882. { Warner, F. 1., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester.
1884, *Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
1875. tWarren, Algernon. 6 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1887. {WaARREN, Major-General Sir Cuartes, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club, London, 8S.W.
1893. § Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.
1875, *Waterhouse, Lieut.-Colonel J. 40 Hamilton-terrace, London,
N.W.
1870. {Waters, A. T, H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
1892. {Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh.
1875. {Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.
1881. §Watherston, E. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, S.W.
1887. { Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, London, W.
1884, {Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.
1886, *Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Bottville-road, Acock’s Green, Bir-
mingham.
1883, {Watson, C. Knight, M.A. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House,
London, W.
1892. §Watson, G. 9 Victoria-chambers, South Parade, Leeds.
1885. {Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.
1882, {Warson, Rev. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry.
1887. { Watson, J. Beauchamp. Gilt Hall, Carlisle.
1884, {Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
1889. { Watson, John, F.I.C. 19 Bloomfield-terrace, Gateshead.
1863. { Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
1863. { Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
1867. { Watson, Thomas Donald. 23 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
1892. § Watson, William, M.D. Slateford, Midlothian.
1879. *Wartson, Witiiam Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones, Cumber-
land.
1882. {Watt, Alexander. 89 Hartington-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
1884, {Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada,
1869. { Watt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
1888. {Warts, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 105
Yenr of
Election.
1891. *Watts, E. Hannay, F.R.G.S. Springfield, Newport, Monmouth-
shire.
1875. *Warrts, Jonn, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.
1884, *Watts, Rey. Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford.
1870. § Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.
1873. *Warts, W. MarsHaLt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle.
1883. § Watts, W. W., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.; and Corndon, Worcester-road, Sutton,
Surrey.
1891. {Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.
1869. { Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia,
1883. {Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.
1871. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.
{Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, London, N.W.
“Wess, WILLIAM FREDERICK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham.
§WesBER, Major-General C. E., C.B., MInst.C.E. 17 Egerton-
gardens, London, S.W.
§ Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.
tWebster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.
{ Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, LL.D., Q.C., M.P. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensineton, London, S.W.
*Webster, William, F.C.S. 50 Lee Park, Lee, Kent.
“Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Karlsruhe.
. TWeeks, John G. Bedlington.
. § Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc. F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.
. {Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.
. [Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, London, 8. W.
. *WeLDon, W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London. 304 Wim-
pole-street, London, W.
. “Weldon, Mrs. 304 Wimpole-street, London, W.
§Wellcome, Henry S. First Avenue Hotel, Holborn, London,
W.C.
. §Wetts, Onartes A., A.IL.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.
. § Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. Denton Rectory, Canterbury.
. {Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.
. *Welton, T. A. Rectory House-grove, Clapham, London, 8,W.
. {Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
- *Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. 8 Great Cumberland-place, Lon-
don, W.; and Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.
. “Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
. § Wertheimer, J., B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. Merchant Venturers’ School,
Bristol.
tWesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, London, W.
tWest, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
tWest, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
t West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
106
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1882.
1882.
1875.
1882.
1884,
1885.
1888.
1855.
1866,
1884,
1883.
1878.
1888.
1883.
1893.
1888.
1888.
1879.
1874.
1885.
1859.
1884,
1886.
1886.
1876.
1886.
1885.
1882.
1885.
1873.
1859,
1883.
1865.
1884.
1859.
1877.
1883.
1886.
1861.
1861.
1885.
1871.
1884,
*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. 2 Ridgeway-road, Redhill.
t Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.
*Weston, Sir Joseph D., MP. Dorset House, Clifton Down
Bristol.
{WerHereD, Epwarp, F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-
ham
{ Wharton, E. R., M.A. 4 Broad-street, Oxford.
*WHARION, Captain W. J. ., RN.,. F.BS., FRACS 2 ORGS,
Hydrographer to the ‘Admiralty. F lorys, Prince’ s-road, Wim-
bledon Park, Surrey.
t{ Wheatcroft, William G. 6 Widcombe-terrace, Bath.
{ Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
t{Wheatstone, Charles C. 19 ’Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
Nowe
ee Chagite L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
U.S
*Wheeler, ‘Gone Brash. Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham,
Kent.
*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Boston, Lincolnshire.
§Whelen, John Leman. Bank House, 16 Old Broad-street, London,
E.C.
tWhelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.
*WuerHam, W.C.D., M.A. Trinity “College, Cambridge.
*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.
*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.
*WHIDBORNE, Rey. Grorcr Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. St. George's
Vicarage, Battersea Park-road, London, 8. W.
{ Whitaker, Henry, M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast.
*Whitaker, T. Savile Heath, Halifax.
*WaitakerR, WittiaM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey
Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and 383 East Park-
terrace, Southampton.
tWhitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.
{ Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.
tWhite, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.
tWhite, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, London, W.
tWhite, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tWhite, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.
*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, near Dundee.
tWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
{Wurrs, Joon Forses. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.
{ White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.
{White, Joseph. Regent-street, Nottingham.
tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.
tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
*White, William. 9 The Paragon, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
*White, Mrs. 9 The Paragon, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.
*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. 99 New John-street West, Birmingham.
} Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.
{ Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
} Whiteley, Joseph, Huddersfield.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 107
Year of
Election.
1893.
1881.
1852.
1891.
1857.
1887.
1874.
1883,
1870.
1892.
1888.
1865.
1886.
1885.
1883.
1881.
1878.
1883,
1889,
1881.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1857.
1892.
1886.
1879.
1887.
1872.
1890.
1859.
1872.
1893.
1891.
1861.
1887.
1883.
1861.
1875.
1883.
1857.
1888.
1891.
1887.
1888,
1875.
1879.
1891,
§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.I.C. 18 Bowers’-avenue, Notting-
ham
am.
{t Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.
tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rev. Canon C. T., M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington Vicarage,
Northumberland.
§Whitmell, Charles Thomas, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. 47 Park-place,
Cardiff.
*Wauurty, Rey. Joun Irwine, M.A.,D.C.L., LL.D. 1 Rodbourne-
villas, Crescent-road, Ramsgate.
f{Whitwell, William. Overdene, Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*Whitwill, Mark. Redland House, Bristol.
{Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.
tWhitworth, Rev, W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, London, W.
§ Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.
tWickham, Rey. F. D. C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.
Wiggin, Sir Henry, Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birming-
am,
{Wiggin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham. .
tWigglesworth, Alfred. Gordondale House, Aberdeen.
tWigglesworth, Mrs. Ingleside, West-street, Scarborough.
*Wigglesworth, Robert. Beckwith Knowle, near Harrogate.
¢Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
tWigner,G. W. Plough-court, 37 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
*Wilberforce, L. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
{WisErForcE, W. W. Fishergate, York.
{Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Wilde, Henry, F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Manchester.
{Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.
J Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin.
§ Wilkinson, Rey. J. Frome. Kivington Rectory, Orston, Nottingham.
*Willkinson, J. H. Corporation-street, Birmingham.
tWillkinson, Joseph. York.
*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. The Polygon, Ardwick, Manchester.
{ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
{Willans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.
{Willet, John, M.Inst.C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{Wutert, Henry, F.G.8. Arnold House, Brighton.
§Witiams, ArtHUR. 5 Thurland-street, Nottingham.
{ Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.
*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosyenor-square, London, W.
tWilliams, E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.
*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.
Bile oe has Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.
fWilliams, Rev. H. A. The Ridgeway, Wimbledon, Surrey.
{ Williams, Rey. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.
t Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entryhill, Bath.
§ Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. The Cedars, Llandaff-road, Cardiff.
{Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.
*Williams, Miss Katherine. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale, Clifton,
Bristol.
*Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea.
tWitt1aMs, Marrnew W., F.C.S. 26 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
tWilliams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.
108 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1886. {Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.
1883. { Williams, R. Price. North Brow, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.
1883. { Williams, T. H. 2 Chapel-walk, South Castle-street, Liverpool.
1888.
1877.
1888.
{Williams, W. Cloud House, Stapleford, Nottinghamshire.
*WitiaMs, W. CARLETON, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield.
{ Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire.
1850. *WILLIAMson, ALEXANDER Writ14M, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.,
1857.
1876.
1863,
1882,
1859.
1886,
1886.
1885.
1878.
1876.
1894.
1874,
1876.
1890.
1863.
1847.
1875.
1874.
1863.
1883,
1879.
1885.
1886.
1890.
1865.
1884.
1879.
1876.
1847.
1883.
1892.
1861.
1887,
1871.
186].
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy, High
Pitfold, Haslemere.
f}WuttrAmson, Benzamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.
t Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
{ Williamson, John. South Shields.
Witrramson, Wittiam C., LL.D., F.R.S., Emeritus Professor
of Botany in Owens College, Manchester. 43 Elms-road, Clap-
ham Common, London, 8. W.
{ Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.
*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, London,
S.W.
{Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham,
Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.
ft Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
{ Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.
{ Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.
*Wilson, Charles J., F.I.C., F.C.S. 19 Little Queen-street, West-
minster, S.W.
t{Wutson, Colonel Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.
t Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
{Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.
{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
*Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
{Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co, Dublin.
{Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.
*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge R.8.0., Kent.
{Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.
tWilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen,
t Wilson, J. E. B. Woodslee, Wimbledon, Surrey.
Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.
{Wuson, Rev. Jamzs M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage, Rochdale.
{Wilson, James S. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.
{Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, Kast Bank-road, Sheffield.
tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.
*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.
tWilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.
§ Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D. Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
tWilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.
§ Wilson, W., jun. Hillock, Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire,
*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
*WirtsHirE, Rev. Tuomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London.
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 109
Year of
Election.
1877.
1886,
1887.
1893.
1863,
1888,
1883,
1884,
1881.
1883.
1863.
1861.
1883.
1875.
1878.
1883.
1881.
1885.
1886.
1893.
1883.
1864,
1890,
1871.
1850.
1872.
1863.
1884.
1883.
1884,
1884.
1888.
1872.
1883.
1888.
1887.
1886.
{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
§Winviz, Bertram OC, A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Ana-
tomy in Mason College, Birmingham.
{Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.
*Winter, G. K., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S. Arkonam, Madras, India.
*Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent,
Bath.
{Woprnovss, E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, London, S.W.
{Wolfenden, Samuel, Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.
tWomack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 68 Abbey-road, London, N.W.
*Wood, Alfred John. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
§Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
t Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
tWoop, Sir H. Trueman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, London, W.C.
*Woop, Jamrs, LL.D. Grove House, Scarisbrick-street, Southport.
§Wood, John, B.A., F.R.A.S. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa,
Yorkshire.
*Wood, J. H. Woodbine Lodge, Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.
tWood, Rey. Joseph. Carpenter-road, Birmingham,
§ Wood, Joseph T. Hound-road, West Bridgford, Notts.
tWood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq., Holmes Villa,.
Rotherham.
tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
*Wood, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Bainbrigge-road, Headingley,
Leeds.
tWood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,
tWood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife.
{Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
*WoopatL, Jonn Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,.
Scarborough.
tWoodbury, C.J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.
t Woodcock, Herbert 8. The Elms, Wigan.
tWoodeock, T., M.A. 150 Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
tWoodd, Arthur B, Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N.W.
*Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Belair, Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, South-
ort.
Pwreotinns, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.0.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
London, 8. W.
t Woods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S. Carlton House, 57 Hoghton-
street, Southport.
Woops, SamuEt, 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London,
E.C
tWoodthorpe, Colonel. Messrs. King & Oo., 45 Pall Mall, Lon-
don, 8. W.
*WoopwarpD, ArrHuR SmirH, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper of
the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, London, S.W.
*WoopwarD, CO. J., B.Sc. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham,
tWoodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, Loudon,
S.W,
110
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1866.
1870.
1884.
1881.
1890,
1877.
1883,
1856.
1874,
1878.
1863.
1855.
1856.
1884.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1871.
1857.
1886.
1884.
1876.
1865.
1884.
1831.
1876,
1871.
1887.
1875.
t{Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, London, 8.W.
tWoopwarp, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street
London, S. W.
*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees,
t{Wooler, W. A. Sadberge Hall, Darlington.
§ Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F.S.S., M.R.LA.,
F.R.S A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.
tWoollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport,
*Woolley, George Stephen. 69 Market-street, Manchester.
{Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collincham, Newark.
t+ Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
{Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire,
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Stourbridge, Worcester-
shire.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
tWorthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,
Hampstead-road, London, N. W.
t{Wragee, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada,
{Wrentmore, Francis. 384 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
BSE Ny
*Wright, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge,
*Wright, Rey. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.
tWright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.
§ Wricut, C. R. Atprr, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
in St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
{Wericut, KE. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.L.A., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
t Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.
{ Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
{Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.
{Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,
t{Wright, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.
Wrieat, T.G., M.D. 91 Northgate, Wakefield.
tWright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.
{Wricurson, THomas, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Norton Hall, Stockton-
on-Tees.
EWaigley, Ber. Dr., M.A., M.D., F.R.A.S. 15 Gauden-road, Lon-
don,
. }Wtnscn, Epwarp Atrrep, F.G.S. Carharrack, Scorrier, Corn-
wall,
{Wyld, Norman. University Hall, Edinburgh.
. §Wyllie, Andrew. 1 Leicester-street, Southport.
tWyness, James D., M.D. 53 School-hill, Aberdeen.
{Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
}Wynnz, ArtHur Beevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
tYabbicom, Thomas Henry. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster.
LIST OF MEMBERS, lll
Year of
Election.
1865. {Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1883. §Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.
1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee.
1887.
1884.
1877.
1891.
1884.
1891.
1886,
1884,
1884,
1876.
1885.
1886,
1883.
1887.
1890.
1868.
1886,
1886,
tYeats, Dr. Chepstow.
tYee, Fung, Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.
tYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
{tYorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.
}York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
§Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, London,
S.E
*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.
{Young, Frederick. 5 Queensberry-place, London, S.W.
{Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.
fYoune, Jon, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
§Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.
*Youna, Sypyexy, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Bristol.
Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, London, E.C.
{Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.
TYoungs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.
{Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham.
{Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Bumingham.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1887,
1892.
1881,
1887.
1892.
1893,
1880.
1887.
1887.
1884,
1890,
1893.
1884,
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1861.
1887,
1855.
1881,
1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1889.
1862.
1864,
1872.
1870.
1890.
1894,
1892.
1876.
1892.
1874,
Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, United States.
Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm.
Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
United States.
Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 7, 6a, Germany.
Professor M. Bertrand. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Christian Bohr. 62 Bredgade, Copenhagen.
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Miinchen.
His Excellency R. Bonghi. Rome.
Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
United States.
Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Boston, Massachusetts, United
States.
Professor Brentano. Maximilian-platz, Miinchen.
Professor W. CO. Brégger. Christiania.
Professor George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, United
States.
Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.
Professor G. Capellini. Royal University of Bologna.
Professor J. B. Carnoy. Louvain.
Dr. H. Caro. Mannheim.
Dr. Carus. Leipzig.
F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
United States.
Professor Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, The University, Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Josiah P. Cooke. Harvard University, United States.
Professor Guido Cora.. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin.
Professor Cornu. L’Kcole Polytechnique, Paris.
J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.
W.H. Dall. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States.
Wilhelm Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
‘berg.
M. Des Clotaanum, Rue Monsieur, 13, Paris.
Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.
Professor V. Dwelshanvers-Dery. Liége, Belgium.
Einthoven, Professor W. Leiden.
Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.
Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.
Professor Léo Errera. The University, Brussels,
Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 118
Year of
Election.
1886.
1887.
1872.
1887.
1892.
1881.
1866,
1861.
1884,
1884.
1889.
1892.
1870.
1889.
1889.
1876.
1884.
1892.
1862.
1876,
1889.
1881.
1872.
1889,
1887.
1893.
1877.
1893.
1887.
1893.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1884,
1867.
1876.
1881.
1887.
. 1876.
1877.
1862.
1884,
1873.
1874.
1856,
1887.
TSS 7.
Dr. Otto Finsch. Bremen.
Professor R. Fittig. Strasburg.
W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.
Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. The University, Prague.
Professor Dr, Gustav Fritsch. The University, Berlin.
Professor C, M. Gariel, Secretary of the French Association for the
Advancement of Science. 59 Rue Jouttroy, Paris.
Dr. Gaudry. Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
G. K, Gilbert. United States Geological Survey, Washington, United
States, ,
Daniel C. Gilman, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, United
States.
William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, United States.
Professor Gustave Gilson. Louvain.
A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.
Dr. Benjamin A. Gould. Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.
General A. W, Greely. Washington, United States.
Dr. C. E, Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.
Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland.
Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.
Horatio Hale. Clinton, Ontario, Canada.
Dr. Edwin H. Hall. Baltimore, United States.
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
Dr. Max von Hantken. Budapesth.
Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.
Professor Paul Heger. The University, Brussels.
Professor H. L. F, von Helmholtz. Berlin.
Professor Richard Hertwig. Munich.
Professor W. His. Leipzig.
Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.
S. Dana Horton. New York.
Professor A. A, W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. Utrecht.
Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Professor C. Loring Jackson. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, United States.
Dr. Janssen, LL.D, The Observatory, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.
Dr. W. J. Janssen, Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzerland.
W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. Annapolis, United States.
Professor C. Julin, Liége.
Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 7 Via Principe Umberto, Milan.
M. Akin Karoly. 92 Rue Richelieu, Paris.
Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn.
Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokio, Japan.
Dr. Felix Klein. The University, Leipzig.
Professor Dr. Knoblauch. The University, Halle, Germany.
Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Professor Dr. Arthur Kénig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-
versity, Berlin.
Professor Krause. 31 Brueckenallee, Berlin.
H
114
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1877,
1887.
1887.
1887,
1882.
1887.
1887.
1872.
1887,
1883.
1877.
1887.
1871.
1871.
1887.
1867.
1881.
1887.
1890,
1887.
1887.
1887.
1884.
1848.
1887.
1893,
1877.
1864.
1887.
1889.
1864.
1884.
1869.
1887.
1890.
1889,
1890.
1887.
1890.
1870.
1884.
1887.
1887.
1886.
Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.
Lieutenant R. Kund. German African Society, Berlin.
Professor A. Ladenburg. Breslau.
Professor J. W. Langley. 8474 Fairmount-street, Cleveland, Ohio,
United States.
Professor 8. P. Langley, LL.D., Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution. Washington, United States.
Professor Count Solms Laubach. Strasburg.
Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, United States.
M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.
Professor A. Lieben. Vienna.
Dr. F. Lindemann. - 40 Georgenstrasse, Munich.
Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society.
Bremen.
Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. The University, Zurich.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany.
Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.
Dr. Henry C. McCook. Philadelphia, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.
Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Dr. CO. A. Martius. Berlin.
Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 Rue de l'Université,
Paris.
Professor D. Mendeléef. St. Petersburg.
Professor N. Menschutlin. St. Petersburg.
Professor Lothar Meyer. Tiibingen.
Albert A. Michelson. Cleveland, Ohio, United States.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris.
Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor H. Moissan. Paris. _
Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.
E. S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Massachusetts,
United States.
Dr. F. Nansen. Christiania.
Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
Professor Simon Newcomb. Washington, United States.
Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass.
Professor W. Ostwald. Leipzig.
Professor A. 8. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, United States.
Maffeo Pantaleoni, Director of the Royal Superior School of Com-
merce. Bari, ltaly.
Dr. Pauli. Héchst-on-Main, Germany.
Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholm.
Professor Felix Plateau. 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand.
Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. Washington, United States, ;
Professor W. Preyer. The University, Berlin.
Professor N. Pringsheim. The University, Berlin.
Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, United States. ’
1887. Professor G, Quincke. Heidelberg,
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 115
Year of
Election.
1868,
1886.
1873.
1887.
1892.
1890.
1881.
1887.
1883.
* 1874,
1846,
1873.
1876.
1892.
1887.
1888.
1866.
1889.
1881.
1881.
1871.
1870,
1884.
1864,
1887,
1887.
1890.
1889,
1887.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1881.
1887.
1874.
1887.
1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1887,
L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Rey. A. Renard. Royal Museum, Brussels.
Professor Baron yon Richthofen. Kurfiirstenstrasse, 117, Berlin.
Dr. C. V. Riley. Washington, United States.
Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.
A. Lawrence Rotch. Boston, Massachusetts, United States.
Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States.
M. le Marquis de Saporta. Aix-en-Provence, Bouches du Rhéne.
Dr. Ernst Schréder. Karlsruhe, Baden.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague. |
Professor R, D. Silva. L’Ecole Centrale, Paris.
Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht.
Ernest Solvay. Brussels.
Dr. Alfred Springer. Cincinnati, Ohio, United States.
Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.
Professor G. Stefanescu. Bucharest.
Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘The University, Athens.
Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. The University, Breslau.
Dr. Joseph Szabé. Pesth, Hungary. -
Professor Tchebichef, Membre de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg.
Professor Robert H. Thurston. Sibley College, Cornell University,
Ithaca, New York, United States.
Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.
Dr. T. M. Treub. Java.
Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, United States.
Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
Professor J. H. Van’t Hoff. Amsterdam.
Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, University of St.
Petersburg.
Professor John Vilanova. Madrid.
M. Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium.
Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.
Professor L. Weber. Kiel.
Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-im-Breisgau.
Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, United States.
Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United
States.
Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. [O/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig. |
Professor G. Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor R. Wiedersheim. Freiburg-im-Baden.
Professor J. Wislicenus. Leipzig.
Dr. Otto N. Witt. 33 Lindenallée, Westend-Charlottenburg, Berlin.
Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la-Chapelle,
Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, United States.
Professor F. Zirkel. Leipzig.
116
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS .
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.
GREAT BRITAIN
Admiralty, Library of the.
Anthropological Institute.
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society (Royal).
Astronomical Society (Royal).
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Brighton Public Library.
Bristol Philosophical Institution.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College of South
Wales.
Chemical Society.
Civil Engineers, Institution of.
Cornwall, Royal Geological
ciety of.
Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.
, Royal College of Surgeons in
Treland.
, Royal Geological Society of
Ireland.
, Royal Irish Academy.
, Royal Society of.
Dundee, University Colleze.
East India Library.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
y Royal Medical Society of.
——.,, Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum,
Geographical Society (Royal).
Geological Society.
Geology, Museum of Practical.
Glasgow Philosophical Society.
, Institution of Engineersand Ship-
builders in Scotland.
So-
Greenwich, Royal Observatory.
Kew Observatory.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
AND IRELAND.
Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.
Linnean Society.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London Institution.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
— ., Mechanics’ Institute.
Mechanical Engineers, Institution of,
Meteorological Office.
Meteorological Society (Royal).
Neweastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.
, Public Library.
Norwich, The Free Library.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
——., Radcliffe Observatory.
Plymouth Institution.
Royal College of Physicians.
Royal College of Surgeons.
Royal Engineers’ Institute, Chatham.
Royal Institution.
Royal Society.
Royal Statistical Society.
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Sheffield, Firth College.
Southampton, Hartley Institution.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales
United Service Institution.
University College.
War Office, Library of the.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
| Zoological Society.
KUROPE.
FRETINTIAS ow 200.0 - Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.
demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.
schaften. Moscow .........Society of Naturalists.
$= secveeeseee Royal Academy of | —— .......... University Library.
Sciences. Mbit Hye tosses University Library.
THUS <2 ops os 3 University Library. INaplesireccscceres- Royal Academy of
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of Sciences.
Sciences. Nicolaieff......... University Library.
Charkow ......... University Library. BAIS scot cece Association Francaise
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- pour l’Avancement
servatory. des Sciences.
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of | —— ............ Geographical Society.
Sciences. aca cteosaee Geological Society.
Dorpat, ‘Russia... University Library, ———vevesecevens Royal Academy of
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. Sciences.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | —— ............ School of Mines.
ciety. Pultova .......0 Imperial Observatory.
Geneva.........5:. Natural History So- | Rome ............ Accademia dei Lincei.
ciety. ant a eatomeian’ Collegio Romano.
Gottingen ...... University Library. $$ reeseeeecees Italian Geographical
. SS 7 Society.
EfallG: ......2.... Leopoldinisch-Caro- | —— ............ Italian Society ot
linische Akademie. Sciences.
Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise | St. Petersburg . University Library.
des Sciences. ...Lmperial Observatory.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Helsingfors...... University Library. Turin’. Recs sses Royal Academy of
Kasan, Russia ... University Library. Sciences.
1 ae Royal Observatory. Utrecht) Sue c University Library.
RGN te occ ci iesesse University Library. Viennia.....<csccsce The Imperial Library.
Lausanne......... The University. ———diseeeseneee Central Anstalt fur
Leyden ......... University Library. Meteorologie und
AGE ......2..0. University Library. : Erdmagnetismus.
PSHDM:...7........ Academia Real des | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.
Sciences.
ASIA.
EMRE iss +0255 000 The College, | Calcutta ......... Presidency College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone _ Institu- | = ‘pene Hooghly College.
tion. a ee Medical College.
—$—veveveees Grant Medical Col- | Ceylon............ The Museum,Colombo.
lege. Madras........56s. The Observatory.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society, = | ——_sareseeseess University Library.
AFRICA.
Cape of Good Hope. . . The Royal Observatory.
118
AMERICA.
Albany ......... The Institute. New York...... Lyceum of Natural
Boston.........0+5 American Academy of History.
Arts and Sciences. | Ottawa ......... Geological Survey of
California ...... The University. Canada.
sities Lick Observatory. Philadelphia...American Medical As-
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | sociation.
Library. | —— .. American Philosophical
Kingston ......... Queen’s Ucaacity. Society
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | —— ...Franklin Institute.
tific Society. DPerontowees. =. The Observatory.
Montreal ......... McGill College. _ Washington ...The Naval Observatory.
sfoneeae Council of Arts and | ...SmithsonianInstitution.
Manufactures. | —— ...United States Geolo-
New York ...... American Society of | vical Survey. of the
Civil Engineers, | Territories.
AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.
Brisbane. . . . Queensland Museum.
Victoria. . . . The Colonial Government.
NEW ZEALAND.
Canterbury Museum,
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